identifier
stringlengths 1
43
| dataset
stringclasses 3
values | question
stringclasses 4
values | rank
int64 0
99
| url
stringlengths 14
1.88k
| read_more_link
stringclasses 1
value | language
stringclasses 1
value | title
stringlengths 0
200
| top_image
stringlengths 0
125k
| meta_img
stringlengths 0
125k
| images
listlengths 0
18.2k
| movies
listlengths 0
484
| keywords
listlengths 0
0
| meta_keywords
listlengths 1
48.5k
| tags
null | authors
listlengths 0
10
| publish_date
stringlengths 19
32
⌀ | summary
stringclasses 1
value | meta_description
stringlengths 0
258k
| meta_lang
stringclasses 68
values | meta_favicon
stringlengths 0
20.2k
| meta_site_name
stringlengths 0
641
| canonical_link
stringlengths 9
1.88k
⌀ | text
stringlengths 0
100k
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 76
|
https://wallaceterrycjr.com/page/3/
|
en
|
Wandering in the Mountains
|
[
"https://2.gravatar.com/avatar/b887086d29e36d73f8f1fa147fda5e8fa84b2df52070cedb872b9de604cd0cac?s=48&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://0.gravatar.com/avatar/9952df7ac42835a3a7d75021e9e98ba30cf0dc3e7770535063567ccd99509d5e?s=48&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://2.gravatar.com/avatar/b887086d29e36d73f8f1fa147fda5e8fa84b2df52070cedb872b9de604cd0cac?s=48&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://0.gravatar.com/avatar/9952df7ac42835a3a7d75021e9e98ba30cf0dc3e7770535063567ccd99509d5e?s=48&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://2.gravatar.com/avatar/2c9e6262cf3d3cc329f867709ff3902bb5156994e529edfd3d6faa3307ce3e72?s=48&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/fromtheplane.jpg?w=300&h=158",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/vallesgrande.jpg?w=300&h=195",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/bland-1900.jpg?w=300&h=160",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/insulator.jpg?w=225&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/vallecaldera_etm_2002142_lrg.jpg?w=300&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/vallea-cauldera-section-700.jpg?w=300&h=232",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/jemez-htm_txt_smithmapjemez2.jpg?w=223&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/ashfall.jpg?w=300&h=267",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/vcc-copy.jpg?w=300&h=253",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/vallesroute.jpg?w=300&h=198",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/start.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/cajete-elk.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/profile.jpg?w=300&h=133",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/vallegrande.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/finishline.jpg?w=225&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/michigan-silver-2.jpg?w=300&h=211",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/china-silver.jpg?w=254&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/goldschmidt-figure.jpg?w=186&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/silvercubes.jpg?w=275&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/theidentity.png?w=300&h=94",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/batopilas-silver.jpg?w=300&h=199",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/twinning-plane.gif?w=640",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/spineltwin2.gif?w=640",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/triangularface.jpg?w=300&h=73",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/favorite.jpg?w=300&h=143",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/spineltwin-closeup.jpg?w=246&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/the-mittens.jpg?w=300&h=190",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/stagecouch2.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/forrest-gump1-1200x1920_f_improf_446x253.jpg?w=300&h=170",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/racestart-ls.jpg?w=300&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/monumentvalley1.jpg?w=300&h=235",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/strat-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/makingbuttes.jpg?w=161&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/startoftherace-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/sunriseonmitchell-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/thehub-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/totempole-ks.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/winderosion.jpg?w=300&h=143",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/arches-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/mitchellmine-1.jpg?w=240&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/tyuyamunite.jpg?w=300&h=252",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/mitchellmesaclimb-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/westmitten-mitchell-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/mitchellpoint-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/forrestgump-ls.jpg?w=300&h=280",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/goosenecks-ls.jpg?w=300&h=117",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/polybasite1.jpg?w=300&h=209",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/1pieta1.jpg?w=300&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/michelangelo-pieta-vandalism-attack-4.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/almaqueen-3.jpg?w=248&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/rhodoinplace.jpg?w=640",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/almaking-2.jpg?w=300&h=247",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/mrcover.jpg?w=229&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/emerald_treatment_before_after.jpg?w=300&h=146",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/rowingincircles.gif?w=237&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/proustite.jpg?w=197&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/proustite-label1.jpg?w=300&h=108",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/newfirst-proustite.jpg?w=229&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/crystalstructure.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/prism-best.jpg?w=300&h=206",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/proustite_structure.jpg?w=300&h=156",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/electronic-density.jpg?w=300&h=133",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/proustite-silver.jpg?w=300&h=155",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/proustite-silver-best.jpg?w=300&h=236",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/energybands.jpg?w=300&h=280",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/redcolor.jpg?w=296&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/vaux-proustite.jpg?w=200&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/proustite-vaux-1-lowres-wilson.jpg?w=258&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/chlorargyrite.jpg?w=300&h=193",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/fettelite.jpg?w=300&h=205",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/schneeberg-large-best.jpg?w=231&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/silberstr.png?w=300&h=255",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/schneeberg-slab.jpg?w=209&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/bright-proustite1.jpg?w=278&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/schlema-1960.jpg?w=300&h=146",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/last-best.jpg?w=215&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/tucsonmap2.jpg?w=300&h=142",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/ett-1991.jpg?w=224&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/rainfallduringrace.jpg?w=300&h=233",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/sabinocreek.jpg?w=199&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/startingline.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/tucson-geology.jpg?w=300&h=230",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/corecomplex.jpg?w=300&h=201",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/officalmap.jpg?w=300&h=231",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/santacruz.jpg?w=212&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/desertmuseum-origins.gif?w=196&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/boneyard.jpg?w=300&h=285",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/saguaroeast1935.jpg?w=300&h=206",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/sabinocrossing.jpg?w=199&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/pimagrowth1_3.png?w=300&h=221",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/paceline.jpg?w=199&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/tonysvanadinite.jpg?w=300&h=287",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/inthebooks.jpg?w=200&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/michelleterry-finish.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/chacloacanthite.jpg?w=300&h=199",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/chalco-acanthite.jpg?w=300&h=210",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/acanthite-vaux.jpg?w=300&h=219",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/agularite-calcite.jpg?w=300&h=199",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/agularite-label.jpg?w=300&h=205",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/vaux-labels.jpg?w=221&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/wallace-bideauxite.jpg?w=300&h=241",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/gold_the_dragon.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/kosnar-label1.jpg?w=300&h=176",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/kosnar-label2.jpg?w=300&h=209",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/csm-5600-with-cshs-label.jpg?w=227&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/lau-collection-old-5600.jpg?w=300&h=112",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/barlow-jalpaite.jpg?w=300&h=243",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/coverphoto.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/bannerimage2.jpg?w=300&h=110",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/backgroundmap.jpg?w=300&h=219",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/crosssectionfromnorth.jpg?w=300&h=80",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/mttaylor.jpg?w=300&h=220",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/uraniummines.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/jackpilemine.jpg?w=300&h=270",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/u238chain.gif?w=300&h=163",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/startofrace.jpg?w=200&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/coloroffall.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/thecourse.jpg?w=300&h=159",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/thelongclimb.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/profile.jpg?w=300&h=98",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/andesiteridge.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/mtaylor.jpg?w=300&h=199",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/done.jpg?w=200&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/feet.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/rainiersept9.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/rainier1.jpg?w=300&h=238",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/faulttrip.jpg?w=300&h=212",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/overhead-rainier.jpg?w=300&h=230",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/cascade_eruption_2008v.jpg?w=300&h=201",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/muir-summit.jpg?w=300&h=280",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/cross-section.jpg?w=300&h=143",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/subduction.gif?w=227&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/rainierelectricview.jpg?w=300&h=98",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/kanamori-ruff.jpg?w=300&h=232",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/fig38.jpg?w=300&h=107",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/rainierfrombottom.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/journeybegings.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/muirsnowfieldup2.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/campmuirimg.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/mapofrainier.jpg?w=300&h=189",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/highcamp2.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/highcamp.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/summitteam.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/rainiercrater.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/moonsetting.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/fortheblog.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/stephanite-3.jpg?w=300&h=168",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mineralkingdom.jpg?w=225&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/enhanced-buzz-1902-1384306037-25.jpg?w=300&h=119",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/ikons.jpg?w=225&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/legrandite.jpg?w=225&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/czechsingle.jpg?w=199&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/stephanitelabels.jpg?w=190&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/fres-steph-polyb-tcw.jpg?w=218&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/freibergstephan.jpg?w=199&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/fresnillo-prefect.jpg?w=228&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/arizpe-large.jpg?w=300&h=253",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/foote-stephanite.jpg?w=284&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/friebergstephanite.jpg?w=300&h=223",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/fresnillojewel.jpg?w=199&h=300",
"https://s2.wp.com/i/logo/wpcom-gray-white.png",
"https://s2.wp.com/i/logo/wpcom-gray-white.png",
"https://pixel.wp.com/b.gif?v=noscript"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2015-04-26T01:29:13+00:00
|
Geology, Nature, and Adventure teaching lessons in life
|
en
|
https://s1.wp.com/i/favicon.ico
|
Wandering in the Mountains
|
https://wallaceterrycjr.com/
|
Some things will never change. Some things will always be the same. Lean down your ear upon the earth and listen…..All things belonging to the earth will never change–the leaf, the blade, the flower, the wind that cries and sleeps and wakes again, the trees whose stiff arms clash and tremble in the dark, and the dust of lovers long since buried in the earth–all things proceeding from the earth to seasons, all things that lapse and change and come again upon the earth–these things will always be the same, for they come up from the earth that never changes, they go back into the earth that lasts forever. Only the earth endures, but it endures forever – Thomas Wolfe, in You Can’t Go Home Again (1940).
There are numerous influences in my childhood that propelled me to a career in the Earth sciences; a father that loved to prospect and collect minerals, hundreds of family camping trips to the most interesting geologic province in the world (the Rocky Mountains!), and a progressive high school that offered a rich course in geology. In hindsight, one of the most important influences was the fact that I grew up on the flank of a huge volcanic complex, the Jemez Mountain Volcanic Field. The terrain of deep canyons, flat mesas, and a beautiful grass valley, the Valle Grande, surrounded by ponderosa pine covered peaks frame my childhood memories and help define home for me. The Jemez Mountains rise some 5000′ above the Rio Grande River and are remnants of a massive volcanic system that experienced two “super” eruptions about 1.4 million years ago. The Jemez don’t really look like a volcano today if one’s idea of an active volcano is Mt. St. Helens or Kilauea – it is a large circular depression surrounded by the high peaks that once where the steep slopes of a series of craters that spewed forth hundreds of cubic km of hot ash. The figure at the top of this column is an aerial view of the Jemez, and the depression and surrounding peaks protect a series of valleys that once were filled with rain water after the great eruptions. These valleys, or valles in spanish, are a unique feature of the Jemez. These mountains shaped me in many ways. Out my back door was a riveting geologic panorama that provided an open invitation to explore nature. Although most of the Valle Grande proper was off limits during my youth – it was a working cattle ranch that we just called “The Baca” in recognition that it was part of a old Land Grant called Baca Location Number 1 – the surrounding mountains and forest lands were our play ground.
I learned about hiking, camping, wildlife, and calm call of nature. I even learned some things about mineral collecting; in general, there is not much “mineral wise” in the Jemez, with the one exception. My first vehicle was a hand-me-down four wheel drive Toyota Land Cruiser. Not many things worked on it (including the gas gauge which more than once left me stranded), but it did afforded me the freedom to explore the Jemez on my own. My favorite trip was to the ghost town of Bland, a short-lived gold mining center located a few miles south of the Valles Caldera. The mineral deposits were not formed by the volcanic processes that built the Jemez Mountains, but were from an earlier epoch of magmatic activity that injected quartz dikes into surrounding bedrock. The Jemez volcanics covered these dikes, and later, through the randomness of erosion, were exposed in a narrow canyon (Bland Canyon). In 1893 the first of a dozen claims was staked on these dikes for gold and silver. A rush ensued, and soon a town was built and the population grew to more than a 1000 people. The town was named Bland in honor of Richard Bland who had advocated for the governmental purchase of silver, and in turn, that bullion was minted into silver dollars. The Bland act, and further requirements for the government to purchase silver (in particular, the Sherman Silver Purchase Act) were repealed in 1893 causing a collapse in silver prices — just as the mines in Bland were being discovered.
I drove to the ghost town of Bland every chance I got in the early 1970s. There was a “back way” in that required delicate 4WD navigation; I was rewarded with a harrowing journey through the Jemez Mountains, and a chance to search through all the old building looking for artifacts and the mining dumps for some sign of gold or silver. Mostly my searches were unsuccessful, but I had taste of the treasure hunter.
In the year 2000 the Federal Government purchased the “Baca” and it became the Valles Caldera Natural Preserve. The charge of the Preserve was to remediate the effects of logging and cattle/sheep grazing, and eventually make the Valles Caldera a multi-use facility. Although access is still carefully controlled to the Valles it has become the home to several special events. In 2006 it became the site of a trail run – first a marathon, and later a half marathon and 10 km run were added. The course has changed over the years, and a fire in late May of 2013 forced a change to a partial out-and-back route. The chance to run in a certified super volcano, only a few miles from my house is a huge draw – the Valles Grande Caldera Runs are a geologist’s dream.
The volcano in my backyard
The Jemez Mountains and Valles Caldera are a spectacular sight from space. The satellite image above shows the circular depression that is about 13 miles across that formed after a series of very large eruptions of ash-flow tuffs emptied a large, shallow magma chamber. Nearly 800 cubic km of ash were propelled from various volcanic vents, and the “hole” left by this erupting ash caused the volcanic edifice to collapsed back into itself producing a broad valley. Later, renewed magmatic activity pushed rhyolitic magmas up through the fractures formed during the collapse, producing a ring of domes breaking up the original valley into smaller, isolated valleys. The largest of these magma extrusions, known as resurgent domes, is Redondo Peak, which has an elevation of 11,258′ and towers some 2500′ above the valley floor. Redondo Peak is not a volcano – it was not “erupted” but extruded from the magma chamber beneath the Valles much like tooth paste would be extruded from a tube as it is slowly squeezed.
The Valles Caldera remarkable symmetric, and incredibly well preserved — there were no major eruptions after the last collapse a million years ago to obscure the valley, resurgent domes and ring fractures that were formed during that collapse. These qualities attracted geologists from around the world, and it has become the archetype volcanic caldera referenced in hundreds of studies and textbooks. Although the Jemez Mountains were recognize being volcanic by the later part of the 19th century, it was not until the 1920s when C.S. Ross of the USGS visited, and later teamed with R.L. Smith in 1946 that the area was mapped in detail. This mapping was done in part to understand the potential for supplying the new Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory with fresh water, and whether it was possible to bring a large natural gas line across the Valles to provide energy for my home town. In 1970 Smith, Bailey and Ross published a beautiful geologic map of the Jemez Mountains and the Valles Caldera (figure below), and was the first map to grace the wall of my bedroom (I wish I could find that original wall hanging, but alas, it was packed away when I left for college and no doubt is today been composted and returned to the soil…).
The colors of the map hint at the extraordinary history of the Jemez Mountain Volcanic Field (JMVF). The exact reason that the JMVF exists remains a bit of a mystery; it is located at the intersection of the western margin of the Rio Grande Rift and a trend of volcanic fields called the Jemez Lineament that has been postulated as a ancient “zone of weakness” that allows magma generated in the mantle to rise up into the crust. I think that it is far more likely that the Jemez Lineament is the lucky connection of dots on a map, and that a more plausible explanation is that marks the boundary between a thick and stable crust (the Colorado Plateau) and thinner, more tectonically active crust. Irregardless, it is clear that the opening of the Rio Grande rift caused volcanic activity to began about 13 million years ago in the vicinity of present day Los Alamos. For about 10 million years the volcanism was dominated by basaltic lava flows. Black Mesa, near Espanola, is one of the most famous landmarks representing this period of volcanism (Black Mesa is about 3.7 million years old). About 3 million years ago eruption of more silica rich magmas commenced and the Jemez Mountain began to grow — there were probably 6 to 10 major volcanoes that tapped interconnected magma bodies. These volcanoes conspired to create a major eruption about 1.5 million years ago that erupted what is known as the Otowi Member of the Bandelier Tuff. Nearly 450 cubic kilometers of ash was erupted over a short period (probably a few years, but certainly less than a few decades). This resulted in a collapse of the volcanic system, and the creation of the Valle Toledo Caldera. This caldera is obscured by a similar sized eruption about 1.2 million years ago that ejected about 350 cubic kilometers of ash, the Tshirege Member of the Bandelier Tuff. On the eastern margin of the Valle Toledo is the highest peak in the Jemez, Tschicoma Peak (elevation 11,561′), an remnant that survived both collapses. The second eruption, and subsequent collapse created the now familiar Valles Caldera.
The widely popular phrase “super volcano” has its roots in the 20th century, but mostly it is a phrase invented by the media around 2002 to dramatize the power of big volcanoes. By 2003 the phrase appeared in more than 100 stories that covered everything from global warming and cooling to mass extinctions. The USGS tied the phrase to the Volcano Explosivity Index (VEI), a measure of “explosiveness of eruptions”, and a VEI value of 8 became the definition of a super volcano, and implies a volume of material erupted that is at least 250 cubic km. There have been 3 super volcanic eruptions in the US in the last 1.2 million years; the Jemez, Long Valley, California and Yellowstone in Montana/Wyoming. All three of these eruptions resulted in the creation of a caldera. Of course, our human centric view of geologic time — i.e, a million years is a long time — distorts the sense of “super” volcanic eruptions. Although Yellowstone was a large eruption, it was dwarfed by an eruption 28 million years ago that created the La Garita Caldera near Creede, Colorado. Over the same time that it took the Jemez to erupt the Tshirege tuff, the La Garita erupted the Fish Canyon Tuff — all 5,000 cubic km of it (more than 15 times larger!). Despite the size of La Garita, Los Alamos is perched on the shoulder of a real super volcano.
The relative tranquility of the Valles Caldera belies its violent history and magnificent history. The most recent significant volcanic activity in the Jemez is the Banco Bonito rhyolite flow, which is located smack dab in the middle of the Jemez Caldera marathon. The Banco Bonito is a very silica-rich rhyolite, and filled with large blocks of obsidian. Although most everyone recognizes obsidian, and thinks arrowheads and black shiny pebbles, the geologist thinks about very rapid cooling of a volcanic rock. Obsidian is silica glass – same material as a chunk of quartz, but it has no crystalline structure due to the rapid quenching of the hot lava. The Banco Bonito rhyolite was extruded (probably not erupted) 40,000 years ago. Although the Jemez Mountain Volcanic Field will be active again in the future, it is mainly showing signs of exhaustion, and the likelihood of a future, large scale eruption is extremely small. Running through the Valles Caldera on a marathon is a unique experience. Laid out along the course is every aspect of a few million years of violent tectonic history. Ash fall, resurgent domes, ancient lake beds that filled with water in cooler and wetter times.
The Valles Caldera Marathon
The Valles Caldera runs – there is a marathon, half marathon, and a 10 km – are not classic trail runs per se. Most of the courses utilize dirt roads that once were used to move cattle or cut timber, and only some short segments are single track. However, this does not diminish the spectacular setting of the race. It does mean that most people run the distances much faster than a typical trail run (I say “most” because single track versus tire rutted roads has nearly zero impact on my speed – sadly). The races start at Banco Bonito Staging Area within Valles Caldera National Preserve. The name “Banco Bonito” is applied to a modest plateau that is composed of the rhyolite-obsidian conglomerate that goes by the same name. It is easy to find very attractive pieces of obsidian at the starting line — just look down. There are more than 300 people signed up for the half marathon and 10k, but only about 45 of us toe the line for the full marathon at 7:30 in the morning.
The course for the marathon heads due east, climbing up the Banco Bonito lava flow along a logging road. The lava flow is probably not obvious to most of the runners as it now is forested, and only along certain sections are there stratigraphic sections exposed. But the topography of the lava flow is evident; over the first three miles we climb about 450 feet (not much elevation gain, but enough to slow old runners down). The pack of runners sorts out pretty rapidly, and good runners like Dave Coblentz disappear with a doppler shift over the horizon. At the three mile mark the course comes to an aid station on the edge of a large bowl shaped depression — El Cajete. This is a very significant geologic formation (but not such a significant aid station). El Cajete is the crater that last had significant volcanic activity in the Valles Caldera. It is responsible for the Banco Bonito lava flow 40,000 years ago, as well as a massive eruption of pumice sometime after the lava flow. The pumice fell close to the El Cajete, and dammed the Jemez river creating a lake in the Valle Grande.
From El Cajete the course drops off the plateau and the run is downhill for 2 miles. Fast and easy. Unfortunately, the elevation lost is a penalty for the next part of the race. At mile five there is a steep climb up a pass between Redondo Peak and another resurgent dome called South Mountain. In a little bit more than a mile we climb 550 feet to the high point of the race, 9150′. The top of the pass is a reward, but also a harbinger of things to come since we have to repeat this climb on the return from the Valle Grande.
From mile 6 to mile 12 the course is in the Valle Grande – well, strictly speaking, skirting around the edge of the Valle. The grass “meadow” of the Valle Grande is due to the fact that it was a reoccurring lake bed in the last million years, and it is not particularly friendly nutrition wise to trees. The last time the lake had a significant extent was after the El Cajete pumice eruption, and probably lasted for 4 to 7 thousand years (there have been smaller lakes during damp cool periods usually associated with glacial epochs). The picture below is a view across the Valle towards Pajarito Mountain. That summit, all 10,400 feet of it, is the high point of the Jemez Mountain Trail Runs — which will be run a month from now.
Running through the Valle is always wonderful. It is sensational scenery, and mostly flat topography. At mile 9.4 I get passed by the leader of the pack returning towards the finish. This means that the leader is about 4 miles ahead of me already. Once the first runner passes by me it is a steady stream; strangely, all the runners that are ahead of me look like they are strong and running very easily. I, on the other hand, am beginning to lose focus and daydreaming of the geology. Dave Coblentz passes me with a group of 5 or 6 runners at mile 9.7. The course “turns around” is at a point just beyond another resurgent dome — Cerro Pinon. The milage here is just about 12 miles; there is a mental boost knowing that the “out and back” is done, but I also realize that there are 14 miles to go. For the next 5 miles I pass by a few runners (a very few) that are slower than me, but mostly see no one. I am alone – happy, but alone. The climb back up the pass at South Mountain is brutal, but once that is done I am certain that I will finish the race largely unscathed. The run down from South Mountain is fast, but as I expected, hard on my legs. The run between miles 18 and 22 is a descent of nearly 800 feet. It should be fast, but my legs are tired. There is a great aid station at mile 19, and I stop for way too long to eat oreo cookies. The descent ends at a broad meadow called Redondo Meadow. This meadow is an wildlife experiential station, and there are lots of people working in the area. The course route is always confusing here because there is no real trail across the meadow, and there are meandering streams. The course is marked, but that means you actually have to pay attention to the flagging (not my best skill – however, I have memorized the maps, so I don’t get detoured). Once across the meadow the home stretch begins. A steep climb up the Banco Bonito lava flow, and then a lonely run back to the finish. I pass a couple of slowest runners of the 1/2 marathon, and try to encourage them (however, they are really tired).
I rambled into the finish line in a little over 5 1/2 hours. It is a nice marathon – not exactly a trail run, but much harder than a street run. The total elevation gain is about 3000 feet and the average elevation along the course is 8400′. However, it is the geology that makes this run so great. The Valles Caldera is truly a marvel….
The universe is built on a plan the profound symmetry of which is somehow present in the inner structure of our intellect, Paul Valery, 19th century French Poet
When I first started building a mineral collection — back about 1960 — the single most compelling criteria for determining if a specimen was a “keeper” or just something for the beer flats filled with colorful, yet, unworthy rocks, was whether there was a euhedral crystal. My fascination with the perfection of a sharp crystal face is not at all uncommon for beginning collectors. The fact that nature could take time to construct something so perfect strikes a deep chord; the vast universe created by the ultimate act of violence – the big bang – and ruled by entropy, and inevitable decay, still values symmetry. I recall an early discussion with my mother on the beauty of spring flowers – I asked her why she thought they were beautiful, and she responded with a joyful exposition on the bright and varied colors and the delicate nature of the pistil, and remarkable symmetry of the petals. I told her that the petals were exactly like crystals since they are always alike, and must be following some sort of “rules”.
The English word symmetry comes from the Greek symmetria; in turn, symmetria is a concatenation of Greek words sun and metron, meaning “together” and “measure”. There is a substantial body of Greek literature that refers to symmetry as “harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance”. This philosophical definition of symmetry deviates from the strictly mathematical definition, but still projects the power of something that is predictable and has a geometric balance to be pleasing to the eye. This “pleasing to the eye” is a euphemism for beauty — hard to define exactly, but beauty excites our aesthetic senses.
To me, there is nothing more pleasing to the eye than a silver specimen exhibiting spinel twinning – repeating patterns of crystals that produces a highly geometric weave. The photograph at the top of the column is a silver from the Kearsarge Mine, Houghton Co., in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. The specimen is defined by a central rib — an elongated stack of silver octahedrons, and branches intersecting the this rib at angles of approximately 60 degrees. In turn, these branches have secondary branches exiting at similar angles. The repeating geometry yields a specimen architecture that is clean and sharp – an exemplar of what the Greeks meant by symmetry.
Silver: a special element
Silver is a remarkable element that can form an array of minerals; about 180 different species. Thankfully, elemental silver is sufficiently inert to occur in nature and is widely distributed throughout the world. Native silver is a metal of bright white color; it has the highest reflectivity of any metal. Silver is also the best metallic conductor of heat and electricity and extremely malleable and ductile. These properties are, of course, a result of crystal and atomic structure, which is a face-centered cube with metallic bonds. The atomic radius of silver is nearly identical to that of gold – and gold commonly substitutes into the silver crystal lattice.
Silver crystallizes in the isometric system, and although individual, sharp macro crystals are rare, the octahedron and cube forms are most common. The largest individual crystals are from Kongsberg, Norway, where some octahedrons 3-5 cm on a side grace a few fortunate collections.
As a rule, crystals of silver are equi-dimensional or platy. The platy nature comes from the propensity from silver to twin (this is similarly seen in gold and copper) on octahedral faces {111}. This twinning is known as spinel twinning and is described below. The conditions for when spinel twinning occurs appears limited – although silver masses of spinel twins are known from hundreds of locations, there are only three or four localities where this type of silver crystallization is common. The two most famous localities are Batopilas, Mexico and Chanarcillo, Chile.
By far, the most common form of silver in a mineral collections is the wire – which is a secondary growth from the decomposition of silver sulfides and sulfosalts. Any silver deposit that undergoes supergene enrichment inevitably has silver wire specimens. The picture at the top of this section of the article is a fine silver wire mass from Tongchong in China. The wires in this specimen are attached to a very small piece of acanthite, no doubt the host material that provided the silver. All silver sulfides and most silver sulfosalts will produce silver wire upon disassociation — especially promoted by heating. Although wires can be extremely interesting and coveted specimens for collectors, there are been numerous cases where the wires were “grown” by unscrupulous collector/dealers and passed off as “natural” specimens.
Beauty in Nature
When I hear the word “beautiful” used to describe minerals by collectors I often ask what they mean. More often than not, the answers seem wanting to me. Mostly, it is about color — pink and red minerals are always “beautiful”, but black and brown minerals are “interesting”. Although color can transfix, and certainly evoke emotion, I can not relate to it as the primary metric of natural beauty. I am also looking for structure in my surroundings – a window into the soul of nature, order out of the chaos all around me.
A seminal event for me was attending “math summer camp” during the summer between 7th and 8th grade. The instructor was an outstanding teacher named Jack Gehre, and his focus was geometry and trigonometry. Early in the class Mr. Gehre introduced Euler’s formula; for any normal polyhedron, the sum of the number of faces plus the number of vertices, minus the number of edges always equals 2. I spent the rest of the summer camp trying to understand why. I suddenly had a “rule” in nature that I could apply to my mineral collection — a rule mysterious and powerful, but incredibly simple. It was beautiful. I did not know much about Euler then, but later in college I was introduced to another “law” by Leonhard Euler — an incredible 18th century Swiss mathematician — that has to be the most beautiful equation in all of nature. I was in a class on series analysis, and the professor, Alan Sharples, walked in the first day of the semester and wrote the following on the black board:
Sharples said, “this is Euler’s identity, a remarkable assertion. Prove it. That is all for this first day of class.” Turns out that this is pretty easy to prove, but when I viewed this on the blackboard I was transfixed — it was pure beauty. Imagine three essential mathematical constants – e, pi, and i – combined to equal -1. Wow – simple, brief, and exact. To this day I view this as a definition of beauty (Euler’s identity is routinely identified as the one of the most beautiful equations in science).
Euler’s identify may seem a long ways from realm of beauty in the mineral kingdom. However, to me, they are very much related. Simple, surprising, and an expression of natural symmetry.
Respect the Spinel Twin
Crystal growth in nature is quite complex; the crystal form, crystal size, crystal chemistry all are expressions of the paragenesis. Crystallization for most geologic materials involves the precipitation of a solid (the crystal) out of a solution or solvent (usually hot thermal fluids, although solutions of nearly any temperature can carry dissolved loads of ions and cations). Crystals start with nucleation of a few molecules from the solution, and then growth occurs by pulling the necessary ionic components out of solution. The rate at which individual crystals grows depends strongly on the saturation level of the ions of interest – supersaturated solutions appear to be able to grow crystals at extraordinary rates (at least compared to geologic time!), sometimes at several cubic cm per hour.
It is not clear who first recognized twinning in crystals, but it was first written about in detail by Rene-Just Haüy in his epic tome Traité de Minéralogie, published in 1801. In the beginning part of the 20th century there were a number of studies to understanding twinning in minerals. The classic definition was introduced by Friedel in 1926: A twin is a complex crystalline edifice built up of two or more homogeneous portions of the same crystal species in contact (juxtaposition) and orientated with respect to each other according to well-defined laws. The “well-defined laws” all are based on some simple ideas, the most important of which is that within a crystal core that a least one lattice row (i.e., a crystal edge) is common to two different crystals. The figures below illustrate this concept — the lattice of a cubic crystal is defined by four points, and a plane can be drawn through these points that allows a second crystal to share lattice points but have a rotated orientation. Twinning adds symmetry to a crystal aggregate, most commonly about a rotation axis or reflection across a plane. In the metals copper, gold and silver, a particular type of twin is common, called the spinel twin.
Spinel twins are so-named because it is a very common habit seen in the mineral spinel. They are contact twins, meaning that have a planar composition surface shared by two individual crystals; this surface is along an octahedral face (written as {111}), and means that there is a rotation of 180o about the contact plane. This is illustrated by the lower figure above – there are two octahedrons joined along a contact plane, but the top terminations “point” in directions and are separated by 120o. The figure below shows how spinel twins can be flattened, and give the characteristic triangular faces that are seen on platy crystals of silver (and gold).
In silver, spinel twinning almost always repeats itself with regularity, producing a pattern that resembles a weave of wires. The silver at the top of this section of the article is from Batopilas, Chihuahua, Mexico, and is an example of a mass of spinel twins. Through the middle of the specimen is a series of parallel elongated crystals, and growing “off” these strands are regular strands oriented at 60 degrees (or 120 degrees, strictly speaking). These are all spinel twins – repeating some natural frequency that is due to a long lost geologic condition. Once assembled, the spinel twins from an aggregate of crystals that has been called a “herringbone” silver in reference to the similarity to the shape of the rib cage of the smelly game fish beloved by the peoples of the Baltic.
Why do spinel twins form in silver? Under certain ideal conditions, a single large crystal represents a “minimum” energy condition, and thus is due to an important thermodynamic rule — a chemical system will stabilize at state of least energy. If individual crystals are a minimum energy state, then twinned crystals are by necessity at state of higher energy, and thus should be rare. However, environmental conditions tend to localize energy states; for a supersaturated solution, the crystal growth is extremely rapid, and twinned crystal allow more ions to join a crystallize aggregate faster, thus minimizing a local energy state. For all “herringbone” silver specimens it appears that the conditions of formation require a supersaturated solution, low in concentrations of sulfur, and extremely rapid crystal growth. These conditions are relatively rare in most epithermal vein deposits; it is very uncommon to find a spinel twinned silver specimen from the great silver deposits of Colorado, Ontario or Freiberg!
The silver pictured above is my favorite native silver in my entire mineral collection. This is a large “herringbone” plate with a three dimensional repeating pattern of twins. The specimen represents something remarkable in turns of crystal growth. The tiniest variations in chemistry or temperature during growth would have truncated the growth of this silver weave.
A close examination of the Chanarcillo herringbone yields views of spectacular detail – endlessly repeating, and shouting the fundamental rules for symmetry in crystals. Along the edges of the crystalline mass you can see individual octahedrons – the termination of various elongated crystals.
Beauty and the pretenders
Rapid growth in silver often produces crystalline masses that are complex. However, spinel twins are distinct, and uncommon. Rapid growth often leads to dendritic masses – mostly silver feather patterns or strings of stacked cubes. These dendrites are not spinel twins; in fact, instead of fundamental order, they represent chaotic growth. Although there is some sense of beauty in the randomness of dendrites, it is mostly through “self-similarity” – various patterns that appear to scale with size. This is fundamentally different than ordered spinel twins – and in many ways points to disordered processes. I am always shocked (okay, probably an overly harsh expression of emotion) when I find dealers selling “herringbone” silvers that are in fact dendrites. That is like marketing hamburger as Filet Mignon. Similarly, silver wires can certainly be attractive; however, they are products of mineral destruction not construction. To me, beauty in silver spinel twins is about construction, order, and symmetry. Defining beauty will allows be in the eye of the beholder — it is just better when there are rules involved.
Monument Valley is the place where God put the West. John Wayne, American Actor, circa 1950.
The southern half of the Colorado Plateau stretches from Lake Meade in the west, to Cuba, New Mexico in the east, and is a stunning desert highland of pastel colored bluffs, and exotic wind sculpted rocks. The land is both beautiful and desolate; in more than 80,000 square miles there are only 250,000 inhabitants (more people live around Lake Meade and Flagstaff that the rest of the southern plateau combined), but there are 10 National Parks and 17 National Monuments, 10 Wilderness areas, along with another half dozen parks in the Navajo Nation. It is also the land that American geologists wandered in the 1860-1880s and their observations shaped modern thoughts about geologic time and the extraordinary patient, but always persistent, force of erosion which eventually grinds even the highest mountains to dust. John Wesley Powell navigated the Colorado River through the Grand Canyon and Clarence Dutton mapped the geology with remarkable insight; these geologic giants were the vanguard of the American contribution of “the second age of discovery” that transformed the mystery of nature into a science. I love visiting these desert lands; in a crowded and noisy world the Colorado Plateau imposes it’s will of solitude and reminds one of man’s temporary significance. Ulta Adventures runs a series of ultra runs across the southern Colorado Plateau that they call the Grand Circle. Last year I ran the Ultra Adventures Bryce Canyon 50k – and it was a spectacular run! The geology was great, the UA staff are wonderful, and course was challenging. This year I decided I wanted to run the UA ultra in Monument Valley held in mid-March. No other piece of real-estate has defined the American psyche of “the old west” than Monument Valley. You would be hard pressed to find any baby boomer that would not immediately recognize the “Mittens” — sandstone bluffs in Monument Valley — as the movie backdrop to scores of films.
Monument Valley is a tract of canyon lands located about 100 km west of the Four Corners along the Utah-Arizona border. Within the valley there is a 140 square mile park – the Navajo Nation’s Monument Valley Park — that was “discovered” by film director John Ford in 1939 with the release of the classic western Stagecoach. Ford chose Monument Valley because, to his mind, the desolation and isolation of the bluffs and red sandstone captured the essence of the hardscrabble life of the wild west. Ford cast John Wayne as the Ringo Kid, a gunslinger. This roll is largely credited with making Wayne a film superstar – and forever he is pictured across from the Mittens. There is a creation myth about how John Ford found Monument Valley — it starts with Harry Goulding, a sheep herder and owner of a trading post in Monument Valley packing up and heading to Hollywood with photographs of the scenery as an act of desperation during the crushing poverty of the great depression. Goulding showed up at Ford’s offices and somehow, against all logic, convinced Ford that he should film his upcoming western in the corner of Arizona that was hundreds of miles from the nearest train station and only accessible by a dicey dirt road. Ford eventually filmed parts of 6 of his most famous movies there; other directors followed, and Monument Valley has appeared in more than 100 movies!
It is only appropriate that the rich movie heritage of Monument Valley would collide with ultra runs. The 1994 movie Forrest Gump is the tale of a man’s life that serendipitously criss-crosses 40 years of tremulous American history. I saw the movie in Flagstaff, Arizona when my wife was working on the geodetics of volcanoes at the USGS field office – we loved the movie and it remains one our top ten favorites ever. In the movie, Forrest starts running on October 1, 1979 to ease the pain of rejection by his true love. He ends up running for 3 years, 2 months, 14 days and 16 hours, and covered 15,248 miles (crossing America at least 4 times) – no ultra runner has ever equaled the trail brazed by Forrest. Forrest ended his run at Monument Valley – he just stopped, and decided the run was over, and it was time to go home.
What a perfect setting for an ultra run; geology, history, and the termination point for the greatest ultra run ever.
Running on Ancient Sand Dunes Monument Valley refers to a large swath of landscape along the Arizona-Utah border, but most people associate the name with a modest 3 by 5 mile drainage basin. This basin stretches from the world famous Mittens in the north to Wetherill and Hunts Mesas in the south. The name “Monument Valley” first showed up on maps in 1917. Who exactly was responsible for that moniker is lost to history, but the name is appropriately descriptive; the view down the valley is filled with monoliths and buttes that are the erosional remnants of a thick layered cake of sedimentary rocks that were deposited by water and wind nearly 200 million years ago. The Navajo name for the valley is Tse’Bii’Ndzisgaii, which translates approximately to Valley of the Rocks (at least my Navajo friend tells me this – others have slight variations).
The Colorado Plateau is one of the most unique geologic provinces on the globe. A huge, broad plain or basin was formed at the margin of the primal landmass that today we call the North American Continent. This “basin” captured the cobbles and shards that resulted from the erosion of the ancient continent. Sometimes the basin was beneath a shallow sea filled with corral reefs and marine life. Other times it was at the edge of an uplifted and rejuvenated continent and was covered by a system of deltas cut by meandering rivers – not unlike the Mississippi delta today. Still other times it was a massive wasteland covered by sand dunes. Over a period of 500 million years this broad area we now call the Plateau accumulated a lithic layer cake; thousands of feet of alternating sandstones, limestones, shales and conglomerates. About 20 million years ago this layered rock cake was uplifted, and subjected to the same erosional forces – wind, water and ice – that had ground ancient mountain ranges to dust.
The slice of this great lithic cake that is exposed in Monument Valley dates from the Permian Age. The rocks exposed on the Valley floor are the oldest – and are known as the Organ Rock shale (about 280 million years old). This shale was deposited as muddy clays in deltas and swamps. Above the shale is the rock that builds the monuments, the DeChelly sandstone. The DeChelly is an amazing rock – it is a nearly pure quartz grain sandstone, that is tough and strong, and can maintain vertical cliff faces hundreds of feet high. The DeChelly was formed from wind blown sand dunes. The modern day analogy for these type of sand dunes is the Namib Desert along the southwestern coast of Africa. The desert that made the DeChelly sandstone was long lived — probably 25 million years of blowing dunes. Finally, that desert yielded to a more hospitable environment and rivers returned depositing sandstones and shales, which we call the Moenkopi formation. About 230 million years ago the last of the rocks exposed at Monument Valley were deposited on top of the Moenkopi, the hard cobbles and boulders of the Shinarump conglomerate. The Shinarump is the “cap stone” on the mesa in Monument Valley, and reason that the softer rocks below have not completely eroded away.
The landscape of Monument Valley today is only a shadow of what it most have been a few million years ago. In a few more million years, there will be no sign of DeChelly sandstone, and all the steep cliffs will have been reduced to rubble. The unique monuments are a result of the layered cake geology; the Shinarump conglomerate is a difficult rock to erode, and for millions of years protected the “softer” rocks below. However, joints and zones of weakness in the Shinarump eventually yielded to the relentless rains, frost, wind and gravity, and began to erode forming small washes exposing the DeChelly sandstone below. The DeChelly is relatively easily eroded, but forms steep cliff faces, making for spectacular canyons. Eventually these canyons cut down to the soft Organ Rock shale which is rapidly washed away. The canyons then begin to undercut the DeChelly, and the stout sandstone collapsed in rock falls and avalanches. What is left are isolated buttes, mesas, and rock towers. When you run through Monument Valley your view is one of the distant past. The vertical cliffs demand your attention; they tell a story of time when huge sand dunes moved slowly across the edge of a continent. There not many fossilized bones in the DeChelly, but there are numerous fossilized track ways of Permain Age creatures (both vertebrate and invertebrate). The ultra runner today may find the course difficult, but the arthropod racers of 260 million years ago had it much worse.
Race Day The Monument Valley Ultras — 100 miles, 50 miles and 55 km — all start near the Monument Valley visitor center that sits on the lip of a small cliff overlooking the iconic Mittens. The runners gathered at 6:45 am for a traditional Navajo prayer welcoming the new day. The prayer, the approaching sun rise, a perfect temperature of 39 degrees, and the energy of the runners creates an emotional aura. Two weeks before the race, Monument Valley received a record snow fall during a late season storm. There was some question as to whether the race would follow the traditional course as flooding from the melting storm closed much of the Valley. However, everything reopened days before the race; the 55 km course followed a quick descent along a sweet single track that looped around the West Mitten before joining the main Monument Valley tour road. For the first couple of miles I run a pace of about 9;45 minutes per mile – a little faster than I want given the long day ahead, but there never is any way to calm the emotion! One of the biggest surprises to to me in the first couple of miles is seeing the Mittens from all angles. Although they look like large buttes, they are actually very thin monuments. Viewed from the start of the race the West Mitten is a couple of hundred meters across, but when I pass the western extreme I see that the West Mitten is only a few 10s of meters wide. Although the race started in the glow of pre-sunrise, soon the sun is lighting up the cliffs of DeChelly sandstone. The reds and browns glow – the promise for a great run.
There are a few tour vans on the Valley road, and tourists are busy taking pictures in the early morning light. I roll into the main aid station, called Hogan, at 58 minutes. The total distance covered is 5.75 miles, so I am feeling pretty good. The 55 km course is shaped like a 4-leafed clover with the Hogan aid station at the center – I will pass through it four times today. I am trying to run the course today with minimal aid station support – I only want to refill my water bottles, and I carry all the food I will need. Turns out this is not a great idea – the food looks pretty good at Hogan!
After a quick fill of my water bottles (and longing gazes at the food – I decide to stick to my plan, and eat a lemon wafer I am carrying), I start the second clover leaf, a relatively short 5 mile loop, almost all on a wonderful single track. I roll back into the Hogan aid station at 2 hours (10.5 miles), and began a much longer loop towards Hunt’s Mesa. The first couple of miles are along the Valley road, and pretty easy. However, the course then begins to follow a very sandy trail/road route. I had hoped that the recent snowfall would have made the sand semi-compact and easier to run. Wrong. The fine grained sand does not hold moisture, and it is a leg burner! The course passes a series of slender monuments – the tallest of which is called the Totem.
I ponder the fate of the Totem; it is an inverted pendulum, and will eventually fall. It is clear that there has not been any significant earthquake activity for a couple of thousand years near Monument Valley, or the precarious nature of Totem would most certainly have caused it to tumbled. I guess it will stand for a few thousand more years. Assuming there are ultra runners in a few more millennia, they will not experience the Totem. Miles 14-18 are sandy. The cliffs of the DeChelly sandstone are rounded by the abrasion from the winds. Today is a rare and fortunate day – little wind. The wind of Monument Valley picks up the fine gains of sand and silt that had eroded from the Permian sediments and slams them into the cliff faces. This constant assault eventually carves the rocks into bridges and arches.
The route takes us to an amphitheater-arch call the “Big Hogan”. It is a wonderful example of the power of saltation. The wind has carved an amphitheater, and at the top has cut an arch – like the smoke hole in a hogan, hence the name.
The route eventually loops back to the Hogan aid station. The mileage for the third visit is almost exactly 20 miles. My time is 4 hrs and 6 minutes. A little slower than I planned, but considering the sand and all the time I took out to take pictures, I am pretty much on schedule. Once again, I look at the great selection of food laid out at the aid station and regret my stubborn dedication to minimal support. Out of the Hogan aid station the last loop is an out and back to the top of Mitchell Mesa — before me is the most difficult climb in the run. The trail leads west along a road cut to support a uranium mine on the the top of Mitchell Mesa back in the 1960s.
During the uranium frenzy of the 1950s, amateur and professional prospectors fanned out across the Colorado Plateau in search of the metal that fueled the nuclear age. There are numerous small uranium deposits located in old river channels within the Shinarump formation. These old channels captured carbon debris – trees, branches, decomposing leaves, etc. – which in turn served to precipitate uranium out of circulating ground waters. One of these ancient river channels cuts across Mitchell Mesa, and was mined briefly in the period 1962-1965. The mine’s operation came to an abrupt end when the operator, Robert Shiver, accidentally backed the ore hauler he was driving over a cliff, and tumbled more than 450 feet into the valley. The same cliff that took Shiver’s life is the one that we have to climb to get to the top of Mitchell Mesa!
The ore from the mine on Mitchell Mesa was primarily Tyuyamunite – a rare uranium-vanadium oxide (chemical formula: Ca(UO2)2V2O8·(5-8)H2O). Like many uranium minerals it is colored canary yellow. The picture above is a sample of Tyuyamunite that was found across the valley on Hunt’s Mesa. I don’t see any sign of mineralization as I grind my way up the mesa…. The climb really begins at mile 23; there is a rocky and relentless pitch that ascends 1200 feet in only a mile. I had visions that I would bound up the winding trail – wrong. It takes me 30 minutes to get to the top, and my quads are burning.
The run to the northern end of Mitchell Mesa is physically easy – but the views into the valley are breath taking, and I find myself drifting into tourist mode. Mitchell Mesa and Merrick Butte are named after a pair of prospectors that were murdered in the Valley in December, 1879. Charles Merrick had supposedly found three crude smelters built by Ute Indians to recover silver. Merrick recruited Henry Mitchell to help him find the source of the silver; legend has it that they indeed did find a rich deposit, and the prospectors were heading home with ore samples when they met their untimely demise. For years treasure hunters have searched for the lost Merrick-Mitchell mine, but it remains lost.
The run along the top of the mesa is only about a mile long, but it is difficult after the long climb. There are patches of snow in the shade of trees, and I stop twice and fill my hat with a couple of handfuls of snow. It is now about 64 degrees (at least according to my weather app), and I am really overheated. The melting snow cools my hot head, and steels me for the last 9 miles of the run.
The turn around point is the end of the Mesa. There is a hole punch that you apply to your bib, and turn around and retrace your steps back to the Hogan aid station. The view from the turn-around point is down to the finish line — so close, yet so far. I am pretty tired at this point, and my pace is slow. I pass lots of runners still making their way to the turn-around point, and I realize that although I have been pretty much running alone for hours, there are people that are going to finish several hours after I do. The descent off Mitchell Mesa is much more difficult than I expect – no springy legs hoping from rock to rock for me! I get to the Hogan aid station for the final time about 7 hours and 14 minutes. There is still a little less than four miles to go – argh. The last part of the run is completely along the Valley tour road. Unlike earlier in the morning, the road is now heavy with traffic. The speed limit is 15 miles per hour, and many of the cars and tour vans honor the limit, which minimizes the dust. However, every fourth or fifth car comes zooming by, and stirs up a chocking cloud of red dust. I really hate this part of the run, and curse at drivers that are obvious to the runner’s fate. The last two miles of the run are a steep climb back up to the lip of the cliff where the race started at dawn. I finish at 8 hours and 10 minutes by my watch – 40 minutes slower than I planned, but I am just happy to done! My watch says 33.5 miles, so it is just short of 55 km. Within a few minutes of rest I begin to think about how great the run was, and even the dust of the tail end begins to seem not so bad. A wonderful place to have a trail run.
My Forrest Gump Moment I discovered trail running late in life. Not mountains, geology, the solitude of towering peaks and deep canyons – those have been with me since my earliest memories. But trail running is a too recent passion, but has allowed me to experience calm even as my muscles ache and I experience true exhaustion. I am not a competitive runner – oh sure, I wish I was fast, but my age and athletic ability preclude even the allusion of “competitive”. So, why run as hard as you can during an ultra run if you have no chance of being competitive? Because it is a grand challenge – ultra train races are hard, and pushing your limits are rewarded with the knowledge that you accomplished something difficult. That sounds a bit trite, but doing difficult things, accomplishing goals, are a reality check on realizing one’s potential. Like most everyone, I have much grander goals in life than just running long distances on dusty trails; I want to make a difference in the world, I want to discover, I want to make right. Those goals are pretty hard to evaluate except post-mortem, and once I am dead I don’t much care. But doing difficult things allows me to center; accomplishments are mileage posts along the way.
This past January I had my annual physical (I will soon be 59). Once you pass the half century mark the ritual of the annual physical is aways approached with trepidation. Most American medial studies define “old age” as an onset of a plethora of symptoms, usually beginning sometime between 60 and 70 years. The most frightening of these symptoms is the decline of cognitive abilities – slowing down of the brain and gradual memory lose, for example. Everyone is different, and the decline is certainly a broad spectrum, but just as erosion will eventually wear down Mt. Everest to a nub, brains do wear out. So, at each annual check up I listen attentively to my doctor hoping to hear that I am amazingly young for “my age”. My check up in January started more or less as always – I have great heart function, good cholesterol, I seem to have good hearing except when my wife asks me to do something, still have most of my hair, etc. However, when the final part of my blood test was discussed my doctor said that my thyroid was pretty much kaput. I was diagnosed with hypothyroidism – an under active thyroid – a little over a decade ago. I have been taking levothroxin everyday for that decade. This is a synthetic hormone replacement; over the years my dose of levothroxin has been increased, so it was clear my thyroid was declining. I did not receive the news of “kaput” well – I was assured that this is okay, but I needed increase my medication, and monitor it closely. Hypothyroidism is not particularly rare – a few percent of Americans experience it, and both my parents had it. But it does have consequences – the thyroid helps regulate many functions in the body (including hair loss, which I appear to be immune to), but to athletes it is the key to fatigue, and to recovery from endurance events. In fact, there is a mini-scandal in world of endurance racers with the suggestion that some elite runners are using levothroxin to enhance performance. That has never been my case! But now I began to question if I would be able to truly run, bike or swim anymore. Was this the onset of old age for me?
The Monument Valley ultra was my first race since my new medicine regime. As I lined up on the start line I could not help but wonder if I could actually do the race. However, I ran it just fine (well, my legs are not so sure it was just fine). Unlike Forrest Gump, I am not ready to stop running.
Shades of grey wherever I go
The more I find out the less that I know
Black and white is how it should be
But shades of grey are the colors I see
Billy Joel, Shades of Grey, released 1993.
In the mid 1980s I was first asked to be a judge of the competitive mineral exhibits at the Tucson Gem and Mineral Show. At that time the TGMS competition, and its two top awards – the McDole Trophy (best case of minerals entered into competition) and the Lidstrom Trophy (best individual mineral entered into competition) – were considered the pinnacle of the mineral world. The winners of these awards looked like a “Who’s Who” of the mineral collecting community, and every year the competition was passionate and savage. The rules for the McDole and Lidstrom awards were few; it was based on the judges experiences, biases, and an element of luck on who decided to enter the competition. The judging for the McDole and Lidstrom awards was also a “discussion” rather than some type of formal poll — a judge with a domineering personality could filibuster the other judges into accepting his or her opinion. I recall clearly the discussion around a particular specimen entered into the Lidstrom competition that I was fond of; “We can’t possibly consider that specimen a best – it has been repaired!” The pronouncement carried such an air of academic certitude that I immediately agreed. Of course, it had been repaired! How could it really be a great mineral specimen if there was some glue involved!
It was not too long after that I began to ponder the absurdity of dismissing anything that is repaired as inherently flawed (on a personal note, now that I have multiple metal parts in various joints, I embrace the repaired). Repairing a mineral is rather common – mineral extraction is inherently a violent activity, and the very act of handling a specimen introduces the possibility of drops, dings and scratches. But there is still a feeling that repairs should affect the monetary value of a specimen. I don’t think I have ever been to mineral show where I have not heard some version of the conversation between a dealer and a collector where the potential purchaser doesn’t ask for a significant discount because the specimen has been repaired. The stephanite pictured at the top of this article is a fantastic complex crystal from the Husky Mine in the Yukon Territory, Canada. I first committed to buying this piece for my collection around the year 2000. However, when I went to go pick it up from the dealer I opened the box and the marvelous sample of “brittle silver” was in three pieces! The stress of transport had caused the crystal to part along inter-growth boundaries. I was heart broken, and walked away from a masterpiece. The dealer repaired the piece expertly, and eventually I was able to acquire it. However, several years later I was transporting it to be photographed and it “parted” again! Fortunately, it was once again restored, and now sits permanently in my mineral cabinet never to travel again. I believe it is the best, or one of the best, Husky Mine stephanites in existence, and the fact that it has some clear cyanoacrylate helping to hold it together is inconsequential.
Repair would, thus, seem to be a rather “black and white” issue – restoring a collectable to its original configuration is not fraud or even misrepresentation of nature. Sadly, it is not “black and white”, and repair/restoration has become a spectrum disorder in the mineral collecting world. Today many consider filling missing gaps in crystals with acrylic resin, buffing away scratches on crystal faces or even heating a specimen to “restore” its primordial color as simply “sophisticated repair”. Not black and white, but shades of grey.
Real Repairs
The Pieta is a signature masterwork of Italian sculptor Michelangelo, and one of the most famous works of art in history. Michelangelo was only 23 years old when he carved the single block of Carrara marble into a haunting image of a crucified Jesus being held by his mother. By any figure of merit, the Pieta is priceless. Yet, it is repaired – several times! The four fingers of Mary’s left hand were snapped off during a move in the 18th century (restored in 1736). The most egregious damage occurred in an instant of insanity when Laszio Toth, an unemployed Hungarian geologist attacked. Toth struck the Pieta more than a dozen times with his field hammer, breaking off Mary’s arm, part of her nose, and chipping her face.
The repair of the statue was done by a team of 10 people painstakingly reassembling the fragments and filling in voids with a mixture of powdered marble and polyester resin. When the restore work was unveiled it was claimed that it was impossible to identify where the damage had been. Some experts suggest that with the passage of time the resin has perceptibly changed color, but in general the repair has faded into history and the magnificence of the Pieta has been restored.
The restoration of the Pieta might be a fanciful stretch as an analogy for mineral repair, but it does frame the philosophy of specimen “value”. It is highly unlikely that the reconstruction of Mary’s left hand would effect the value of the Pieta if the Vatican decided to part with the treasure; I can’t imagine any art collector asking the Vatican for a “discount” because the marble was not exactly as Michelangelo carved it long ago. On the other hand, the restoration process went to great lengths to assure that nothing changed from the original – no added expression to Mary’s face, no extra lamb seated at her feet.
The Rhodochrosite Royalty – a family full of plastic surgery
In 1966, a 90 year old silver mine located on the slopes of Mt Bross – one of Colorado’s 53 peaks that have elevations in excess of 14,000 feet above sea level – yielded a remarkable mineral specimen. The mine was called the Sweet Home, and during its on-again, off-again mining history had periodically produced some of the world’s best rhodochrosite. However, the standard for rhodochrosite was reset when a mining crew drilled into a pocket and found a 10 cm rhombohedron of cherry red rhodochrosite perched on a slab of pencil thin white quartz. The specimen was purchased by one of Colorado’s earliest fine mineral dealerships, Crystal Gallery, for the princely sum of $2500. Crystal Gallery was a partnership between Merle Reid and Colorado collector legend George Robertson. The rhodochrosite ended up in the hands of Peter Bancroft (much to the chagrin of George Robertson), who christen the piece as the “Alma Queen”, in recognition of the mining town a few miles southeast of the Sweet Home Mine (the picture above is “official” photo of the Alma Queen from its present home, the Houston Museum of Natural Science). In short order the Queen passed through a hands of a number of famous mineral dealers, finally becoming a prized possession of Perkins Sams. In 1986, Sams sold the Queen to Houston Museum – and a few years later it was being moved and was broken! Actually, it was not too surprising given that the rhodochrosite has perfect cleavage, and the huge crystal was isolated and perched on matrix. Fortunately, the crystal was “repaired” – it is impossible to see the glue reattaching the rhomb – and is still considered a masterpiece.
The Alma Queen enticed others to want to return to the Sweet Home Mine and search for more rhodochrosite. In 1991 Bryan Lees and partners began a professional and systematic exploration for mineral specimens. In 1992 Lees’ operation discovered a 1.5 meter long pocket that yielded incredible — larger than even the Alma Queen — specimens. Most of the crystals were detached from matrix, jarred from their natural perches by the mining activity. The largest of the crystals was more than 15 cm across, and was dubbed the Alma King.
The Alma King was eventually reattached to matrix, and was brought to the Tucson Gem and Mineral Show in 1993. I remember seeing the specimen, and was stunned. I also recall standing next to a old time collector who remarked “too bad it is repaired”. Wow – my thoughts were not conflicted at all – the repair was sincere and returned a natural masterpiece to it’s rightful magnificence. It was exactly like the restoration of the Pieta!
There is little argument that the repair of the Sweet Home rhodochrosites was the right course of action, and certainly did not diminish the value of the specimens. However, it also coincided with the crest of a darker tsunami in the collecting hobby that demanded specimen perfection, and art aesthetics overtaking all other metrics of mineral specimen evaluation. A significant percentage of the Sweet Home specimens required repair, although the evolving euphemism was “specimen preparation”; a dialog developed around the theme of “returning the specimen to the condition it was in nature”. This catch phrase has become the a divide between collectors; those that prize the art of mineral specimens are willing to see flaws removed by polish and resins, while other collectors recoil at any man-induced enhancements and celebrate only that which can be documented “as found”. This gulf is wide, and brings cries of “fake and fraud” from collectors in the later group when they view many of the world’s best mineral specimens. However, this group of collectors – the old school – is dying away. Not yet irrelevant, but mostly marginalized. I am old school.
When a grey line becomes red — and crossed
In the last 50 years the mineral collecting hobby has seen dramatic changes – or perhaps evolution. What was once the realm of rockhounds is now a glided age of art. One of the most obvious symptoms of this change is what collectors accept and expect in a mineral specimen. Repair and restoration have always been important for mineral specimens; however, the definition of repair and restore has changed as prices have escalated. There has always been a desire to make specimens attractive, but today it is expected that many specimens are oiled, waxed or sprayed with silicon to enhance their luster and hide their imperfections. Use of these cosmetic trappings was once a “red line” for collectors – absolutely rejected. But just like US foreign policy on the use of chemical weapons, that red line was faded to grey. A tour through the many hotel rooms of the “high end” mineral dealers participating in the 2015 Westward Look Fine Mineral Show in Tucson (February 6-8) reinforces this dramatic shift; it is fair to say that most expensive fluorite specimens for sale have been treated with oil, every recent amazonite dug from the pegmatites in the high peaks of Colorado has been “juiced” to enhance the luster, and most gem-quality garnets are getting at least a spray of enhancement. And, further, casual conversation with collectors seems to reinforce that this is what they want. Perfection is essential for a work of art.
The desire to “improve” minerals is a couple of thousand years old. There is written accounts of Greeks using cedar oil on emeralds to enhance the color. The purpose of the oil was to fill the flaws and cracks with a material (the oil) such that when light is shined on the crystal there would not be reflections from the imperfections. The cedar oil had approximately the right index of refraction (about the same as the emerald itself), and low enough viscosity (when heated) to flow into the tiny cracks, but high enough such that it would remain (at least for a while) after treatment. Today the oil is mixed with a polymer which “fixes” the oil. There are about a half dozen “restoration” labs in the US that work on minerals, and most have proprietary processes to do essentially the same thing as the cedar oil treatment except for fluorite, sphalerite, garnet, etc. The science behind these processes is fairly sophisticated — but the treatment is rarely disclosed.
Today it is hard to “lay blame” for the practice of mineral restoration that relies on removing perceived imperfections at the doorstep of dealers. The nature of the “trophy collector” is to find perfection – and that sense of perfection does not have to be the hand that nature dealt. Further, it is clear that repair and restoration no longer decrease specimen value, but actually increase value. As Sir Walter Scott opined: Oh what a tangled web we weave, When first we practice to deceive.
Old School with a New World Order
I love collecting minerals – it is something that I have done with passion for more than 50 years. I have changed along the way, and the hobby has changed even more than I. I am deeply disturbed by many of the changes, but that does not make them “wrong”. Just as I am aghast at at what I perceive as the personal values of generations other than mine, my sense of why I collect, and what a mineral specimen means to me, does not have to be shared with others. The Dalai Lama says: “Happiness is not something ready made. It comes from your own actions.” I don’t need to change what and how I collect. It is the science and human story that are codified and crystallized in my minerals. That is why I happily collect that which is repaired and total reject oils and waxes. A red line.
Beauty of whatever kind, in its supreme development, invariably excites the sensitive soul to tears, Edgar Allan Poe, 19th century American Poet.
There are certain minerals that hypnotize the collector – some with their monetary value, some with their art esthetics, and others with their specimen fame and history. A few appeal to a most primal attraction, a fascination with a rich and distinctive color. Perhaps no species in the mineral kingdom has a more unique and appealing hue and chroma than proustite; vermillion-scarlet red, appearing to glow under moderately bright light, yet fleeting and fading with time. In Mexico and Chile, miners use the phrase “Sangre de Toro” – the Blood of the Bull – when they encounter freshly broken rock that exposes proustite (or the closely related mineral pyargyrite). These miners celebrated the rock bleeding with rich silver ore.
A “great proustite” is prized in any mineral cabinet, and is considered an essential in a great mineral collection. However, proustite is enigma to most collectors — beautiful, but it poses very special challenges in terms of curation. Proustite is well known to darken on exposure to light – mainly sunlight, but also on exposure to the light from most electrical bulbs found in mineral cases. Proustite is probably the only mineral that is proudly advertised as “stored away in a dark box for the last 100 years”. A great mineral that no one every gets to observe? By far, proustite is the mineral I get questioned must intensely about; Can you reverse the darkening? Why does my proustite that I leave boxed up develop a white coating? Can I find display glass for my mineral case that will block damaging light? Unfortunately, the same chemistry and physics that endows the mesmerizing color to proustite leads to its ultimate demise.
I bought my first fine proustite in 1983 at the Tucson Gem and Mineral Show — or more correctly, I bought it late one evening in a dingy hotel room in the Desert Inn located a few blocks west of the TGMS show. The crystal is about 3.8 cm high, and distinctive in its habit; there is no question that it was from Chanarcillo, Chile. I was introduced to an English mineral dealer named Simon Harrison, who was reported to have a fine proustite. Simon took me into the bathroom to show me the piece — I recall that the bathtub was filled with ice and cans of beer, and there were mineral flats stacked high — and as I opened the box I was incredibly excited (the crystal is shown at the top of this article). Inside was a perfect prismatic crystal, fantastic color, and an retired British Museum of Natural History label. Reality splashed over me as I realized this piece was probably out of my meager means — having just completed my PhD, and was only notionally visualizing what a “paycheck” was. He told me the price was 3000 dollars – cash, no stink’in checks. I quickly said yes, but had no clue where I was going to find 3k. I had three flats of pretty good material in my car out front, and I hoped to sell them in the next couple of days. I was incredibly lucky that I was able to cajole a dealer to take them all for 3,800 dollars, and I became the proud owner of a piece of ruby silver.
I showed my treasure to a number of friends and colleagues and the everyone told me it was great, but that I had to keep it closed up tight in a box, and make sure it never saw the harsh and bright Tucson sunlight (I recall thinking that perhaps everyone was confusing the proustite with a miniature vampire…). I stored it away, and was happy. Two years later I opened up the box to show a friend, and I was dismayed to see a white powder near the base of the crystal. The color seemed as great as ever, but what the heck was the white powder, and what did it portend for the demise of my great specimen? I removed the white powder with a tooth brush and x-rayed it; I found it was arsenic oxide. This seemed mysterious to me, and started me down a path of understanding the complex chemistry and physics of proustite.
Since that first purchase long ago, I have added about 15 proustites to my collection. I love the species, and even occasionally show the pieces. I have also probably been asked a hundred times on how to reverse the aging of proustite; sadly, just like the human body, a grand chemistry experiment is going on all the time, and although it is possible to delay the darkening of the crystal, the majestic color will eventually change. It is not a mystery, but a testament to the wonderful properties of the element silver.
The next two sections of this post are about the structure and color of proustite – they require some faith in quantum mechanics, and for some readers it is best to just jump to the section on The World’s Great Proustite Localities.
The structure of proustite; silver sulfides and sulfosalts all die and go to heaven
The color of proustite, and the fact that it fades and decomposes on exposure to sunlight, is a result of its chemistry and crystal structure. The chemical formula for proustite is Ag3AsS3, which represents the arsenic end-member of a solid solution series with the “dark ruby silver” pyrargyrite (Ag3SbS3). From a chemical point of view, the proustite-pyrargyrite series is one of the simplest silver-bearing sulfosalt systems. “Simple,” however, is relative when dealing with anything that contains silver. For example, in the laboratory it is possible to make antimony-rich proustite; yet in natural proustite, only a tiny fraction of the arsenic is actually replaced by antimony.
The crystal structure of proustite contains covalently bonded As-S3 pyramids, which are stacked in a spiral parallel to the c-axis of the crystal. The silver atoms are situated between the As-S3 pyramids, and link the over and underlying pyramids via S-Ag-S bonds. The figure above shows the packing, and the resulting crystal symmetry. The stack of the unit cells gives a hexagonal structure (in the ditrigonal pyramidal class). Proustite crystals are typically highly modified scalenohedrons – often they resemble “dog-tooth” calcite crystals.
The classical representation of the atomic interactions in the unit cell does not capture the complexity of proustite very well; it is important to take a quantum view, more fully appreciating that the silver atoms are fickle with their attachment to a given sulfur atom. Below is an individual proustite molecule presented using Einstein’s model for the harmonic displacement of atoms. The ellipsoids represent an envelope of space with a certain probability that the atom is inside; in the figure sulfur is shown in yellow, arsenic in green, and silver is the in silver (of course!). The silver atoms have the largest ellipsoids — in fact, larger than the entire As-S3 pyramid dimension — reflecting the fact that silver wanders within the structure.
In the classical description of the proustite structure a given silver atom interacts with two sulfur atoms (on the over and underlying As-S3 pyramid). However, if you consider the interactions of a given Ag atom with the neighboring six sulfur atoms, it is possible to define a very distorted AgS6 octahedral group.
In this representation two of the S atoms are much closer to the silver atom as compared to the other four (making the silver 2-coordinated). The other 4 sulfur atoms form a plane around the Ag, defining a “cage”. When the silver atom experiences thermal motion it bounces back and forth between the four sulfur atoms undergoing short periods of being bonded to each of them. This can lead to strong silver migration within the proustite structure — and this is the root cause of the deterioration of proustite on exposure to light!
The mobility of silver in sulfides and sulfosalts is described as a thermal effect, which usually leads one to the conclusion that physical heating is required. In fact, the thermal motion of the silver atoms can be excited by radiation, including visible light. When light shines on proustite the unit cell increases in volume; this volume is accommodated in the c lattice parameter, meaning that the distance between the As-S3 pyramids in adjacent layers increases, promoting a reaction that liberates the arsenic which reacts with the atmosphere to produce As2O3 – the white powder that is sometimes seen on proustite. The light also mobilizes the silver, which typically combines with the sulfur to form acanthite. The “darkening” of proustite on exposure to light is actually the surface growth of acanthite and silver.
The chemical changes associated with light degradation of proustite are irreversible. Once the silver migrates and reforms on the surface as a new sulfide, the host proustite is forever changed. The “darkening” of the proustite is in fact a surface coating, and it can be removed with silver cleaner, although this “cleaning” leaves a pitted and damaged surface.
The mobility of silver in proustite is hardly unique; in fact, all silver sulfides and sulfosalts are temperature sensitive. The classic example is the growth of silver wires out of acanthite. Recently, there have been a large number of “constructed” silver wire specimens from Morocco and China where acanthite crystals have been blow-touched to liberate bright curls of silver. The same thing happens to proustite when point heated, something that has been know since the 19th century when the figure above was published (criminal, blow-touching a proustite crystal!).
The color red – band gaps
The structure of proustite is also responsible for its marvelous color. It also requires a detour through quantum mechanics to understand how electrons behave with energized. Proustite is a semiconductor, and thus its color is controlled by the energy of electrons and the “band theory of metals”. The main tenet of band theory is that the outermost electrons of the atoms within the mineral belong to the crystal as a whole. For pure metals, such as silver and gold, each atom contributes the electrons in their outer orbits to a “pool”; these electrons are free to move throughout the crystal, and this results in high thermal and electrical conductivity, and metallic luster. For semiconductors – like proustite – there is a prevalence of covalent bonding, or electron sharing. This limits the mobility of electrons, and there are gaps in energy between the covalence band and a band that would be required for the true electronic sharing (the conduction band). The size of this energy gap controls the color of the semi-conductor.
For metals, the electron pool absorbs energy from incident light and the electrons are excited to higher energy levels; the electrons return to their native lower energy state and emit a photon of energy proportional to the difference between the excited and native levels. For gold, the electrons have a strong absorption of energy at 2.3 eV, which we observe as yellow. For silver, the absorption peak is at about 4 eV, which is closer to the ultraviolet – so all the visible spectra is returned and the metal acts like a mirror. Hence the shiny, nearly white color of the metal.
For semiconductors, it is only possible to absorb the energies of incident light at all energies above the band gap, but not below. If the gap is very small, the color appears black. If the gap is very large, no absorption occurs, and the mineral appears colorless. Diamond has an energy gap of 5.5 eV, well beyond the spectra of visible light. Proustite has an intermediate gap – about 2 eV — and therefore only red light is transmitted; all other colors have energies larger than Eg and thus, are absorbed. Pyrargyrite has slightly smaller gap (the difference between a covalent bond with antimony vs arsenic) and therefore is slightly darker.
The unique hue of proustite is a product of silver-sulfur bonds competing with the arsenic-sulfide pyramids. Since most silver sulfides and sulfosalts are similarly constructed, they all have a red color. We tend to think of minerals like miargyrite and polybasite as “black”, but in fact their streak is red.
The World’s Great Proustite Localities
Proustite is known from thousands of localities, but only a paltry half dozen have produce collector specimens of note. Proustite and pyrargyrite are generally late forming minerals in hypogene (high temperature and pressure fluids) environments, although occasionally there found in supergene (near surface, and typically controlled by meteoric waters) environments. Proustite is considerably rarer than pyrargyrite; both minerals are typically dispersed in smallish grains within vein systems. The abundance of proustite in world-wide silver localities portends that there should be exceptional crystals from many localities. However, macro-crystals are quite rare except at Chanarcillo, Chile and near Schneeberg, Germany.
Chanarcillo: The undisputed heavy weight champion of proustite localities is Chanarcillo, Chile. Between 1850 and 1875 an extraordinary number of terminated, undamaged proustites were recovered in veins of calcite. The largest of these crystals is reported to be more than 9 cm in length, and hundreds of specimens are known in museums and private collections across the globe that are long prismatic candles of red in excess of 5 cm length.
The Chanarcillo deposits are located south of Copiapo, about halfway between Antofagasta and Santiago, Chile, in the Atacama Desert. In May 1832 a freight hauler and prospector named Juan Godoy was hunting Ilamas when he tired and decided to rest under the shade of an outcrop. Godoy noticed a waxy vein and began to pry the vein material out with his knife – he later described it as “soft as cheese”. He loaded up two mules with the ore — chlorargyrite — and headed to the nearby town of Copiapo to have it assayed. Godoy entered into partnership with a friend, Juan Callejos Miguel Gallo, and founded the Descubridora mine. Rumors of the richness of the strike started a rush to Chanarcillo, and by 1850 there were 1,750 mires in the district. Unfortunately, the story of Godoy ends sadly, in the way of many prospectors; Miguel Gallo became immensely wealthy, but Godoy squandered his share of the Descubridora and died a beggar.
The Descubridora Mine produced the largest and best native silver specimens from Chanarcillo. Much of the silver occurred as thick wires encased in calcite, but the most characteristic habit is arborescent “flags” or herringbone plates of crystals. Two other mines produced specimens of note: the Mina Dolores Tercera and the Bolados. The Dolores is perhaps the most famous to mineral collectors, and during the 1850s the lower levels of the mine encountered a series of vugs filled with proustite, acanthite and chlorargyrite. The Bolados (named after four brothers who discovered it) contained huge masses of native silver — one of these weighed an estimated 1,360 kilograms, and had to be hand-chiseled from the mine because black powder blasts only dented and bent the lode. Another Bolados bonaza pocket contained chloragyrite and silver weighing 20,450 kilograms!
There were 18 major mines in Chanarcillo that produced more than $90 million (as measured in 1875 dollars) worth of silver in aggregate. Most mining was abandoned by the end of the nineteenth century due to the exhausting of the ore. There were periodic attempts to revive the camp in the camp in the 20th century, but this only resulted in all the dumps being hauled away for processing. Every trace of mineralization has been chipped away from the tunnels and open workings. I visited Chanarcillo in 2001, and was amazed how little remained. The value of the proustite is not lost on the locals; if you travel to Copiapo and inquire about buying proustite, someone will show up at your hotel room with red-colored rock and asking price of thousands of dollars. Sadly, no new proustite has been recovered in more than a century.
However, there are plenty of Chanarcillo proustites stored away in museums, and occasionally returned to the collector world. About 12 years ago a large proustite was traded out of the Harvard Museum; as traded it was an ugly clod. It was a mass of calcite with glimmers of proustite. The dealer made the trade with the hope that the removal of the calcite would reveal a masterpiece. In fact, it revealed many masterpieces! During the cleaning it also revealed some material that looked like red mica. Testing confirmed it was fettelite, a rare silver-mercury sulfosalt (Ag16HgAs4S15). Fettelite was only described in 1994, and all the known material was flakes less than .2 mm across. However, the “cleaned” Harvard piece yielded crystal books to .7 cm! I was fortunate to acquire the very best of these (before others decided that these should be really expensive since they were the world’s best!).
Schneeberg/Schlema: The Erzgebirge — translates as the ore mountains – is a fault block mountain range that forms the border between southeastern Germany and the Czech Republic. For mineral collectors, The Erzgebirge is a mineral locality of mythical proportions; Freiberg, Marienberg, Annaberg, Jachymov, Johanngeorgenstadt, Pöhla and Schneeberg. These mines operated for centuries, and gave birth to modern mining geology, engineering and mineralogy. These mines produced a larger volume of world class silver minerals than any where else on the globe – and so many of these specimens are preserved because of the rise of gentlemen naturalist that were ravenous collectors in the 18th century had access to these marvels.
Proustite is found throughout the Erzgebirge, but a series of mines in the Schlema valley produced the very best specimens. The town of Schneeberg sits at the western end of a small valley — about 5 km long — that drains into the Zwickau Mulde (river). Within this modest strip of land sits the Schlema-Hartenstein and Schneeberg mining districts. Silver was known to have been mined in the area from at least since the beginning of the 15th century, and the first major discovery occurred in 1470. Within 4 years there were 176 mines recorded to be producing silver. The most famous of the early mines was the St. Georg; in 1477 a large lode of native silver and various silver sulfides was discovered which is said to have contained 20,000 kg of silver. A large slice of this lode exists today in the Senckenberg Natural History Collections, in Dresden.
The mines in the Schneeberg-Schlema area exploit a network of hundreds of veins that vary in size; the most important are over 2 km in length and 3 meters wide. The character of the mineralization within in the veins is complex which is the result of the superposition of multiple hydrothermal events over a long period of time — from the Permian to the Cretaceous. The complex mineralogy is characterized by the metals C0-Ni-Bi-Ag-U. In fact, the variety of metals also explains the long mining history of the region. Within 25 years of the first major discovery most of the silver mining had ended, but the region was revitalized in 1520 when cobalt became an important commodity to produce blue glass. In the early part of the 19th century the focus of the mining shifted to nickel, and by 1830 the uranium became a main mining target.
After the conclusion of World War II the Soviets invested heavily in the region to mine uranium for their nascent nuclear weapons program. By the end of the 1950s East Germany was the fourth largest producer of uranium, and the Schneeberg-Schlema area is now recognized as the largest vein-style uranium deposit in the world. By the time the mines shut down in 1990 the total uranium production was more than 96,000 tonnes.
Although the Schneeberg-Schlema mines had a complicated history in terms of the target metal, a constant through time was the occasional encounter with rich pods of silver ore. Proustite specimens were documented as being recovered from the mines for over 500 years. Many of the best specimens were recovered in the 20th century, and preserved. Unfortunately, the names of the specific mines are often obscured — in fine Soviet tradition the mines operated post WWII were donated by numbers assigned to the adits or shafts. The most famous of these shafts was “207” located in Niederschlema. WISMUT, the uranium mining enterprise, made a gift of several dozen stunning proustites from shaft 207 to the Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg (the Frieberg Mining Academy). These proustites reside in a drawer – hidden from light, but when the proustite drawer is brought out the reaction from collectors is always one of disbelief!
To Show or Not to Show
Proustite is a marvelous and complex mineral – to quote Winston Churchill, it is “a riddle, wrapped in a mystery, inside an enigma”. The unique color of proustite demands attention, but each flash of attention under the display lights inevitably permanently changes the specimen. There is no simple solution to delaying the darkening of proustite — the short wavelength end of the spectra causes the reaction to occur more rapidly, but the lattice will swell with exposure to any part of the visible light spectra. Thus, it is not possible to just install UV glass on a mineral case and assume your fine proustites will glow red for a generation. On the other hand, a brief exposure to light for an occasional display has little consequence. Judicious displays — both in frequency and out of direct sunlight – can make poustites objects to behold for at least a hundred years.
A man on foot, on horseback or on a bicycle will see more, feel more, enjoy more in one mile than the motorized tourists can in a hundred miles – Edward Abbey, in Desert Solitaire
I moved to Tucson late in the summer of 1983 to become an Assistant Professor of Geosciences at the University of Arizona. I spent 20 years in the “Old Pueblo” and lived the academic life, became curator of an outstanding mineral museum, worked on the greatest mineral show in the world (the Tucson Gem and Mineral Show), met my future wife, raised my family and saw my son become a third generation Eagle Scout. The Sonora Desert is like a cactus in bloom – beautiful but also deadly. I hated the summers that seemed to stretch from May 1st to the end of October, but the months of November and February are so extraordinary that heaven is the only description that is sufficient.
A few years after I arrived in Tucson I began to ride a bike to recover from knee surgery, and discovered that long rides in the Sonoran Desert were therapeutic both for the body and soul. In the 1990s Tucson was a very bike friendly community, and you could choose rides of any flavor; climb 6500 feet up Mt Lemmon along the Catalina Highway, ride the frontage road near I-10 to the north and easily average 22-25 miles an hour, group rides, and daily commutes. My first “serious” bike was an aluminum framed Cannondale, and in 1990 I purchased a sweet steel lugged Serotta Colorado. I entered a number of the centuries, and in 1991 I signed up for one of the premier long rides, the El Tour de Tucson.
The El Tour de Tucson, which had its inaugural event in 1983, is one of the nation’s largest single day cycling events. The father of the Tour, Richard DeBernardis, wanted an epic event that captured the challenge of “riding the perimeter” of a landmark, and circling the Tucson Basin fit the bill perfectly. In 1991 the event attracted around 3000 cyclists – which seemed immense to me when I pushed my bike to the start line at the Sheraton El Conquistador on the north side of Tucson. It was a cool Saturday morning just before Thanksgiving, and riders were segregated in “corrals” based on ability – I was in the massive public corral. It took me a little less than 5 hours and 20 minutes to ride the 109 mile course that included some iconic peculiarities of the El Tour (there were two “water” crossing that require the cyclists to dismount and carry or push their bikes – mostly the crossings are about getting off the bike, but sometimes they are wet!). Cyclists that finished the course in times between 5 and 6 hours received a “gold medal”, and I only regretted that I totally bonked the last hour and imagined I barely missed out on a “platinum” medal (it is really unlikely I could have made up the 20 minutes, but that is the power of positive thinking!). I rode the El Tour again in 1994 when the temperatures at the starting time were much less than 40 degrees and froze, but still did the ride in less than 5 1/2 hours.
When I left Tucson in 2003 I always thought I would return to ride the El Tour often — I did not find the time until 10 years later when a couple of friends from Los Alamos and I entered the 31st version of the El Tour. We headed out from New Mexico on Friday, November 22, and by the time we got to Tucson it was raining. It is not unusual to get some precipitation in Tucson in November, but the storm forecast called for a significant chance of rain during the race.
It rained overnight before the race, and was lightly sprinkling at the start of the race. Cold and wet, I waited at the start line with high expectations — how bad could it be? Well, it rained nearly continuously for 4 hours. The map above shows the rainfall totals at stations across the Tucson Basin during the race – many recorded more than 1.5″ during the race. I never had a more miserable ride – between the rain fall, the spray from other riders, and road grim that comes with big storms, the ride was a major challenge! I did the first 75 miles on pace for a 5:50 finish, but cramped up and limped home in a time of 6 hr 21 minutes, and placed 521 out of 1626 riders (the race officials pulled a large number of riders off the course because the Sabino Creek crossing became too dangerous – and thus there was a much smaller finishing cadre than usual). After a few hours of recovery, my friends and I vowed to return and conquer the El Tour in 2014 and simply celebrate the most ridiculous and wet ride we just experienced.
The 2014 El Tour de Tucson
The line up for the El Tour begins before sunrise and the sky has a faint red glow associated with the sunlight diffracting from beyond the horizon. 3200 cyclist mill around the starting line in Armory Park near the center of old Tucson just before 7 am start time for the 104 mile race/ride (the distance of the course changes from year to year depending on road construction). It is always clear that the cyclist come in all varieties — there are expensive bikes, mountain bikes, tiny people, large bodies, and some just strange sights like the fellow in a hot pink body suit. The Armory Park area dates from the the civil war when Union troops from California established a military camp here, and today it is the heart of one of the oldest Tucson neighborhoods. It is cool — 38 degrees — as the starting count down begins. I know I am pretty far back in the corral, right behind a group of riders that are wearing jerseys advertising bicycle accident lawyers (Hurt in a Biking Accident? Call xxxx). I am not sure if this is some sort of message from father fate, but I am reminded that I really have to be careful over the next 30 minutes. The countdown from 10 signals the start — and I don’t move for 3 minutes as the mass of cyclist in front of me slowly start up; it takes another 1 1/2 minutes until I pass the official start line. The mass of cyclists is amazing. Finally, I am rolling along and hugging the far left side trying to pass as many of the cyclist as possible within the first 5 minutes.
Tucson sits in a broad valley (with an average elevation of about 2600 ft above sea level) surrounded by tall mountains in all directions. To the east and north are the Rincon and Santa Catalina Mountains, to the west are the Tucson Mountains, and to the South are the Santa Rita Mountains. Despite the high mountains, the El Tour de Tucson is a relatively flat course – rolling hills, but less than 3000 feet elevation gain/loss for 104 miles. Of course, this is because of geology! It is a little hard to examine geology from a bike, especially during a fast moving century, but I have the advantage of knowing about the geology and that makes the ride much more interesting.
The Tucson Basin separates the crystalline cored mountains in the east (the Rincon and Santa Catalina mountains) from the mostly andesitic volcanics in the Tucson Mountains. Before about 1975 it was assumed that the Catalina-Rincon mountains were simply an uplifted batholith (granitic roots that represented large, mid-crustal depth magma chambers), but there was a perplexing rock fabric that was exposed with the granite that hinted at much more complex geologic pedigree. Around 1980, Peter Coney (an extraordinary geologist from the University of Arizona) proposed that this fabric was the result of extensive “stretching” of the crust and denuding of the deep seated rocks along low angle detachment faults. The fabric in the rock is a metamorphic (recrystallization due to extreme stains due to the crustal extension) overprint on the granites. The Catalina-Rincon mountains became the “type” locality of what geologist coined as metamorphic core complexes (MCC). When I was a young faculty member at the University of Arizona there was an intense debate on how low-angle detachment faults could form – in fact, to this day, their origin is hotly – and emotionally – contested. What makes the MMC model so significant for the Tucson Basin is that it provides an mechanism to connect the Tucson Mountains to the Catalina-Rincons; the Tucson Mountains once set on top of the Catalina Mountain rocks!
The start of the El Tour sends the riders for a short jaunt to the south before ending east and crossing the Santa Cruz River. The Santa Cruz River is a misnomer today – it is a dry ribbon of sand that only comes alive when there a large rainstorms that run off the parched desert landscape. The Santa Cruz River drainage basin covers a large area in southern Arizona, and eventually empties into the Gila River just south of Phoenix. Two major tributaries of the Santa Cruz — again, dry sandy washes most of the time – are also crossed by the El Tour. These are the Rillito River which drains the southern Catalina Mountains, and the Canada Del Oro which drains the northern Catalina Mountains. Last year all three washes were flowing with brown, churning water; this year they are sandy hiways.
The first 5 miles of the El Tour is all about survival – avoiding accidents and falling water bottles, getting ahead of wandering cyclists, and making a couple of sharp turns with cyclists of mixed experience. There is lots of shouts of “hold your line” – mostly in vain, but survive I did! After about 15 minutes the rider field is beginning to spread out, and the course turns back east; almost immediately we have our first “river crossing” — a run through the sandy Santa Cruz channel. The riders have to dismount and wade/walk/trot about 150 yards. This crossing seems crazy, but it actually spreads out the rider field.
Once I climb out of the wash I quickly get back on my back on my bike knowing that the real ride begins now. The vistas to the east are spectacular (although, in truth, my glances towards the Rincons are very brief as I mostly worry about other cyclist’s wheels). The detachment faulting that beheaded the Catalina-Rincons occurred between 30 and 20 million years before the present. Around 10 million years ago Southern Arizona was subjected to another episode of crustal extension, characterized by fairly steeply dipping faults (in opposed to the shallow dipping detachment faults) and a whole series of down dropped grabens were developed to accommodate the extension. In the Tucson area a series of high angle faults down dropped the area west of the Catalina-Rincons producing a deep basin. Subsequent erosion of the mountains has filled the basin with sediment, and the relatively flat topography of the developed area of Tucson belies the 1000s of feet of sediments filling the basin. The fast flat track of the El Tour more or less follows a contour line circling the basin.
The first hour of the bike ride is mostly uneventful; I averaged 21 miles per hour and pass at least a 1000 riders. The course loops around Tucson International Airport, and eventually turns along the frontage road of I-10. Finally, we turn north off the I-10 frontage road on to Kolb Road and cross over the massive freeway. A few minutes after the peddling along Kolb the riders pass through a unique Tucson landmark — the Bone Yard. Kolb road slices across property associated with Davis-Monthan Air Force Base that is home to the Air Force Materiel Command’s 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group (AMARG) – an organization charged with “dealing” with excess military and government aircraft. In reality, “dealing” with excess aircraft means miles and miles of out of service planes parked in the dry Tucson desert. As I cycled along Kolb I can see planes to the left of, planes to the right (and I am stuck in the middle with a bunch of jokers on bikes). One of my favorite planes in the line up are a few hundred B-52s that have their wings chopped off – all in the name of the START I treaty that required the US and Russians to remove a large number of delivery systems for nuclear weapons.
At about mile 29 the already huge mass of riders merges with the riders that have chosen to ride the 75 mile tour. The merger is more than vaguely related to a stream being captured by a river; the 1200+ riders that are starting the 75 mile course flow in from the left, but are slower than the passing mass of the 104 mile cyclists, so they tend to form a strip of cyclists that keeps its “identity” for at least a half a mile. The organizers plan the start times of the shorter routes such that all but the elite riders can arrive at the finish line within about a 2 hour window. This means that
|
||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 99
|
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/l-370.html
|
en
|
res stock photography and images
|
[
"https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy-black.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy-black.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/mastercard.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/visa.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/amex.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/paypal.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/apple-pay.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/google-pay.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Alamy Limited"
] | null |
Find the perfect l 370 stock photo, image, vector, illustration or 360 image. Available for both RF and RM licensing.
|
en
|
Alamy
|
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/l-370.html
|
Alamy and its logo are trademarks of Alamy Ltd. and are registered in certain countries. Copyright © 17/08/2024 Alamy Ltd. All rights reserved.
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 23
|
https://wanderlog.com/drive/between/9717/10912/dresden-to-kelheim-drive
|
en
|
31 Best Stops Between Dresden and Kelheim
|
https://itin-dev.sfo2.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/freeImage/FwfjVjSXslSaFO4g6GY8dZIhjp68pF3z
|
https://itin-dev.sfo2.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/freeImage/FwfjVjSXslSaFO4g6GY8dZIhjp68pF3z
|
[
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/logoWithText.png",
"https://itin-dev.sfo2.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/freeImage/FwfjVjSXslSaFO4g6GY8dZIhjp68pF3z",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__background.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card0.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__dragHandle.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card1.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card2.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card3.jpg",
"https://itin-dev.sfo2.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/webPlacesListSite/65",
"https://itin-dev.sfo2.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/webPlacesListSite/22",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://itin-dev.sfo2.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/webPlacesListSite/22",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/HotelBookingView__image.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__background.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card0.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__dragHandle.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card1.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card2.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card3.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__background.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card0.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__dragHandle.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card1.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card2.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card3.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__background.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card0.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__dragHandle.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card1.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card2.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card3.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__background.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card0.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__dragHandle.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card1.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card2.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card3.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__background.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card0.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__dragHandle.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card1.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card2.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/LandingPageProductAnimation__card3.jpg",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://itin-dev.sfo2.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/webPlacesListSite/22",
"https://itin-dev.sfo2.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/webPlacesListSite/113",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://itin-dev.sfo2.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com/webPlacesListSite/113",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/google.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/sourceIcons/tripadvisorLogo.png",
"https://itin-dev.sfo2.digitaloceanspaces.com/emoji/fork-and-knife-with-plate.png",
"https://itin-dev.sfo2.digitaloceanspaces.com/emoji/round-pushpin.png",
"https://itin-dev.sfo2.digitaloceanspaces.com/emoji/chickenDrumStick.png",
"https://wanderlog.com/assets/logo.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
Read about the 31 best attractions and cities to stop in between Dresden and Kelheim, including places like Regensburg, St Peter Cathedral, and Old Stone Bridge
|
/assets/favicon.png
|
Wanderlog
|
https://wanderlog.com/drive/between/9717/10912/dresden-to-kelheim-drive
|
How long is the drive from Dresden to Kelheim?
The direct drive from Dresden to Kelheim is 227 mi (365 km), and should have a drive time of 3 hrs 5 mins in normal traffic.
If you’re going on a road trip from Dresden to Kelheim, we did the research for you and compiled some great stops along the way — with Regensburg, as well as top places to visit like Meissen Cathedral and Staatliche Porzellan-Manufaktur Meissen GmbH, or the ever-popular Albrechtsburg Castle.
|
|||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 21
|
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/40554.html.images
|
en
|
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Journal of a Horticultural Tour through Germany, Belgium, and part of France, in the Autumn of 1835, by James Forbes.
|
[
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/s_s.jpg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2012-08-21T00:00:00
|
en
|
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/40554/pg40554-images.html
|
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Journal of a Horticultural Tour through Germany, Belgium, and part of France, in the Autumn of 1835
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Journal of a Horticultural Tour through Germany, Belgium, and part of France, in the Autumn of 1835
Author: James Forbes
Release date: August 21, 2012 [eBook #40554]
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Maria Grist and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
produced from images generously made available by the
Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
http://gallica.bnf.fr)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOURNAL OF A HORTICULTURAL TOUR THROUGH GERMANY, BELGIUM, AND PART OF FRANCE, IN THE AUTUMN OF 1835 ***
JOURNAL
OF A
HORTICULTURAL TOUR
THROUGH
GERMANY, BELGIUM,
AND PART OF FRANCE,
IN THE AUTUMN OF 1835.
TO WHICH IS ADDED,
A CATALOGUE OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF CACTEÆ
IN THE GARDENS AT WOBURN ABBEY.
BY JAMES FORBES, A.L.S.,
CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY,
AUTHOR OF "HORTUS WOBURNENSIS," ETC.
LONDON:
JAMES RIDGWAY AND SONS, PICCADILLY.
1837.
CHELSEA:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLATCH, 23, EXETER STREET,
SLOANE STREET.
TO
M. OTTO,
DIRECTOR OF THE ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS, BERLIN,
THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED,
AS A SLIGHT
TESTIMONY OF GRATITUDE FOR HIS KINDNESS,
AND AS A
TRIBUTE TO HIS INDEFATIGABLE ZEAL
IN THE
PROMOTION OF BOTANICAL SCIENCE,
BY HIS OBLIGED AND FAITHFUL SERVANT,
JAMES FORBES.
PREFACE.
The continental gardens and botanical collections having been rarely visited by the British gardener, his Grace the Duke of Bedford, with his usual anxiety for the promotion of useful knowledge, very liberally and kindly proposed in the autumn of 1835 that I should undertake a Horticultural Tour, through several parts of Germany, Belgium, and France, with a view of inspecting the different collections and productions cultivated in some of the most celebrated horticultural establishments in these countries.
The notes which are now submitted to the public contain a cursory detail of the various gardens and objects that came under my observation during a tour occupying a space of eight weeks,—a period of time which the reader will readily understand required the utmost diligence on my part to fulfil the objects I had in view. Yet I was enabled to investigate such modes of culture as were adopted in the principal gardens, where the produce appeared in any way superior to our own; to become thoroughly acquainted with the different systems practised at various seasons of the year would have required an actual residence of many months.
In the mode of forcing fruits and management of the kitchen garden department, the English gardener will find but little abroad superior to what he is daily accustomed to see at home. It must however be observed that the zeal and anxiety displayed throughout Germany in the cultivation and increase of their collections of plants are in no way inferior to our own. In fact, in succulent plants they far surpass us; more particularly in their collections of Cacteæ, which appeared to be a favourite tribe in the principal establishments on the continent. They are certainly deserving of a more extensive cultivation in this country than they have hitherto obtained. Their various shapes, numerous spines, angles, and the splendid flowers of many of the species, form an interesting and pleasing addition to our botanical establishments; and of all plants requiring the protection of the greenhouse and artificial heat, the Cacteæ may be cultivated at the least expense, and exact less attendance than is generally requisite for hothouse plants. The Palmæ are also extensively cultivated throughout the continent, and notwithstanding many of them are planted in gloomy habitations they were in general very healthy, and evidently more suitable inhabitants for such structures than the deciduous or hard-wooded species. The hothouses erected for the cultivation of plants throughout the Prussian dominions consist of opaque roofs, furnished only with upright lights, which are ill adapted for the flowering or bringing to perfection many of the tender species.
In most parts of Germany the pleasure grounds are very deficient in evergreens, frost being so intense in that country that the Rhododendron ponticum, Arbutus, Laurustinus, Daphne, Portugal, and even common Laurel, require the protection of the greenhouse during the winter season. If these grounds, however, are deficient in evergreens, they are richly decorated, in most instances, with ornamental vases, statues, and numerous groups of fine sculpture, which contribute greatly to the embellishment of a pleasure-ground. As far as architecture and sculpture are concerned, the continental royal gardens far surpass those in England; but there did not appear to me in the quarters I visited to be a spirit for garden-improvement equal to that which is so generally prevalent in this country.
It now only remains for me to take this opportunity of returning my thanks to those whose kindness afforded me considerable facilities in viewing the different gardens described in this tour; they are, however, more especially due to those horticulturists of Germany by whose liberality I have been enabled to add above six hundred new and curious plants to the splendid collection at Woburn Abbey, entrusted to my care; and I must add, that I found a cheerful inclination, in most instances, to enter into a correspondence for the mutual exchange of plants and seeds. The few remarks on different objects, not immediately connected with Horticulture, which I have ventured to introduce, will it is hoped be received with that indulgence which my imperfect acquaintance with such matters may require.
J. F.
JOURNAL
OF A
HORTICULTURAL TOUR,
IN 1835.
August 19th. Left the Custom House at six o'clock, a. m., by the William Joliffe steam-packet, for Hamburgh; but having a strong easterly wind a-head, we did not pass the sunk light until a little past four o'clock in the afternoon.
20th. Sailing at the rate of six miles per hour; still a strong easterly wind a-head, but a beautiful day, and the sky clear from clouds; about twelve o'clock we were about twenty-five miles off the Texel, with a fresh breeze still right a-head.
21st. A beautiful day, but the wind still continuing against us, we sailed only at the rate of seven miles per hour. About nine o'clock in the morning the small isle of Heligoland made its appearance, much to the gratification of the passengers, this island being only a hundred miles from Hamburgh. It is said to contain from three to four thousand inhabitants, who are chiefly occupied in fishing; haddocks and lobsters are very abundant in its immediate neighbourhood, which are taken in great numbers to the Hamburgh as well as the London markets. The island is said to be nearly a mile in length, and about half a mile in breadth, and now belongs to the British government. At twenty minutes past twelve o'clock we entered the Elbe, where two light ships are stationed, in consequence of the sandbanks, which are rather dangerous in that part of the passage.
The island of Newark-Farm is distant only from three to four miles from the mouth of the Elbe; the houses and cattle were now pleasing objects in view. About three o'clock in the afternoon we arrived at Cuxhaven, which is a small sea-port town, and is in the territory belonging to the town of Hamburgh. It is a very fashionable bathing spot: and a large concourse of ladies and gentlemen assembled at the haven when the steam packet neared the shore. About four o'clock we experienced some heavy drops of rain, with very loud claps of thunder, and towards evening numerous broad flashes of lightning, very vivid, which appeared to skirt along near the ground. On passing along the Elbe, we found it much crowded with numerous sailing vessels, making the best of their way to and from Hamburgh. These, with a variety of handsome church-spires peeping out amongst various clumps of trees on both sides of the river, gave the scenery a pleasing and picturesque appearance. We have also here at the same time in view a part of the king of Denmark's dominions, as well as a portion of the Hanoverian territories.
August 22nd. Arrived in the harbour at Hamburgh at half-past twelve o'clock in the morning; but by the time we got out our luggage, and boats to take us ashore, it was getting close on to eight o'clock. Shortly after my arrival I proceeded to Flottbeck, to see the nursery gardens of Mr. Booth, which are situated close by the banks of the Elbe, about four English miles from Hamburgh. In this nursery I was much gratified by the extensive collection of plants; there are about one hundred acres of ground under nursery stock, consisting principally of ornamental trees and shrubs, including a great variety of new species, that I had not previously seen in any of our British nurseries. Mr. Booth is a most enthusiastic practical botanist, and spares no expence for the introduction of new and rare plants to his collection. He has arranged along the edges of a walk which is nearly a mile in length a collection of hardy trees and shrubs, which are so planted that the different species of each genus are brought at once under view for comparison. The whole are arranged according to the Natural System of Jussieu. The herbaceous ground contains above four thousand species of hardy perennial plants: there are also above twelve hundred different varieties of roses. The hothouses allotted for the growth of exotics and Cape plants are about five hundred feet in length, with a range of pits nearly four hundred feet long for the low and half-hardy species. The collection of Cacteæ here amounts to nearly four hundred different species; amongst them are many curious and interesting sorts. There are also some fine specimens of palms, and numerous fine exotics; the collection of Cape and New Holland plants is likewise very extensive. The passion for Orchideæ has also extended to this part of Germany; Mr. Booth has a great variety of this tribe of plants, and is building a house solely for their cultivation: he is likewise constructing pits, for the growth of the pine-apple. He has a very fine collection of the Genus Pinus, and shewed me several new species that he had raised from seeds, which were considered to be new and undescribed sorts. I saw a species much resembling our Pinus palustris, with fine long foliage. Mr. Booth calls it the palustris excelsa, and informs me that it grows to a great height, and is perfectly hardy, having stood this winter ten degrees of frost, Reaumur, which is equal to twenty three Fahrenheit, without sustaining the least injury, although quite exposed.
I could not but admire the neatness in which the plants and grounds in this extensive establishment were kept, and notwithstanding the extreme dryness of the weather, (not having had any rain for nine weeks in that part of the country,) the plants were looking all in a healthy and flourishing state; but the watering of such a collection for so many weeks must have been attended with an enormous expence.
August 23rd. Being accompanied by Mr. Booth, we proceeded along the banks of the Elbe to the villa of M. de la Camp, which is situated close by the road, commanding a most beautiful view of the Elbe and its shipping, as well as Finkenwarder, an island on the opposite side of the Elbe, the one half of which belongs to Hanover, and the other half to Hamburgh. This island produces a very hardy species of oak, which was found there some years ago, and is called the Quercus Falkenbergense. M. de la Camp has formed a very complete vineyard on the banks of the Elbe, which was in a very prolific state, as were also the vines that formed an arbour to the front of this gentleman's house.
From this we next proceeded some miles further along the Elbe banks, to the seat of Mr. Baur at Blankanese. This gentleman is a wealthy merchant, and has expended an immense sum of money in the formation of his grounds, according to the English system of gardening. He has formed numerous walks and artificial banks, that command extensive views of the Elbe. These walks and banks, were staked out by Mr. Baur personally, who, I have no hesitation in saying, has displayed a very superior taste; they are remarkably well executed: in short, the banks and valleys appeared as if they had been formed by nature, but they are principally the work of art. I however regretted not to find a corresponding taste for good plants, to keep pace with the other extensive ground improvements that this gentleman has completed and is proceeding with.
Close by the Elbe are situated several small forcing houses for fruits, a greenhouse, orangery, and some low pits for the cultivation of the pine-apple, which has been grown here for several years; but they do not seem yet to have made much progress in the cultivation of this fruit. In front of these houses there is a terrace-wall, that separates the garden-ground from the Elbe, which washes up against it. The stones with which this wall was built were brought a distance of from four to five hundred miles (from Saxony) for this purpose; and it is executed in a very superior manner. On the highest part of the grounds there has been lately erected a handsome Chinese pagoda, which commands a beautiful prospect of the Elbe and its shipping, as well as the opposite island and Hanoverian dominions. A round tower also been lately built, which forms a pretty object in these grounds; several other objects of interest are also to be seen dispersed in various parts, which are considered superior to any other gardens in the neighbourhood of Hamburgh, and are consequently much frequented every Sunday by visitors, as on that day it is open to the public. We were obliged to take our departure from them much sooner than I could have wished, owing to a very heavy shower of rain which continued for a considerable time; and it being the only rain of any consequence that had fallen in the course of nine weeks, it was very agreeable to that part of the country. Mr. Baur has recently built in these grounds a very handsome house, according to the English style of building, but it is not yet inhabited. It was impossible not to admire the very superior and substantial manner in which the works are all executed in this gentleman's establishment.
On my return from this place to Flottbeck, I then proceeded back to Hamburgh: when on my way I was much surprised to observe bricklayers in some places busy at work, although Sunday. Towards the evening, the rain had quite abated; I then made the best of my way for the Botanic Gardens, which are situated in the suburbs of the town, on a part of the ground which, during the reign of Buonaparte, formed a strong fortification, but these have recently been demolished: they are now laid out as a public promenade for the inhabitants of the town, and likewise a Botanical establishment for the cultivation of plants, and from its beautiful situation, it is certainly one of the best chosen sites for this purpose that has come under my observation. It appeared to be of considerable extent, and irregular form, sloping in part of it, down to the old rampart ditch, which now forms a handsome piece of water, bounding the garden, and separating it from the promenade on the opposite side, which being laid out as a pleasure ground, with clumps of trees and shrubs on the grass, when viewed from the Botanic Garden, gives a stranger the idea that it is a part of the Botanical establishment, giving the latter a much more extensive appearance than it actually possesses. The extent of hothouses for the growth of exotic and Cape plants, is rather limited, and did not seem to be more than about two hundred and fifty feet in length. I here observed some very fine specimens of Cacteæ, and likewise several rare species of Palms, such as the Zamia, Frideriis, Guilielmi, Ætensteinii, Lehmanii, Caffra, and Horrida. I also was much delighted by seeing in flower, a very pretty plant, called the Olendorfia procumbens, which I believe has not yet made its appearance in England. A great portion of the ground in this establishment is occupied by trees and shrubs, which are cultivated for sale, for the support of the garden, consequently much ground is taken up by these, which ought to be assigned to single specimens. In the herbaceous ground, there is also an extensive collection of hardy perennial plants.
August 24th. Went at five o'clock in the morning, to see the fruit and vegetable market, which seemed to be well supplied with fruit and culinary vegetables. I observed large quantities of the new Orleans plum, summer Bergamot pear, and the black cherries, which appeared to be larger than the same sort (Hertford blacks,) grown in this country. The Haricot bean, is also in great repute in Germany, and certainly deserves to be more extensively cultivated in this country, than it hitherto has been, as it forms an excellent substitute for the French bean or the scarlet runner, which is cultivated here in preference.
After seeing the fruit and vegetable market, I next proceeded to view the promenade which surrounds the greater part of the town, and adds greatly to the comfort of the inhabitants, as well as to the beauty and scenery of the immediate vicinity of Hamburgh. This promenade is laid out very tastefully with numerous clumps of trees and shrubs, various capacious walks leading to different points of view, and objects around the town, sloping towards the old rampart ditch, which is now formed into a handsome irregular piece of water, which enlivens the scenery, and gives the promenade an appearance equal to any pleasure ground in this country. The side facing the town of Altona, is really beautiful; the space of ground leading from the Hamburgh gate, at the Altona side of the town, is very picturesque, especially as we approach towards the Harbour or Docks, whither we are guided by a broad walk, leading to a high projection, or point of view, where we have a delightful prospect of the shipping on the Elbe, with its surrounding scenery for several miles in extent. The formation of this promenade was commenced about sixteen years ago, is now annually progressing, and advancing towards completion, under the superintendance of Mr. Altuman, who has displayed great taste, in his arrangement of the walks, clumps of trees, and shrubs, as well as the formation of the water. The Alster Lake, is situated at the north side of the town, extending about twelve miles in that direction, and adds considerably to the beauty of the scenery in that neighbourhood. It also contributes greatly to the convenience of the town, as numerous boats, with various commodities, are brought to Hamburgh on its surface. The promenades leading to the town of Altona, are also deserving of notice; long avenues intersecting each other are here formed, by double rows of the Lime, Elm, and Poplar trees, with large spaces of grass lawn, intervening betwixt them. After making a tour round the promenade, I next proceeded to view the principal parts of the town, and its churches, which are very splendidly fitted up. The streets of Hamburgh are narrow and paved with round stones, which are not very agreeable to those unaccustomed to walk upon them; the most fashionable part of the town is the side next the Alster Lake, which is much frequented in the evenings.
After getting my passport examined and signed, and securing a place in the diligence for Berlin, I next accompanied Mr. Booth the seedsman, (brother to the nursery man,) in a drive round the outskirts of the town, where there are some pretty villas, and also various tea gardens, which, although a week day, appeared to be well attended. I was rather surprised to find at 5 o'clock in the afternoon, a large concourse of ladies and gentlemen assembled in front of a small theatrical performance, which it appeared was the daily practice in that part of the country, the ladies being occupied sewing and knitting, and others drinking coffee. The town of Hamburgh is said to contain above a hundred thousand inhabitants, and they certainly appeared to me to be in a very flourishing state. In short the general appearance and respectability of the inhabitants, that prevailed throughout the town and its vicinity was very striking. At eight o'clock in the evening, I took my departure from Hamburgh, by the Schnell-post, (diligence) for Berlin, which was accomplished in one day and two nights travelling; here I had a good specimen of diligence expedition, especially for the first eight hours, being placed in one of the bye chaises, which is only calculated to hold four passengers, and is of much less dimensions than the main diligence, and much lighter; I fully expected every moment to be upset, as a great part of this road between Hamburgh and Boisenburgh, is full of large deep ruts that kept us completely on the rock for many miles, but after we passed the latter town, we then had an excellent road, yet the speed of our crawling conveyance was but very little increased. The roads throughout all the Prussian territories that I have travelled on, appeared to be in excellent repair.
August 25th. Arrived at a small town called Ludwigslust, about one o'clock, where we dined, and stopped nearly an hour, which enabled me to make a hasty visit to the grounds, attached to the beautiful palace of the grand Duke of Mecklenburgh, who generally resides here. In front of the palace are pretty jets of water, but the most imposing sight, is a fine avenue of limes, that leads from a large piece of lawn adjoining the palace; the avenue appeared to be nearly a mile in length, and had several walks branching from the right and left, through a shrubbery, or rather plantation, where there were also several small pieces of water. Close to the palace is an old orangery, with some good trees standing in front of it. At a short distance, and nearly opposite to the palace, is a handsome building, called the "Augusta Villa," with an extensive piece of pleasure ground, laid out after the English mode of gardening, with numerous clumps of trees, and shrubs dispersed on the lawn; the walks and grounds appeared to be in very good order, but I was unable to examine the extent of the collection of plants that it contained. In the vicinity of Ludwigslust, there were several orchards, and large pieces of ground under vegetable culture. The country from this town as far as Warnow, was rather more varied than that we previously passed, but the soil appeared light and sandy, and Scotch firs, the only trees observed in the plantations in view. At Warnow our luggage was examined by the police, and our passports demanded, and detained until we arrived in the town of Perlebergh, when they were again examined, and then returned to us.
August 26th. Arrived at half past three, A. M. at Nauen, a small town about twenty five English miles from Berlin; this place appeared conspicuous, from the number of small flour mills, situated in the river Havel, which passes close to the town. About 6 o'clock in the morning, we had reached to a small town, called Spandau, which is said to contain about 5000 inhabitants, and appeared to be strongly fortified: it is only ten miles distant from Berlin, where we happily arrived at about 8 o'clock in the morning. As we approached the city, the country looked more cheerful, and in a better state of cultivation, the soil also was of a more fertile quality, and trees and plantations more numerous. I was very much pleased by observing growing by the road side, several species of Alpine plants which are not easily to be met with in this country, in an indigenous state. The Gentiana Pneumonanthe, appeared in great abundance, and with its brilliant blue flowers was to me pleasingly conspicuous; but the diligence, although slow, was yet too fast to allow me time to procure a few specimens. On passing the magnificent palace of Charlottenburg, I was much struck with its extensive appearance, and fine park, leading from it all the way to Berlin, through the Brandenburg gate, and along the Linden or lime tree walk, to the splendid university, armoury, museum, and other large buildings, and handsome bridges, with the statues placed on them, its magnificent palaces, which all appear in view from the diligence, by this the Hamburgh line of road, and to the eye of a stranger has a grand effect, giving him the idea of a great and noble city, by seeing so many magnificent buildings immediately as he enters the town. Within a few stages of Berlin I met with Mr. Parker, Bookseller, from Oxford, travelling in the main Diligence, where I joined him; on our arrival in the city, we took up our abode, in the St. Petersburgh hotel, after breakfast we separated, he in search of books, while I went to visit the Royal Botanic Gardens at Schoenburgh, which are situated about three English miles from Berlin, where I was much gratified by the many fine specimens of plants that I saw. Having letters of introduction to M. Otto, from Sir W. Hooker and Dr. Lindley, as well as from his old friend Mr. Hunneman, I experienced the greatest attention from him, he took great pains in pointing out to me the various new and curious plants in this extensive collection. There were some very fine species of Palms, in great beauty, nearly reaching to the top of the hothouse, which is about thirty feet in height. The Latania borbonica, was particularly fine, and had attained nearly twenty five feet in height, its foliage or fronds extending from ten to twelve feet on each side from its stem. The Gomutus saccharifer, had also reached to the height of twenty five feet, and numerous other choice specimens of the Palmæ, were in an equally healthy and luxuriant state, and of little less dimensions than those specified. The Aristolochia brasiliensis was particularly fine, covered with long beautiful speckled flowers, that extended over a large part of the rafters. Many new and fine specimens of the Gesneras were also in flower; they appeared different from any that I had previously seen in this country. Some of the Melaleucas; in the conservatory had grown to the height of nearly forty feet; the Magnolia grandiflora, which requires the protection of the conservatory during the winter months was now covered with fine large flowers. Numerous other species of New Holland plants, had grown to an amazing height in the conservatory.
The hothouses in this garden are placed in several separate ranges, and are very substantially built in comparison to our erections in England. The quantity of timber employed in the rafters is immense, but giving them a very heavy appearance; yet I have rarely met with a more healthy collection of plants anywhere; they may be considered the most extensive on the continent of Europe. In short, I never before saw so many plants cultivated in pots. The numerous species of New Holland and Cape genera were quite astonishing, as well as the hardy and Alpine species. As to the Cacteæ, there can be no hesitation in saying that the collection in these gardens of this curious tribe of plants really comprises the most beautifully grown specimens that I have ever seen; the different species that have grown to a considerable size have a very interesting appearance, particularly the Mammillaria and Echinocactus tribes; with their numerous spines and angles, they form a pleasing object either in or out of flower. M. Otto has long been celebrated for his ardent love to this curious tribe of plants, and he certainly has succeeded in forming a valuable collection. The species of Ferns in these gardens are likewise very numerous, and there are many very fine specimens amongst them, which have grown to a great size. I could not but admire the very tasteful manner in which the Cape and New Holland plants were arranged out of doors in the summer months, and which were neatly plunged to the rims of the pots, to prevent them from being blown about by the wind. The Bignonia radicans formed a very prominent object against the end wall of one of the hothouses; the luxuriance and brilliancy of its flowers far surpassed any that I had previously seen. A fine specimen of the Laurus indica, which must have been fully twenty feet in height, was standing out of doors, and obliged to be cut down, as it was getting too high for the house in which it stood in the winter season. The Robinia Pseudacacia, inermis and tortuosa were both splendid trees, which ornamented the grass lawn. The Magnolia acuminata, also a beautiful specimen, as well as the Quercus palustris, and rubra; both had attained a great size, and were handsome trees, as well as several other species of this genus. Mr. Otto having kindly requested Mr. W. Brackenridge, who had been for some time from Scotland, residing in the neighbourhood of Berlin, and was then employed in the Botanic gardens, to accompany me the following day to such places as he considered most deserving of notice, I arranged with him to be ready betwixt six and seven o'clock in the morning, to proceed to the different gardens.
August 27th. We started at seven o'clock in the morning, to the royal gardens at Charlottenburg palace, which are situated about four English miles from Berlin. The grounds attached to this royal palace, are said to contain four hundred English acres, laid out with various walks, clumps of trees and shrubs, as well as several pieces of water, embracing some very fine views from different points notwithstanding its being a flat surface, but it is much diversified by trees, bridges, and sheets of water that intersect the lawn. There are several bridges leading across the stream to the most ornamental and picturesque parts. The palace is also seen to great advantage from several points in the grounds. A very fine specimen of the Quercus palustris was in great beauty on the grass. I also saw some very large trees of the Populus alba, which were considerably larger than any tree of this species that I had previously seen. M. Fintelman, the superintendant of the royal gardens, pointed out to us a very complete Fructiferum, that he had lately formed in these grounds, comprising a collection of all the hardy fruits. Nearly adjoining to the palace, is a very handsome little flower garden, lately executed for the growth of the dwarf flowering perennials and annuals. I was much pleased by an arbour formed with the different species of Cape and New Holland plants, that are rather flexible in their growth; the pots in which the plants grew, were all plunged round the back, the branches tied closely to it and thickly covered, producing a great variety of foliage, and pleasing effect, and having the appearance of growing there permanently throughout the season. Opposite to this Botany Bay, or Cape Arbour, is a pretty summer house, which is chiefly composed of reeds. In the centre of the flower garden, there are various posts with iron rods extended from them for the training of creepers. Again, at the extremity, is an artificial grass bank, considerably elevated above the flower beds, planted with the dwarf china rose, which has a very good and natural effect. The orange-house is an oblong building, of great length, with opaque roof and backwall, upright lights only in the front, completely covered with grape vines, having a very fine crop of fruit all over them. The orange trees were all in excellent health, some of them bearing separately nearly two hundred fruit; there are about three hundred of these trees cultivated here. I also saw a fine variety of Dahlias, and various other beautiful flowering plants in great perfection; these Dahlias are fully as good as any I had seen in England; great attention is paid to these flowers by M. Fintelman, who took great delight in pointing out the various objects most worthy of notice in these grounds. Having devoted several hours to the inspection of this extensive establishment, we then took our leave of M. F. and proceeded back to Berlin, when I had another opportunity of observing more fully the various improvements, that are now going forward in the Thier-garten, or park, which extends from the royal palace of Charlottenburg, to the Brandenburg gate. This park is considered one of the finest in Europe, and is now undergoing extensive alterations, the grounds forming in several places so as to harmonize with the English style of landscape gardening; numerous walk and rides leading in various directions, with groups of sculpture, make this an interesting promenade for the public, by whom it is much thronged, particularly in the evenings. It is approached from Berlin by the Brandenburg gate, which cannot fail to attract the stranger's notice. It has a most magnificent appearance; on the top of this gate stand the celebrated bronze horses, removed by Buonaparte to Paris, but were again replaced by the Prussians in their original site. In front of the Royal Museum, is a very handsome marble vase, which measures about sixty four feet in circumference, and four feet in depth; a handsome fountain is also playing, throwing the water to a great height. The ground floor of the museum is occupied as a sculpture gallery, which contains numerous statues, and busts; but it appeared to me to be deficient of the finer groups. I was however much pleased with the beautiful imitation marble columns of various colours, which have a polish equal to the original. The picture gallery is above that devoted to the sculpture, and I could not but admire the beautiful state of preservation of the paintings, and their very admirable arrangement. From hence we proceeded to the nursery grounds of M. Bouschie, which are not of much extent, nor yet is there much for the Horticulturist to admire, except some very fine specimens of the Cacteæ (Opuntia) tribe; some of the species are from eight to ten feet in height. After visiting this nursery, we then proceeded to the forcing gardens of M. Bouschie, who grows a large quantity of pine apples and peaches for the Berlin market; the pine apples were very small, and much inferior to our English grown fruit; the crop of peaches was very abundant, but not of a large size, the trees old, and the hothouses of a very inferior description. We next proceeded to the nursery garden of M. Touissaint, which appeared to contain a much better collection of the Cape and New Holland plants, than any of the other nurseries I had previously seen in Berlin. Here was a good collection of the more hardy species of Rhododendrons; the forcing of flowers is likewise extensively practised in this establishment, and the grounds in very good order. I next visited the nursery ground of M. Mathieu, where there were some good specimens, but none that I had not previously met with.
August 28th. Went at six o'clock in the morning to see the fruit and vegetable market, but was rather disappointed in observing so very inferior a supply in comparison with what is to be seen in Covent Garden Market. In fact for some time I thought that I had gone to the wrong place, as the market is held every alternate day in two different parts of the town; but on enquiry I found it was seldom better supplied. Large quantities of grapes grown out of doors, or on trellis, were in the market; also a pretty good supply of peaches, but these were of a small size. I only observed one solitary pine apple, about one pound weight. The mode of preserving the fish, which were also brought to the market where the fruit and vegetables were exposed for sale, was new to me. They are kept alive in water in oval shaped wooden tubs or vessels, and each sort is kept separate. Large quantities of game, poultry, butcher's meat, as well as cart-loads of hay and straw, are found abundantly in the market.
After making a tour through the principal parts of the town, and getting my passport signed by the police and English ambassador, I made a second visit to Mr. Otto, and also then called on Dr. Kloytch, to whom I had a letter of introduction from Sir W. Hooker. Dr. Kloytch has the charge of the Royal Herbarium, which is situated opposite and nearly adjoining the Botanic Gardens, containing several apartments for dried specimens of all the plants that flower in the Royal Botanic Gardens, which are gathered and preserved as they appear in flower. Attached to the Royal Herbarium house is a piece of pleasure ground, one side of which is enclosed by a good brick wall that has projecting piers, betwixt which grape vines are trained, and confined to the spaces of about twelve feet between the projecting piers; each sort is thus prevented from intermixing with another; a wooden pailing enclosing another part of this garden is likewise adapted to the same purpose. Dr. Kloytch was once a pupil of Sir W. Hooker's at Glasgow, and is considered an eminent botanist, he has certainly formed a very natural arrangement of the different species in the genus Ericæ, arranged according to the form and structure of the flower. He shewed me several native specimens of this genus that I have not yet seen in England, but seeds of which I hope to receive from him before long. I was much gratified by the excellent method he described to me, in preserving the specimens of Fungi, which appears to be the most effectual mode of drying these plants that I have yet seen. After looking over various specimens in the Herbarium, Dr. Kloytch accompanied me to the Botanic Gardens, where I again saw Mr. Otto, and was enabled to see more minutely the extent of this noble collection of plants. It is proper to observe that the space of ground allotted for this garden, is not sufficiently large for such an extensive collection of plants. Many of the oaks and several other fine trees are too much crowded, and not seen to advantage. After examining all that I wished to see here, Mr. Otto, Dr. Kloytch, and Mr. Brackenridge, accompanied me into Berlin, where we passed through another fine part of the "Thiergarten," and being joined by Mr. Cuming, the celebrated Zoologist, we spent a very pleasing evening in the discussion of botanical pursuits, and the cultivation and beauty of the Cacteæ in the Berlin Gardens.
August 29th. Left Berlin at seven o'clock in the morning for Potsdam, where I arrived at eleven o'clock in the forenoon, a distance of eighteen English miles. Every stranger must be forcibly struck with the scenery as he approaches Potsdam, particularly in passing Prince Charles's villa and grounds, with the view of the handsome bridge lately erected across the river Havel, at this side of the town expanding itself to a very capacious sheet of water. On my arrival at Potsdam I proceeded to the Royal Gardens at Sans-souci, which are situated about one English mile distant. Having a letter of introduction from M. Otto to M. Linne, the principal director, I was disappointed in not finding him at home. Free access was afforded to the various departments, and I then made the best use of my time in examining the different gardens attached to this residence, which required considerable diligence to get through a portion of the departments. I first inspected the kitchen garden, which is very extensive, and contains several ranges of low houses, and pits, for the forcing of cherries, plums, and apricots, with a good collection of standard fruit trees, as well as the walls being well stocked. The length and breadth of the principal range of houses in this garden, is 255 feet long, and about 9 feet in width; the upright sashes are eight feet high, placed in a slanting position; the roof-lights were about six feet long, but these lights were at this time all removed from the house, the trees being planted as standards in the interior border; the sashes are removed as soon as the fruit is gathered, in order to expose the trees to the full effect of the atmosphere. In another garden at a short distance from this vegetable one, there are numerous other ranges of hothouses for the forcing of fruits, which are in great request for the royal table. The structures here used for this purpose are about six feet high in front, and about ten feet in width; the length of the roof sashes were from nine to ten feet. In these houses the flues are placed at the back, running parallel to the backwall. Some of the houses are heated by hot-water pipes, rather of a novel construction, and I much fear not calculated to give any great command of heat; they consist of two round copper pipes, about two inches only in diameter, which run parallel along the front of the house about two feet apart from each other. The peach trees are planted inside the house, within one foot of the front wall, and are trained perpendicular to the trellis, to the height of six feet, being as high as the upright glass. A rider is then carried in general, close under the roof lights, trained to a lath trellis which is nailed to the underside of the rafter.
As soon as the frosty nights are over, the houses are generally stripped of the sashes, and the trees and fruit left fully exposed to the sun and weather, while the fruit is maturing; but such fruits as are wanted at an early period, are of course not thus exposed. I here observed various trees of plum, cherry, and apricot, thus treated, a more congenial mode of treatment, than by having recourse to pots or tubs, as is in general practised in this country, especially where there can be houses spared for this purpose, as the trees will get established in the ground, and be enabled to produce a more abundant crop and larger fruit than if their roots were confined to a small space for nourishment. I also saw here a great quantity of very fine melons, all trained over moss, and at this season these also were exposed to the weather. The appearance of the fine terraces in front of Sans-souci Palace, gave me more gratification than anything of the kind that I had previously seen. This palace, originally erected by Frederic the Great, is now a favourite summer residence of the Crown Prince. It is situated so as to command a most beautiful view of the surrounding country, with six tier of terraces in front of it, each terrace falling about twelve feet under another towards the south from the palace. Along the top are flower borders and broad gravel walks, with a row of very fine orange trees placed along the edge of the gravel walk on each of the terraces, which give them a magnificent appearance. Against these walls are trained principally grape vines, provided with a frame in front for covering them with glass; peaches and apricots are likewise here grown.
In the centre of each terrace is a noble flight of steps thirty-six feet wide at the bottom, but at the top the width is only fifteen feet; containing in each from twenty-five to twenty-seven steps. The view of these from the avenue or road by M. Lennie's house, is really grand: the different flights of steps from this point of view appear to form one connected tier leading to the palace, which, with its magnificent orange trees and groups of sculpture, strike the eye of every stranger with admiration. I here congratulated myself on being alone, and left to examine and take the dimensions of the various objects, without being hurried. At a short distance from the lower terrace is an oval basin of water, surrounded by a grass lawn and a gravel walk, or rather carriage drive; and on the exterior side of the circular sweep of the gravel, are placed twelve large statues. This basin was originally intended for a fountain; the reservoir for supplying it was formed by Frederic the Great on an eminence on the north side of Sans-Souci palace, where it must be several hundred feet above the level of the basin of water where the fountain was intended to be placed. The effect from the palace windows and from several other points of view, if it had been completed, would have been very magnificent when the water was playing. At a short distance from the palace is another large building, which was occupied by a part of the establishment; in front is a large piece of pleasure ground, in which are placed also a number of very fine orange trees; one of them, pointed out to me, is named after Frederic the Great, his majesty being a great admirer of these trees, insomuch, that during the war he took possession of all the best that came in his way, and sent them to his royal gardens at Potsdam. The head of this tree, named Frederic the Great, was equal to one of our ordinary sized Portugal laurels, its branches extend over seventeen yards of ground in diameter. I should imagine there must be fully 400 trees grown in this establishment, all of large dimensions. The soil in which they are grown consists of a black sandy loam, well incorporated with cow-dung and rotten leaf mould, with a mixture of bone dust, in some cases horn shavings. The houses for the protection of the orange trees in the winter season, are simply a long range or ranges of red tiled roofed buildings, with merely upright lights in the front or south side, which are provided with wooden shutters that are closed during frosty weather. The flues run along in the floor of the house, and are not calculated to give out much heat, but the roof and back wall being opaque, and the front furnished with shutters, little heat is required for preserving the trees from the frost. They are generally turned out of doors in the month of May, and not taken in again until October. Arranged along with the orange trees I observed a very fine specimen of the Nerium Oleander, covered with blossom, also several fine plants of the pomegranate, covered with flowers. The figs were also in prolific state against a wall and growing in light sandy loam. At the opposite end of the palace is situated the picture gallery, which opens into another garden department, with hornbeam hedges, and numerous box edging scrolls; but this piece of ground is evidently not much attended to: the walks, flowers, borders, are not in good order. The collection of paintings, however, in the gallery will infinitely repay the visitor for the disappointment he may experience in the badly kept garden. This gallery is two hundred and fifty-two feet long, and thirty-six feet wide; the dome and cove ceiling are richly gilt, the floor and walls inlaid with marble. The paintings are very numerous, and in beautiful preservation. Those taken from this gallery by Buonaparte and again replaced in the spot they originally occupied, are particularly pointed out to the visitor. I observed on each side of the door, as we entered this gallery, two very fine marble statues, one of Diana, the other of Louis XVI. A straight avenue or drive leading from the Potsdam road, in a direct line by the front of the terraces at Sans-souci, to the new palace, is of considerable length. At the extremity of this avenue is the magnificent palace built by Frederic, after the completion of the wars in which he was engaged. It is said to have been erected with the English subsidy; however this may be, it is undoubtedly a very magnificent building.
The grounds leading from this and Sans-souci palace are all laid out as pleasure-ground, with numerous walks and roads, leading in various directions, which are very well kept; but the grass lawn here is rather rough, and not much attended to. The quantity of sculpture placed throughout these grounds is truly astonishing; at almost every intersection of the walks, various statues or busts are placed, and likewise in different recesses that are formed out of the road and walk edges.
Along the front of the new palace, facing towards Potsdam, is arranged a row of very fine orange trees, with several pieces of sculpture.
The garden ground extends considerably to the north of the palace, where it is much varied, and commands an extensive view of the adjoining scenery and country. The Belvidere and terraces here are also prominent objects. I was much pleased with a piece of trellissing that surrounded the oval spot of ground at the south side of the palace. This trellis projects about twenty-one feet on one side, and forms an oblong square about forty-two feet long. The side next the oval consists of eight round columns, formed by thin flat iron bars, opposite to which are openings to correspond, that look into a running stream of water, that separates the park or pleasure ground from a piece of kitchen-garden ground on the opposite side. The peculiarity of this trellissing is in its handsome projecting cornice, with columns at nine feet apart, formed by the flat iron bars. Arched recesses are likewise made between these columns, about five feet wide, and nine feet in height. The entire height of this trellis with the cornice is twelve feet, and was evidently originally gilt, but it is now in a corroded and decaying state; not a vestige of paint is even to be seen upon it.
At a very short distance from this splendid palace is a piece of vegetable ground enclosed with formal clipt hornbeam hedges, which ought to be removed, as it disfigures that part of the grounds, and is much too close to the palace. The walks and lawn adjoining were in pretty good order, especially the former.
Leading from the palace to a royal chateau that has been lately erected, is a very fine carriage drive, winding through a flat piece of ground, which is laid out principally after the English fashion. This residence is also inhabited by one of the royal princes. I was much pleased with the quantity of grapes growing on a double terrace, or rather covered walk, which was completely crowded with vines and its fruits; the lower walk ran alongside of a wall, and the trellis and arches projected about twelve feet from it, and were twelve feet in height. Over the top of this wall is another trellissed walk, which is also completely covered with grapes; it leads up to the palace windows, and is about two hundred feet in length. Adjoining it, and in front of the windows, is a small flower-garden, elevated above the ground level I should imagine about twelve feet: we ascend to it by a flight of steps at the furthest end; the side next the palace is nearly on the same level as the window sills. There are several fountains in it, and a few clumps of the Petunia violacea, but nothing else of interest.
Connected with this terrace garden, but on the ground level, is a piece of ground laid out in various beds, principally furnished with dahlias. Here is a handsome marble fountain or column, and a well formed sheet of water.
About three hundred yards from this spot is Charlottenhoff, a handsome erection, which is used occasionally as a tea or coffee room. This building is surrounded by numerous walks, and columns with vines trained against them. Ascending a flight of steps, that leads to a point of view looking down upon a fountain, playing with great force. This spot is tastefully laid out, and in very neat order. Several other ornamental erections are placed in these grounds, but to attempt to describe them all would require an actual residence for some weeks. The royal palace of Potsdam is a magnificent building, in the form of a quadrangle. The interior apartments contain numerous objects of interest, which as being highly estimated by Frederic the Great, are particularly pointed out to the stranger. The arm chair which he was in the habit of using, is still in a good state of preservation; I was much pleased with the magnificence of the rooms; the paintings and furniture are very splendid, and in good preservation. The ground attached to this palace consists of a flat surface, extending towards the south, as far as the river Havel, and is laid out in clumps of trees, various walks; the space next the palace is a larger piece of gravel, which is daily used for the exercise of the military. Adjoining it are numerous avenues of horse chesnuts, and busts of ornamental sculpture placed along the first row of trees, as well as some in various other positions. Opposite the south, or principal front of the palace, is an oblong piece of water, in the middle of which is placed a noble group of Neptune and his sea horses, which has a very grand effect, but the water is kept rather low and filthy, which might be easily remedied, as the river Havel passes within a few yards of it. By the edge of the river, in a marshy spot of ground, I observed a large quantity of the Hydrocharis morsus-ranæ (Frogbite,) and Stratiotes aloides, (water soldier,) growing in great abundance.
I should however have observed that the fine marble group of Neptune was much injured by the French army, during the time they occupied Potsdam. In short it is really grievous to see the depredations that were committed by that army on the sculpture about Potsdam and Sans-souci, whilst they resided there. The soldiers for amusement were in the habit of firing musket balls at the different groups and statues.
August 30th. Left Potsdam at eight o'clock in the morning, for the Pfauen Insel, or Peacock Island, where I had appointed to meet Mr. Cuming at nine o'clock. We had to cross a branch of the river Havel to get to the island, which contains a collection of plants and animals somewhat resembling the Zoological Gardens in Regent's Park. I was here more fortunate in finding M. Fintelman at home, than I was at Sans-souci, and having a letter of introduction to him from his uncle, who superintends the royal gardens at Charlottenburg, I found him remarkably attentive, and an intelligent young man. I was here surprised to find the Robinia pseudacacia had attained seven feet in circumference, at four feet from the ground, the branches of which extend over thirty two yards of ground in diameter. I also observed some fine specimens of the oak, which were little inferior to our largest English oaks. The conservatory is an oblong building, about one hundred and twenty feet by forty, and forty two feet high, and consists of several tiers of front sashes, with a span roof, the north side being a dead wall with a gallery for resting in behind it, which commands a full view of the plants underneath.
I was much gratified, by the very flourishing state of the plants, and their remarkable neatness. A very fine collection of the Palmæ, is cultivated in this stove or conservatory, some of which have made a rapid progress in their growth. The Latania borbonica measured twenty seven feet in height, spreading over a space of equal dimensions in diameter. I understood that his majesty the king of Prussia frequently breakfasts in the summer season in this conservatory, under the shade of the palm fronds (or leaves). I remarked also the Pandanus utilis twenty three feet high; the Dracæna Draco, (Dragon Tree) had likewise grown thirty six feet high; Pandanus sylvestris thirteen feet in height, and eleven feet in diameter across its branches; the Bambusa arundinacea, forty feet high; a shoot of this cane, grew seven feet six inches in the course of three weeks; the Corypha umbraculifera, a very magnificent specimen. The Latania borbonica is placed in the centre of the conservatory; the tub in which it grows is completely concealed by planting around it various ferns, and other low growing plants, which are tastefully arranged, and form a nice little stage round the tub, having a very neat appearance, with the walk round it, which shews the palm to the best advantage. Opposite to this spot is a recess in which is placed a small fountain tastefully decorated by ferns that succeed well in a shady situation. There is likewise in this recess, a very handsome marble screen, richly carved and ornamented. The grounds are very judiciously laid out in various clumps of flowering shrubs and summer flowers, and were at this time in full perfection. One of the finest Hydrangeas that I have seen, was in full bloom, and its large purple-blue flowers were very conspicuous. The grass lawn was in a much better state than any other that I had previously seen in Germany, or even met with during my tour on the continent, and the whole garden ground very neatly kept. The island is said to contain about four hundred English acres. The erections for the different animals and birds are judiciously placed, and consist of handsome structures, arranged from two to three hundred yards or more apart; these apartments were kept remarkably clean and in good order. An extensive collection of beasts and birds are preserved in this establishment. The grounds are considerably varied, and some fine views are to be seen from several parts of it, as well as from the top of some prospect towers. The effect of the river Havel, and surrounding plantations at the opposite sides, adds expressive features to this landscape.
After seeing the various objects most deserving of notice, both in the botanical and zoological departments, we proceeded across the river, to the grounds of Prince Charles, still accompanied by M. Fintelman; they were laid out, principally, in the English style, his royal highness being particularly partial to it.
This spot consists of a great variety of surface, with several beautiful vistas, and is really very tastefully planted, and the grounds formed, and kept in very excellent order. The public road from Berlin to Potsdam passes close by the front of the grounds, and there is a low wall, with an invisible wire fence on the top of it, betwixt the road, where the views of the grounds are seen to most advantage. One side of them extends close to the Havel, where a handsome summer house is erected, which commands a fine prospect of Potsdam, the new bridge, and shipping, and likewise the scenery on the opposite side of the river, which is much varied. Under this building are two colonnades covered with creepers, which have a very pretty effect.
On the one side of a hill nearly opposite to this villa, is a new residence erecting for prince William; the views from it must be very extensive, as it is situated on a commanding spot.
We next proceeded to the magnificent edifice called Marmorpallast, or marble palace, which is situated at a very short distance from Potsdam, and close to the margin of the Havel. It is a splendid building, the greater part of which is constructed with marble. The cornice appeared to be about five or six feet deep; it is of white marble, as also is the base above the ground for several feet; the door and window jambs are likewise of the same material. The intervening spaces of the walls are built with red brick. The colonnade at the principal entrance consists of handsome marble columns. The pleasure-ground and gardens attached to it are said to contain two hundred and fifteen German acres of ground, throughout which are dispersed various clumps of trees and shrubs, with extensive walks and rides branching through it in different directions. These grounds are very flat, and have but little variety or picturesque appearance in them. The number of good exotics and New Holland plants is considerable, as well as a very fine collection of healthy orange trees, with some fine specimens of hardy trees growing singly on the grass. I here observed the Juglans fraxinifolia bearing a number of good sized fruit. In the flower garden some good German stocks, then in full bloom. The borders and grass lawn were in a rough state.
We next proceeded to Sans-souci, Mr. Cuming not having previously seen it. I was delighted in having another opportunity of looking round this truly magnificent spot; and being accompanied by Mr. Fintelman, who kindly devoted the entire day in conducting us to the various objects best worth our notice, we proceeded through the grounds attached to Sans-souci palace, and then to Charlottenhoff, the new palace, &c., and were much gratified by the numerous objects of interest we had pointed out to us in the various places that we inspected.
On our return to Potsdam, we went to the top of Breuchensberg, or hill of brewers, where a prospect tower is erected. The view from this spot is really grand in the extreme; we look down upon Potsdam and the numerous palaces that are in its environs. Sans-souci and the new palace are both prominent objects in view from this prospect; but the most pleasing features are the numerous small green islands that are formed by the river Havel, near the bridge at Potsdam; the intricacy and variety of outline of water, and the number of boats and small sailing vessels making their way to Berlin through this place, form a pleasing sight. The evening was now drawing to a close, and little more remained to be seen by daylight. M. Fintelman took his departure for the Island of Peacocks, and Mr. Cuming started in an hour after for Berlin. I was thus again left alone to muse over the different objects that had occupied my attention during the day.
August 31st. Not having previously seen the pine-apple forcing department, I walked out early this morning to Sans-souci, where this fruit is cultivated. I was rather surprised to find a great extent of low houses and pits devoted to the growth of the pine, without observing a single fruit amongst the whole stock that was scarcely worth cutting. There cannot be less than one thousand feet in length of houses and pits adapted to the pine-apple, and these varying from eight to twelve feet in width. The principal range was heated by smoke flues, and the plants plunged in saw-dust, with tan under; which practice is frequently adopted in this country, especially when tan is scarce. The young plants in the pits appeared pretty healthy, but such fruit as was fit for cutting, or advancing to maturity, would bear no comparison to our English produce.
After satisfying myself with what was to be seen in this department, I returned to Potsdam, from whence the diligence to Dresden, my next place of destination, did not start till twelve o'clock. The time I had to spare before my conveyance came up, was employed in inspecting the town, which consists, it is said, of 2000 houses, and 16,000 inhabitants. The streets are in general very clean; one leading from the palace to Sans-souci is inlaid with planks for the wheels of the different vehicles to run on, similar to the Russian manner. I also saw in the vicinity a Russian colony, which was inhabited by natives, sent as a present some years ago by the Emperor to the king of Prussia; they are now becoming pretty numerous, and their colony is extending.
Potsdam is intersected by various small canals, that lead from the Havel, and are very convenient for the conveyance of turf and other materials by water carriage. The greater number of the houses are handsomely built; there was then erecting opposite to the palace a magnificent church. At the other end of this palace is an iron bridge, crossing the Havel; the piers consist of stonework, there are eight arches, one of which is used as a drawbridge for the passing and repassing of boats going this way to Berlin. This town is the principal depot for military, who are exercised daily in great numbers in front of the palace.
At twelve o'clock the diligence arrived, when I took my departure in it for Dresden.
The road leading from Potsdam to the latter town was lined on each side with fine poplar trees, of a considerable size, for several miles of the journey. The soil in this part of the country appeared to be a light sandy loam: the plantations were chiefly composed of the Scotch fir; but close by the road side, in several places between Potsdam and Herzberg, were large quantities of plum trees, loaded with fruit.
We arrived at Herzberg at half-past ten o'clock; but owing to the darkness of the night I was unable to see, or form any opinion of the size of the town or quality of the houses.
September 1st. At three o'clock in the morning we reached another small town, called Elsterwerda, which was said to contain about 900 inhabitants. The next stage we came to was Grossenhayn, where we arrived at half-past five o'clock, a.m. This town is situated in the kingdom of Saxony, and contains nearly 5000 inhabitants. At this stage we were transferred to another diligence.
The country from Grossenhayn to Dresden is much more varied than any I had previously seen in Germany.
The scenery as we approach to Dresden is very picturesque, both as regards distant views and variety of surface: when within a few miles of the town, we meet with a very fine avenue of lime trees, extending for a considerable distance, and then is continued by horse-chesnuts. On descending a hill, a fine prospect of Dresden presents itself to the eye. The soil now appears more of a black colour, and less free from sand, than what I had previously observed. I also saw several beech trees intermixed with the Scotch-fir.
Arrived at Dresden, at nine o'clock a.m. After getting breakfast, I immediately proceeded to the house of Professor Hughes, who was then engaged, but Mrs. Hughes asked Mr. West to accompany me to the principal gardens; this gentleman, a school colleague of Lord Cosmo Russell, and an admirer of plants, very cheerfully accompanied me to several of the gardens in the vicinity of the town. We first proceeded to the Botanic Garden, belonging to the University, which is very limited in extent. I was however much pleased with the fine collection of Cacteæ that are grown in this establishment, as well as a large collection of Cape, and other green house plants. The number of species of hardy perennial plants in this small space of ground is truly astonishing; there is also a great variety of Cape bulbs and Gramineæ. The extent of glass is confined to a very long conservatory, stove, and several pits for Cacteæ.
Having been introduced by Mr. West to M. Lehman, the superintendant of the garden, he accompanied us to the gardens of Lieut. Weber, situated at a short distance from the town, and considered the most extensive for glass and space, of any about Dresden. I should imagine by its appearance there could not be above seven or eight English acres of ground under nursery culture. The collection of plants for sale comprises chiefly Camellias, young orange trees, Cape and new Holland plants, many of the scarcer sorts of which I observed had been lately introduced to that establishment, from Mr. Low's nursery at Clapton. A fine specimen of the Uhria speciosa was in great vigour of health. A great variety of dahlias, and dwarf China roses in full flower were in these grounds.
I was much pleased by the simple mode of grafting the Camellia and orange trees, which appeared to be very successful, and is generally practised by M. Liebig the gardener, which method is what we term in this country crown grafting; by this mode the shoot or graft, after insertion in the stock, is only tied neatly to the stock, with a bit of worsted thread, and then sealed over as well as the top of the stock, by a little bees-wax, (without clay as practised here); when this operation is completed, the plants are put into a frame or pit, with a little moist heat, until the graft and stock begin to coalesce, when they are shortly afterwards gradually exposed to the air of the greenhouse. In this establishment there are several very good hothouses for plants. In one of the ranges is placed a circular shaped conservatory, heated by hot water, on rather a novel construction; these hot water pipes being formed into perpendicular columns, rising from the floor to the height of from ten to twelve feet. These pipes, thus constructed, gave out a great command of heat, and answered the original intention very satisfactorily. The plants in this nursery garden were very well grown, and all in a healthy state.
I next visited the nursery of M. Hofrath Kreyssig, which is only a short distance from the Botanic garden. I saw likewise some good kinds of greenhouse plants, as well as many rare species of the Rhododendron tribe; the Rhododendron campanulatum, a fine specimen; a collection of orchideous plants is also forming in this nursery garden. There are several small hothouses for the growth of Cape and tropical plants, which are also cultivated for sale; but the space of ground is much too limited, as well as confined by houses to do justice to a collection of hardy species. After visiting these gardens and grounds, I took my leave of Mr. West, to whom I was much indebted for the kind interest he took in the object I had in view, and who appears devotedly attached to plants and gardening. Professor Hughes having recommended me to see the chateau erected on the banks of the Elbe by the late Lord Findlater, an English nobleman, I expected to have found some fine gardens, or collection of plants, but, to my surprise, on my arrival, I found it now occupied as a tea garden; it is much frequented by the inhabitants of Dresden, in consequence of its romantic situation on the banks of the Elbe, commanding a prospect of the country, studded with small villages situated in the valleys between the hills, or rather eminences; but these are not to be compared with our Scotch mountains. Along the Elbe is a great extent of vineyard, which did not appear to be in a very prolific state, the soil being of a poor sandy texture. Many pretty villas were also situated along these banks, which had very pleasant prospects from them.
September 2nd. Having agreed to meet Mr. Lehman early this morning, we proceeded to the Catholic church, which belongs to the court, and is certainly a magnificent building, the interior richly ornamented, and well worth the stranger's notice; we next visited the Protestant church, which is likewise a splendid erection. The museum and post office are also very magnificent buildings. I was however surprised at the appearance of the royal palace, which consists of a dark gloomy looking old fashioned residence, and with little in its exterior appearance, calculated to give a stranger the idea of its being the seat of royalty. Through the assistance of Mr. Lehman, who procured tickets of admittance to the gallery of paintings, I was favoured with a sight of this celebrated collection, which is considered to be amongst the finest in Europe, and is said to contain one thousand five hundred pictures; among so many there are undoubtedly some very splendid ones. On our return from the gallery, we passed through his majesty's coach-house, which must at least have contained no less than sixty different carriages; a very splendid one lately presented to the king by Prince Metternich, was pointed out to us. From hence we proceeded to the museum or repository of minerals, birds and animals. The collection of the feathered tribe in this establishment is particularly extensive; some very large blocks of petrified wood, that were much prized, were pointed out as remarkable curiosities. In one of the departments was a table four feet in diameter, of a solitary piece of wood of the Tamarindus indicus, (tamarind tree.) In front of the building various orange trees are arranged along the edge of the walks. What is called Bruehl's garden is also deserving of notice; it forms a public promenade for the inhabitants, and is pleasantly situated, containing a picture gallery, which is denominated the gallery of duplicates.
Dresden is said to contain about 80,000 inhabitants, and is much admired for its fine houses and streets. It is considered by many as one of the finest towns in Europe; but I must confess that in my opinion it is inferior to either Berlin, Munich, or Brussels. It is situated on a flat spot of ground with the river Elbe running through it; the bridge over which is said to be 1450 feet long. The Arsenal is a large building, but I had no time to see it, as the diligence left this day at twelve o'clock for Munich, and as these conveyances only go twice or three times a week at most from the principal towns throughout Germany, the losing of an hour to see an object might detain one for two or three days. Having taken my leave of Mr. Lehman, I seated myself in the diligence for Munich, a journey which occupied us three days and three nights. The road winds along the river side from Dresden to the first stage on our way to Munich, and is very beautiful, the scenery much diversified, and resembling that of some of our Scotch mountains; the plantations of forest trees comprise a mixture of silver fir, beech and Scotch-fir. The hill and dale that continued for a considerable way along this line of road rendered the scenery very interesting and picturesque, and which appeared so to continue until it became quite dark, when all view of the country was lost.
We passed through Freyberg, a small town situated on the river Mulde, and is said to be 1179 feet above the level of the sea. The next town or village that we came to was Chimnitz, where we stopped for supper.
September 3rd. Arrived at one o'clock in the morning at Zwickau, at which town the road from Leipsic joins the one from Dresden, where the diligences from both towns meet, and the passengers are transferred from the Leipsic diligence to the one from Dresden. Whilst waiting for the vehicle getting ready to start, I was agreeably surprised to find Mr. Parker, seated at the same inn; he had arrived from Leipsic by that diligence: when we parted at Berlin we had no expectation of again meeting each other so soon.
One of my fellow travellers from Dresden was a Frenchman, but he was evidently as awkwardly situated whilst travelling for want of a knowledge of the German language as I was myself; consequently we both kept Mr. Parker pretty busy in acting as an intermediate interpreter whilst we were together.
The scenery about Zwickau is beautifully varied with hill and dale, and woods, with a small river called the Mulde running along by the bottom of the rocks. The houses are neatly built, and of considerable number, containing a population of from seven to eight thousand. The roads in the vicinity of this town are rather mountainous, but not so much so as in the preceding stages. The next small village that we passed through was Plauen, where we arrived about seven o'clock in the morning: it is said to contain about 700 inhabitants.
We next proceeded to Hof, where we arrived at ten o'clock, changed diligences, and had to stop for several hours before we could again get on our journey. On entering this town we passed by a large tea garden, situated on the side of a hill, at the bottom of which is a small river, that tends greatly to enliven the scenery. The town of Hof is in the kingdom of Bavaria, and the population is said to amount to 6,000, living in handsomely built houses. The main street that leads through it I should imagine is nearly a mile in length, and very wide; there appeared to be a fair in the town on this day, which occupied a great part of this street.
The cathedral is an ancient building; the entrance consists of a handsome Gothic door, the walls of which must be about eighteen feet in thickness. The town-hall is likewise a fine erection, and the houses and streets appeared all in clean and neat order.
From Dresden to Hof the country productions principally consist of agricultural produce; the potatoe and oats are extensively cultivated. A sharp frost this morning blackened all the potatoe tops.
At one o'clock we got into a Bavarian diligence, and proceeded to Berneck, a small town surrounded with beautiful scenery, that much reminded me of the Derbyshire rocks, to which in picturesque appearance it was fully equal.
Arrived next at Bayreuth, at eight o'clock in the evening; it is a town of considerable size, said to contain 10,000 inhabitants. On the diligence driving up to the inn door we found the space in front of it completely covered with a military band, and a large concourse of people listening to their music; this band belonged to a cavalry regiment that was on its march through the town. We next started for Nuremberg, where we arrived at half-past eight o'clock the following morning.
September 4th. On our arrival at Nuremberg, we found that we had to remain here for several hours before the diligence started again: we made the best use of our time, proceeding to St. Laurence's Church, a Gothic building, the doors and windows richly ornamented with groups of sculpture and other carved work in bronze; the painted glass is very handsomely executed. This church was begun in 1254 and is a most magnificent building. The tabernacle consists of a beautifully carved and richly ornamented spire, executed in 1496 of carved stonework. Although it has been converted into a Protestant church, yet the Catholic ornaments are still remaining. We next proceeded to view the Catholic church, which is likewise a very splendid Gothic building, erected in 1355, and the exterior walls richly ornamented. In the Market place, we were much gratified with a very pretty spiral fountain, richly carved, erected in 1356. The town-house is also a very fine old structure, containing many good paintings in the large and small hall. The fresco paintings in the latter apartment are beautifully executed on the ceilings and walls, which are also highly ornamented by gilt mouldings. The paintings in the great hall consist of various pieces of fresco, by the celebrated Albert Durer. The triumphal car of the emperor Maximilian, drawn by twelve horses, in beautiful fresco painting, and a very fair picture of the present king of Bavaria, by Byng of Munich, is also to be seen here.
From hence we went to the cathedral, in which is St. Sebald's Tomb, highly deserving of the stranger's notice. This church contains the oldest metal font in Germany; it was formerly used in baptising the emperor's children. The saint's tomb, by Fisher, is a masterpiece of workmanship, executed in 1508; there is also a curious figure of the artist himself. The tomb is a pretty Gothic structure, cast in bronze, and the body of the saint enclosed in a silver coffin, under an elegant Gothic canopy. We next proceeded to the picture gallery, which contains a good collection of paintings by German artists, in good preservation. From hence we went to the imperial castle, where there is growing a Lime tree, Tilia europæa, said to be seven hundred years old. I measured the girth of this tree, at four feet from the ground, and found it to be fifteen feet in circumference; it still appeared in a pretty healthy state.
The dining room in this ancient castle, formerly used by the king, is of large dimensions, and contains a large number of old paintings, which are in good preservation; the rooms although uninhabited for the last four hundred years are still in good condition. From the windows in this castle we have a beautiful prospect of the town as well as of a considerable extent of country. On our return from hence we visited the house in which Albert Durer resided, which is now converted into a gallery for modern paintings, exhibited for sale, many of which appeared to be most beautiful pieces of art, and objects of great interest to numerous visitors who were then present admiring them. By this time it was drawing near the hour we had to start by the diligence. We made the best of our way back to the hotel, and got all ready by one o'clock, the appointed hour of our departure from Nuremberg, which is a town of considerable size, containing a population of upwards of thirty thousand people.
In the environs are large tracts of ground under vegetable culture, but I was unable to learn of the existence of any botanic garden or good nursery establishment in the immediate neighbourhood. Large fields of tobacco were cultivated in the suburbs, as well as extensive plantations of the Hop, which appeared very prolific. The soil we passed from Nuremberg to Munich was more sandy than it previously had been; the scenery is also more flat and less varied than in our preceding stages.
Sept. 5. Arrived at Pfaffenhofen, at six o'clock in the morning. Near to this town large quantities of the Genista germanica, were growing close by the road-side, also the Dipsacus laciniatus, in great abundance. Approaching nearer to Munich, I observed growing in a plantation the Vaccinium Vitis Idæa, in great plenty, reminding me, from its occurrence, of the mountains of Scotland. The scenery in the vicinity of Munich, is of a great sameness, but the Tyrolese mountains appearing in the distance considerably add to its picturesque effect. We reached Munich at eleven o'clock, where we found some difficulty in getting apartments, the hotels being then so full of strangers.
In the afternoon I was accompanied by Mr. Parker to the Botanic garden, which is situated close to the town, having a very handsome entrance with Ionic columns, and neat iron railing, which encloses a large part of this garden. The Arboretum of trees and shrubs is confined to the two ends of the garden, it being an oblong square, but the south side is much the longest. The space of ground is very confined for the growth of large trees; the entire space devoted for this purpose is not an acre of ground, consequently the different sorts are much crowded together.
The interior of the garden, in front of the range of hot-houses, is laid out in numerous oblong squares, with gravel walks intervening; in the centre walk are three round basins of water. These squares are again divided into beds for the herbaceous plants, wherein a good collection are cultivated. In one of the divisions there is an aquarium for aquatic plants, which consists of oblong square troughs, lined with brickwork for retaining the water; these are about two feet wide by two deep, and an intervening space of ground, of from six to eight feet, in which are grown such species as do not require the water: but a damp situation, notwithstanding, is requisite: In the apartments where the hardy perennial plants are cultivated, are numerous apple trees, all in full bearing; these ought to be eradicated and their places supplied with ornamental trees or shrubs. Apple-trees, however useful, are not in character with a botanical collection; more especially as the apple is so common by the road sides through Germany; a collection of this fruit should find a place elsewhere than in the botanic garden, where the space of ground is already much too limited for the collection of plants. A lofty range of hothouses about five hundred feet in length, has a very good effect; they are only furnished with upright sashes in the front, the back and roof opaque, the latter finished in the semi-cove form, and neatly plastered. I was surprised to find the Palms looking remarkably healthy, notwithstanding these dark houses, many of the species had really grown from twenty to twenty five feet in height.
The collection of the Brazilian species is very numerous, but many of them appeared drawn and too much crowded for want of light and room in the pits. The Cape and New Holland kinds were then out of doors, very healthy and well grown. I was much pleased also with some very fine specimens of Cacteæ, the variety of which is reckoned but little inferior to that of Berlin. In short, there is an extensive assortment of the various species of Succulentæ in this establishment. The director, M. Seitz, having been long a collector, has succeeded in forming a great variety of this curious tribe; he was extremely liberal in parting with any of his duplicates.
Sept. 6th. M. Seitz having the kindness to accompany us to the Royal gardens at Nymphenburg, which are situated about four English miles from Munich; we proceeded thither immediately after breakfast, and found that these grounds required no little time to make even a hasty inspection.
The French garden in front of the palace consists of straight and broad gravel walks, with long stripes of grass lawn, and borders about twelve feet wide of shrubs running parallel to the avenues of horse-chesnut trees. Along the edges of the walks various vases and other ornamental sculpture are arranged; leading from these walks, a straight piece of water, more in the form of a canal, than an ornamental lake, runs parallel in two different directions; the one parallel to the palace, is crossed by two wooden bridges, which are prominent features from several points of view. The centre, or main canal, leads in a straight direction for a considerable distance, and is broken by several very pretty cascades, and handsome marble basins, as well as different groups or figures of sculpture. The water comes rushing over the marble ledges with great force, and was certainly the brightest and purest that I had ever previously seen. There are also some very fine jets in which the water is propelled to a great height by machinery. A well formed lake nearly adjoins the bathing house, said to occupy about fifty Bavarian acres of ground, the outline of which is much varied with different projections of land, islands, and the banks of turf tastefully planted with trees and shrubs, forms a very pleasing contrast. A curious bark is placed on this sheet of water, consisting of two small boats, with a platform, on which is placed a chair, so that a person may sit and read, or fish, and at the same time guide this boat by his feet, that are resting generally on the paddles.
Close by the margin of this lake, is a very pretty circular temple, with a figure of Apollo, that forms a prominent object from several points of view. A small cascade passing under a ledge of rockwork, on the top of which is placed a marble figure of Pan, and a goat at his feet, forms another object of interest in this part.
The grounds from the south west of the bathing house, (or Pavilion, which is ornamented by paintings and statues) have been lately much improved, and are now considerably varied with different clumps of trees and shrubs, undulations and rockwork. The surface is naturally a flat, but art has, during the last three years, created great inequalities and alterations in this part of the grounds; the banks and undulations are very judiciously formed, the trees and shrubs tastefully grouped together; the walks and rides are of great extent, and very neatly kept and gravelled.
The range of plant houses at Nymphenburg is the most extensive and substantially built of any that I had previously seen in Germany, about one thousand feet in length, and varying from twenty to twenty four feet in width, the height not exceeding twenty-eight feet. I was here surprised to find that the hothouse in which a fine collection of Palmæ, and other Brazilian plants were grown, was heated by very small hot water pipes, which I imagined were far too small to sustain the temperature of such a house, although the back and roof are opaque, and of course require considerably less artificial heat than if constructed with glass on all sides. The boiler that heats this house is about seven feet long, three deep, and three feet six inches wide, and consequently contains a large body of water, when once heated it gives out a great portion of caloric from its sides and surface, being placed at the back of the house, but in the interior, and concealed by the plants. The pipes branch right and left from the boiler and appeared to be only two inches in diameter, yet, I was informed, they were found quite sufficient for the heating of this conservatory. Undoubtedly the boiler being so very large rendered pipes of greater dimensions unnecessary. The frost is, however, much more intense in Germany than in England; the Lauristinus, Arbutus, Rhododendrons, Portugal and Common Laurel, were cultivated at Nymphenburg as green-house plants; they are too tender to endure the winters there.
In front of this botanical range, or more directly opposite to the palm house, is an arboretum of hardy trees and shrubs, but the site, for that purpose, is badly chosen, and by far too contracted, and should have been selected in the pleasure ground, at some distance from these houses, where there is ample space, and would have formed an interesting feature. As at present the more common kinds of trees and underwood are the only hardy species of decoration in many parts of the ground. Opposite to the east end of the range of plant houses is an oblong piece of ground, laid out in narrow beds by the edge of the walks, which are occupied with a collection of dahlias, and other herbaceous flowering plants.
On our return from this botanical range we visited a small private garden, close by the palace, which has also a very pretty cascade at its extremity, and ornamented by sculpture.
The palace of Nymphenburg forms almost a semicircle of a large radius on the Munich side, or principal front, but that facing the gardens is more of an oblong square, and in consequence of the numerous roofs appearing from the semicircular front, that are disconnected and of various elevation from the main building, it has more the appearance of a number of small villas, than of a royal residence, particularly as we approach it from Munich, by the side of the straight canal that leads to the principal entrance. Nearly opposite the centre of the palace on this side is a circuitous basin of water with a fountain in the centre and rockwork around it. This water is conveyed into the gardens, and must be of great extent from the appearance of the course it was running, which leads a considerable way towards Munich. After our return from Nymphenburg gardens, we proceeded to the English garden, which is said to contain about five hundred English acres of ground, and is a favorite promenade for the inhabitants of Munich. This park, or pleasure ground, is rather of a flat surface, but much diversified by clumps of various trees and shrubs, and fine sheets of water, the margins of which are much varied, but unfortunately full of weeds. The drives and walks that lead through these grounds in different directions are very extensive, some of them being nearly five miles in length. The grounds adjacent to the queen's palace are very well kept, and deserving of notice; but a piece of water in view from it is very filthy, which is the more extraordinary, as it might be easily kept clean by turning into it a branch of the river that runs through these grounds.
We observed some very fine specimens of the Juglans fraxinifolia with fruit on them, and very large trees of the Salix alba, which were here in greater size than any I had ever seen. Numerous clumps of various kinds of trees and shrubs are grouped together; but these are in most instances rather crowded, and not enough of lawn is seen to intervene between them. A handsome observatory was erecting, situated on an artificial mound, which, when finished, will command a fine prospect over these grounds. We also visited several of the churches. St. Mary's church is very splendidly fitted up, and has handsome marble columns. In it is placed a very superior statue of Eugene Beauharnois. St. Michael's church is likewise deserving of notice from the beautiful marble columns. The choirs of the different churches were this day all decorated with Orange trees, Hydrangeas, and other flowering plants.
Sept. 7th. I appointed to be in the Botanic gardens with M. Seitz, by eight o'clock in the morning. Immediately on my arrival I met with Mr. Forster, nephew to the vice president of the Linnean Society, who is also much attached to botany. The greater part of the day was spent with M. Seitz, looking over the numerous species of Cacteæ, and Succulentæ, and after having finished my visit here, he had the kindness to conduct me to the Glyptothek, which is a very magnificent quadrangular building, containing a fine collection of antique sculpture; the floors and walls are inlaid with various marbles, the ceilings richly ornamented with gilt mouldings, and fresco paintings. It has twelve apartments, one of which is devoted to modern sculpture, and possesses some fine specimens in this art.
I next proceeded to the Pinakothek, which is situated at a short distance from the Glyptothek, and is likewise a very splendid building, but it is not yet finished. It is intended as a repository for paintings, and consists of a number of very capacious apartments with gilt ceilings of extraordinary splendour. The suite of rooms is said to be 500 feet in length, and on the south side is a long passage or gallery, the ceiling of which is ornamented with fine fresco paintings. The exterior of this Pinakothek is equally magnificent, and when finished will undoubtedly be one of the most attractive objects in Europe.
Sept. 8th. This being a holiday and inclined to rain, we visited the royal palace, which is at present undergoing great alterations and additions. The first object that attracted my notice, was the granite steps of the king's staircase, which measured twenty one feet in width; at the top is the body guard room, and then an inner ante-room, the walls of which are beautifully ornamented with fresco paintings, as is likewise the adjoining room, in which are represented as though suspended from the ceiling and cornice, fresco painting of numerous fishes.
The family dining room, with cove ceiling and fresco paintings, and most beautiful inlaid floor, must attract general admiration. The throne room is however still more capacious, and the walls are ornamented by various alto-relievos in plaster. I observed in several of the windows that the squares of glass used were five feet long by three feet in width. His majesty's cabinet is also splendidly fitted up. The apartments intended for the queen are still more superbly finished, and represent subjects in fresco painting taken from the German poets.
The surbase of her majesty's room is of fine marble; the room is about forty feet square, the dressing room of rather larger dimensions. The queen's throne room is really most splendidly finished, the walls and mouldings gilt, and the surbase of fine blue marble. There are several other apartments intended for her majesty, representing in fresco paintings various subjects from the poems of Burgher; with the pilgrimage to the holy sepulchre in fresco. The grand staircase is most magnificent; the walls and steps are of fine marble, with four Ionic marble columns at the top, the whole furnished in the most superb style. The lower suite of apartments is equally splendid; the walls are decorated with paintings in fresco of several of the emperors of Germany. The magnificence of the decorations on the walls and ceilings of the new apartments in this palace are such that no one can form any idea of their grandeur without a visit.
Adjoining to this, is the statue gallery of antiquities, which measures about three hundred and thirty six feet in length, by forty five in width, with a cove ceiling painted in fresco. I here saw a beautiful Florentine Mosaic table, for which Napoleon offered sixteen thousand florins. There is also a Bavarian almanack of the fifteenth and sixteenth century, in form of a circular table, about seven feet in diameter, inlaid with brass; but the letters and figures almost obliterated. The entrance to this antique gallery consists of a handsome grotto in shell work, with various figures, birds, and devices, in alto-relievo.
There is placed opposite the new addition to the palace a colossal figure in bronze of the late emperor, with a huge lion at his feet. Near this palace is a magnificent Post-office, now building. There is also the Theatre, which is likewise a very splendid structure. We next visited the Gallery of Paintings, which is well deserving of notice, and contains a very valuable collection of pictures. The space of ground called the Hof Garden, which is a fashionable promenade, and consists of numerous rows of trees and gravel walks, is bounded on one side by a very long gallery, highly ornamented with various frescos. Although denominated a garden, I could see neither flowers nor shrubs; only rows of trees, that formed a shady promenade in the summer months, when it is much frequented by tea-parties.
In the afternoon we made another visit to the English garden, and round the environs of the town; but this being a holiday, all the principal establishments were shut. I was however unable to hear of there being any other garden establishment worth seeing, that I had not previously seen: we therefore procured our passports, and secured our places in the diligence for Stuttgard.
Sept. 9th. Left Munich at six o'clock a.m. The scenery for the first stage was rather flat, but as we approached Augsburg it became considerably more varied. By the side of the road on this route I observed the Gentiana Pneumonanthe, in great abundance; I here had an opportunity of collecting several specimens, whilst the diligence was ascending a long hill, which was well planted, and where some fine trees of the spruce fir were in view.
The houses in Augsburg have old-fashioned red tiled roofs, with numerous windows projecting like skylights, even five rows deep on the sides, in very bad taste. Augsburg contains 27,000 inhabitants; and several ancient buildings, particularly the Episcopal palace, Cathedral, and Town-hall. The Cathedral, a Gothic building, contains some curious old tapestry and paintings, representing the apostles sleeping whilst our Saviour was praying. There are also some curious old tombs, with models; and several handsome fonts with large bronze figures. The Town-house, which contains a picture gallery over the ground floor, is a very fine building; the gallery where the paintings are kept is 120 feet long, 62 feet wide, and 56 feet high, with a carved wood ceiling, richly gilt. The pictures were many of them of immense dimensions, and in fine preservation, but of the old German school. We here also visited the German Literary Gazette printing-office, and also the steam engine which is used for throwing up the water to supply the different fountains in the town.
Whilst Mr. Parker was making purchases of books here, I proceeded to the garden of M. Schatzle, which is situated in the suburbs. This garden is very well kept, and contains some good exotic and Cape plants, and a good shew of summer flowers, with several straight avenues of trees planted so as to form an arbour or shady walk. In this garden is placed a colossal group in bronze that weighs 10,500 pounds, executed by Chirardi in honour of Fugger. The first of the Fugger family was an Augsburg merchant, and is said to have left his heirs above six millions of golden crowns, besides other property. From thence I proceeded to the nursery of M. Schultz, which contains vegetables as well as nursery stock: there are two or three small hothouses, or rather pits, for the growth of the tender species, but I saw but little in this establishment worth notice, although considered the best nursery garden about Augsburg.
It was now drawing near the hour that we were to take our departure from Augsburg in the diligence; whence we started at 7 o'clock p.m. for Ulm, the next town of any note.
I omitted to mention that we were accompanied through the different departments in Augsburg by the French gentleman who travelled with us from Dresden to Munich, and also by Mr. Withy, who was returning from a tour, and going then to Heidelb
|
|||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 38
|
https://ebin.pub/download/uranium-matters-central-european-uranium-in-international-politics-19001960-9786155211461.html
|
en
|
Uranium Matters: Central European Uranium in International Politics, 19001960 9786155211461
|
[
"https://ebin.pub/ebinpub/assets/img/ebinpub_logo.png",
"https://ebin.pub/img/200x200/toxicological-profiles-uranium.jpg",
"https://ebin.pub/img/200x200/prospecting-for-uranium-revised.jpg",
"https://ebin.pub/img/200x200/uranium-series-geochemistry-0939950545.jpg",
"https://ebin.pub/img/200x200/the-uranium-people-0844813001-0684162423.jpg",
"https://ebin.pub/img/200x200/uranium-in-the-environment-mining-impact-and-consequences-3540283633-9783540283638.jpg",
"https://ebin.pub/img/200x200/remediation-of-uranium-mill-tailings-1032352795-9781032352794.jpg",
"https://ebin.pub/img/200x200/eldorado-canadas-national-uranium-company-9781442674332.jpg",
"https://ebin.pub/img/200x200/uranium-mineralogy-geochemistry-and-the-environment-0939950502.jpg",
"https://ebin.pub/img/200x200/uranium-mining-in-virginia-scientific-technical-environmental-human-health-and-safety-and-regulatory-aspects-of-uranium-mining-and-processing-in-virginia-1nbsped-9780309220880-9780309220873.jpg",
"https://ebin.pub/img/200x200/wastelanding-legacies-of-uranium-mining-in-navajo-country-0816692645-9780816692644.jpg",
"https://ebin.pub/img/200x200/uranium-matters-central-european-uranium-in-international-politics-19001960-9786155211461.jpg",
"https://ebin.pub/ebinpub/assets/img/ebinpub_logo.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
Examines the impact of the Czechoslovak and East German uranium industries on local politics and on societies, particula...
|
en
|
ebin.pub
|
https://ebin.pub/uranium-matters-central-european-uranium-in-international-politics-19001960-9786155211461.html
|
Citation preview
Zeman 0
31/1/08
3:31 PM
Page i
Uranium Matters
Zeman 0
31/1/08
3:31 PM
Page ii
Zeman 0
31/1/08
3:31 PM
Page iii
Uranium Matters Central European Uranium in International Politics, 1900–1960
by Zbynek Zeman and Rainer Karlsch
Central European University Press Budapest New York
Zeman 0
31/1/08
3:31 PM
Page iv
© 2008 by Zbynek Zeman and Rainer Karlsch Published in 2008 by Central European University Press An imprint of the Central European University Share Company Nádor utca 11, H-1051 Budapest, Hungary Tel: +36-1-327-3138 or 327-3000 Fax: +36-1-327-3183 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.ceupress.com 400 West 59th Street, New York NY 10019, USA Tel: +1-212-547-6932 Fax: +1-646-557-2416 E-mail: [email protected] All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the permission of the Publisher. ISBN 978-963-9776-00-5 cloth Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Zeman, Z. A. B. (Zbynek A. B.), 1928– Uranium matters : Central European uranium in international politics, 1900–1960 / by Zbynek Zeman and Rainer Karlsch. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-9639776005 (hardcover) 1. Uranium industry—Germany (East)—History. 2. Uranium industry— Czechoslovakia—History. I. Karlsch, Rainer, 1957– II. Title. HD9539.U72G38 2008 338.2’749320943—dc22 2007052047
Printed in Hungary by Akaprint Nyomda
Zeman 0
31/1/08
3:31 PM
Page v
For Kacˇka and Ms. Crawford
Zeman 0
31/1/08
3:31 PM
Page vi
Zeman 0
31/1/08
3:32 PM
Page vii
vii
Table of Contents
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 1: Unparalleled Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 2: The Erzgebirge Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part 3: The Politics of Czechoslovak Uranium . . . . . . . Part 4: Wismut AG: a State Within a State . . . . . . . . . . . Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Name Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii xi 1 35 61 159 271 275 279 281 283 299
Zeman 0
31/1/08
3:32 PM
Page viii
Zeman 0
31/1/08
3:32 PM
Page ix
ix
List of Tables
Table 1. Production and Export of Uranium from Czechoslovakia to the Soviet Union, 1945–1989 Table 2. Uranium Production in the Soviet Block, 1946–1950 Table 3. Employees in the Czechoslovak Uranium Industry, 1945–1990 Table 4. Export of Uranium to the Soviet Union by Wismut AG, 1954–1990 Table 5. Fluctuation in the Numbers of Directed Labor at Wismut in 1947 Table 6. International Comparisons of the Incidence of Lung Cancer
72 76 114 170 187 254
Zeman 0
31/1/08
3:32 PM
Page x
Zeman 0
31/1/08
3:32 PM
Page xi
Preface
The present study concentrates on the development of uranium industries in the Soviet zone of occupation in Germany and Czechoslovakia during the crucial years after the war, and touches on how and why Soviet influence was extended far into the center of Europe. Apart from the book before you, the uranium project resulted in an edition of contributions to a conference,* a double issue of Der Anschnitt, Zeitschrift für Kunst und Kultur im Bergbau (2–3, 1998), articles, research papers, several conferences in Germany, a seminar in Washington DC and exhibitions in both Germany and the Czech Republic. Indirectly, Dr. Karlsch’s interest in uranium matters led him to the subject of his last book, Hitlers Bombe, which was published, to much acclaim and some controversy, by Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt in Munich in 2005. It summarizes the findings the authors considered important. Both the English and German versions were based on the same material, although they were drafted by Dr. Karlsch and Professor Zeman independently. The Erzgebirge, or Ore Mountains, mark the border between Bohemia and Saxony. In Czech, the mountain range is called Krusˇné hory, or the Cruel Mountains. Zbynek Zeman
*
Rainer Karlsch and Harm Schröter, eds. Strahlende Vergangenheit, Studien zur Geschichte der Wismut. St. Katharinen, 1996.
Zeman 0
31/1/08
3:32 PM
Page xii
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 1
Part 1 Unparalleled Power
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 2
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 3
Terminal On 24 June 1945, Joseph Stalin reviewed a great victory parade in Moscow. Regiments of Red Army infantry, cavalry and tanks threw innumerable banners and standards, taken from Adolf Hitler’s armies, at Stalin’s feet. The day of torrential rain was charged with symbolism: once again, through endurance and suffering, Russia had won a great war. Mikhail Kutuzov’s soldiers had once thrown the standards of Napoleon’s armies at the feet of Tsar Alexander in the same way. In that summer of 1945, Marshal Zhukov, the victor of Stalingrad and Berlin, stood next to Stalin. A month later, at Potsdam on 24 July, Harry S. Truman told Stalin that America possessed an atomic weapon. The third and the last conference of the Second World War’s Big Three was given the code name Terminal. It was to take place in Berlin, where few buildings escaped damage during the Red Army’s final sweep into the city. Cecilienhof, the residence of the former Crown Prince of Hohenzollern in nearby Potsdam, was proposed as the most suitable venue for the conference. It had a large ballroom, and the Berlin suburb of Babelsberg offered accommodation for the delegates and their staff. On their way to Schloss Cecilienhof, the delegates were able to avoid the center of Potsdam, which had been heavily damaged, and cross the Jungfernsee on a pontoon bridge. The journey took about ten minutes by car. The eighth plenary session in Potsdam started on 24 July, at 3:l5 in the afternoon. Winston Churchill immediately complained about the situation of British military and diplomatic missions in Romania and Bulgaria. He told Stalin that he “would be astonished to read the catalogue of incidents to our mission in Bucharest and Sofia. They were not free to go abroad. An iron curtain had been rung down.”1 The session in Potsdam was, however, memorable for another reason. When it ended late in the afternoon, the delegates stood around in twos and threes, chatting. Churchill saw Truman go to Stalin, and the two men were left alone with their interpreters. Churchill, standing about five yards away, watched them with close attention. He agreed with Truman that Stalin would have to be told about the successful test of the atom bomb in New Mexico, which had taken place ten days before the meeting in Potsdam. In his memoirs, Churchill noted:
Zeman 1
31/1/08
4
3:38 PM
Page 4
Uranium Matters
I knew what the President was going to do. What was vital to measure was its effect on Stalin. I can see it as if it were yesterday! He seemed delighted. A new bomb! Of extraordinary power! Probably decisive on the whole Japanese war! What a bit of luck! This was my impression at the moment, and I was sure that he had no idea of the significance of what he was being told. Evidently in his intense toils and stresses the atomic bomb had played no part. If he had had the slightest idea of the revolution in world affairs which were in progress his reactions would have been obvious. Nothing would have been easier than for him to say “Thank you so much for telling me about your new bomb. I of course have no technical knowledge. May I send my expert in these nuclear sciences to see your expert tomorrow morning?” But his face remained gay and genial and the talk between these two potentates soon came to an end. As we were waiting for our cars I found myself near Truman. “How did it go?” I asked. “He never asked a question” he replied. I was certain therefore that at that date Stalin had no special knowledge of the vast process of research upon which the United States and Britain had been engaged for so long, and of the production for which the United States had spent over four hundred million pounds in an heroic gamble.2
Franklin D. Roosevelt and Churchill were convinced of the need to shield the nuclear project from German intelligence. The requirement for absolute secrecy rebounded on Stalin as well as on most of the members of Churchill’s own cabinet. Neither the British war cabinet, nor the Defence Committee, had discussed the bomb before it was dropped. In a telegram to Eden on l8 April l945, Churchill proposed that the Americans should advance into the region south of Stuttgart before the French troops reached it. Churchill believed that German nuclear research installations were to be found there, and he asked Eden to treat his suggestion as “background in deep shadow.”3 Truman had lunched with Churchill on l8 July, and the first part of their conversation concerned the atomic bomb. It was left out of the record for the cabinet, and only Anthony Eden and Sir John Anderson received a note of it. Truman asked Churchill what should be done about telling the Russians. The President was determined to tell them, but was uncertain about the timing. Should he do so at the end of the conference in Potsdam? Churchill advised him to link the news with the experiment
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 5
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
5
in New Mexico, “a new fact of which he and we had only just had knowledge. Therefore we must have a good answer to any question ‘why did you not tell us this before?’”4
The Race for the Ultimate Weapon The race for the atomic bomb was, in the end, won by America. The explosions over the New Mexico desert, and then over Hiroshima and Nagasaki in the summer 1945, marked the beginning of a new age. The scientists who had fled from fascist Europe, where Hitler made a point of distrusting “Jewish physics,” helped to draw the attention of the governments in Washington and London to the potential threat of Nazi Germany developing the “ultimate weapon.” Leo Szilard helped persuade Albert Einstein to write, on 2 August 1939, a letter to president Roosevelt, warning him of the destructive potential of nuclear fission. Einstein’s letter also contained a reference to the importance of the uranium mines at Jáchymov, which had come under Nazi control after the Munich agreement in September 1938. In response to the letter, Roosevelt established a uranium commission in October 1939, in order to determine the feasibility of building the bomb. Other, similar impulses came from Britain. Between the two wars, nuclear scientists had formed a small international group: they knew each other and worked closely together. When Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman concluded that they brought about nuclear fission in their experiments, they reported on their findings in a wellknown scientific journal, Naturwissenschaften, at the beginning of 1939. Research in the instability of matter was marked, however, by bad timing. Important advances were made about the time of the outbreak of the Second World War. The international group of scientists fell apart, and articles on their work disappeared from academic journals. As politicians grasped the possibility of developing the ultimate weapon, secrecy and military necessity came to dominate the scientists’ work. After the defeat of France in May l940, Joliot Curie, the leading French nuclear physicist, stayed in Paris and sent two of his assistants to England. They brought heavy water in tin cans, and continued their work on slow neutrons in Cambridge. The team at the Cavendish Laboratory discovered that, in the course of neutron reactions, plutonium emerged. Virtually unknown in nature, it behaved like uranium 235. In April 1940, Rudolf Peierls and Otto Frisch, refugee scientists in England, wrote a memorandum suggesting that a lump of pure uranium
Zeman 1
31/1/08
6
3:38 PM
Page 6
Uranium Matters
235 would create chain reaction necessary for the bomb. They also proposed an industrial method for separating uranium 235 from uranium 238. They also forecast the horrors of the bomb, and explored its strategic and moral implications. A five kilogram bomb would liberate the energy of several thousand tons of dynamite, causing radiation fatal to living beings long after the explosion. The British government established the “MAUD committee,” which concerned itself with the feasibility of producing the nuclear weapon. In July l94l, the committee reported that it would be possible to make a bomb, which was “likely to lead to decisive results in the war.” Churchill made the MAUD report available to Roosevelt. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour took place on 7 December 1941, and the German declaration of war on the United States followed four days later. Roosevelt was anxious to receive British cooperation and wrote to Churchill about a joint atomic project. The British response was measured, because they wanted their own project—code-named Tube Alloys—with American cooperation. In the summer of 1942, the Americans began to construct a large technological venture around research hitherto confined largely to university laboratories. The atomic project was given the code name “Manhattan,” and Lt. General Leslie R. Groves, a West Point graduate who had supervised the building of the Washington Pentagon, became its manager. There was some hesitation over the appointment of Robert Oppenheimer as the head of research. A university teacher of theoretical physics with an international reputation, he was more interested in pure research than in its application. He was also regarded as something of a political risk. When his appointment was confirmed, Oppenheimer began bringing together the best available scientists in America. He assumed that about 150 of them could successfully complete the project; eventually, their number grew to some 2,500. By the end of 1942, the advantage of the American project became apparent. The British knew that the US had cornered the Canadian market in uranium and heavy water for the next two years, and that their own project would have to move to North America. The British tried to come in on the US project, but the Americans were reluctant to accept them. The exchange of information ceased, and the western allies remained united by the fear that Germany would beat them in the atomic race. On 27 February 1943, Churchill telegraphed Roosevelt that “My whole understanding, was that everything was on the basis of fully sharing the results as equal partners. I have no record, but I shall be very much surprised if the President’s recollection does not square with
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 7
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
7
this.”5 Churchill was convinced that the possession of the bomb would provide the key to national power after the war, and he tried hard, in August l943, to convince Roosevelt to sign the Quebec agreement. It helped the British to participate in the Manhattan Project, and led to joint purchase and utilization of uranium supplies. The partners in the agreement promised never to use the bomb against third parties without the other’s consent, nor to pass on atomic information to third parties. All available British scientists joined the US project, while the AngloFrench team from Cambridge moved to Canada. They could not go on working in Britain, and the Americans would not have them. The US government had little liking for the Free French, while the leader of the Anglo-French team was unacceptable to American scientists. After the Quebec agreement was signed, the Americans underwrote the British project in Canada. John Cockroft, the English Nobel Prizewinning physicist, became its head. Canada joined Britain and America in the nuclear project as an additional partner and the main provider of uranium. Canadian officials sometimes played the role of an intermediary between Britain and America. On 2 December l942, Enrico Fermi successfully set up a self-sustaining chain reaction in a reactor built into a squash court at Chicago University. In addition to the reactors built by DuPont, the Manhattan Project had six other reactors, which produced uranium 235 by three different methods. All of this—as well as the construction of the first experimental bomb—was achieved at a time when the US armament industry was nearly stretched to its limit producing conventional weapons, as well as advanced new equipment such as radar. The atomic project cost the American government some $2 billion. The Manhattan Project scientists fulfilled their objective and delivered the bomb to the US government. The first plutonium bomb was tested in the New Mexico desert on 16 July 1945. The Germans had signed unconditional capitulation and the Potsdam conference was to start the following day. In the morning of 6 August, a uranium bomb was exploded over Hiroshima, and on 9 August a plutonium bomb destroyed Nagasaki. Stalin declared war on Japan on 8 August, and on 14 August, the Japanese emperor declared his willingness to capitulate. Throughout the war, the Allied intelligence services’ fear that Germany would develop its own atomic weapon was never quite allayed. The Germans had the necessary technology and scientific strength. They had Jáchymov under their control and, after the occupation of France and Belgium, came into possession of large stores of uranium. Yet early
Zeman 1
31/1/08
8
3:38 PM
Page 8
Uranium Matters
in the war, and at least until the first months of 1942, it seemed that Germany would win the war with conventional weapons alone. The political will of the Nazi leadership to create the weapon did not remain constant, and the German scientific effort was not centralized on the scale of the Manhattan Project. On 29 April 1939, the president of the Physikalisch–Technische Reichsanstalt, Professor Abraham Esau, organized the foundation meeting of the Uranium Society (Uranverein). Several research groups joined as members: Nobel Prize winner Werner Heisenberg and his colleagues in Leipzig and Berlin; the scientists from the Ordnance Office (Heereswaffenamt), who were working under Kurt Diebner in GottowKummersdorf to the south of Berlin; a group around Paul Harteck in Hamburg; and the physicists at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Medicine in Heidelberg, with Walter Bothe at their head. Nikolaus Riehl, a pupil of Hahn, also joined the Uranium Club. As head of the research division of the Auergesellschaft, Riehl offered the Heereswaffenamt the services of his department. Early in December 1939, Heisenberg delivered a report on the “possibility of using nuclear fission as a technical source of energy” to the Heereswaffenamt. It outlined plans for the building of a nuclear reactor. An effective moderator, which would slow down neutrons without absorbing them, was required. Graphite and heavy water were considered: a complicated electrolytical process was required for the production of heavy water. The technology became available to the Germans after the occupation of Norway and the merger of Norsk Hydro in Rjukan with IG Farbenindustrie. Norsk Hydro was obliged to increase production, making it available exclusively to the German Reich. In the summer of 1940, the Wehrmacht overran France, the Netherlands and Belgium, acquiring large supplies of uranium. Though the director of the Union Minie` re, Edgar Sengier, had ordered the shipment of uranium and radium reserves to New York in September 1939, some remained in Belgium and fell into German hands. Beginning in July 1940, the German companies Auergesellschaft and Degussa began purchasing uranium compounds from the Union Minire. The largest lot (1,244 tons) was secured by Roges GmbH, a German war materials company, in May 1942. It also made purchases in occupied France and bought further 200 tons of uranium compound from Union Minire. Until the summer of 1944, the Belgian company assisted the Auergesellschaft with the purification of uranium oxide.6 Germany’s own production of uranium remained relatively small during the war, and uranium mining enjoyed no special priority. The
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 9
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
9
Germans took little interest in the known reserves of uranium in Bulgaria and in Portugal. In Jáchymov, the mining of uranium lingered on and no attempts were made to increase production. Only the mines at Schmiedeberg in Silesia were enlarged during the war. In autumn 1939, the Heereswaffenamt requested the Auergesellschaft to help with the processing of uranium and, within a few weeks, the company built a plant at Oranienburg, with the capacity of about one ton of uranium oxide a month.7 The Degussa plant in Frankfurt am Main followed, and from the end of 1944, another plant was built at Berlin-Grünau.8 Initially, the military was more concerned with maintaining an adequate supply of luminous paint than with the nuclear project. Early in 1942, the Supreme Command of the Wehrmacht assumed the requirement of 7 grams of radium, in addition to 1.5 grams for the Italian and the Japanese armies. Three grams of radium were produced by Joachimsthal; the rest of the requirement was met with deliveries from France and Belgium. This covered the uranium needs of the Wehrmacht for three years.9 The Germans had enough uranium to make the bomb.10 After the occupation of France, they also acquired the cyclotron at the Joliot Curie institute. The cyclotron was to stay in Paris, and German scientists were to have access to it.11 Cyclotrons were subsequently constructed in Germany at the institutes of Walter Bothe at Heidelberg and Gerhard Hoffmann in Leipzig, and at the Reich Post Office laboratories at Miersdorf and Berlin-Lichterfelde. In the meanwhile, experimental work was started in Hamburg and Berlin. Heisenberg and Karl Friedrich von Weizsäcker had a laboratory built on the site of the Institute of Biology and Virus Research at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft at Berlin-Dahlem. The laboratory was known as the “Virus House.” Their experiments, based on Fritz Houtermans’ work on the release of nuclear chain reactions, confirmed that the only two suitable moderators were graphite and heavy water.* The Ura*
Even by the standards of an abnormal era, Houtermans led an extraordinary life. A half Jewish communist, he fled from Hitler’s Germany to the Soviet Union in 1935. He was arrested during the great purges and delivered to the Nazis after the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact in the autumn 1939. He was then put into the care of the Gestapo and released after Max von Laue’s intervention. Houtermans found employment in Manfred von Ardenne’s team at Berlin-Lichterfelde and worked for the Nazi regime in order to save his life. In the spring 1941, he warned an American agent of the German nuclear programme and in the autumn he took part in the plunder of the Soviet laboratories in Kiev and Kharkov. After the war, his role in nuclear research fell into oblivion. (cf. Paul Lawrence Rose, Heisenberg and the Nazi Atomic Bomb Project, 135 et seq.)
Zeman 1
31/1/08
10
3:38 PM
Page 10
Uranium Matters
nium Society put its faith in heavy water. Heisenberg established that the chain reaction of natural uranium created element 94, or plutonium. In September 1941, he knew that the way to the construction of a nuclear bomb was clear. The reason why he did not complete the work are still disputed by scientists and historians. Did Heisenberg hesitate to deliver the bomb to Hitler? Did his project simply lack resources after having been put on the back burner by the Nazis? Or did it suffer from conceptual difficulties in connection with his estimates of “critical mass?” At the end of October, the legendary meeting between Heisenberg and Niels Bohr took place in Copenhagen. The two men were unable to establish common ground. While Bohr feared that Heisenberg wanted to pick his brain and convince him to cooperate with the Germans, his former protégé believed that Bohr was unaware of his reservations with regard to the Nazis. In the autumn of 1941, it seemed as though a German victory was assured, and they had no need for any miraculous products of science, later known as “Wunderwaffen.” The military lost interest in nuclear research and the Heereswaffenamt passed on responsibility for the project to the Reich Research Office (Reichsforschungsrat). On 26 February 1942, the office held a conference of nuclear physicists in Berlin. The captains of the armaments industry kept their distance, and the Reich leaders also seemed rather lackadaisical in regard to the military uses of nuclear fission. On 21 March 1942, Joseph Goebbels wrote in his diary that: “Researches in the field of destruction of the atom have succeeded so far that they could be possibly considered for the conduct of the current war. The tiniest input has such an immense power of destruction that one looks forward with some horror to the course of the war, should it last still longer, or to a later war.”12 The German nuclear project was divided among several institutes, among which two were outstanding: Heisenberg’s group at the KaiserWilhelm Institute of Physics in Berlin, and the Heereswaffenamt group under the direction Kurt Diebner at Gottow, near Berlin. The key theoretical question concerned how to achieve critical mass, i.e. the correct amount of fissionable material (U 235 or plutonium) needed to maintain an explosive chain reaction while avoiding a spontaneous explosion. Estimating critical mass would be a deciding factor in determining whether the construction of the bomb should be attempted. A meeting took place in Berlin on 4 June 1942, in which Albert Speer, the minister for armaments, General Leeb, the head of the Heereswaffenamt, General Field Marshal Milch and other top military officials took
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 11
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
11
part. The generals showed some interest in the possibility of building a nuclear weapon. Questioned by Milch, Heisenberg stated that an atomic bomb, with enormous destructive power, should not be larger than a pineapple. After Heisenberg referred to the enormous investments required, Speer wanted to know what kind of a sum the scientists had in mind. Weizsäcker mentioned a sum that seemed ridiculously low and it became clear to Speer and to the military present that the project could not be significant for the conduct of the war.13 There were no more meetings between Speer and Heisenberg. Although Speer was not convinced of the practical value of nuclear research, he went on supporting it in a modest way. In 1943 he set aside 3 million Reichsmarks (RM) for it, and 3.6 million RM in 1944.14 Hitler himself remained skeptical about the nuclear project. In addition, he suffered from deep distrust of “Jewish physics” and dismissed anything having to do with Albert Einstein out of hand. Still, the leaders of the Third Reich may have known more about the US Manhattan project than had been assumed. The Sicherheitsdienst had tapped the transatlantic telephone connection and broke the radio traffic code between Moscow and the Soviet embassy in Washington.15 The information thus acquired was passed on to scientists close to the SS. In addition, the Germans and the Japanese received reports on the Manhattan project from Spanish agent Alcazar de Velasco early in 1944.16 We have as yet no evidence on the uses the Nazis made of the fragmentary information they acquired on the British-American program. Prominent scientists and heads of the armaments industry remained convinced that nuclear explosives could not be manufactured in time to influence the outcome of the war. After the spring of 1943, Heisenberg made no more references to the “explosive.” The Allies, on the other hand, interpreted the situation differently, believing they were in a technological race with Nazi Germany. Assaults by British commandos and the Norwegian resistance in February, and the attacks by the RAF in November 1943, paralyzed Norsk Hydro’s production of heavy water near Vemork. A ferry was sunk which was to bring the remaining heavy water to Germany in February 1944. In any case, the heavy water plants in Norway were dismantled in the middle of 1944 and shipped to Germany. New methods of producing heavy water were developed and new plants were built at the Leuna Werke near Merseburg. In the meanwhile, experimental work in Germany had advanced. Kurt Diebner’s group made important discoveries, leaving the achievements of Heisenberg’s group behind. At the end of 1943, Professor Walther
Zeman 1
31/1/08
12
3:38 PM
Page 12
Uranium Matters
Gerlach of Munich took over the running of the Uranium Society, and attempted to make peace between the various research groups there. At the same time, the growing intensity of Allied air attacks prompted the relocation of nuclear research projects under the Reich Research Office to Freiburg, Hechingen, Heidelberg in South Germany and Stadtilm in Thuringia. Heisenberg and his colleagues believed that Germany’s defeat was within sight. During 1944 and 1945, they concentrated on one task: to set off chain reaction in a uranium machine (nuclear reactor). In a cave at Haigerloch, near Tübingen, the final experiments were begun. Early in March 1945, the Heisenberg group was on the threshold of achieving self-contained chain reaction.17 Other research groups passed beyond that stage, and historians, who had focused their attention on the activities of the most eminent member of the Uranium Society, were long loath to acknowledge this fact. Apart from Heisenberg and Kurt Diebner in Gottow and later at Stadtilm, there were at least two more groups working independently of each other in the atomic field.18 They were the research groups of the Reichspost at Berlin-Lichterfelde, under Manfred von Ardenne; and at Miersdorf, with Dr. Georg Otterbein at its head; as well as a little-known SS research group divided between Thuringia, Austria and Bohemia. In addition to its routine work, the research department of the Reich Post Office took over some important military research, including enciphering and radar development. Dr. Wilhelm Ohnesorge, the minister of post and a close party comrade of Hitler since 1920, wanted to give his department extra political weight by supporting research. Ohnesorge had at his disposal a scientific think-tank based in Kleinmachnow, near Berlin.19 In December 1939, Manfred von Ardenne drew his attention to the “unusual importance of the discoveries by Hahn and Strassmann.”20 It was a shrewd political move, as the post office had a large fund for basic research and an expert minister who carried weight in the Nazi hierarchy. In January 1940, Ohnesorge decided to support the project “for the technical development of process and production in the field of atom disintegration.”21 Ardenne started building a powerful apparatus for the production of radioactive isotopes and a cyclotron, which became operative at the beginning of 1944. New Post Office research institutes were established at Kleinmachnow and at Miersdorf. Equipment belonging to
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 13
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
13
the main institute at Berlin-Lichterfelde, such as its high tension apparatus and heavy cyclotron, was duplicated at Miersdorf. Ohnesorge was determined to deliver the first “uranium bomb” to his Führer. He reported to Hitler on several occasions on the work in progress; in June 1942, Hitler was amused by the thought that his minister of posts should be engaged in the development of new weapons. The research conducted by the Reichspost, Heereswaffenamt and SS in the autumn of 1944 was further advanced than it has been hitherto assumed. After the failed assassination attempt on Hitler in July 1944, Himmler’s SS became considerably more powerful. Himmler pressed for the transfer of all important armaments and research projects under SS control. Nuclear weapons fell into the same category as the V-Waffen (i.e. rockets and jet fighters). SS General Dr. Hans Kammler, the head of Gruppe C of the SS economic and administrative directorate, was in charge of the considerable enterprise, including extensive underground projects.22 Himmler and the SS began to assert their influence when the life expectancy of the Third Reich was low, right before defeat created total chaos. It is not clear how far Kammler was able to pursue the high technology projects under his control. It is also hard to establish whether the scientists who cooperated with the SS, and who worked in the underground complexes in Austria, Thuringia, Silesia and Bohemia achieved significant results. In his 2005 study entitled Hitlers Bombe, Rainer Karlsch threw new light on the dilemma of the German bomb. He argued that when Hitler started making references to the Wunderwaffe in the summer of 1944, he had a nuclear weapon in mind. There exists evidence that, in 1944 and 1945, small test explosions took place on Rügen and in Thuringia, taking the lives of prisoners of war and of other prisoners.23 Stalin apparently kept the film of a test explosion in his desk in the Kremlin. The Allies’ fear that Hitler might possess a nuclear bomb by no means decreased as the war went on. The influential publisher of a scientific magazine, Paul Rosbaud, was the most important source for the British on the German atomic endeavor. He was in touch with prominent scientists and kept sending alarming reports to London.24 In 1944, General Groves decided to establish a specialized unit that was to gather intelligence on the German atomic program. Lt. Col. Boris T. Pash became the commander of the unit, which was called the “Alsos.” Pash’s scientific adviser was Dutch physicist Samuel A. Goudsmit.25 Pash set up office in London in 1944, with Captain Horace C. Calvert as his liaison officer. Calvert discovered that the Germans had acquired large stores of urani-
Zeman 1
31/1/08
14
3:38 PM
Page 14
Uranium Matters
um near Brussels when they occupied Belgium, and that Auer-Gesellschaft processed the ore. The Alsos mission arrived in liberated Paris on 25 August 1944. They contacted Joliot Curie straightaway, who knew much less about the German effort than the Americans hoped. In the middle of November in Strassburg, Pash discovered a German physical laboratory and some documentary material. Goudsmit thought that it proved that the Germans neither had the bomb, nor were they able to construct it.26 In retrospect, Pash regarded the finding that the German atomic weapon presented no threat with pride. He expressed the view that this was the most important intelligence discovery of the war, and alone justified the existence of the Alsos.27 Groves regarded the Alsos mission as completed when the remainder of the Belgian uranium was located. However, the hunt for German atomic scientists continued; many were found at Heidelberg, Hechingen, Stadtilm and in Bavaria. After the end of the war, ten prominent German physicists, including Hahn and Heisenberg, were interned for six months at an English country house known as Farm Hall, near Cambridge. All their conversations were secretly recorded. The British wanted to know whether the Germans had hidden away nuclear material and research reports, and wanted to prevent German scientists from going to work for the Soviet Union. When the Germans heard that the US bomb was used on Hiroshima, they did not believe the news. After becoming aware of the extent of the US-British project, and of its success, Otto Hahn said to his colleagues: “If the Americans have the atomic bomb then you’re all second-raters. Poor old Heisenberg.”28 In reply to the news of the explosion of the atomic bomb, and in an attempt to give an outline of the history of their own project, the German scientists drafted a press release. They stressed that German nuclear research did not center on the development of a nuclear explosive. This later led to the legend that German scientists slowed down their work to keep from delivering the bomb to Hitler. After losing the scientific and technological race, they moved to occupy the moral high ground.* The observation that history is often no more than propaganda of the victors is reflected in the historiography of the atomic bomb. There exists a whole library of books on the making of the bomb, and only a few vol*
Robert Jungk’s book, Brighter Than Thousands Suns, published in 1956, did much to give that view wide circulation. See also the Bibliographical note at the end of Part 1.
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 15
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
15
umes on the work connected with the production of a small thermonuclear weapon in Germany. The Japanese nuclear program suffered a similar fate. In the 1970s, the American press reported that the Japanese also had a nuclear program. Japan was among the first three countries in the world with a cyclotron.29 Professor Yoshio Nishina was the key person in the project code-named NI and financed by the military. NI had been started in July 1941, five months before the attack on Pearl Harbour. Nishina had spent eight years before the war in Europe, studying with Rutherford in Cambridge and Bohr in Copenhagen. In Japan he became the “father of new physics,” and in 1931 he was given his own laboratory at the University of Tokyo. An independent research project was started in Japan by the navy, under the code name F-Go Program, around the summer of 1942. The scientific head of the project was Dr. Bunsaku Arakatsu.30 Arakatsu had also spent a few years abroad, including time at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge under Rutherford. In 1927, Arakatsu studied at Berlin University (today the Humboldt-Universität) under Einstein, becoming a member of Einstein’s circle of friends. Next to Nishina, Arakatsu, who taught physics at the University of Kyoto, was the most prominent nuclear physicist in Japan. Japanese research projects, however, suffered from shortages of uranium and a dearth of large energy plants. The most important resources of uranium were located on the Korean peninsula, and an industrial complex, run by the Japanese navy, was therefore developed at Hungman (Konan in Japanese). A vast fertilizer factory was built at Hungman, as well as a hydroelectric plant, a propellants plant and a heavy water installation. The approximately 300 scientists working there on the nuclear project probably had a cyclotron at their disposal, as a part of the plant was located underground. Raw materials, uranium in particular, came from the occupied territories in Korea, China and Inner Mongolia. Shortly before the end of the war, US intelligence came across some unexpected information. Japanese scientists were apparently planning to conduct an atomic bomb test near Konan on 12 August, six days after the Hiroshima explosion. The bomb developed for the Japanese navy was possibly intended to be used by kamikaze pilots. However, this rumor could not be verified, as Konan was occupied a few days later by the Red Army. Most of the Japanese installations were subsequently destroyed. Though most experts are skeptical about a Japanese nuclear bomb test, it seems that the Japanese project was further advanced than had been assumed. After the two nuclear attacks on Japan, and the country’s subsequent unconditional surrender, the history of its atomic project
Zeman 1
31/1/08
16
3:38 PM
Page 16
Uranium Matters
was suppressed. Japan came to regard itself as a victim of the American raids. The scientists who had taken part in the nuclear program remained silent, or insisted they had taken part in developing atomic energy for peaceful purposes. Shortly after the war, the Japanese cyclotron was destroyed by the US Army, and the few extant documents confiscated. The Second World War had hardly ended and new conflicts were starting to emerge. The United States had little interest in publishing information regarding the nuclear achievements of the defeated powers. The post-war history of Europe, and of the world, was dominated by the conflict between two new superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union. The conflict was driven by the arms race, especially in the field of the nuclear weapons. Stalin’s shrewdness and paranoia helped him to conceal his extensive knowledge of his Western allies’ nuclear project in Potsdam on 24 July 1945. He had received the first information on the possibilities of an atomic bomb from London as early as the autumn of 1941. The information came from John Cairncross, private secretary to Lord Hankey, a member of the cabinet responsible for overseeing the work of the intelligence services.31 It was passed on to Moscow by Anatolii Veniaminovich Gorsky (Vadim), who worked under diplomatic cover as the resident in London. Gorsky’s message was sent on 25 October 1941, and reached Moscow shortly before the celebration of the anniversary of the revolution on 7 November. Lavrentii Beria, the head of the NKVD, delivered the report to Stalin. In March l942, another reminder of the importance attributed by the British to nuclear research reached Moscow. Gorsky reported the details of the nuclear project and the role which Canada, a rich source of uranium, was to play in it. Another report from London concerned nuclear research carried out by Hahn and Heisenberg in Germany. It also referred to the Norsk Hydro plant in Rjukan, Norway, capable of supplying Germany with 4,500 kg of heavy water a year. Beria suggested that consultations with the scientists should take place. Many leading Soviet scientists were pessimistic about the practical uses of atomic energy. They noted that articles on the subject had stopped appearing in western scientific publications. A young physicist Georgi Flerov, who served as a lieutenant in Voronezh early in 1942, wrote to Stalin in April. It is not certain whether the letter reached Stalin, though it was known in the scientific community. Flerov’s letter harshly criticized, in familiar terms of Stalinist invective, the physicists who were pessimistic about the possibility of developing nuclear energy for military purposes.
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 17
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
17
Beria used intelligence reports from the West to acquaint Stalin and the State Committee for Defense (GOKO, the highest government office concerned with military matters) with the subject of nuclear weapons. The reports showed that research in nuclear physics was considered to have significant military applications, and that the scientific community in Germany, as well as the British and Americans, also intended to use it for military purposes. Beria intended to create a body of scientific consultants and attach it to the State Defense Committee. He named three scientists (Kapitsa, Skobeltsyn and Slutski) as having worked in the field of nuclear fission. As none of them had in fact done so, it seems that Beria was better informed on the British than the Soviet side of atomic research.32 Igor Vasilevich Kurchatov, who was then researching the problem of protecting shipping against the threat of magnetic mines, was invited to come to Moscow on l5 September l942. There he met Mikhail Georgevich Pervukhin, a party technocrat with the rank of deputy prime minister in charge of the chemical industries. Kurchatov possibly met Stalin as well. He moved to Moscow permanently in February l943, when the State Defense Committee formally established an atomic energy research program. Kurchatov’s colleague, Iulii Borisovich Khariton, thought that Kurchatov was “an exceptional leader who organized a strategically correct program from the very beginning.”33 While Beria was considering how best to use the intelligence material from London, Molotov made it available to Pervukhin. Molotov asked him to find out what Soviet scientists knew about the research carried out abroad, and their opinions about the kind of research that should be undertaken in the Soviet Union. In January 1943, Pervukhin had a meeting with Kurchatov and two of his colleagues, asking them for a memorandum concerning nuclear research. When it was finished, Pervukhin handed it over to Molotov with a warm recommendation. The State Committee for Defense passed a special resolution on the organization of nuclear research, and the laboratory of the Academy of Sciences (which later became known as Laboratory No. 2) was established. On 10 March 1943, Kurchatov was confirmed in the post of the scientific director of the project, thus becoming Robert Oppenheimer’s opposite number in the Soviet Union. After Kurchatov expressed doubts to Molotov about the feasibility of constructing the bomb in the foreseeable future, Molotov decided to pass on the intelligence materials to him. In March 1943, Kurchatov began studying these materials in his room in the Kremlin. Among the scientists, he was the only recipient of information from secret intelli-
Zeman 1
31/1/08
18
3:38 PM
Page 18
Uranium Matters
gence sources. Though unable to disclose its origin to his colleagues, he abandoned his skepticism about the practicality of the bomb.34 In two letters to Pervukhin on 7 and 22 March l943, Kurchatov compared the work of the Soviet physicists with the intelligence he had from Molotov, wondering whether they were a true reflection of the state of research in the West. He was surprised that Western scientists preferred the diffusion to the centrifuge method of isotope separation. Kurchatov noted that the intelligence reports contained “some fragmentary comments about the possibility of using not only uranium 235 but also uranium 238.” In a letter to Pervukhin on 22 March, Kurchatov wrote that “I looked carefully through the latest research in the Physical Review on transuranic elements…and I was able to determine a new direction in the solution of the whole uranium problem…The prospects in this direction are unusually attractive.”35 Lavrentii Pavlovich Beria knew that Churchill and Roosevelt had discussed cooperating on the atomic project in Washington in June of 1942, and that the main part of the project would move to America. So far, the most valuable information had come from British sources. John Cairncross, who passed the contents of the MAUD report on the feasibility of the nuclear weapon on to the Russians, moved to Bletchley Park, where German radio traffic was deciphered, before getting a job in the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS). John Philby began reporting to the Soviets early in 1944, after the establishment of a section that was to deal with “past records of Soviet and Communist activity.” Donald Maclean, a young diplomat and a Soviet spy, dealt with Anglo-American cooperation and the building of the atom bomb at the British Embassy in Washington.36 Moscow had several well-placed British sources of political intelligence at its disposal. For scientific and technical information, Klaus Fuchs was probably most valuable. After his move to North America he had his first meeting with the Soviet controller, Harry Gold, on 5 February 1944 in New York. In September 1944, Kurchatov assessed the Manhattan project as “a concentration of scientific and engineeringtechnical power on a scale never seen before in the history of world science, which has already achieved the most priceless results.”37 The secret service reported to Beria using sources from Los Alamos, apparently for the first time, as late as 28 February 1945. The report contained details of the construction of the bomb, provided by Theodore Alvin Hall, a precocious, nineteen year-old Harvard physicist. Hall was convinced that nuclear arms monopoly would continue to threaten world
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 19
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
19
peace and, together with technical sergeant David Greenglass, became a useful source of intelligence on the Manhattan project. It therefore seems likely that the Russians had two sets of instructions on how to make the bomb before them: Hall may have revealed the implosion method before more detailed instructions came from Klaus Fuchs.38 When Stalin returned from Potsdam in August, he asked Kurchatov to come and see him. Stalin was impressed with the American achievement, and dissatisfied with Soviet physicists. Kurchatov tried to explain why the Soviet program had made so little progress: many people had died, equipment was destroyed, the country faced famine, and nothing was available. Kurchatov did not say that, during the war, Stalin had hedged his bets as far as the nuclear project was concerned. By the end of l944, it employed about a hundred scientists. After the explosions of the US atomic weapons in the summer of l945, Stalin knew that the power of the Soviet Union and its victory in the war would be called in question. He told Kurchatov that he wanted to know what the scientists needed, and that they would lack for nothing in the future. The Russian people were again compelled to make huge sacrifice. In the midst of post-war devastation and shortages, Stalin began laying down the foundations of the Soviet military–industrial complex.
Uranium Monopoly and the Division of Europe In the race for the nuclear weapon, availability of uranium ore was of the essence. General Groves tried to secure a monopoly over the purchase and processing of uranium by all available means. On 3 December 1945, Groves confidently reported to the Secretary of War that the Combined Development Trust, a joint British-American government agency, controlled by Groves himself, had cornered 97% of the world’s production of uranium, and 65% of thorium.39 Sometime in February 1945, Groves recommended to General Marshall that the Auer uranium processing plant near Oranienburg be destroyed by air attack.40 The role of the Auer Gesellschaft in the supply of uranium was confirmed independently by information from Brussels and from Paris. Auer had taken over the management of a formerly Jewish company in Paris, which traded in rare metals, and thorium in particular. Dr. Egon Ihwe, who looked after this side of the Auer business, had supplied Alsos with the information. By the end of 1944, Groves knew of the central importance of the Oranienburg processing plant. For a long
Zeman 1
31/1/08
20
3:38 PM
Page 20
Uranium Matters
time, his memoirs remained the only source on the true purpose of the heavy air raid on 15 March 1945.41 The Auer Gesellschaft plant was not among the targets originally selected for the Eighth US Air Force, which carried out the raid. Instead, the SS Main Ordnance and the Heinkel aircraft plant and airfield were to be targeted. The Auer processing plant was not mentioned in any existing documents or literature, though the neighboring railway junction was. The only mention of the air raid on the Auer plant comes from a report dated 16 March: “The industrial area just West of the target [i.e. the SS depot], including the gas mask factory of [there is an empty space in the report] AUERGESELLSCHAFT AG recieved [sic] many hits, causing at least two explosions and starting numerous fires.”42 Among the target dossiers of the US Strategic Bombing Survey, there exists a report on the raid where this gap in the text is filled in, by hand, with “GS-5451,” the code for the Auer plant. The sentence quoted above is also underlined by hand. It may be assumed that these unusual additions, made in only one of the 243 copies of the report distributed in the offices of the US Air Force, were made by somebody who had special interest in the work of the Auer Company. It was described in the report as a maker of “gas-masks, anti-gas equipment for submarines and air filters.” The Americans and the British selected targets on the basis of a detailed list of German industrial plants, including the Auer Company. Its description as a producer of gas masks is hardly plausible. The operational order named the Mean Points of Impact—that is, places where the bombs were to be concentrated. One was in the middle of the railway station, the second on the rails of the south-eastern exit. This was where the Auer plant was situated, on both sides of the railway lines. The plant therefore lay at the centre of the massive air raid, which was conducted by the Eighth Air Force. 612 aircrafts took part in the raid, and the composition of the strike force was significant: every bomber flight was to include one plane with delayed fuse bombs. The delays were 1, 2, 6 and 12 hours, in order to hinder salvage efforts. The order for the operation came in late. The Eighth Air Force had planned for routine raids on synthetic fuel plants in the area of Leipzig and Ruhland on 15 March. A high priority order then arrived from the United States Strategic Air Force, giving the composition and tactics of the strike force and moving the target to the area of Berlin.43 The command of the Eighth Air Force was thus transferred from General James H. Doolittle to the supreme commander of the US Air Force, General
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 21
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
21
Carl Spaatz. All this tallies with the report on the raid as told in General Groves’ autobiography. About three weeks after the raid, the Auer Company asked Reich authorities for compensation for the damage caused by the raid. On the basis of accounts from June 1944, the total cost of the damage was put at 61 million RM.44 A few days later, the Red Army reached the town. A Soviet commission of experts started inspecting the plant on 21 April 1945. Ihwe, the manager, was questioned. All documentation and patents had to be handed over to the commission. All usable equipment was stripped and sent to the Soviet Union, as well as the available rare metals. When Nikolaus Riehl, the German physicist, visited the Oranienburg processing plant, he realized that “The Russians who accompanied me appreciated that the bombings were directed not against the Germans but against them.”45 When some of the uranium the Germans had initially impounded in Belgium was located at Stassfurt, deep within the Soviet zone, the Alsos advanced there regardless and impounded some 1,100 tons of ore. Until the spring of 1945, the Allies had been united in their desire to bring the war to an early end, though often divided on how to best achieve this. The European Advisory Commission (EAC) was a backroom team proposed by Eden and established by the Foreign Ministers Conference in Moscow in October l943. Based in London, it played the key role in drawing up zones of occupation in Germany, and kept the lines of communication open on matters of strategy between American, British and Soviet military commands. Preliminary work concerning the division of Germany into zones of occupation was done in connection with the preparations for the Second Front. General J. H. Morgan and his staff worked under the assumption that the Americans, whose bases were located in the western part of Britain, would go through France and Belgium to occupy south Germany, including Bavaria, while British forces would liberate Holland and move to the Ruhr and northwestern Germany. The Russians were to take the East, and Berlin was to come under joint control of the Allies. A committee of the British cabinet, chaired by Clement Attlee, confirmed the division and drew up the western border of the Russian zone.46 This was late in the summer of l943, and the boundary proposed in London eventually became the eastern border of the Federal Republic of Germany. It put 40% of German territory and 36% of the population on the other side of the boundary, under Soviet control. The EAC final protocol on the zones of occupation was signed 12 September 1944, and confirmed by the Big Three at the conference at
Zeman 1
31/1/08
22
3:38 PM
Page 22
Uranium Matters
Yalta in February 1945. It was a contract on the limits of advance of the Allied armies in Germany. It assumed momentous political significance later, by dividing Germany—and Europe— into two spheres of influence. Starting in March of 1945, as American and British troops advanced fast into the center of Germany and the Red Army was approaching Berlin, Churchill became increasingly concerned by Stalin’s policy in Eastern Europe. The future of Poland worried him, as did the reports of British officers on Allied Control Commissions in the countries under Soviet occupation. He wanted the western commanders to move as far east as they could, in disregard of the zonal protocol. Due to the speed of its eastward advance, the US Army moved into the “tactical zones” to the north of the Erzgebirge, and occupied large parts of Saxony and Thuringia, a region well beyond the zonal limit. Two days after Hitler’s last birthday, on 22 April l945, the US Seventh and the French First Army crossed the Danube. Augsburg and Munich fell to the Seventh Army on 30 April, and some 30,000 prisoners in the Dachau concentration camp were set free. In the north, British and American armies established bridgeheads across the river Elbe, while the Russians fought their way through the streets of Berlin. Hitler was by then dead or dying, and Field Marshal Keitel admitted that there was no way of relieving Berlin. The armies were everywhere on the move, and the fluid nature of warfare prompted Eisenhower, also on 30 April, to telegraph his strategic intentions to Moscow. He suggested that, in the north, his approximate aim was to reach the line Wismar-Schwerin-Domitz, while in the center he would hold his position along the Elbe and Mulde rivers. Concerning Czechoslovak territory, Eisenhower proposed to pause at the l937 border before advancing, should the situation require this, to a line between Karlovy Vary–Plzenˇ and Cˇeské Budeˇjovice. Eisenhower assumed that the Red Army would clear the country up to the Elbe and Moldau (Vltava) rivers. He added that “with knowledge of our mutual plans adjustments of contacts in this area” would be made by local commanders.47 On 4 May, one of Patton’s armored units was about to run into the Russians in the Linz region. In the evening, General Bradley telephoned Patton to give him the green light for an advance to Czechoslovakia. There were eighteen divisions in Patton’s army, comprised of some 540,000 men. He wanted to be through the mountain passes as soon as possible, “before anything hit us.” The advance began in the morning on 5 May: “In view of the radio reports that the Czechoslovakian citizens
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 23
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
23
had taken Prague, I was very anxious to go and assist them, and asked Bradley for authority to do so, but this was denied. As a matter of fact, however, reconnaissance elements of the Third Army were in the vicinity of Prague and by that act marked the furthest progress to the East of any western army.” On 6 May, Patton received confirmation of the ruling that his troops were not to advance beyond the stop line running through Pilsen for distances greater than required for security reconnaissance. “I was very much chagrined because I felt, and still feel, that we should have gone on to Moldau River and, if the Russians did not like it, let them go to hell.”48 The Karlovy Vary–Jáchymov region lay within the area of operations of the Vth Corps of Patton’s Third Army. It was commanded by General Huebner, who ordered his infantry and armored units to attack Karlovy Vary. The main road between Karlovy Vary, Sokolov and Kynsˇ perk was defended by the German Kampfgruppe Benicke. After some skirmishes, the Americans reached the line Kraslice-Jindrˇichovice—Horní Slavkov on 7 May. The Red Army got there four days later, on 11 May: the contact line with the Americans stabilized during the summer. It ran roughly from Sachsenberg in Germany across Rotava, Jindrˇichovice, Dolní Niva, Vintírˇov to Doubí, and from there to Teplicˇka and Becˇov.49 Czechoslovakia was an allied country, and both the Red Army and the US Army were expected to withdraw soon. No zones of occupation had been agreed upon for Czechoslovakia. In the meanwhile, developments in Germany were more blurred. In the spring of 1945, Churchill left Washington, a dark vision of the future of Soviet-dominated Europe fixed in his mind. The controversy about the withdrawal of the US Army to the agreed contact lines culminated early in May. Churchill warned Eden that the retreat of the American army would be one of the most distressing events of world history. The Americans were unimpressed by Churchill’s fears, as they did not want to risk a breakdown of the Allied occupation policy. Without withdrawal from the territory which was to be a part of the Russian zone of occupation, the future of the Allied Control Commission was threatened, as well as the control of Berlin by the four Powers. On 11 June 1945 President Truman cabled London that the agreement on the zones should be adhered to, and the British and the American troops withdrew from parts of Mecklenburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Thuringia and Saxony. The Americans also agreed that the Red Army should establish its headquarters at Karlovy Vary. The territories vacated by the Americans soon proved to be the richest source of uranium for Stalin’s atomic bomb.
Zeman 1
31/1/08
24
3:38 PM
Page 24
Uranium Matters
The brief occupation by the Americans of parts of the future Soviet zone gave rise to speculation. Why did the Americans withdraw and enable the Russians to access the richest sources of uranium in Europe? Did the promise of uranium play any role at this time, when Germany was divided into the zones of occupation? Did the Americans miss a historical chance when they withdrew from the line of their furthest advance to the East? In Stefan Heym’s 1984 novel Schwarzenberg, the answer was put simply: “When I imagine, how differently the history of the republic would have unfolded had the Americans known what was hidden under the soil of Schwarzenberg! They could have known it as did the miners, who mined silver and tin in the region in the old times and who struck pitchblende again and again. And were not the radioactive springs in the vicinity a further proof?”50 The idea of a missed historical chance was recycled in contemporary publicity.51 There exists no evidence that the uranium problem played any role in the negotiations on the division of Germany into zones of occupation. The negotiations took place at a time when Stalin was pessimistic about the atomic project, and the whole venture, including the search for uranium, did not enjoy a priority status. The uranium reserves in Thuringia, Saxony and Bohemia played no role in Churchill’s correspondence during the spring of 1945, with its insistence on retaining the territories under British and American occupation. At that time, neither he nor Truman were aware of the uranium reserves there.52 There nevertheless exists a sharp contrast between the decision of the Americans to withdraw from Saxony, Thuringia and Bohemia on the one hand and, on the other, the decision to bomb the Auer company plant in Oranienburg. Both decisions were made within a period of three months. While General Groves knew enough about the German atomic project to try and reduce Soviet war booty, he was less well informed about the Erzgebirge. He knew only of the oldest, low yield European uranium mines at Jáchymov. Early in the summer of 1945, the Russians moved into the region vacated by the Americans. They were not aware that, by the time mining was concluded there after 1989, it would produce over 231,000 tons of uranium.
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 25
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
25
The Erzgebirge and the Soviet Uranium Gap Some months before the end of the war, the NKVD began preparing itself for the search for German nuclear scientists and their technical equipment. Avramii P. Zaveniagin, Colonel General in NKVD and a mining engineer, became the head of the project. He had managed Magnitogorsk, a metallurgical concern, and the Norilsk mining company. In 1937, he became deputy minister of heavy industry. Zaveniagin became Beria’s deputy in 1941, and in the spring of 1945 he began to look after security of the Soviet atomic project. He was described as the “Soviet General Groves.”53 The position of the Soviet nuclear project and Zaveniagin’s role in it were further strengthened on 20 August 1945, when Stalin ordered the establishment of a special section of the State Committee on Defense,54 inviting Beria to be its head. According to a member of the team of nuclear scientists, the departments under Beria’s command worked with the precision of a Swiss watch.55 Of all the Soviet government agencies, the NKVD alone was capable of securing priority allocation of the resources for the project to build the bomb. The Soviets were initially more interested in tracing the German atomic program and recruiting German scientists than in the search for uranium.56 Despite strong opposition from the Communist Party bureaucrats, Zaveniagin sent a group of forty Soviet physicists to Germany.57 They succeeded in convincing eminent German scientists, including Manfred von Ardenne, Gustav Hertz, Heinz Pose, Nikolaus Riehl, Peter Adolf Thiessen and Max Volmer, to work for the Soviet atomic program. As early as 15 May 1945, NKVD presented in Moscow the results of their investigations into the German plants and research institutes which concerned themselves with nuclear matters.58 Among the institutions visited were the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik in Berlin-Dahlem, Manfred von Ardenne’s institute in Berlin-Lichterfelde, Institut der Reichspostforschungsanstalt in Zeuthen (Miersdorf), the Siemens cyclotron laboratory run by Gustav Hertz, as well as the plants and warehouses of the Auer company in Berlin-Charlottenburg, Berlin-Grunau, Oranienburg and Zechlin. The objects came under NKVD control and were soon dismantled. Special units found about 300 tons of uranium oxide and 7 tons of uranium metal in Berlin, Gottow, Zechlin, Kagar and Rheinsberg.59 In Stadtilm, a small town in Thuringia, the special unit found a uranium processing plant that used to belong to the Degussa Company.60 The Auer Company’s plant in Oranienburg, destroyed in the American air
Zeman 1
31/1/08
26
3:38 PM
Page 26
Uranium Matters
raid in March 1945, was also thoroughly searched; a few tons of pure uranium oxide and several hundred tons of thorium derivates were found there. According to western estimates, about half of the scientific work on the “uranium problem” in the Soviet Union was carried out in prison laboratories.61 In addition, prisoners in the gulag system carried out most of the construction and mining work for the atomic project. Alexander Solzhenitsyn, who mapped Stalin’s Gulag Archipelago in great detail, made only a brief reference to the camps that contributed to the nuclear project. Prisoners in the top-secret camps had to make special pledges of non-disclosure. According to Solzhenitsyn, these pledges were renewed every three months. When the initial phase of the work on the atomgrady (atomic cities) was completed, a large group of the workers were sent to Kolyma in September 1950, as a “particularly dangerous special contingent.” 62 Next to the gulag archipelago, there grew up the “white” archipelago of the nuclear enterprise. Professor Lev Altschuler spent twenty-two years as its employee: “The white archipelago became the centre of thousands of highly qualified scientists, engineers, construction and production workers and many others, who had survived the war and persecution.” They were completely isolated from the outside world: “My future workplace was miles away from the nearest railway station. We were transported in buses, wrapped into long fur coats. We passed through settlements which looked like Russia before Peter the Great. When we arrived, we saw monastery churches and houses, cottages scattered in the forest, and the common symbols of this era, the “zones”…[they were] camps inhabited by prisoners from every region of the Soviet Union and of every nationality. According to local people…a large number of prisoners had recently rioted and escaped into the forest. The rebellion was led by an army pilot. Every morning, columns of convicts marched through our village. Such was the stark reality.” 63 Parallel with the development of the nuclear program itself, Beria’s agencies tried to secure sufficient supplies of uranium. Russian geologists estimated Soviet uranium reserves at about 2,000 tons, concentrated mainly in central Asia.64 Its location meant that it could hardly become the basis of an efficient uranium industry. In the last months of the war, the NKVD therefore began exploring the possibilities of acquiring uranium abroad. Behind the advancing Red Army, and among the special units engaged in the search for scientific and technological booty of every kind, groups of geologists were to be found.
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 27
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
27
The first group came to Bulgaria at the end of November 1944. It followed a German trace: Soviet troops had discovered some German documents concerning uranium reserves in the vicinity of the town of Buchovo. The first report was sent to Beria on 12 January 1945, who informed the former leader of the communist International, Georgi Dimitrov, of the Soviet’s interest.65 In October, a Soviet-Bulgarian mining company was established, and Soviet geologists came to Buchovo. Political prisoners were employed in the uranium mines and, by the middle of 1946, the company had produced 272 tons of pitchblende, which was then sent to the Soviet Union.66 Dimitrov took a keen personal interest in the project. The Soviet director of the enterprise nevertheless did not inform Dimitrov about the quality of the Buchovo pitchblende. The volume of production was also kept a Soviet state secret.67 After Bulgaria, the NKVD turned to Czechoslovakia. At the end of August 1945, an expedition was sent to Jáchymov, including Semion P. Alexandrov and Alexander Orlov, two experts who had taken part in the search at Buchovo. Beria’s special committee for the atomic bomb received the first report on Jáchymov on 14 September 1945. The estimated uranium reserves in Jáchymov amounted to 300 tons.68 It was, however, in the German side of the Erzgebirge in the Soviet zone of occupation, which would eventually become the most important source of uranium for Beria’s project. The Jáchymov mines were not considered to be a rich source of highgrade ore, but the dearth of uranium in the Soviet Union nourished the hopes of new finds; and the Jáchymov trace led the Russians to neighboring Saxony. In May 1945, after Soviet specialists interrogated the geologists in Freiberg, they decided to carry out the necessary exploration themselves.69 Early in August 1945, an expedition of Soviet geologists, led by Professor Kreiter, came to Saxony.70 The geologists visited the headquarters of the Sachsenerz-Bergwerks AG in Freiberg and the mines near Schneeberg and Johanngeorgenstadt. In Freiberg, they consulted geological maps of the former silver fields, as well as the documents of the mining administration. Johannes Schmidt, who as chief supervisor (Obersteiger) knew his way around the mines better than anyone else, pointed out the old works where explorations could be started. Sometime in August 1945, the Russians decided to undertake thorough explorations in Saxony. The geologists, led by Semion P. Alexandrov began with a review of the old mines in September. They pretended to the Germans that they were looking for bismuth and cobalt.71 Profes-
Zeman 1
31/1/08
28
3:38 PM
Page 28
Uranium Matters
sor Friedrich Schumacher, director of the geological institute at the mining academy in Freiberg, was probably the first German who found out, during a conversation with Professor Kreiter on 10 September 1945, the true purpose of the search in Saxony. Schumacher agreed with Kreiter to establish an “office for colored metals,” which was to carry out commissions for the occupying authority. Together with Professor Gustav Aeckerlein, who had studied the sources of radioactive waters in Saxony, Schumacher was asked to help with the examination of the reserves of uranium.72 Their first report was ready on 8 October,73 and it estimated the prospects for uranium mining as being generally poor. They thought that Johanngeorgenstadt, in close proximity to Jáchymov, was more promising than Schneeberg. After Taking into consideration the amount of ore necessary to produce the volume of oxide, Schumacher forecast a “possible reserve” of 80 to 90 tons of uranium oxide there. It was ten times the amount of uranium produced in Johanngeorgenstadt to date.74 In view of Soviet interest in uranium and of the uncertain post-war situation, it may be assumed that the German professors were trying to ensure a continued existence for their academy, and possibly even a new future for it in the uranium industry. Although their skepticism regarding the economic feasibility of uranium mining remained unchanged, Schumacher went on working, during 1946, on estimates of the reserves in Johanngeorgenstadt and Marienberg. The first Russian estimates were even more pessimistic. At the end of 1945, Alexandrov put the Schneeberg reserves at 10 tons and Johanngeorgenstadt at 22 tons.75 In the spring of 1946, Alexandrov sent a report to Moscow recommending that, despite the low estimates, mining works be started at Johanngeorgenstadt. In the meanwhile, Professor Aeckerlein was commissioned by the Russians to build or acquire the instruments necessary for locating and measuring uranium deposits. He made an emanations meter and then turned to producers in the British zone, where he acquired Geiger counters and other instruments. The two Freiberg professors did not work for the Russians long. In the course of denazification, Schumacher was suspended as the head of the office for colored metals in November 1946. He moved to Jugoslavia in the spring 1947, where he worked, until 1950, as chief geologist for a lead and zinc mining enterprise. In 1952, Schumacher started to work for the mineralogical institute at the University of Bonn. The value of his work for the Soviets lay primarily in his estimates, which were more optimistic than those initially presented by the Russian geologists. Due
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 29
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
29
to the Allied ban on Germans working in the field of atomic physics, Aeckerlein’s radium institute was closed down in the spring of 1948. The NKVD officers hoped that enquiries among the members of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut in Oberschlema would give them some leads. Since 1937, Professor Boris Rajewsky and his colleagues at the KaiserWilhelm-Institut für Biophysik at Frankfurt am Main had been making examinations of radon content in the air and the waters of the mines at Schneeberg and, later, in Jáchymov.76 Dr. Adolf Krebs, the head of the Oberschlema branch of the Rajewsky’s institute, was arrested by NKVD officers on 1 October 1945. Before being taken to Moscow, he was interrogated in Dresden and Berlin.77 He was allowed to return to Germany in the spring 1946, from where he immigrated to the United States. In a report drafted early in 1948, Krebs reinforced the low estimates, current in America at the time, of the potential of the Erzgebirge region. In June 1946, the council of ministers of the USSR gave the go-ahead to uranium mining in Saxony,78 although prospects were still uncertain. Another search party under N. M. Khaustov established, about the same time, the existence of deposits near Oberschlema.79 The existence of strong radioactive waters, as well as the evidence gathered by the KaiserWilhelm-Institut, helped the Soviets make the decision to start mining operations at Oberschlema. The town had a well-known spa, which was closed down after the war. In July 1946, the occupation authorities allowed resumption of its service, which was once again suspended only a few weeks later.80 Geological probes were made in the vicinity of the spa buildings, and large parts of the spa quarter and the famous springs fell victim to the search for uranium. The local people regarded the destruction of the spa as the beginning of a new “mining fever.” From the end of 1946, Soviet estimates of the uranium reserves in the German part of the Erzgebirge kept on going up. Whereas reserves of about 100 tons were assumed at the end of 1945, by January 1947 the estimate of proven reserves increased to 252 tons. While Dr. Krebs was drafting, early in 1948, his report on the poor reserves available to the Soviets in their zone of occupation, the estimates reached the figure of 1,600 tons.81 The Soviet authorities by then knew that Saxony could provide more uranium than any other part of their empire.
Zeman 1
31/1/08
30
3:38 PM
Page 30
Uranium Matters
Notes Bibliographical note: There exists extensive historiography concerning the American and the British nuclear programs, including official histories. Richard G. Hewlett and Francis Duncan wrote the first volume of the US history, entitled The New World: A History of the US Atomic Energy Commission, vol. 1, 1939–1946, published first in 1962 and reissued in 1990 by the University of California Press (UCP); Richard G. Hewlett and Francis Duncan, Atomic Shield: A History of the US Atomic Energy Commission, vol. 2, 1947–1952, 1969 and UCP 1990; Richard G. Hewlett and Jack M. Holl, Atoms for Peace and War: 1953–1961, UCP 1989. Margaret Gowing wrote Britain and Atomic Energy, published in London in 1964, and, assisted by Lorna Arnold, Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy 1945–1952, sv 1; Policy Making and Policy Execution, sv 2, London 1974. The historiography of the Soviet bomb is somewhat poorer, and no official account of the Soviet program exists. The first study appeared in Munster, Germany in 1992: Die Sowjetische Atombombe by Andreas Heinemann-Gruder, and was followed by David Holloway’s Stalin and the Bomb in 1994, published by Yale University Press. There exists a valuable collection of documents on the Soviet atomic program edited by L. D. Riabev, Atomnii Projekt SSSR, volumes 1–4, Moscow 1998–2003; and Arkadii Kruglov’s The History of the Soviet Atomic Industry, London 2002. 1
Gilbert, Never Despair: Winston S. Churchill l945–l965, vol. 8, 97. Churchill, The Second World War: Triumph and Tragedy, vol. 6, 579–80. 3 Gilbert, The Road to Victory: Winston S. Churchill 1941–1945, vol. 7, 1302. 4 Gilbert, Never Despair, vol. 8, 66. 5 Gilbert, The Road to Victory, vol. 7, 415. 6 Bundesarchiv (BArch) Berlin-Hoppegarten, R 121/583, Bc.3. Schreiben von Dillmann und Ihwe, 8 July 1944 (Letter from Mr. Dillmann to Ihwe). 7 Auer Society of Berlin, Institut für Zeitgeschichte (IfZ) Munich, OMGUS, Adjutant General, Top Secret (AGTS), Nr. 38/1a. 8 German Reports, G-324, Herstellung von Uran bei der Degussa; Bericht von Dr. Völkel, 9 November 1945. 9 State Archive of the Russian Federation GARF Moscow, 1458/40/160; Reichswirtschaftsministerium. Abt Chemie, Wochenbericht von März 1942. 10 Jonathan E. Helmreich, Gathering Rare Ores, 254. 11 Richard Rhodes, Die Atombombe oder die Geschichte des 8. Schöpfungstages, 344. 12 Joseph Goebbels, Tagebücher aus den Jahren 1942–1943, 136. 13 Albert Speer, Erinnerungen, 240. 14 Helmut J. Fischer, Hitler und die Atombombe, 56. 15 Hubert Faensen, Hightech für Hitler, 105ff. 2
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 31
Part 1: Unparalleled Power 16
31
Robert K. Wilcox, Japan’s Secret War and David Alan Johnson, Germany’s Spies and Saboteurs. 17 Mark Walker, Die Uranmachine, 185. 18 Rainer Karlsch and Mark Walker, “New Light on Hitler’s Bomb,” Physics World (June 2005): 15–18. 19 Hubert Faensen, Hightech für Hitler: Die Hakeburg—Vom Forschungzentrum zur Kaderschmiede. 20 Manfred von Ardenne, Sechzig Jahre für Forschung und Fortschritt, 89 et seq.; Manfred von Ardenne, Ich bin ihnen begegnet, 117. 21 Thomas Stange, Die Genese des Instituts für Hochenergiephysik der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (1940–1970), 10. 22 Jan Erik Schulte, Zwangsarbeit und Vernichtung: Das Wirtschaftsimperium der SS, 407. 23 L. D. Riabev, ed., Atomnii projekt SSR 1939–1945, vol. 2; and a letter from Kurchatov to Stalin of 30 March 1945, on the German atomic bomb. 24 Arnold Kramish, The Griffin. 25 Samuel Goudsmit, Alsos and Boris T. Pash, The Alsos Mission. 26 Goudsmit, Alsos, 79. 27 Pash, The Alsos Mission, 157. 28 Operation Epsilon: The Farm Hall Transcripts, with and Introduction by Sir Charles Frank, Bristol and Philadelphia, 1993, 71. 29 Pacific War Research Society, The Day Man Lost, 153. 30 Wilcox, Japan’s Secret War. 31 Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The Mitrokhin Archive, 150. 32 Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 84. 33 Interview with Iulii Khariton in The Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, May 1993. 34 Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 91. 35 Interview with Khariton in The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, May l993. 36 Andrew and Mitrokhin, The Mitrokhin Archive, 165–166. 37 Idem., 173. 38 Idem., 174. 39 Leslie Richard Groves, Now it Can be Told: the Story of the Manhattan Project, 69. 40 Groves, Now It Can Be Told, 230. 41 Werner Schüttmann and Helmut Schnatz, “Ein erster Schritt zum Kalten Krieg? Der Amerikanische Luftangriff auf Oranienburg am 15 März 1945,” Der Anschnitt, Zeitschrift für Kunst und Kulture im Bergbau, 50. Jg., Heft–3/1998. 42 Idem. 43 Air Force Historical Research Agency, Maxwell, item 520 334, 8 US Air Force Mission, B5023, Planning of the Mission on 15 March 1945, quoted in Schüttmann and Schnatz, op. cit. 44 Landesarchiv Berlin, Rep 05-07, Nr 28. 45 Nikolaus Riehl and Frederick Seitz, Stalin’s Captive: Nikolaus Riehl and the Soviet Race for the Bomb, 79.
Zeman 1
31/1/08
32 46
3:38 PM
Page 32
Uranium Matters
John Wheeler-Bennett and Anthony Nicholls, The Semblance of Peace, 271. L. F. Ellis, Victory in the West vol. 2, History of the Second World War, 331. 48 George S. Patton, War as I Knew it, 326–7. 49 A personal communication from Stanislav Kokos ˇ ka, okresni archiv Karlovy Vary-Rybare, T45l55. 50 Stefan Heym, Schwarzenberg, 12. 51 For instance Paul Reimar, Das Wismut-Erbe. Geschichte und Folgen des Uranbergbaus in Thüringen und Sachsen. 52 Gregg Herken, The Winning Weapon: The Atomic Bomb in the Cold War 1945–1950, 107. 53 Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation 1945–1949, 210. 54 Mark Kramer, “Documenting the Early Soviet Nuclear Weapons Program,” Bulletin of the Cold War International History Project, Nr 6–7, Washington 1995. 55 Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev, 142. 56 Nikolaus Riehl, Zehn Jahre im goldenen Käfig, Stuttgart 1988; Nikolaus Riehl and Frederick Seitz, Stalin’s Captive: Nikolaus Riehl and the Soviet Race for the Bomb; Andreas Heinemann-Gruder and Arnd Wellmann, Die Spezialisten: Deutsche Naturwissenschaftler und Techniker in der Sowjetunion nach 1945, Berlin 1992; and Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany, Cambridge Mass, 1995. 57 Nikolaus Riehl, Zehn Jahre in goldenen Käfig, 5 et seq. 58 Archive for Russian History, Moscow, special file J. V. Stalin, Beria’s letter to Stalin of 15 May 1945. 59 Riabev, Atomnii projekt SSR 1939–1945, vol. 2, 323–325. 60 Albrecht Ulrich, et al., Die Spezialisten: Deutsche Naturwissenschaftler und Techniker in der Sowjetunion nach 1945, 50 et seq. 61 David Holloway, The Soviet Union and the Arms Race, 21. 62 Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 193. 63 Lev Altschuler as quoted in Karel Pacner, Atomoví s ˇpioni, Prague 1994, 456. 64 W. I .Wetrow, “Die Bildung von Betrieben für die Gewinnung und Aufbreitung von Uranerz,” Ministerium der Russischen Federation für Atomenergie, Die Entwicklung der ersten sowjetischen Atombombe, 1. 65 Pavel Knyscheweskij, Moskaus Beute, Wie Vermögen: Kulturgüter und Intelligenz nach 1945 aus Deutschland geraubt wurden, 78. 66 Vladimir Picugin, “Aus der Geschichte des sowjetischen Atomprojektes,” 57. 67 Pavel A. Sudoplatov, Special Tasks, 199. 68 Idem. 69 Nikolai Grishin, “The Saxony Uranium Mining Operation (‘Vismut’),” 127 et seq. 70 Rob Roeling, Der grote Trek naar het Duitse Ertsgebergte. Arbeiders in de 47
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 33
Part 1: Unparalleled Power
33
uraniummiijnbouw: dwang, vorlokkingen en sociale omstandigheden, 1946–1954, 16 et seq. 71 Stadtarchiv Schneeberg, Schreiben des Sachsenerz-Bergwerk und die Landesverwaltung Sachsen, Abteilung Gesundheitswesen, 21.9.45. The authors are grateful to Gotthard Bretschneider for indicating the source. 72 Norman Fuchsloch, Forschungen zur Uranprospektion an der Bergakademie Freiberg im Auftrag der Sowjetunion, in Der Anschnitt, Heft 2–3, 1998; Idem, Rainer Karlsch, Der Uranwettlauf 1939 bis 1949. 73 Wismut GmbH, Geologisches Archiv, Nr 55 187, Bl 1–35. 74 Idem., Bl 25. 75 Chronik der Wismut GmbH, Teil 1, CD-Rom Chemnitz 1998, 20. 76 Werner Schüttmann, “Die Geschichte der ‘Schneeberger Lungenkrebses,’” Der Anschnitt, Heft 2–3, 1998. 77 RADIZ Information 11/1996, biography of Adolf Krebs and RADIZ 9/1996; Inge Meutzner, Zeitzeugenbericht. 78 Nikolai Grishin, “The Saxony Uranium Mining Operation (‘Vismut’),” 127 79 Wismut Unternehmensarchiv, Mikrofilm Nr 423/Teil 4, Bl 71, Jahresbericht 1953 (in Russian). 80 Hoover Institution Archives, William Sander, Box 1, Folder ID, Reports 1946: Demontage des Radiumkurbades Oberschlema. 81 Chronik der Wismut, 21.
Zeman 1
31/1/08
3:38 PM
Page 34
Zeman 2
31/1/08
3:39 PM
Page 35
Part 2 The Erzgebirge Region
Zeman 2
31/1/08
3:39 PM
Page 36
Zeman 2
31/1/08
3:39 PM
Page 37
The Silver Mines and Healing Springs From the early middle ages onward, the mining of silver, tin and of other ores has been carried out in the border region between Saxony and Bohemia. An impenetrable mountain forest, the Erzgebirge became one of the most densely populated regions in Europe. According to legend, carters from the Harz Mountains found traces of lead on the wheels of their wagons when they passed through the site of present-day Freiberg. The news of the discovery of metal ore reached Siegerland, a rich source of iron in North-Rhine Westphalia, and its miners laid the foundations for the industry early in the 12th century. So, at any rate, goes the legend. The first three pits, sunk where the town hall now stands, yielded silver ore of high quality. Freiberg became a free mining town in 1218, flourishing during the reign of Margrave Henry the Enlightened (Heinrich der Erleuchtete). The Freiberg mining laws were enacted in 1296, becoming the basis for mining regulation in all Saxon towns and elsewhere in the mining regions of Europe. The local mining school (Bergakademie) became the first institution of its kind in the world. The initial period of silver mining, lasting from the 12th to the13th century, was followed by intensive tin mining during the 14th and 15th centuries. Tin mining began in Graupen (Krupka), Bohemia circa 1230, and a century later in the region of Neustadt. This extensive mining challenged the English tin monopoly.1 In addition to tin, bismuth was also mined, and another silver rush began in 1470.2 “Much commotion in the mountains” (das große Berggeschrei) was set off, as the news of the discoveries spread and drew many miners and their families to the Erzgebirge. New towns were founded in quick succession: Schneeberg in 1471, Annaberg in 1497, Sankt Joachimsthal 1520 and Marienberg in 1521. Their growth reflected faith in the future of the mining industry. There was little agriculture in the mountains and food supplies had to be brought from afar. The situation lasted until the 20th century, accounting for cyclical crises during the mining recessions. Schneeberg became a free mining town in 1481. New discoveries of silver helped the town, and the ruler of Saxony (Kurfürst), achieve uncommon riches. Frederick the Wise referred to the town as “little Venice.” There were iron and copper mines and smelting plants in a nearby valley at Schlema, and silver was mined in Niederschlema. People in the neighboring town of Zwickau benefited from their connection with the industry, as miners or workers in a variety of service industries. In the 20th
Zeman 2
31/1/08
38
3:39 PM
Page 38
Uranium Matters
century, strong radioactive springs were discovered at Oberschlema, contributing to a flourishing spa enterprise. There existed in the region the famous “Markus Semmler Stolln,” a water conduit for the Schneeberg and Schlema pits. It was laid down in 1503, reaching the length of 44 kilometers in the 19th century. The danger of flooding increased as excavations went deeper. Flooding affected the Schneeberg pits on a large scale at least three times, in 1470, 1491 and 1511. Every time, the miners succeeded in bringing production back on stream, but the center of mining moved elsewhere, to Annaberg and Sankt Joachimsthal, or Jáchymov in Czech. Prosperity spread from the Schneeberg district to the village Aue, which became a town in 1626. Aue specialized in the mining and processing of tin, a product that enjoyed a high reputation at the time. In two settlements nearby, Auerhammer and Niederpfannenstiel, sheet metal and blue dyes were made, and the locality became a well-known metalprocessing center. After 1945, the town became the administrative center of the uranium industry. Annaberg became a free mining town in 1497 and, until the middle of the 16th century, it grew faster than any other town in Saxony. Home to about 12,000 inhabitants in 1540, it was the second largest town in the Erzgebirge after Freiberg.3 Silver mining was the first business in the Erzgebirge that paid wages, giving the miners a freedom rarely enjoyed by other workers. Hard work and its dangers created strong bonds in the mining community, leading to the establishment of its first benevolent organizations. Apart from the welfare function miners’ guilds performed—supporting those members who had fallen on hard times—they played an important role in improving the living and working conditions of the miners. Guilds helped with projects such as the establishment of health commissions and the building of accommodation for the miners. The silver boom ended about 1570, when silver imports from the new world diminished the value of the Erzgebirge silver. The towns lost their prosperity and many of their inhabitants. The decline of the region reached its nadir between 1618 and 1648, during the Thirty Years War. Silver mining in the Erzgebirge revived about 1660, when new finds were made in the neighborhood of Johanngeorgenstadt. The town was founded by Protestant refugees from Bohemia who had come under the rule of the Catholic Habsburgs. Protestant families from the mining towns of Platten, Gottesgab and St. Joachimsthal crossed the border to Saxony. In February 1654, the ruler of Saxony, Kurfürst Johann Georg I,
Zeman 2
31/1/08
3:39 PM
Page 39
Part 2: The Erzgebirge Region
39
gave them permission to found a town and give it his name.4 In addition to silver, cobalt, iron, tin and sulphur were also mined there. The town had a special connection with cobalt, which was used for the production of blue dyes (Blaufarben); the skill first came to Saxony from Platten and Joachimsthal in Bohemia at the beginning of the 17th century. Workshops were established at Johanngeorgenstadt, Schneeberg and later at Oberschlema. The rulers of Saxony were aware of the importance of the dyes for export. Under the threat of capital punishment, they forbid the export of cobalt ore in 1683.5 By the middle of the 18th century, mining at Johanngeorgenstadt was in a severe crisis, and had to be supported by state subsidies. In 1838, seven profitable pits formed a union under the name “Vereinigt Feld am Fastenberg.” They produced silver, bismuth and uranium. As metal prices declined in the 19th century, the profitability of Freiberg’s mining was affected: nationalized in 1886, they were kept alive by subsidies. After 1908 two state mines, “Himmelfahrt” and “Himmelfürst,” as well as a trade union mine, were still operating. The state mines were closed down shortly before the outbreak of the First World War. At the beginning of 20th century, some cobalt, wolfram, tin and nickel were still mined in the area. Sankt Joachimsthal was an important part of the mining region on the border between Saxony and Bohemia which shared a common past. The valley of St. Joachim is situated in a fold of the Erzgebirge mountains, or Krusˇné hory in Czech. The German name of the mountain range refers to its abundance of ores; the Czech to the harshness of the region’s climate. It formed the border between Saxony, in the East Franconian march, and the Kingdom of Bohemia. A trade route led through the forest from Annaberg to a valley on the Bohemian side, where a settlement called Konradsgrün came into being. Emperor Sigismund gave the Konradsgrün estate as a fief to his chancellor, Caspar Count Schlick, in 1437. After the flooding of the mines at nearby Schneeberg in Saxony, the search for silver was carried over to the Bohemian side of Erzgebirge in 1511. In the following year, two experienced miners began to sink a shaft at Konradsgrün but soon ran out of money. Further excavations were financed by Stephan Count Schlick, together with a few neighboring nobles. They founded a mining company and hired miners, who struck rich veins of silver. The news spread fast and attracted more workers, most of them from Saxony. The stream of migrants was described in verse: “Ins Thal, ins Thal, mit Muttern, mit All.” (Into the valley, the valley, with mothers and all.”)
Zeman 2
31/1/08
40
3:39 PM
Page 40
Uranium Matters
Konradsgrün was home to 400 houses in 1516. The Schlicks completed the Freudenstein fortress, built to protect the mining town from plunder and remind the miners who their master was, the following year. Unrest broke out in 1517. On 2 August 1518, a mining statute based on the statute of Annaberg and containing 106 articles, was published. On 6 January 1520, Konradsgrün became a royal town by decree. Its name was changed to Sankt Joachimsthal, or the valley of St. Joachim, the father of the Virgin Mary. Most of the immigrants were miners from neighboring Saxony, coming from Annaberg, Marienberg and Josefsstadt: Joachimsthal was added to keep the holy family together. The town was awarded a coat of arms and the right to choose its own local government. Despite the royal ban on the export of silver (dating from the year 1300, early in the first silver rush in Bohemia), a part of Joachimsthal silver was sold to the great merchant house in Germany, the Fuggers in Augsburg and the Welsers in Nürnberg. Count Schlick, concerned about the loss of revenue, successfully negotiated with the Bohemian Diet the right to mint coins. In 1519, the first Joachimsthaler was issued from the cellars of the Freudenstein fortress. With a silver content of 931 out of 1000, the coin became common currency throughout Europe. It was also well known in the New World, as the derivation of the word “dollar” from “thaler” shows. Over 3 million thalers were minted between 1520 and 1528. With 18,200 inhabitants, St. Joachimsthal had become, after Prague, the most populous city in the kingdom by 1532. Silver production had reached its peak: 134 silver veins were mined by some 8,000 miners and 800 supervisors. Some of the veins were uncommonly rich: a single mine in a quarter of the year 1524, for instance, yielded as much as 1.6 tons of silver. Total production between the years of 1516 and 1600 was put at 330–350 tons.6 The ore was processed in 13 large smelters, which filled the valley with poisonous fumes. The mining town became unbearably crowded, with 10–15 people living in each house. The miners brought the ore to the surface in sacks, from long, unventilated galleries (stretching 11.5 kilometers in Barbora in 1589) and shafts with climbing ladders. Floods, famine and plague were common in Joachimsthal. Though the silver boom was comparatively short—by 1574, the number of inhabitants in the valley of St Joachim had fallen to some 4,000 individuals—the town acquired several handsome buildings. The chapel of All Souls, the oldest surviving building near the cemetery, was completed in 1516, the brewery in 1518 and the old town hall in 1520.
Zeman 2
31/1/08
3:39 PM
Page 41
Part 2: The Erzgebirge Region
41
The Bread Market formed the centre of Joachimsthal before the business of the town moved a few hundred meters further up the valley. The new town hall was completed, in the renaissance style, around the year 1531. The royal mint was opened in 1536, the church of St. Joachim close by was built between the years 1534 and 1540, and a Latin school with an outstanding library came into existence. Johannes Agricola (Bauer), who wrote a treatise on mining and was fascinated by the healing powers of minerals, was the local physician. Traces of the original mines in the forests around the town still exist, as do mounds of soil running through the woods, left in the wake of the miners as they followed the veins of silver. The seams were gradually exhausted, and the mines abandoned. The Thirty Years War began to ravage central Europe, confirming the dividing line between Catholic Bohemia and Protestant Saxony. Joachimsthal suffered the final blow when the royal mint was established in Prague in 1670. Intermittent and unsuccessful attempts, usually sponsored by the state, were made to revive the mining of silver during the 18th century. The great mining towns of the Erzgebirge never regained their former prosperity. In 19th century Joachimsthal, the endeavor to expand traditional crochet work was overtaken by the glove industry, a factory for the production of bottle corks was constructed, and then a paper mill. The new enterprises were joined by a tobacco factory in the 1860s, and then by a puppet factory, run by the Samuel brothers. About the same time, glassmakers and potters in Bohemia started using uranium-based dyes, which added special luster to yellow, green and orange colors. The price of uranium went up, and some of the old pits were saved as mining activities were resumed. Between 1854 and 1860 some 7.4 tons of uranium were produced in Joachimsthal. In the following decades leading up to 1910, production increased from 38.1 to 39.9 tons, and then 44.5, 53.7 and 104.4 tons. It declined to 50.1 tons between 1911 and 1920, picking up again in 1921 and 1930, reaching 154.2 tons before declining again to 130.4 tons between 1930 and 1938. More than 621 tons were produced overall.7 Uranium-related trade became so brisk that a railway branch line was built between Joachimsthal and Ostrov nad Ohrˇí in 1896. Uranium was used for the production of dyes at Schneeberg and Johanngeorgenstadt as well. Uranium paint factories were founded in Johanngeorgenstadt and later at Oberschlema. On the Bohemian and Saxon side of the Erzgebirge region, there also existed local spa industries based on the belief in the healing property of radioactive waters. On the German side, the springs at Ronnenburg in
Zeman 2
31/1/08
42
3:39 PM
Page 42
Uranium Matters
Thuringia were the first to acquire reputation for their healing properties. Duke Frederick III of Saxe-Gotha, who suffered from gout, spent a considerable part of the year there. Ronnenburg lost its
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 43
|
https://docplayer.org/79301351-Institute-of-mineralogy.html
|
en
|
🥇 ProtectedPool ➤ Most Powerful and Safest Web3 Smart DeFi Wallet 🔐
|
[
"https://docplayer.org/_next/image?url=%2F_next%2Fstatic%2Fmedia%2Fcapsule.6a904820.webp&w=1080&q=75 1x, /_next/image?url=%2F_next%2Fstatic%2Fmedia%2Fcapsule.6a904820.webp&w=1920&q=75 2x"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
🥇 ProtectedPool ➤ Web3 Smart DeFi Wallet. Your New DeFi Experience: 🔐 Secure, Smart, Simple. Double Approvals. Add extra confirmation of any transaction with 2FA solutions including Google Authenticator или hardware security keys. Self-custodial Solutions. Protected Pool is built on smart contracts that interact with wallets, not persons or companies. A new wallet - a new smart-contract. Zero Trust Protocol. No one can be trusted unless verified. Your wallet is the only way to get access to your funds.
|
en
|
/logo.svg
| null |
Your New DeFi Experience
Secure
Smart
Simple
Soon you will be able to enjoy the power of DeFi with all-in-one solution for trading, liquidity farming and depeg protection.
Don't miss out on our first feature
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 14
|
https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/en/world-heritage/oelsnitz.html
|
en
|
Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Cultural Landscape
|
[
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/typo3conf/ext/template/Resources/Public/img/montanregion_logo.svg",
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/typo3conf/ext/template/Resources/Public/img/world-heritage.png",
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/typo3conf/ext/template/Resources/Public/img/foerderlogo-sn-cz.png",
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/typo3conf/ext/template/Resources/Public/img/SGS_Logo_DE_freigestellt_gruen.png",
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/8/2/csm_header-pressemappe-fallback_740d10e6f9.jpg",
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/typo3conf/ext/template/Resources/Public/img/montanregion_logo.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2023-10-02T00:00:00
|
en
|
/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/5/1/csm_favicon_9079e97328.png
|
https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/en/world-heritage/oelsnitz.html
|
The mining area around Oelsnitz/Erzgebirge is typical of coal mining at the northern edge of the Erzgebirge in the 19th and 20th centuries. The Lugau-Oelsnitz area is the most recent of the three large coal deposits to be worked in Saxony the others include the Plauenscher Grund near Dresden and the area around Zwickau. Coal mining in the Lugau-Oelsnitz district has been an important component of Saxony’s industrial development since the mid-19th century. Even though the area was only mined for a century (until the 1970s), mining has shaped the landscape around Lugau and Oelsnitz, and had a lasting impact on urban development.
The Frohnauer Hammer Mill includes an iron forge and flood ditch, a small workshop building, and the manor house. The hammer mill was previously a grain mill, whose origins most likely date back to the earliest history of Frohnau village. Following wholesale conversion in 1621, it became a hammer mill where various metals were forged – first silver, then copper, and finally iron. In 1692, the hammer mill burned down; it was rebuilt shortly afterwards. The hammer mill ceased operations in 1904. The hammer mill association, established in 1907, acquired the facility one year later, and it was run as a museum from as early as 1909. The water-powered hammer mill is a quarry stone building with a shingle-covered hipped roof and an L-shaped layout. It is powered by water from the Sehma river, which is directed into a separate watercourse by a weir some 300 metres upriver of the forge.
The former Franciscan monastery was built between 1502 and 1512. The original structure was made up of a completely enclosed area surrounded by four tall buildings and the monastery walls. The main entrance to the monastery church was through the “Schöne Tür” (‘Beautiful Door’), formerly known as the “Goldene Pforte” (‘Golden Gate’). The gardens stretched from the monastery to the town walls and small cloister gate. The monastery was deconsecrated as early as 1539. However, a number of historical works of art, and the monastery’s library, have survived. By 1577, the monastery church was derelict and the “Beautiful Door” was relocated to St. Anne’s Church. Today, the high altar of the monastery church serves as the high altar of St. Catherine’s Church in Buchholz. In the early 19th century, much of the monastery was demolished. All that survives today are wall of the choir with six windows, the remains of the enclosure walls, and some cellar systems.
The Annaberg mining storehouse, built on the site of the former monastery towards the end of the 18th century, is a solid three-storey structure with an attic extension. As a mining storehouse, it was primarily used for grain. However, other items were also stored here. The original vaulting survives in the hallway on the ground floor. Despite extensive remodelling, the characteristic solid stone structure of this former storage building has been retained.
The Aschergraben ditch is one of the prominent, technical masterstrokes from Altenberg’s early mining days. The artificial waterway was created between 1452 and 1458, reliably supplying waterwheels and treatment plants with water for more than 500 years. The name of the trench presumably came from the asher profession. Ashers burned potash in the forests to manufacture suds. Once mining ceased, the water from the Aschergraben was no longer needed, though the trench has been preserved as a functional waterway. It is supplied with water from the transborder forests in the Totes Kind (Cínovecky hřbet) high moor above Böhmisch-Zinnwald (Cínovec). It transported the water 7.4 km, at an incline of 0.3% to 0.6%, from Böhmisch-Zinnwald (Cínovec) to Altenberg. Nearby the Römer shaft the ditch flows into the valley of Tiefenbach creek. Both waters then delivered the stamping mills and ore washers.
For centuries, the building of the town hall which dominates the upper part of Jáchymov has been the seat of the local government of the free royal and mining town. Today it accommodates the town council, the library and an information centre at the ground floor. Historically, the building consists of two parts, the older Schlick (or Alnpeck) house built between 1520 and 1528 and bought by the town council in 1531, and the town hall wing with a massive prismatic tower which was added to the Schlick house during its restoration between 1538 and 1544. The building obtained its current form during a major remodeling between 1901 and 1902 when a storey has been added to the central and the northern wings and the tower was raised. On the ground floor and in the basement of the building, Renaissance vaulted rooms have been preserved.
The administration and assembly building of the mine is a single-storey building, originally built completely as a half-timbered construction, which is slightly bent in the middle and features a high, two-storey mansard roof. Of the part of the building facing away from the shaft, only remains of the timbered framework at the back of the building have been preserved. The gable and the left part of the frontage have been solidly reconstructed. Mansard dormers are set on the front and back of both storeys of the hipped mansard roof. The building features modern turn/tilt windows (segmented into 6 parts) as well as new entrance door.
The stamp mill, which includes an underground stamp wheelhouse, is a two-storey half-timbered structure built between 1816 and 1818. The two-level gabled roof has two rows of dormer windows on each side. On the other side of the stamp mill from the shaft is a small bell tower with a clock mechanism that has survived the years. The stamp mill itself was supplied with energy from the underground stamp wheel by means of rods running up two inclined hading shafts that lead into the mill. The interior layout is essentially as it originally was.
The classicistic Schneeberg town hall with its striking tower structure is a dominating feature on the marketplace. A large sandstone relief dating back to 1911/12 is located over the entrance, which contains a round-arch portal. Above this is set a large coloured cast-iron relief with the Schneeberg municipal coat of arms. Above the coat of arms there is a glockenspiel made of Meissen porcelain on the tower. The town hall is a free-standing, four-wing building with a rectangular courtyard. Inside the town hall, which was fundamentally redesigned in 1911/12, there are painted leaded glass windows containing motifs of Schneeberg and depictions of the various enterprises and trades.
The Trinitatis church completes what is known as the Fürstenplatz (square) in the north-westerly direction. The name of this spital or hospital church refers to the former adjacent hospital founded in about 1500. The St. Trinitatis cemetery, some 3 hectares in size, has always been the principal burial place in Schneeberg. It was established around 1529 directly next to the hospital and expanded in 1701. The Trinitatis hall church, which although partly destroyed in the fire of 1719 was already rebuilt by 1739. The church is a quarry stone structure with a chancel enclosed on three sides and a double tower façade. The towers, built in 1846 in the Historicism style, are equipped with pointed spires. The church structure contains segmental arch windows between the buttresses. The hall in the church features a wooden mirrored vault and single-storey galleries on three sides. The original church furnishings have not been preserved.
The mine forge was built in 1839 as an elongated single-storey solid structure with two forges. Since 1947, it has been used as a residential building. Both the gable roof and the pediment sides are faced with shingles. The original mine forge windows (segmented into 16 parts) – including their winter profiles, have been preserved.
The Bergmagazin (mining storehouses) of the Ore Mountains were a particularity in the towns. They provided the miners and their families primarily with foodstuffs. The Bergmagazin of Marienberg was built between 1806 and 1809, as a massive, four-storey quarry stone building with a slate-covered half-hipped roof. The store building was later used both as a storage building for the military and for industrial uses. In the years 2002 to 2006, the historical Bergmagazin was extended (with due attention to its preservation as a monument) into a German-Czech cultural centre. During the comprehensive extension, it was possible to essentially keep the remarkable inner wood construction, but also the cubage of the rooms. Hence the Bergmagazin of Marienberg is the only mining storehouse in the Ore Mountains that have been kept to the greatest possible extent in its original state.
The commissioning of the power plant signalled the end of the old power station, the Lichthaus, which was turned into a residence. The building is closely linked with the construction of the power plant between 1895 and 1905. The introduction of the energy supply system meant that the site and parts of the surrounding area could be supplied with electricity. The single-storey building has a natural stone base, an arched window and a flat gable roof, and is still used as a residence today.
The Smeltery Inn is one of the most prestigious buildings on the site. It was originally the copper hammer manor house, and also served as the shift master’s residence. When a separate house was constructed for the shift master in 1568, it was used as an inn for the workers. The Liquation Works was authorised to sell its own beer. By the 16th century, the Smeltery Inn had become a two-storey building with a solid stonework ground floor, a half-timbered upper floor and a partially extended top floor. Its slate-tiled gable roof, which protrudes slightly, has shed dormers on both side, each with six or seven windows. Above the south-east gable is the copper-plated Baroque bell tower, which has a lantern and a 19th century bell. On the gable directly beneath the bell tower is the splendid dial of the Liquation Works clock, lined with gold leaf.
The assayer’s house is one of the largest and most eye-catching buildings in the Liquation Works. Two storeys high, it comprises a main building and a side building to the north-west. Both buildings have two storeys; each has a gabled roof featuring a range of dormer designs. While the ground floors of the buildings are solid stonework, the upper floors and the gables are half-timbered. When the Assayer’s house and the adjoining copper depository were remodelled, the adjacent building ‒ which has an oriel window and round windows on the ground floor ‒ was erected with older materials from the former copper depository. This was where the refined copper intended for sale was originally stored. The Assayer’s house and the copper depository date back to around 1586.
The workers’ house is a one-storey, solid stonework building with a high hipped roof. The slightly protruding shingle roof features several eyebrow dormers. The gables are clad with boards. The window and door openings are arranged in what is thought to be the original design from the time of the house’s construction. They are picked out with plaster frames. The water ditch that starts at the Long Works open-air museum and that originally flowed into the old refining house reservoir runs between the workers’ house and the assayer’s house to the north-west.
This building is another small, single-storey workers’ house, with a footprint of approximately 80 m². Its structure differs from other workers’ houses, as its gable end faces the works thoroughfare. At the same time, the longer side of the house is parallel to the eastern water ditch, the drainage ditch for the Long Works. Alterations to the house include the addition of new, large windows (in a departure from the original layout), and possibly an asymmetrical entrance. The gable roof, like the gable, is tiled with asbestos shingles and does not have any shed dormers.
This simple building ‒ later modified, converted and extended several times ‒ was erected in 1604 as a residence for the Liquation Works Factor, HIERONYMUS EYMER. Although the building complex was originally set out as a small farmstead, only the main building to the north-east and the adjoining side building have been preserved. The Old Trading Post is today a two-storey, solid stonework building with a basement. It has a gabled roof with shed dormers covered by roofing felt shingle. The older annex mentioned above has a hipped roof. The considerably newer, two-storey annex to the south-east also has a gabled roof; this is not, however, as high as the ridge of the main building. An external flight of stairs on the longer north-eastern side of the building leads to the main entrance on the elevated ground floor. From 1848 to 1886, the building was used as a new school.
To the west of the lower reservoir, right by the upper ditch and close to the upper gate, is an architectural gem: the summerhouse for Liquation Works Factor AUGUST ROTHE. Built from wood and topped with a copper-clad tent roof, the summerhouse has a floor area of around 16 m². The interior is decorated with various verses from the Psalms, and the original colour has been partly restored using local cobalt pigment.
This building now houses the visitor mine museum and the Sauberg Klause café. It was built as a metalworking shop or forge in 1916 and was later used as a storage and administration building. The single-storey building has a row of evenly-spaced windows of two different types on the side facing the street, as well as an entryway fronted by stairs. On the south side of the building is an entrance with a double wooden door surrounded by wood cladding. The building’s hipped roof has four roofed dormers and a shed dormer on the street side.
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 57
|
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Sosa_Dam
|
en
|
Sosa Dam
|
[
"https://wikiwandv2-19431.kxcdn.com/_next/image?url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Talsperre_Sosa_Auersberg.jpg/640px-Talsperre_Sosa_Auersberg.jpg&w=640&q=50",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Talsperre_Sosa_Auersberg.jpg/220px-Talsperre_Sosa_Auersberg.jpg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
The Sosa Dam is a dam in the Free State of Saxony in East Germany. It supplies drinking water to the Western Ore Mountains as well as acting as flood protection.
|
en
|
Wikiwand
|
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Sosa_Dam
|
Dam in Erzgebirgskreis / From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Dear Wikiwand AI, let's keep it short by simply answering these key questions:
Can you list the top facts and stats about Sosa Dam?
Summarize this article for a 10 year old
SHOW ALL QUESTIONS
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 77
|
https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/threads/tools-from-the-old-world.28952/page-525
|
en
|
Tools from the old world
|
[
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/styles/garagejournal/xenforo/scriptSmall.png",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/styles/garagejournal/xenforo/scriptSmall.png",
"http://i40.photobucket.com/albums/e234/alfazer/IMG_7887_1024x683_zps5230aa92.jpg",
"http://i40.photobucket.com/albums/e234/alfazer/IMG_7892_1024x683_zps63f22a74.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/attachments/306/306992-aa978ebedd305f122e41960356f6bddb.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/attachments/307/307026-e6561990029b5b0d4c09771861b86588.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/attachments/307/307056-2ef2c1f8a755f4fafa02907ceba4c7b5.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/attachments/307/307075-5e5de79da3ede1a7de5e19c94a2309be.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/attachments/307/307114-8580b45ff83ac2198a787f76ca4ea8b0.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/221/221510.jpg?1621443402",
"http://abload.de/thumb/2014-12-2216-13-30-dsj6pdo.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/135/135760.jpg?1621443390",
"http://abload.de/thumb/2014-12-2216-13-30-dsj6pdo.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/rocker.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/243/243107.jpg?1621443404",
"https://fi.pdbmakita.com/imagecheck.asp?path=/images/3_Makita/301_machines/3011_a/30114_JPG_Product/&file=GA5030.jpg&width=537&height=591&thumb=1",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/media/dsc-0742.46091/full",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/media/dsc-0739.46090/full",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/220/220044.jpg?1621443402",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/61/61886.jpg?1621443371",
"http://www.ultimategarage.com/facomnew/75seriesdetail.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/29/29746.jpg?1621443369",
"https://www.comstern.de/gfx401711new/Diamantierte-Trennscheibe-%C3%9820-mit-Werkzeughalter-401711.jpg",
"http://www.fotos-hochladen.net/uploads/neues73y4psk7h8i.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/29/29746.jpg?1621443369",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/237/237238.jpg?1715888825",
"http://i40.photobucket.com/albums/e234/alfazer/IMG_7887_1024x683_zps5230aa92.jpg",
"http://i40.photobucket.com/albums/e234/alfazer/IMG_7892_1024x683_zps63f22a74.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/117/117765.jpg?1621443388",
"http://img5.fotos-hochladen.net/uploads/img201412231072rjkp5ufe.jpg",
"http://img5.fotos-hochladen.net/uploads/img2014122310rtxgk5f0qy.jpg",
"http://img5.fotos-hochladen.net/uploads/img2014122310ebh9xawtld.jpg",
"http://img5.fotos-hochladen.net/uploads/img201412231040tlcpeubn.jpg",
"http://img5.fotos-hochladen.net/uploads/img2014122311c70gztm1v5.jpg",
"http://img5.fotos-hochladen.net/uploads/img2014122311gzu9bp5l6r.jpg",
"http://img5.fotos-hochladen.net/uploads/img2014122311b602hzd51c.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/243/243107.jpg?1621443404",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/rocker.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/243/243107.jpg?1621443404",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/lol2.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/lol2.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/227/227072.jpg?1621443402",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/lol2.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/227/227072.jpg?1621443402",
"http://i1211.photobucket.com/albums/cc429/lorentzt/Garage/IMG_1105_zps6362fa9a.jpg",
"http://i1211.photobucket.com/albums/cc429/lorentzt/Garage/IMG_1106_zpse2aa1f49.jpg",
"http://i1211.photobucket.com/albums/cc429/lorentzt/Garage/IMG_1108_zps930c9415.jpg",
"http://i1211.photobucket.com/albums/cc429/lorentzt/Garage/IMG_1107_zps9138a9af.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/243/243107.jpg?1621443404",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/eyecrazy.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/headscratch.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/221/221510.jpg?1621443402",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/eyecrazy.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/headscratch.gif",
"http://clients.zacharyemerick.biz/photos/i-V9GbNHC/0/X3/i-V9GbNHC-X3.jpg",
"http://clients.zacharyemerick.biz/photos/i-Pc5JN3T/0/X3/i-Pc5JN3T-X3.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/243/243107.jpg?1621443404",
"http://i40.photobucket.com/albums/e234/alfazer/IMG_7887_1024x683_zps5230aa92.jpg",
"http://i40.photobucket.com/albums/e234/alfazer/IMG_7892_1024x683_zps63f22a74.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/29/29746.jpg?1621443369",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/rocker.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/eyecrazy.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/bowdown.gif",
"http://www.werkzeugforum.de/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Bosch_25Ah-Akku-620x400.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/29/29746.jpg?1621443369",
"https://betz-beschlaege.de/upload/shoppictures_205/zoom__bs_txs_564510_p_01a.jpg",
"http://static.axminster.co.uk/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/5/0/506746_inset1_xl.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/220/220044.jpg?1621443402",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/attachments/335/335912-d94477ed0e807717788e7c06df9df6b4.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/attachments/335/335866-e267a3316bf6a5dcc19783e3c05688a5.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/attachments/335/335826-9010824fa46245cd880c24ff10fb127f.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/attachments/335/335785-d2cfac66b46f3b3aad5a789cdad23db3.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/attachments/335/335959-67042facf9b8460d5b4a91c07e524e82.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/227/227072.jpg?1621443402",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/eyecrazy.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/headscratch.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/sad.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/171/171344.jpg?1622230430",
"http://i60.tinypic.com/2vmv9kx.jpg",
"http://i59.tinypic.com/zwzs3m.jpg",
"http://i62.tinypic.com/104ktgx.jpg",
"http://i58.tinypic.com/2ytwap0.jpg",
"http://i59.tinypic.com/10d9ro3.jpg",
"http://i59.tinypic.com/vzbskj.jpg",
"http://i62.tinypic.com/2u87y8m.jpg",
"http://i58.tinypic.com/j64nkp.jpg",
"http://i57.tinypic.com/2lihhci.jpg",
"http://i58.tinypic.com/2qajo7k.jpg",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/209/209240.jpg?1621443400",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/227/227072.jpg?1621443402",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/data/avatars/m/29/29746.jpg?1621443369",
"http://www.kneller-gifs.de/bilder/w/weihnachtsbaum36.gif",
"https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/images/smilies/sad.gif",
"http://img5.fotos-hochladen.net/uploads/dsci0043z8x3yasorv.jpg",
"http://img5.fotos-hochladen.net/uploads/dsci0042uv4y8620sh.jpg",
"http://img5.fotos-hochladen.net/uploads/dsci0037oirnhkv0zd.jpg",
"http://img5.fotos-hochladen.net/uploads/dsci0039nj71tfwu95.jpg",
"http://img5.fotos-hochladen.net/uploads/dsci00388q4v1m9ktc.jpg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Monte"
] |
2009-01-25T23:28:15+00:00
|
My vintage socket set and ratchet. Accles & Pollock, Oldbury, England.
|
en
|
The Garage Journal
|
https://www.garagejournal.com/forum/threads/tools-from-the-old-world.28952/page-525
|
^ How do those work? Do you have the Micromot system?
it´s just a tool holder with a little screw on top so you can attach cutting discs or grinding wheels.
I own the Micromot 50/E die grinder but i usually use the Proxxon IBS/E die grinder which i own too because it has more power and because i can directly plug it into a 230 volt power outlet.
My vintage socket set and ratchet. Accles & Pollock, Oldbury, England.
wow cool ! Do you know the age ?
Christmas present from my father, a Makita G5030:
Made in Romania.
pic with coo please if possible
Pajarito putty knife
www.pajarito.de
Some porn.... pardon the 'murican vise grips.
More pics: http://clients.zacharyemerick.biz/Misc-ShotsTesting/Tools/n-Q77kx/
A quick break down and description of what I like/use more frequently:
Left drawer:
*Large 225 Knipex Combo Pliers / Lineman Pliers: Beefiest pliers I own and use these for the jobs requiring the most strength.
*165 chrome Knipex Pliers & 180 NWS Silver/yellow Pliers: Love these two and usually one or the other is in my pocket at all times.
*Knipex 6-in-1 is great and has its place when I need multiple tools in one--no kidding!
Right drawer:
*The hose cutters in the rear are absolutely amazing and I wish I bought these long ago. They cut like a hot knife through butter!
*2 x Knipex plain red handle dykes and end nippers are great for tight spots
*The fantastico dyke has to be MY FAV tool in the entire box. This thing will cut nearly anything and if it can't I bump things up to the angled cobolt cutter. Job done.
*Front section you've got your standard grippers of various sizes all which have their purpose.
Very disappointing to see Metabo score so low. And for the price Fein thinks they can ask it's also a shame they only came in second.
Is Kress very common in Europe now? What's the COO? EDIT: Oh made in Germany.
They also have some sweet looking cordless tools. Are they any good?
The Metabo couldn´t make a hole with the 35mm forstner bit and couldn´t drive "longer screws". The Fein couldn´t drive the 5x100mm test screw into oak, and had problems with the forstner bit. Both drills run 4000rpm while the others are slower and/or have a more powerful motor so they have more torque. If they would test a different drill e.g. the Metabo BE4010 with 2850rpm or the new BE 500/10 then the result would be probably different. For drilling applications with twist drill bits they should work fine
Don´t know of Europe but here in Germany they´re not that common anymore since the 2 big box stores who offered Kress dropped them a while ago and because of the "big box image" the professional retailers dropped them too (at least in my city, there is only 1 retailer left) . So you can buy them only in the internet.....they´re more common as a OEM for other companies like Wurth, Flex, Eibenstock, Protool,Mafell, Spit etc....
The cordless drills usually receive good reviews in forums and at Amazon:
http://www.amazon.de/dp/B0044YOSN8/
their other tools too:
http://www.amazon.de/dp/B0028S19X4/
So it seems good quality at a good price.
Some PB Swiss purchases from the ubiquitous U.S. Back Friday sales. Or for all you foreign devils: Schwarze Freitag. Or Viernes Negro. Or Vendredi Noir.
nice PB haul
Some porn.... pardon the 'murican vise grips.
when I need multiple tools in one--no kidding!
awesome pliers drawers !
News from Bosch: 2.5AH 10,8/12 Volt batteries....
Where?
And are they still offering it, or did I miss the boat again?
Not the whole boat. They don't have 30% off anymore but I think you can still get 20% or so till the end of the year. Check their U.S web site
http://www.garagejournal.com/forum/showthread.php?t=269546
The Metabo couldn´t make a hole with the 35mm forstner bit and couldn´t drive "longer screws". The Fein couldn´t drive the 5x100mm test screw into oak, and had problems with the forstner bit. Both drills run 4000rpm while the others are slower and/or have a more powerful motor so they have more torque. If they would test a different drill e.g. the Metabo BE4010 with 2850rpm or the new BE 500/10 then the result would be probably different. For drilling applications with twist drill bits they should work fine
Don´t know of Europe but here in Germany they´re not that common anymore since the 2 big box stores who offered Kress dropped them a while ago and because of the "big box image" the professional retailers dropped them too (at least in my city, there is only 1 retailer left) . So you can buy them only in the internet.....they´re more common as a OEM for other companies like Wurth, Flex, Eibenstock, Protool,Mafell, Spit etc....
The cordless drills usually receive good reviews in forums and at Amazon:
http://www.amazon.de/dp/B0044YOSN8/
their other tools too:
http://www.amazon.de/dp/B0028S19X4/
So it seems good quality at a good price.
Well, without knowing all the details, there must be a reason they chose those particular Fein and Metabo models for the comparo, may be price range?
As to Kress, another European tool brand we'll probably never see here in North America.
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 22
|
https://www.komoot.com/tour/1208334071
|
en
|
Nachts ists Kälter als Draußen.🥶⛄👻💯 12.07.2023
|
https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/2x/2xdsn0qhowi51vjxyl0pixej74n3m96t7-p366427171-full/189473e8db1?width=768&height=576&crop=true
|
https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/2x/2xdsn0qhowi51vjxyl0pixej74n3m96t7-p366427171-full/189473e8db1?width=768&height=576&crop=true
|
[
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/u5/u5z54p1lsoh0w9guja3nulzf2930y5m715363350-full/18a6556e8b9?width=60&height=60&crop=true&q=80 60w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/u5/u5z54p1lsoh0w9guja3nulzf2930y5m715363350-full/18a6556e8b9?width=120&height=120&crop=true&q=80 120w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/u5/u5z54p1lsoh0w9guja3nulzf2930y5m715363350-full/18a6556e8b9?width=48&height=48&crop=true&q=80 48w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/u5/u5z54p1lsoh0w9guja3nulzf2930y5m715363350-full/18a6556e8b9?width=96&height=96&crop=true&q=80 96w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/ah/aht74jteu6w8158yxed71vzno274msa8j8601969-full/17c32afc628?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/ah/aht74jteu6w8158yxed71vzno274msa8j8601969-full/17c32afc628?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1j/1jwt95vvvoxo8124qxwy6cb34r3clkoiyx-u1142051503506-full/18d705efe99/p?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1j/1jwt95vvvoxo8124qxwy6cb34r3clkoiyx-u1142051503506-full/18d705efe99/p?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1n/1ntnb0udg9fyaegbva6c506hv2fnu49pf-u546115652038-full/18ee8074afd?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1n/1ntnb0udg9fyaegbva6c506hv2fnu49pf-u546115652038-full/18ee8074afd?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/3y/3ylxroxhnf2c1hdd33fkqr1kf3mu8dtxq-u1750079295984-full/176e68d56cb?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/3y/3ylxroxhnf2c1hdd33fkqr1kf3mu8dtxq-u1750079295984-full/176e68d56cb?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1w/1wba0v4q499lf11i9ebrxdn9az3d8zaq58-u1187120506704-full/190a589a654/p?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1w/1wba0v4q499lf11i9ebrxdn9az3d8zaq58-u1187120506704-full/190a589a654/p?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/3y/3ylxroxhnf2c1hdd33fkqr1kf3mu8dtxq-u1750079295984-full/176e68d56cb?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/3y/3ylxroxhnf2c1hdd33fkqr1kf3mu8dtxq-u1750079295984-full/176e68d56cb?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1w/1wba0v4q499lf11i9ebrxdn9az3d8zaq58-u1187120506704-full/190a589a654/p?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1w/1wba0v4q499lf11i9ebrxdn9az3d8zaq58-u1187120506704-full/190a589a654/p?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/q6/q6j8mxwrvwz1e1puj39d7k8b38q1o84v-u916671909037-full/182df614bd7?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/q6/q6j8mxwrvwz1e1puj39d7k8b38q1o84v-u916671909037-full/182df614bd7?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/mt/mt55ntqn0v3eqi2rw9osr4h13vf6l505-u284950284632-full/17b4006f2fe?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/mt/mt55ntqn0v3eqi2rw9osr4h13vf6l505-u284950284632-full/17b4006f2fe?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/3k/3kj2y6r57jqy1j032ka35od4l3czumtqs-u1168093827521-full/1885dda4d9f?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/3k/3kj2y6r57jqy1j032ka35od4l3czumtqs-u1168093827521-full/1885dda4d9f?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1x/1xpvtcom5ye5lhul82j1ffzux31oezg5h-u902210439506-full/16c2cea0c8b?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1x/1xpvtcom5ye5lhul82j1ffzux31oezg5h-u902210439506-full/16c2cea0c8b?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/jo/joy6lhs0igzsykhokqz7yoe633rg7r8i-u505246111822-full/17d3e8b441d?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/jo/joy6lhs0igzsykhokqz7yoe633rg7r8i-u505246111822-full/17d3e8b441d?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1l/1lmsfi4qef03wk6q6ft5ecyv92zxldn59-u853833684625-full/16b4a7f9039?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1l/1lmsfi4qef03wk6q6ft5ecyv92zxldn59-u853833684625-full/16b4a7f9039?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/u5/u5z54p1lsoh0w9guja3nulzf2930y5m715363350-full/18a6556e8b9?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/u5/u5z54p1lsoh0w9guja3nulzf2930y5m715363350-full/18a6556e8b9?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1c/1cxph7wir18j9abkknwf9v8eo2z7ux7if-u830182088879-full/177df754f3f?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1c/1cxph7wir18j9abkknwf9v8eo2z7ux7if-u830182088879-full/177df754f3f?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/11/11su8dzcycflu1a2buso0e5ls44mtg4qae-u3335496671414-full/1900b770c87?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/11/11su8dzcycflu1a2buso0e5ls44mtg4qae-u3335496671414-full/1900b770c87?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1m/1m951tn2vb5t3148m87h1h4lnj1zsbi7l812833520-full/0?width=16&height=16&crop=true&q=80 16w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1m/1m951tn2vb5t3148m87h1h4lnj1zsbi7l812833520-full/0?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1v/1vlcs468959vt1ffnm74j9gw7d2x8uxkx4-uregionleipzig-full/169eddc463a?width=16&height=16&crop=true&q=80 16w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1v/1vlcs468959vt1ffnm74j9gw7d2x8uxkx4-uregionleipzig-full/169eddc463a?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1m/1m951tn2vb5t3148m87h1h4lnj1zsbi7l812833520-full/0?width=16&height=16&crop=true&q=80 16w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1m/1m951tn2vb5t3148m87h1h4lnj1zsbi7l812833520-full/0?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1m/1m951tn2vb5t3148m87h1h4lnj1zsbi7l812833520-full/0?width=16&height=16&crop=true&q=80 16w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1m/1m951tn2vb5t3148m87h1h4lnj1zsbi7l812833520-full/0?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1x/1x52uzyg2ovrinetaxspvaiwy4d46azq8-uerzgebirge-full/185c9e244b8?width=16&height=16&crop=true&q=80 16w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1x/1x52uzyg2ovrinetaxspvaiwy4d46azq8-uerzgebirge-full/185c9e244b8?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1m/1m951tn2vb5t3148m87h1h4lnj1zsbi7l812833520-full/0?width=16&height=16&crop=true&q=80 16w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1m/1m951tn2vb5t3148m87h1h4lnj1zsbi7l812833520-full/0?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/6w/6wapnhzqepss17vvuan4i7kct2xu5bmud-uthueringen-full/181a951b956?width=16&height=16&crop=true&q=80 16w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/6w/6wapnhzqepss17vvuan4i7kct2xu5bmud-uthueringen-full/181a951b956?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/zi/zi91k2x6u8qtpm7h86p3ksuz4sl9jr4i-u3840099008734-full/18d6ebceec2?width=16&height=16&crop=true&q=80 16w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/zi/zi91k2x6u8qtpm7h86p3ksuz4sl9jr4i-u3840099008734-full/18d6ebceec2?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/4f/4fdkz8rsnty3go9nhgil7jee4sogo57d-usachsen-full/18c1b1a3187?width=16&height=16&crop=true&q=80 16w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/4f/4fdkz8rsnty3go9nhgil7jee4sogo57d-usachsen-full/18c1b1a3187?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1g/1gdjeeqwitx7o1lvlb9ly47hux4g7opugj-uradnetzdeutschland-full/18d3a899a3c?width=16&height=16&crop=true&q=80 16w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1g/1gdjeeqwitx7o1lvlb9ly47hux4g7opugj-uradnetzdeutschland-full/18d3a899a3c?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1x/1x52uzyg2ovrinetaxspvaiwy4d46azq8-uerzgebirge-full/185c9e244b8?width=16&height=16&crop=true&q=80 16w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1x/1x52uzyg2ovrinetaxspvaiwy4d46azq8-uerzgebirge-full/185c9e244b8?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1x/1x52uzyg2ovrinetaxspvaiwy4d46azq8-uerzgebirge-full/185c9e244b8?width=16&height=16&crop=true&q=80 16w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1x/1x52uzyg2ovrinetaxspvaiwy4d46azq8-uerzgebirge-full/185c9e244b8?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/a8f071fcb146fa0ac508.svg",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/f306df4b8a91db944909.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
Komoot user e-Mike recorded a mountain bike ride: Nachts ists Kälter als Draußen.🥶⛄👻💯 12.07.2023. See this route and plan your own adventure with komoot!
|
en
|
/assets/321c2ca1bae0372f55bd.png
|
komoot
|
https://www.komoot.com/tour/1208334071
|
Oh yes, at night you have more cool muggy😃.
Very strong lap, and little worn out on the road😂
Themselves to blame. Why are you driving outside too🫣?
But since you're already on the road, there's nothing to complain about🫡.
Great again 🙋♂️.
man(n)ch one sleeps at night, the other hangs around outside...
so many great impressions that you have captured again! (my favorite this time is picture 14) 💪
Thank you for the nice comments.
In the heat, the only things left are the outdoor pool and the night. The traily section to Schlema was, as always, a dream, it then got really exhausting in Aue up to the Eichert, I can recommend this section to all hill climbers, especially since it never gets boring…
An owl 🦉 also got lost on you - sharp view, always the goal in mind and nocturnal 😂
You brought nice pictures back with you 👌
|
||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 61
|
https://www.msn.com/en-us/travel/places%3Fsid%3D28048216-8cfa-28db-c462-2f572a38d470%26ocid%3Dfinance-finance::portfolio-peregrine%26src%3Dch-cn
|
en
|
MSN
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
| null | ||||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 4
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eibenstock
|
en
|
Eibenstock
|
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Eibenstock.JPG/250px-Eibenstock.JPG",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Wappen_Eibenstock.png/70px-Wappen_Eibenstock.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Eibenstock_in_ERZ.png/240px-Eibenstock_in_ERZ.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Germany_adm_location_map.svg/250px-Germany_adm_location_map.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Saxony_location_map.svg/250px-Saxony_location_map.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Pfeil_oben.svg/14px-Pfeil_oben.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Pfeil_links.svg/17px-Pfeil_links.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pfeil_rechts.svg/17px-Pfeil_rechts.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Pfeil_unten.svg/14px-Pfeil_unten.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Wildenthal%2C_Germany.jpg/220px-Wildenthal%2C_Germany.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Eibenstock_Church_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Eibenstock_Church_%28aka%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/DS-Eibenstock.jpg/220px-DS-Eibenstock.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Wappen_Erzgebirgskreis.svg/40px-Wappen_Erzgebirgskreis.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png",
"https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"
] |
2005-11-10T20:35:21+00:00
|
en
|
/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eibenstock
|
Town in Saxony, Germany
Eibenstock is a town in the Erzgebirgskreis, Saxony, Germany. It is situated in the western Ore Mountains, near the river Mulde.
Eibenstock has the following constituent communities: Eibenstock, Blauenthal, Wolfsgrün, Neidhardtsthal, Wildenthal, Oberwildenthal, Carlsfeld, Blechhammer, Neues Wiesenhaus, Sosa, Stabhammer, Wilzschmühle and Weitersglashütte.
Owing to its elevation of more than 600 m, Eibenstock would not have been one of the first farming villages in the Ore Mountains, but rather a longstanding settlement in the form of a radial forest homestead village, founded at the earliest sometime in the thirteenth century in what later became the Barony of Schwarzenberg. About 1.5 km from the edge of town, not far from where the Steinbächel empties into the Große Bockau, a ringwall was unearthed.
The first two documentary mentions as Ybenstok and Ibenstok both date from the year 1378. At that time, an Alte Seife (“Old Placer”) was named, hinting that the village's development was also spurred by mining. Placer mines were being worked in the Eibenstock area even as late as the 19th century, although at the same time, iron ore and tin were also being mined from harder deposits. In 1560 Eibenstock became the official seat of a Bergamt ("mining office") and thereafter called itself freie Bergstadt ("free mining town").
In 1453, Elector Friedrich of Saxony fiefed the Brothers Leonhart und Nickel von Tannenberg auf Plohn with, among other things, the villages of Eibenstock, Sosa and Burkhardtsgrün. These were not under the new ownership for very long, as Wilhelm von Tannenberg had to give up Eibenstock by 1456 to the Hereditary Marshal of Saxony, Hans Löser. In 1464, Eibenstock passed to the lordly estate of Schwarzenberg and hence to the Saxon Amt of Schwarzenberg in 1533.
In 1532, the community was described as a market town, and in 1555 as a small town. The town was only granted market rights in 1639. In 1734, for the first time, a fish market was held at which fresh fish brought in from Hamburg was sold.
Clara Angermann brought Tambourieren to the town in 1775, a kind of artistic lace embroidery.[3] She taught this to the women until 1780, and thereafter embroidery began to blossom. By 1850 there were 6 successful embroidering businesses and in 1858, the first embroidery machine went into operation. The work was famous worldwide, so much so that from 1891 to 1908, the United States even maintained a consulate in town to foster their business relationships.
After three great fires (1856, 1862 and 1892), to which whole neighbourhoods fell victim, reconstruction was undertaken in such a way as to give the buildings a more contemporary look. Between 1864 and 1868, the neo-Romanesque church was built, and in 1906 and 1907 a new art nouveau town hall.
With the First World War (1914–1918), the embroidery industry collapsed and could only establish itself once again after the Second World War. However, it never again achieved the level of fame that it had enjoyed before 1914.
From 1952 to 1990, Eibenstock was part of the Bezirk Karl-Marx-Stadt of East Germany. Small embroidery businesses merged into collectives such as the Produktionsgenossenschaften des Handwerks (PGH) Sticktex or the Eibenstocker Buntstickerei, but then in 1972, these were converted into a Volkseigener Betrieb (“nationally owned business”, a kind of enterprise found in the former East Germany)
Between 1974 and 1979 the second biggest dam project in East Germany was realized. A basin with 77 million cubic metres of storage and 350 ha in area was created and now supplies roughly a million people with drinking water.
After the political and economic changes of 1989 and 1990, Eibenstock's economy suffered, like that of much of the former East Germany, which had its ramifications for the administration of small communities. It became impossible to run them independently, and for this reason came on 1 January 1994 the amalgamation of Blauenthal, Neidhardtsthal, Wolfsgrün, Wildenthal and Oberwildenthal with Eibenstock, and likewise on 1 April 1997 of Carlsfeld and Weitersglashütte.
In 2005 Eibenstock celebrated 850 years of existence.
1875 = 6,553
1913 = 9,899
1959 = 9,500
1998 = 7,410
2004 = 6,708
2007 = 6,339
2010 = 8,168
2012 = 7,838
2013 = 7,736
Source as of 1998: Statistisches Landesamt des Freistaates Sachsen
The elections in May 2014 showed the following results:
CDU: 11 Seats
SPD: 4 Seats
The Left: 1 Seat
Gewerbeverein (Trade association): 1 Seat
FWG (Free voters): 1 Seat
Neo-Romanesque church
Replica of an Electorate of Saxony postal milestone at the Postplatz
Restored Kingdom of Saxony station stone near the former postal station
Eibenstock was once well known for its great Freier Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (FDGB) holiday home at the Eibenstock Reservoir. Today, the complex has been restored and is run as a hotel, beside which a waterpark has been built. Owing to the hotel's conspicuous blue paintwork, it has borne, since the restoration, the name Das Blaue Wunder (“The Blue Wonder”). The building was originally meant as lodging for the dam builders.
South of town is the 778-m-high Adlerfels (a crag), from near which, on a clear day, there is a wonderful panoramic view of Eibenstock. On the mountain ridge are found an all-weather bobsleigh run and a skilift.
From the 14th to 18th centuries there was tin and iron ore mining in the region. After a great famine in 1771-1773, this industry was largely displaced by the embroidery industry.
Paul Drews (1858–1912), theologian and university lecturer
Werner Ehrig (1897-1981), an officer, most recently a general lieutenant in the Second World War
Wolfgang Unger (1948-2004), choral conductor and academic in Leipzig
1895: Otto von Bismarck, Imperial Chancellor
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 34
|
https://www.academia.edu/75962112/Environmental_reconstruction_and_stratigraphy_in_the_Palaeozoic_Late_Westphalian_terrestrial_biotas_and_palaeoenvironments_of_the_Variscan_foreland_and_adjacent_intramontane_basins
|
en
|
Environmental reconstruction and stratigraphy in the Palaeozoic" "Late Westphalian terrestrial biotas and palaeoenvironments of the Variscan foreland and adjacent intramontane basins
|
http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif
|
http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif
|
[
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-redesign-2015-A.svg",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-redesign-2015.svg",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/single_work_splash/adobe.icon.svg",
"https://0.academia-photos.com/attachment_thumbnails/83648350/mini_magick20220409-1891-vuthby.png?1649569530",
"https://0.academia-photos.com/2743605/888427/1109846/s65_olaf.elicki.jpg",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loaders/paper-load.gif",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Olaf Elicki",
"tu-freiberg.academia.edu"
] |
2022-04-09T00:00:00
|
Environmental reconstruction and stratigraphy in the Palaeozoic" "Late Westphalian terrestrial biotas and palaeoenvironments of the Variscan foreland and adjacent intramontane basins
|
https://www.academia.edu/75962112/Environmental_reconstruction_and_stratigraphy_in_the_Palaeozoic_Late_Westphalian_terrestrial_biotas_and_palaeoenvironments_of_the_Variscan_foreland_and_adjacent_intramontane_basins
|
Combined palaeoecological and sedimentological analyses of a core from a kettle-hole in Vorpom-mern (NE Germany) allow the reconstruction of the interaction between vegetation and environment during the Weichselian late Pleniglacial, Lateglacial, and Early Holocene. A humus-containing soil horizon (Reinberg horizon) occurs in the upper part of Pleniglacial sand. This humus formed in a local environment of shallow wet ponds and low dry mineral mounds. Water levels were generally rather low. Rising water levels at the beginning of the Lateglacial drowned this environment and a lake formed. The vegetation development shows a phase with an open regional vegetation (Oldest Dryas or earlier part of the Meiendorf), a period with prominence of Hip-pophaë (Bølling or later part of the Meiendorf), and a subsequent second phase with a more open regional veg-etation (Older Dryas). The sediment parameter, together with the reconstructed vegetation, point at a gradual shift to a more humid climat...
The Westphalian C was a time of marked tectonic and climatic changes within the Variscan Foreland, but our understanding of these changes is hampered by a poor appreciation of large-scale palaeogeography and palaeogeographic evolution within this key stratigraphic interval. The distribution of tonsteins, marine bands and faunal occurrences related to marine incursions or the proximity of marine conditions in Britain and on the European mainland during the Westphalian C (Bolsovian) is briefly summarised. The favoured environmental conditions of some selected fossil taxa (Lingula, arenaceous foraminifers, Geisina, conchostracan faunas and Torispora producing tree ferns) are highlighted. A palaeogeographic model shows the relationship between major sedimentary facies belts in the Westphalian C of western Europe and the influence of major marine incursions on the distribution pattern of incursion-related faunas. The frequent succession of transgressive-regressive faunal phases in beds w...
The project D4 of the Collaborative Research Center (CRC) 806 at the University of Cologne deals with the study of the Mesolithic in North Rhine-Westphalia. The cultural transition from Final Palaeolithic to Early Mesolithic, the “Mesolithization”, forms one important research focus of the Mesolithic unit. This research focus currently consists of three different projects, which will be introduced in this presentation: 1. The dating of the barbed points from Dinslaken puts the artefacts at the transition from the Allerød period to the beginning of the Younger Dryas. The typo-chronological context of the points suggest a cultural connection between the Final Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers from the Rhine to the modern North Sea region and the east of England. 2. Most of the aurochs remains from Bedburg-Königshoven can be dated to the Early Preboreal and might therefore point to two different phases of the site. This early date further questions the chronological context of the lithic assemblage, which exhibits a Final Palaeolithic character, and the antler frontlets from Bedburg. Consequently, further investigations of the assemblage are required. Moreover, Amelie Scheu from the Palaeogenetics Group at the University of Mainz is analysing the well-preserved aDNA material from an aurochs at Bedburg in order to decode the genome of the European aurochs for the first time. 3. The Early Holocene assemblages of Heek-Nienborg (long blades and microliths) and Werl-Büderich (microblades and microliths) offer a special insight into the Pleistocene-Holocene transition in Westphalia. Werl-Büderich represents the earliest AMS-dated Mesolithic assemblage in Westphalia so far. Both assemblages allow a detailed study of transformations in Earliest Mesolithic silex material in this region. This detailed investigation involves an analysis of resin residues on long blades from the Heek assemblage to gain material for AMS-dating and information about tool usage. The comparison of both inventories will lead to a better understanding of possible transformations in blank production and tool function during the Pleistocene-Holocene interface. Dr. Birgit Gehlen bgehlen1@uni-koeln.de Annabell Zander B.A. azander1@smail.uni-koeln.de University of Cologne CRC 806, Project D4 Mesolithic Research Unit Bernhard-Feilchenfeld-Str. 11 D-50969 Cologne Dr. Amelie Scheu am.scheu@uni-mainz.de Palaeogenetics Group Johannes-Gutenberg-University Mainz Anselm-Franz-von Bentzel-Weg 7 D-55099 Mainz Dr. Martin Street street@rgzm.de Archaeological Research Center and Museum for Human Behavioural Evolution Römisch-Germanisches-Zentralmuseum Leibniz Research Institute for Archaeology Schloss Monrepos D-56567 Neuwied
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 17
|
https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/yonge/deeds/deeds.html
|
en
|
A Book of Golden Deeds.
|
[
"https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/yonge/deeds/cover.gif",
"https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/yonge/deeds/front-page.gif",
"https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/yonge/deeds/queen.gif",
"https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/yonge/deeds/charge.gif",
"https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/yonge/deeds/wreck.gif"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
| null |
WHAT IS A GOLDEN DEED?
We all of us enjoy a story of battle and adventure. Some of us delight in the anxiety and excitement with which we watch the various strange predicaments, hairbreadth escapes, and ingenious contrivances that are presented to us; and the mere imaginary dread of the dangers thus depicted, stirs our feelings and makes us feel eager and full of suspense.
This taste, though it is the first step above the dulness that cannot be interested in anything beyond its own immediate world, nor care for what it neither sees, touches, tastes, nor puts to any present use, is still the lowest form that such a liking can take. It may be no better than a love of reading about murders in the newspaper, just for the sake of a sort of startled sensation; and it is a taste that becomes unwholesome when it absolutely delights in dwelling on horrors and cruelties for their own sake; or upon shifty, cunning, dishonest stratagems and devices. To learn to take interest in what is evil is always mischievous.
But there is an element in many of such scenes of woe and violence that may well account for our interest in them. It is that which makes the eye gleam and the heart throb, and bears us through the details of suffering, bloodshed, and even barbarity–feeling our spirits moved and elevated by contemplating the courage and endurance that they have called forth. Nay, such is the charm of brilliant valour, that we often are tempted to forget the injustice of the cause that may have called forth the actions that delight us. And this enthusiasm is often united with the utmost tenderness of heart, the very appreciation of suffering only quickening the sense of the heroism that risked the utmost, till the young and ardent learn absolutely to look upon danger as an occasion for evincing the highest qualities.
"O Life, without thy chequer'd scene
Of right and wrong, of weal and woe,
Success and failure, could a ground
For magnanimity be found?"
The true cause of such enjoyment is perhaps an inherent consciousness that there is nothing so noble as forgetfulness of self. Therefore it is that we are struck by hearing of the exposure of life and limb to the utmost peril, in oblivion, or recklessness of personal safety, in comparison with a higher object.
That object is sometimes unworthy. In the lowest form of courage it is only avoidance of disgrace; but even fear of shame is better than mere love of bodily ease, and from that lowest motive the scale rises to the most noble and precious actions of which human nature is capable–the truly golden and priceless deeds that are the jewels of history, the salt of life.
And it is a chain of Golden Deeds that we seek to lay before our readers; but, ere entering upon them, perhaps we had better clearly understand what it is that to our mind constitutes a Golden Deed.
It is not mere hardihood. There was plenty of hardihood in Pizarro when he led his men through terrible hardships to attack the empire of Peru, but he was actuated by mere greediness for gain, and all the perils he so resolutely endured could not make his courage admirable. It was nothing but insensibility to danger, when set against the wealth and power that he coveted, and to which he sacrificed thousands of helpless Peruvians. Daring for the sake of plunder has been found in every robber, every pirate, and too often in all the lower grade of warriors, from the savage plunderer of a besieged town up to the reckless monarch making war to feed his own ambition.
There is a courage that breaks out in bravado, the exuberance of high spirits, delighting in defying peril for its own sake, not indeed producing deeds which deserve to be called golden, but which, from their heedless grace, their desperation, and absence of all base motives–except perhaps vanity–have an undeniable charm about them, even when we doubt the right of exposing a life in mere gaiety of heart.
Such was the gallantry of the Spanish knight who, while Fernando and Isabel lay before the Moorish city of Granada, galloped out of the camp, in full view of besiegers and besieged, and fastened to the gate of the city with his dagger a copy of the Ave Maria. It was a wildly brave action, and yet not without service in showing the dauntless spirit of the Christian army. But the same can hardly be said of the daring shown by the Emperor Maximilian when he displayed himself to the citizens of Ulm upon the topmost pinnacle of their cathedral spire; or of Alonso de Ojeda, who figured in like manner upon the tower of the Spanish cathedral. The same daring afterwards carried him in the track of Columbus, and there he stained his name with the usual blots of rapacity and cruelty. These deeds, if not tinsel, were little better than gold leaf.
A Golden Deed must be something more than mere display of fearlessness. Grave and resolute fulfilment of duty is required to give it the true weight. Such duty kept the sentinel at his post at the gate of Pompeii, even when the stifling dust of ashes came thicker and thicker from the volcano, and the liquid mud streamed down, and the people fled and struggled on, and still the sentry stood at his post, unflinching, till death had stiffened his limbs; and his bones, in their helmet and breastplate, with the hand still raised to keep the suffocating dust from mouth and nose, have remained even till our own times to show how a Roman soldier did his duty. In like manner the last of the old Spanish infantry originally formed by the Great Captain, Gonzalo de Cordova, were all cut off, standing fast to a man, at the battle of Rocroy, in 1643, not one man breaking his rank. The whole regiment was found lying in regular order upon the field of battle, with their colonel, the old Count de Fuentes, at their head, expiring in a chair, in which he had been carried, because he was too infirm to walk, to this his twentieth battle. The conqueror, the high-spirited young Duke d'Enghien, afterwards Prince of Condé, exclaimed, "Were I not a victor, I should have wished thus to die!" and preserved the chair among the relics of the bravest of his own fellow countrymen.
Such obedience at all costs and all risks is, however, the very essence of a soldier's life. An army could not exist without it, a ship could not sail without it, and millions upon millions of those whose "bones are dust and good swords are rust" have shown such resolution. It is the solid material, but it has hardly the exceptional brightness, of a Golden Deed.
And yet perhaps it is one of the most remarkable characteristics of a Golden Deed that the doer of it is certain to feel it merely a duty; "I have done that which it was my duty to do" is the natural answer of those capable of such actions. They have been constrained to them by duty, or by pity; have never even deemed it possible to act otherwise, and did not once think of themselves in the matter at all.
For the true metal of a Golden Deed is self-devotion. Selfishness is the dross and alloy that gives the unsound ring to many an act that has been called glorious. And, on the other hand, it is not only the valour, which meets a thousand enemies upon the battlefield, or scales the walls in a forlorn hope, that is of true gold. It may be, but often it is a mere greed of fame, fear of shame, or lust of plunder. No, it is the spirit that gives itself for others–the temper that for the sake of religion, of country, of duty, of kindred, nay, of pity even to a stranger, will dare all things, risk all things, endure all things, meet death in one moment, or wear life away in slow, persevering tendance and suffering.
Such a spirit was shown by Leæna, the Athenian woman at whose house the overthrow of the tyranny of the Pisistratids was concerted, and who, when seized and put to the torture that she might disclose the secrets of the conspirators, fearing that the weakness of her frame might overpower her resolution, actually bit off her tongue, that she might be unable to betray the trust placed in her. The Athenians commemorated her truly golden silence by raising in her honour the statue of a lioness without a tongue, in allusion to her name, which signifies a lioness.
Again, Rome had a tradition of a lady whose mother was in prison under sentence of death by hunger, but who, at the peril of her own life, visited her daily, and fed her from her own bosom, until even the stern senate were moved with pity, and granted a pardon. The same story is told of a Greek lady, called Euphrasia, who thus nourished her father; and in Scotland, in 1401, when the unhappy heir of the kingdom, David, Duke of Rothesay, had been thrown into the dungeon of Falkland Castle by his barbarous uncle, the Duke of Albany, there to be starved to death, his only helper was one poor peasant woman, who, undeterred by fear of the savage men that guarded the castle, crept, at every safe opportunity, to the grated window on a level with the ground, and dropped cakes through it to the prisoner, while she allayed his thirst from her own breast through a pipe. Alas! the visits were detected, and the Christian prince had less mercy than the heathen senate. Another woman, in 1450, when Sir Gilles of Brittany was savagely imprisoned and starved in much the same manner by his brother, Duke François, sustained him for several days by bringing wheat in her veil, and dropping it through the grated window, and when poison had been used to hasten his death, she brought a priest to the grating to enable him to make his peace with Heaven. Tender pity made these women venture all things; and surely their doings were full of the gold of love.
So again two Swiss lads, whose father was dangerously ill, found that they could by no means procure the needful medicine, except at a price far beyond their means, and heard that an English traveller had offered a large price for a pair of eaglets. The only eyrie was on a crag supposed to be so inacessible, that no one ventured to attempt it, till these boys, in their intense anxiety for their father, dared the fearful danger, scaled the precipice, captured the birds, and safely conveyed them to the traveller. Truly this was a deed of gold.
Such was the action of the Russian servant whose master's carriage was pursued by wolves, and who sprang out among the beasts, sacrificing his own life willingly to slake their fury for a few minutes in order that the horses might be untouched, and convey his master to a place of safety. But his act of self-devotion has been so beautifully expanded in the story of "Eric's Grave", in "Tales of Christian Heroism", that we can only hint at it, as at that of the "Helmsman of Lake Erie", who, with the steamer on fire around him, held fast by the wheel in the very jaws of the flame, so as to guide the vessel into harbour, and save the many lives within her, at the cost of his own fearful agony, while slowly scorched by the flames.
Memorable, too, was the compassion that kept Dr. Thompson upon the battlefield of the Alma, all alone throughout the night, striving to alleviate the sufferings and attend to the wants, not of our own wounded, but of the enemy, some of whom, if they were not sorely belied, had been known to requite a friendly act of assistance with a pistol shot. Thus to remain in the darkness, on a battlefield in an enemy's country, among the enemy themselves, all for pity and mercy's sake, was one of the noblest acts that history can show. Yet, it was paralleled in the time of the Indian Mutiny, when every English man and woman was flying from the rage of the Sepoys at Benares, and Dr. Hay alone remained because he would not desert the patients in the hospital, whose life depended on his care–many of them of those very native corps who were advancing to massacre him. This was the Roman sentry's firmness, more voluntary and more glorious. Nor may we pass by her to whom our title page points as our living type of Golden Deeds 1 –to her who first showed how woman's ministrations of mercy may be carried on, not only within the city, but on the borders of the camp itself–"the lady with the lamp", whose health and strength were freely devoted to the holy work of softening the after sufferings that render war so hideous; whose very step and shadow carried gladness and healing to the sick soldier, and who has opened a path of like shining light to many another woman who only needed to be shown the way. Fitly, indeed, may the figure of Florence Nightingale be shadowed forth at the opening of our roll of Golden Deeds.
Thanks be to God, there is enough of His own spirit of love abroad in the earth to make Golden Deeds of no such rare occurrence, but that they are of "all time". Even heathen days were not without them, and how much more should they not abound after the words have been spoken, "Greater love hath no man than this, that he lay down his life for his friend", and after the one Great Deed has been wrought that has consecrated all other deeds of self-sacrifice. Of martyrdoms we have scarcely spoken. They were truly deeds of the purest gold; but they are too numerous to be dwelt on here: and even as soldiers deem it each man's simple duty to face death unhesitatingly, so the "glorious army of martyrs" had, for the most part, joined the Church with the expectation that they should have to confess the faith, and confront the extremity of death and torture for it.
What have been here brought together are chiefly cases of self-devotion that stand out remarkably, either from their hopelessness, their courage, or their patience, varying with the character of their age; but with that one essential distinction in all, that the dross of self was cast away.
Among these we cannot forbear mentioning the poor American soldier, who, grievously wounded, had just been laid in the middle bed, by far the most comfortable of the three tiers of berths in the ship's cabin in which the wounded were to be conveyed to New York. Still thrilling with the suffering of being carried from the field, and lifted to his place, he saw a comrade in even worse plight brought in, and thinking of the pain it must cost his fellow soldier to be raised to the bed above him, he surprised his kind lady nurses (daily scatterers of Golden Deeds) by saying, "Put me up there, I reckon I'll bear hoisting better than he will".
And, even as we write, we hear of an American Railway collision that befell a train on the way to Elmira with prisoners. The engineer, whose name was William Ingram, might have leapt off and saved himself before the shock; but he remained in order to reverse the engine, though with certain death staring him in the face. He was buried in the wreck of the meeting train, and when found, his back was against the boiler–he was jammed in, unable to move, and actually being burnt to death; but even in that extremity of anguish he called out to those who came round to help him to keep away, as he expected the boiler would burst. They disregarded the generous cry, and used every effort to extricate him, but could not succeed until after his sufferings had ended in death.
While men and women still exist who will thus suffer and thus die, losing themselves in the thought of others, surely the many forms of woe and misery with which this earth is spread do but give occasions of working out some of the highest and best qualities of which mankind are capable. And oh, young readers, if your hearts burn within you as you read of these various forms of the truest and deepest glory, and you long for time and place to act in the like devoted way, bethink yourselves that the alloy of such actions is to be constantly worked away in daily life; and that if ever it be your lot to do a Golden Deed, it will probably be in unconsciousness that you are doing anything extraordinary, and that the whole impulse will consist in the having absolutely forgotten self.
[Page 16]
1 In the first edition the title page contained an engraving of Florence Nightingale.
THE STORIES OF ALCESTIS AND ANTIGONE
It has been said, that even the heathens saw and knew the glory of self-devotion; and the Greeks had two early instances so very beautiful that, though they cannot in all particulars be true, they must not be passed over. There must have been some foundation for them, though we cannot now disentangle them from the fable that has adhered to them; and, at any rate, the ancient Greeks believed them, and gathered strength and nobleness from dwelling on such examples; since, as it has been truly said, "Every word, look or thought of sympathy with heroic action, helps to make heroism". Both tales were presented before them in their solemn religious tragedies, and the noble poetry in which they were recounted by the great Greek dramatists has been preserved to our time.
Alcestis was the wife of Admetus, King of Pheræ, who, according to the legend, was assured that his life might be prolonged, provided father, mother, or wife would die in his stead. It was Alcestis alone who was willing freely to give her life to save that of her husband; and her devotion is thus exquisitely described in the following translation, by Professor Anstice, from the choric song in the tragedy by Euripides:–
"Be patient, for thy tears are vain–
They may not wake the dead again:
E'en heroes, of immortal sire
And mortal mother born, expire.
Oh, she was dear
While she linger'd here;
She is dear now she rests below,
And thou mayst boast
That the bride thou hast lost
Was the noblest earth can show.
"We will not look on her burial sod
As the cell of sepulchral sleep,
It shall be as the shrine of a radiant god,
And the pilgrim shall visit that blest abode
To worship, and not to weep;
And as he turns his steps aside,
Thus shall he breathe his vow:
'Here sleeps a self-devoted bride,
Of old to save her lord she died.
She is a spirit now.
Hail, bright and blest one! grant to me
The smiles of glad prosperity.'
Thus shall he own her name divine,
Thus bend him at Alcestis' shrine."
The story, however, bore that Hercules, descending in the course of one of his labours into the realms of the dead, rescued Alcestis, and brought her back; and Euripides gives a scene in which the rough, jovial Hercules insists on the sorrowful Admetus marrying again a lady of his own choice, and gives the veiled Alcestis back to him as the new bride. Later Greeks tried to explain the story by saying that Alcestis nursed her husband through an infectious fever, caught it herself, and had been supposed to be dead, when a skilful physician restored her; but this is probably only one of the many reasonable versions they tried to give of the old tales that were founded on the decay and revival of nature in winter and spring, and with a presage running through them of sacrifice, death, and resurrection. Our own poet Chaucer was a great admirer of Alcestis, and improved upon the legend by turning her into his favourite flower–
"The daisie or els the eye of the daie,
The emprise and the floure of flouris all".
Another Greek legend told of the maiden of Thebes, one of the most self-devoted beings that could be conceived by a fancy untrained in the knowledge of Divine Perfection. It cannot be known how much of her story is true, but it was one that went deep into the hearts of Grecian men and women, and encouraged them in some of their best feelings; and assuredly the deeds imputed to her were golden.
Antigone was the daughter of the old King Oedipus of Thebes. After a time heavy troubles, the consequence of the sins of his youth, came upon him, and he was driven away from his kingdom, and sent to wander forth a blind old man, scorned and pointed at by all. Then it was that his faithful daughter showed true affection for him. She might have remained at Thebes with her brother Eteocles, who had been made king in her father's room, but she chose instead to wander forth with the forlorn old man, fallen from his kingly state, and absolutely begging his bread. The great Athenian poet Sophocles began his tragedy of "Oedipus Coloneus" with showing the blind old king leaning on Antigone's arm, and asking–
"Tell me, thou daughter of a blind old man,
Antigone, to what land are we come,
Or to what city? Who the inhabitants
Who with a slender pittance will relieve
Even for a day the wandering Oedipus?"
POTTER.
The place to which they had come was in Attica, hear the city of Colonus. It was a lovely grove–
"All the haunts of Attic ground,
Where the matchless coursers bound,
Boast not, through their realms of bliss,
Other spot so fair as this.
Frequent down this greenwood dale
Mourns the warbling nightingale,
Nestling 'mid the thickest screen
Of the ivy's darksome green,
Or where each empurpled shoot
Drooping with its myriad fruit,
Curl'd in many a mazy twine,
Droops the never-trodden vine."
ANSTICE.
This beautiful grove was sacred to the Eumenides, or avenging goddesses, and it was therefore a sanctuary where no foot might tread; but near it the exiled king was allowed to take up his abode, and was protected by the great Athenian King, Theseus. There his other daughter, Ismene, joined him, and, after a time, his elder son Polynices, arrived.
Polynices had been expelled from Thebes by his brother Eteocles, and had been wandering through Greece seeking aid to recover his rights. He had collected an army, and was come to take leave of his father and sisters; and at the same time to entreat his sisters to take care that, if he should fall in the battle, they would prevent his corpse from being left unburied; for the Greeks believed that till the funeral rites were performed, the spirit went wandering restlessly up and down upon the banks of a dark stream, unable to enter the home of the dead. Antigone solemnly promised to him that he should not be left without these last rites. Before long, old Oedipus was killed by lightning, and the two sisters returned to Thebes.
The united armies of the seven chiefs against Thebes came on, led by Polynices. Eteocles sallied out to meet them, and there was a terrible battle, ending in all the seven chiefs being slain, and the two brothers, Eteocles and Polynices, were killed by one another in single combat. Creon, the uncle, who thus became king, had always been on the side of Eteocles, and therefore commanded that whilst this younger brother was entombed with all due solemnities, the body of the elder should be left upon the battlefield to be torn by dogs and vultures, and that whosoever durst bury it should be treated as a rebel and a traitor to the state.
This was the time for the sister to remember her oath to her dead brother. The more timid Ismene would have dissuaded her, but she answered,–
"To me no sufferings have that hideous form
Which can affright me from a glorious death".
And she crept forth by night, amid all the horrors of the deserted field of battles, and herself covered with loose earth the corpse of Polynices. The barbarous uncle caused it to be taken up and again exposed, and a watch was set at some little distance. Again Antigone
"Was seen, lamenting shrill with plaintive notes,
Like the poor bird that sees her lonely nest
Spoil'd of her young".
Again she heaped dry dust with her own hands over the body, and poured forth the libations of wine that formed an essential part of the ceremony. She was seized by the guard, and led before Creon. She boldly avowed her deed, and, in spite of the supplications of Ismene, she was put to death, a sufferer for her noble and pious deeds; and with this only comfort:–
"Glowing at my heart
I feel this hope, that to my father, dear
And dear to thee, my mother, dear to thee,
My brother, I shall go."
POTTER.
Dim and beautiful indeed was the hope that upbore the grave and beautiful Theban maiden; and we shall see her resolution equalled, though hardly surpassed, by Christian Antigones of equal love and surer faith.
THE CUP OF WATER
No touch in the history of the minstrel king David gives us a more warm and personal feeling towards him than his longing for the water of the well of Bethlehem. Standing as the incident does in the summary of the characters of his mighty men, it is apt to appear to us as if it had taken place in his latter days; but such is not the case, it befell while he was still under thirty, in the time of his persecution by Saul.
It was when the last attempt at reconciliation with the king had been made, when the affectionate parting with the generous and faithful Jonathan had taken place, when Saul was hunting him like a partridge on the mountains on the one side, and the Philistines had nearly taken his life on the other, that David, outlawed, yet loyal at the heart, sent his aged parents to the land of Moab for refuge, and himself took up his abode in the caves of the wild limestone hills that had become familiar to him when he was a shepherd. Brave captain and Heaven-destined king as he was, his name attracted around him a motley group of those that were in distress, or in debt, or discontented, and among them were the "mighty men" whose brave deeds won them the foremost parts in that army with which David was to fulfill the ancient promises to his people. There were his three nephews, Joab, the ferocious and imperious, the chivalrous Abishai, and Asahel the fleet of foot; there was the warlike Levite Benaiah, who slew lions and lionlike men, and others who, like David himself, had done battle with the gigantic sons of Anak. Yet even these valiant men, so wild and lawless, could be kept in check by the voice of their young captain; and, outlaws as they were, they spoiled no peaceful villages, they lifted not their hands against the persecuting monarch, and the neighbouring farms lost not one lamb through their violence. Some at least listened to the song of their warlike minstrel:–
"Come, ye children, and hearken to me,
I will teach you the fear of the Lord.
What man is he that lusteth to live,
And would fain see good days?
Let him refrain his tongue from evil
And his lips that they speak no guile,
Let him eschew evil and do good,
Let him seek peace and ensue it."
With such strains as these, sung to his harp, the warrior gained the hearts of his men to enthusiastic love, and gathered followers on all sides, among them eleven fierce men of Gad, with faces like lions and feet swift as roes, who swam the Jordan in time of flood, and fought their way to him, putting all enemies in the valleys to flight.
But the Eastern sun burnt on the bare rocks. A huge fissure, opening in the mountain ridge, encumbered at the bottom with broken rocks, with precipitous banks, scarcely affording a foothold for the wild goats–such is the spot where, upon a cleft on the steep precipice, still remain the foundations of the "hold", or tower, believed to have been the David's retreat, and near at hand is the low-browed entrance of the galleried cave alternating between narrow passages and spacious halls, but all oppressively hot and close. Waste and wild, without a bush or a tree, in the feverish atmosphere of Palestine, it was a desolate region, and at length the wanderer's heart fainted in him, as he thought of his own home, with its rich and lovely terraced slopes, green with wheat, trellised with vines, and clouded with grey olive, and of the cool cisterns of living water by the gate of which he loved to sing–
"He shall feed me in a green pasture,
And lead me forth beside the waters of comfort".
His parched longing lips gave utterance to the sigh, "Oh that one would give me to drink of the water of the well of Bethlehem that is by the gate!"
Three of his brave men, apparently Abishai, Benaiah, and Eleazar, heard the wish. Between their mountain fastness and the dearly loved spring lay the host of the Philistines; but their love for their leader feared no enemies. It was not only water that he longed for, but the water from the fountain which he had loved in his childhood. They descended from their chasm, broke through the midst of the enemy's army, and drew the water from the favourite spring, bearing it back, once again through the foe, to the tower upon the rock! Deeply moved was their chief at this act of self-devotion–so much moved that the water seemed to him to be too sacred to be put to his own use. "May God forbid it me that I should do this thing. Shall I drink the blood of these men that have put their lives in jeopardy, for with the jeopardy of their lives they brought it?" And as a hallowed and precious gift, he poured out unto the Lord the water obtained at the price of such peril to his followers.
In later times we meet with another hero, who by his personal qualities inspired something of the same enthusiastic attachment as did David, and who met with an adventure somewhat similar, showing the like nobleness of mind on the part of both leader and followers.
It was Alexander of Macedon, whose character as a man, with all its dark shades of violence, rage, and profanity, has a nobleness and sweetness that win our hearts, while his greatness rests on a far broader basis than that of his conquests, though they are unrivalled. No one else so gained the love of the conquered, had such wide and comprehensive views for the amelioration of the world, or rose so superior to the prejudice of race; nor have any ten years left so lasting a trace upon the history of the world as those of his career.
It is not, however, of his victories that we are here to speak, but of his return march from the banks of the Indus, in B. C. 326, when he had newly recovered from the severe wound which he had received under the fig tree, within the mud wall of the city of the Malli. This expedition was as much the expedition of a discoverer as the journey of a conqueror: and, at the mouth of the Indus, he sent his ships to survey the coasts of the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf, while he himself marched along the shore of the province, then called Gedrosia, and now Mekhran. It was a most dismal tract. Above towered mountains of reddish-brown bare stone, treeless and without verdure, the scanty grass produced in the summer being burnt up long before September, the month of his march; and all the slope below was equally desolate slopes of gravel. The few inhabitants were called by the Greeks fish-eaters and turtle-eaters, because there was apparently, nothing else to eat; and their huts were built of turtle shells.
The recollections connected with the region were dismal. Semiramis and Cyrus were each said to have lost an army there through hunger and thirst; and these foes, the most fatal foes of the invader, began to attack the Greek host. Nothing but the discipline and all-pervading influence of Alexander could have borne his army through. Speed was their sole chance; and through the burning sun, over the arid rock, he stimulated their steps with his own high spirit of unshrinking endurance, till he had dragged them through one of the most rapid and extraordinary marches of his wonderful career. His own share in their privations was fully and freely taken; and once when, like the rest, he was faint with heat and deadly thirst, a small quantity of water, won with great fatigue and difficulty, was brought to him, he esteemed it too precious to be applied to his own refreshment, but poured it forth as a libation, lest, he said, his warriors should thirst the more when they saw him drink alone; and, no doubt, too, because he felt the exceeding value of that which was purchased by loyal love.
A like story is told of Rodolf of Hapsburg, the founder of the greatness of Austria, and one of the most open-hearted of men. A flagon of water was brought to him when his army was suffering from severe drought. "I cannot," he said, "drink alone, nor can all share so small a quantity. I do not thirst for myself, but for my whole army."
Yet there have been thirsty lips that have made a still more trying renunciation. Our own Sir Philip Sidney, riding back, with the mortal hurt in his broken thigh, from the fight at Zutphen, and giving the draught from his own lips to the dying man whose necessities were greater than his own, has long been our proverb for the giver of that self-denying cup of water that shall by no means lose its reward.
A tradition of an act of somewhat the same character a stout burgher of Flensborg was about to refresh himself, ere retiring to have his wounds dressed, with a draught of beer from a wooden bottle, when an imploring cry from a wounded Swede, lying on the field, made him turn, and, with the very words of Sidney, "Thy need is greater than mine," he knelt down by the fallen enemy, to pour the liquor into his mouth. His requital was a pistol shot in the shoulder from the treacherous Swede. "Rascal," he cried, "I would have befriended you, and you would murder me in return! Now I will punish you. I would have given you the whole bottle; but now you shall have only half." And drinking off half himself, he gave the rest to the Swede. The king, hearing the story, sent for the burgher, and asked him how he came to spare the life of such a rascal.
"Sire," said the honest burgher, "I could never kill a wounded enemy."
"Thou meritest to be a noble," the king said, and created him one immediately, giving him as armorial bearings a wooden bottle pierced with an arrow! The family only lately became extinct in the person of an old maiden lady.
HOW ONE MAN HAS SAVED A HOST
B. C. 507
There have been times when the devotion of one man has been the saving of an army. Such, according to old Roman story, was the feat of Horatius Cocles. It was in the year B.C. 507, not long after the kings had been expelled from Rome, when they were endeavouring to return by the aid of the Etruscans. Lars Porsena, one of the great Etruscan chieftains, had taken up the cause of the banished Tarquinius Superbus and his son Sextus, and gathered all his forces together, to advance upon the city of Rome. The great walls, of old Etrurian architecture, had probably already risen round the growing town, and all the people came flocking in from the country for shelter there; but the Tiber was the best defence, and it was only crossed by one wooden bridge, and the farther side of that was guarded by a fort, called the Janiculum. But the vanguards of the overwhelming Etruscan army soon took the fort, and then, in the gallant words of Lord Macaulay's ballad–
"Thus in all the Senate
There was no heart so bold
But sore it ached, and fast it beat,
When that ill news was told.
Forthwith uprose the Consul,
Up rose the Fathers all,
In haste they girded up their gowns,
And hied them to the wall.
"They held a council standing
Before the River Gate:
Short time was there, ye well may guess,
For musing or debate.
Out spoke the Consul roundly,
'The bridge must straight go down,
For, since Janiculum is lost,
Nought else can save the town.'
"Just then a scout came flying,
All wild with haste and fear:
'To arms! To arms! Sir Consul,
Lars Porsena is here.'
On the low hills to westward
The Consul fixed his eye,
And saw the swarthy storm of dust
Rise fast along the sky.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
"But the Consul's brow was sad,
And the Consul's speech was low,
And darkly looked he at the wall,
And darkly at the foe.
'Their van will be upon us
Before the bridge goes down;
And if they once may win the bridge
What hope to save the town?'
"Then out spoke brave Horatius,
The Captain of the Gate,
'To every man upon this earth
Death cometh soon or late;
And how can man die better
Than facing fearful odds,
For the ashes of his fathers,
And the temples of his gods?
"'And for the tender mother
Who dandled him to rest,
And for the wife who nurses
His baby at her breast?
And for the holy maidens
Who feed the eternal flame,
To save them from false Sextus,
That wrought the deed of shame?
"'Hew down the bridge, Sir Consul,
With all the speed ye may,
I, with two more to help me,
Will hold the foe in play.
In yon strait path a thousand
May well be stopp'd by three:
Now who will stand on either hand,
And keep the bridge with me?'
"Then out spake Spurius Lartius,
A Ramnian proud was he,
'Lo, I will stand at thy right hand,
And keep the bridge with thee.'
And out spake strong Herminius,
Of Titian blood was he,
'I will abide on thy left side,
And keep the bridge with thee.'"
So forth went these three brave men, Horatius, the Consul's nephew, Spurius Lartius, and Titus Herminius, to guard the bridge at the farther end, while all the rest of the warriors were breaking down the timbers behind them.
"And Fathers mixed with commons,
Seized hatchet, bar, and crow,
And smote upon the planks above,
And loosen'd them below.
"Meanwhile the Tuscan army,
Right glorious to behold,
Came flashing back the noonday light,
Rank behind rank, like surges bright,
Of a broad sea of gold.
Four hundred trumpets sounded
A peal of warlike glee,
As that great host, with measured tread,
And spears advanced, and ensigns spread,
Roll'd slowly towards the bridge's head,
Where stood the dauntless three.
"The three stood calm and silent,
And look'd upon the foes,
And a great shout of laughter
From all the vanguard rose."
They laughed to see three men standing to meet the whole army; but it was so narrow a space, that no more than three enemies could attack them at once, and it was not easy to match them. Foe after foe came forth against them, and went down before their swords and spears, till at last–
"Was none that would be foremost
To lead such dire attack;
But those behind cried "Forward!"
And those before cried 'Back!' "
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
However, the supports of the bridge had been destroyed.
"But meanwhile axe and lever
Have manfully been plied,
And now the bridge hangs tottering
Above the boiling tide.
'Come back, come back, Horatius!'
Loud cried the Fathers all;
'Back, Lartius! Back, Herminius!
Back, ere the ruin fall!'
"Back darted Spurius Lartius,
Herminius darted back;
And as they passed, beneath their feet
They felt the timbers crack;
But when they turn'd their faces,
And on the farther shore
Saw brave Horatius stand alone,
They would have cross'd once more.
"But with a crash like thunder
Fell every loosen'd beam,
And, like a dam, the mighty wreck
Lay right athwart the stream;
And a long shout of triumph
Rose from the walls of Rome,
As to the highest turret-tops
Was splash'd the yellow foam."
The one last champion, behind a rampart of dead enemies, remained till the destruction was complete.
"Alone stood brave Horatius,
But constant still in mind,
Thrice thirty thousand foes before
And the broad flood behind."
A dart had put out one eye, he was wounded in the thigh, and his work was done. He turned round, and–
"Saw on Palatinus,
The white porch of his home,
And he spake to the noble river
That rolls by the walls of Rome:
'O Tiber! father Tiber!
To whom the Romans pray,
A Roman's life, a Roman's arms
Take thou in charge this day.'"
And with this brief prayer he leapt into the foaming stream. Polybius was told that he was there drowned; but Livy gives the version which the ballad follows:–
"But fiercely ran the current,
Swollen high by months of rain,
And fast his blood was flowing,
And he was sore in pain,
And heavy with his armour,
And spent with changing blows,
And oft they thought him sinking,
But still again he rose.
"Never, I ween, did swimmer,
In such an evil case,
Struggle through such a raging flood
Safe to the landing place.
But his limbs were borne up bravely
By the brave heart within,
And our good father Tiber
Bare bravely up his chin.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
"And now he feels the bottom,
Now on dry earth he stands,
Now round him throng the Fathers,
To press his gory hands.
And now with shouts and clapping,
And noise of weeping loud,
He enters through the River Gate,
Borne by the joyous crowd.
"They gave him of the corn land,
That was of public right,
As much as two strong oxen
Could plough from morn to night.
And they made a molten image,
And set it up on high,
And there it stands unto this day,
To witness if I lie.
"It stands in the Comitium,
Plain for all folk to see,
Horatius in his harness,
Halting upon his knee:
And underneath is written,
In letters all of gold,
How valiantly he kept the bridge
In the brave days of old."
Never was more honourable surname than his, of Cocles, or the one-eyed; and though his lameness prevented him from ever being a Consul, or leading an army, he was so much beloved and honoured by his fellow citizens, that in the time of a famine each Roman, to the number of 300,000, brought him a day's food, lest he should suffer want. The statue was shown even in the time of Pliny, 600 years afterwards, and was probably only destroyed when Rome was sacked by the barbarians.
Nor was the Roman bridge the only one that has been defended by one man against a host. In our own country, Stamford Bridge was, in like manner, guarded by a single brave Northman, after the battle fought A.D. 1066, when Earl Tostig, the son of Godwin, had persuaded the gallant sea king, Harald Hardrada, to come and invade England. The chosen English king, Harold, had marched at full speed from Sussex to Yorkshire, and met the invaders marching at their ease, without expecting any enemy, and wearing no defensive armour, as they went forth to receive the keys of the city of York. The battle was fought by the Norsemen in the full certainty that it must be lost. The banner, "Landwaster", was planted in the midst; and the king, chanting his last song, like the minstrel warrior he had always been, stood, with his bravest men, in a death ring around it. There he died, and his choicest warriors with him; but many more fled back towards the ships, rushing over the few planks that were the only way across the River Ouse. And here stood their defender, alone upon the bridge, keeping back the whole pursuing English army, who could only attack him one at a time; until, with shame be it spoken, he died by a cowardly blow by an enemy, who had crept down the bank of the river, and under the bridge, through the openings between the timbers of which he thrust up his spear, and thus was able to hurl the brave Northman into the river, mortally wounded, but not till great numbers of his countrymen had reached their ships, their lives saved by his gallantry.
In like manner, Robert Bruce, in the time of his wanderings, during the year 1306, saved his whole band by his sole exertions. He had been defeated by the forces of Edward I. at Methven, and had lost many of his friends. His little army went wandering among the hills, sometimes encamping in the woods, sometimes crossing the lakes in small boats. Many ladies were among them, and their summer life had some wild charms of romance; as the knightly huntsmen brought in the salmon, the roe, and the deer that formed their food, and the ladies gathered the flowering heather, over which soft skins were laid for their bedding. Sir James Douglas was the most courtly and graceful knight of all the party, and ever kept them enlivened by his gay temper and ready wit; and the king himself cherished a few precious romances, which he used to read aloud to his followers as they rested in their mountain home.
But their bitter foe, the Lord of Lorn, was always in pursuit of them, and, near the head of the Tay, he came upon the small army of 300 men with 1000 Highlanders, armed with Lochaber axes, at a place which is still called Dalry, or the King's Field. Many of the horses were killed by the axes; and James Douglas and Gilbert de la Haye were both wounded. All would have been slain or fallen into the hand of the enemy, if Robert Bruce had not sent them all on before him, up a narrow, steep path, and placed himself, with his armour and heavy horse, full in the path, protecting the retreat with his single arm. It was true, that so tall and powerful a man, sheathed in armour and on horseback, had a great advantage against the wild Highlanders, who only wore a shirt and a plaid, with a round target upon the arm; but they were lithe, active, light-footed men, able to climb like goats on the crags around him, and holding their lives as cheaply as he did.
Lorn, watching him from a distance, was struck with amazement, and exclaimed, "Methinks, Marthokson, he resembles Gol Mak Morn protecting his followers from Fingal;" thus comparing him to one the most brilliant champions a Highland imagination could conceive. At last, three men, named M'Androsser, rushed forward, resolved to free their chief from this formidable enemy. There was a lake on one side, and a precipice on the other, and the king had hardly space to manage his horse, when all three sprang on him at once. One snatched his bridle, one caught him by the stirrup and leg, and a third leaped from a rising ground and seated himself behind him on his horse. The first lost his arm by one sweep of the king's sword; the second was overthrown and trampled on; and the last, by a desperate struggle, was dashed down, and his skull cleft by the king's sword; but his dying grasp was so tight upon the plaid that Bruce was forced to unclasp the brooch that secured it, and leave both in the dead man's hold. It was long preserved by the Macdougals of Lorn, as a trophy of the narrow escape of their enemy.
Nor must we leave Robert the Bruce without mentioning that other Golden Deed, more truly noble because more full of mercy; namely, his halting his little army in full retreat in Ireland in the face of the English host under Roger Mortimer, that proper care and attendance might be given to one sick and suffering washerwoman and her new-born babe. Well may his old Scotch rhyming chronicler remark:–
"This was a full great courtesy
That swik a king and so mighty,
Gert his men dwell on this manner,
But for a poor lavender."
We have seen how the sturdy Roman fought for his city, the fierce Northman died to guard his comrades' rush to their ships after the lost battle, and how the mail-clad knightly Bruce perilled himself to secure the retreat of his friends. Here is one more instance, from far more modern times, of a soldier, whose willing sacrifice of his own life was the safety of a whole army. It was in the course of the long dismal conflict between Frederick the Great of Prussia and Maria Theresa of Austria, which was called the Seven Years' War. Louis XV. of France had taken the part of Austria, and had sent an army into Germany in the autumn of 1760. From this the Marquis de Castries had been despatched, with 25,000 men, towards Rheinberg, and had taken up a strong position at Klostercamp. On the night of the 15th of October, a young officer, called the Chevalier d'Assas, of the Auvergne regiment, was sent out to reconnoitre, and advanced alone into a wood, at some little distance from his men. Suddenly he found himself surrounded by a number of soldiers, whose bayonets pricked his breast, and a voice whispered in his ear, "Make the slightest noise, and you are a dead man!" In one moment he understood it all. The enemy were advancing, to surprise the French army, and would be upon them when night was further advanced. That moment decided his fate. He shouted, as loud as his voice would carry the words, "Here, Auvergne! Here are the enemy!" By the time the cry reached the ears of his men, their captain was a senseless corpse; but his death had saved the army; the surprise had failed, and the enemy retreated.
Louis XV was too mean-spirited and selfish to feel the beauty of this brave action; but when, fourteen years later, Louis XVI came to the throne, he decreed that a pension should be given to the family as long as a male representative remained to bear the name of D'Assas. Poor Louis XVI had not long the control of the treasure of France; but a century of changes, wars, and revolutions has not blotted out the memory of the self-devotion of the chevalier; for, among the new war-steamers of the French fleet, there is one that bears the ever-honoured name of D'Assas.
THE PASS OF THERMOPYLÆ
B. C. 480
There was trembling in Greece. "The Great King", as the Greeks called the chief potentate of the East, whose domains stretched from the Indian Caucasus to the Ægæus, from the Caspian to the Red Sea, was marshalling his forces against the little free states that nestled amid the rocks and gulfs of the Eastern Mediterranean. Already had his might devoured the cherished colonies of the Greeks on the eastern shore of the Archipelago, and every traitor to home institutions found a ready asylum at that despotic court, and tried to revenge his own wrongs by whispering incitements to invasion. "All people, nations, and languages," was the commencement of the decrees of that monarch's court; and it was scarcely a vain boast, for his satraps ruled over subject kingdoms, and among his tributary nations he counted the Chaldean, with his learning and old civilization, the wise and steadfast Jew, the skilful Phoenician, the learned Egyptian, the wild, free-booting Arab of the desert, the dark-skinned Ethiopian, and over all these ruled the keen-witted, active native Persian race, the conquerors of all the rest, and led by a chosen band proudly called the Immortal. His many capitals–Babylon the great, Susa, Persepolis, and the like–were names of dreamy splendour to the Greeks, described now and then by Ionians from Asia Minor who had carried their tribute to the king's own feet, or by courtier slaves who had escaped with difficulty from being all too serviceable at the tyrannic court. And the lord of this enormous empire was about to launch his countless host against the little cluster of states, the whole of which together would hardly equal one province of the huge Asiatic realm! Moreover, it was a war not only on the men but on their gods. The Persians were zealous adorers of the sun and of fire, they abhorred the idol worship of the Greeks, and defiled and plundered every temple that fell in their way. Death and desolation were almost the best that could be looked for at such hands–slavery and torture from cruelly barbarous masters would only too surely be the lot of numbers, should their land fall a prey to the conquerors.
True it was that ten years back the former Great King had sent his best troops to be signally defeated upon the coast of Attica; but the losses at Marathon had but stimulated the Persian lust of conquest, and the new King Xerxes was gathering together such myriads of men as should crush down the Greeks and overrun their country by mere force of numbers.
The muster place was at Sardis, and there Greek spies had seen the multitudes assembling and the state and magnificence of the king's attendants. Envoys had come from him to demand earth and water from each state in Greece, as emblems that land and sea were his, but each state was resolved to be free, and only Thessaly, that which lay first in his path, consented to yield the token of subjugation. A council was held at the Isthmus of Corinth, and attended by deputies from all the states of Greece to consider of the best means of defence. The ships of the enemy would coast round the shores of the Ægean sea, the land army would cross the Hellespont on a bridge of boats lashed together, and march southwards into Greece. The only hope of averting the danger lay in defending such passages as, from the nature of the ground, were so narrow that only a few persons could fight hand to hand at once, so that courage would be of more avail than numbers.
The first of all these passes was called Tempe, and a body of troops was sent to guard it; but they found that this was useless and impossible, and came back again. The next was at Thermopylæ. Look in your map of the Archipelago, or Ægean Sea, as it was then called, for the great island of Negropont, or by its old name, Euboea. It looks like a piece broken off from the coast, and to the north is shaped like the head of a bird, with the beak running into a gulf, that would fit over it, upon the main land, and between the island and the coast is an exceedingly narrow strait. The Persian army would have to march round the edge of the gulf. They could not cut straight across the country, because the ridge of mountains called Oeta rose up and barred their way. Indeed, the woods, rocks, and precipices came down so near the seashore, that in two places there was only room for one single wheel track between the steeps and the impassable morass that formed the border of the gulf on its south side. These two very narrow places were called the gates of the pass, and were about a mile apart. There was a little more width left in the intervening space; but in this there were a number of springs of warm mineral water, salt and sulphurous, which were used for the sick to bathe in, and thus the place was called Thermopylæ, or the Hot Gates. A wall had once been built across the western-most of these narrow places, when the Thessalians and Phocians, who lived on either side of it, had been at war with one another; but it had been allowed to go to decay, since the Phocians had found out that there was a very steep narrow mountain path along the bed of a torrent, by which it was possible to cross from one territory to the other without going round this marshy coast road.
This was, therefore, an excellent place to defend. The Greek ships were all drawn up on the farther side of Euboea to prevent the Persian vessels from getting into the strait and landing men beyond the pass, and a division of the army was sent off to guard the Hot Gates. The council at the Isthmus did not know of the mountain pathway, and thought that all would be safe as long as the Persians were kept out of the coast path.
The troops sent for this purpose were from different cities, and amounted to about 4000, who were to keep the pass against two millions. The leader of them was Leonidas, who had newly become one of the two kings of Sparta, the city that above all in Greece trained its sons to be hardy soldiers, dreading death infinitely less than shame. Leonidas had already made up his mind that the expedition would probably be his death, perhaps because a prophecy had been given at the Temple of Delphi that Sparta should be saved by the death of one of her kings of the race of Hercules. He was allowed by law to take with him 300 men, and these he chose most carefully, not merely for their strength and courage, but selecting those who had sons, so that no family might be altogether destroyed. These Spartans, with their helots or slaves, made up his own share of the numbers, but all the army was under his generalship. It is even said that the 300 celebrated their own funeral rites before they set out, lest they should be deprived of them by the enemy, since, as we have already seen, it was the Greek belief that the spirits of the dead found no rest till their obsequies had been performed. Such preparations did not daunt the spirits of Leonidas and his men, and his wife, Gorgo, who was not a woman to be faint-hearted or hold him back. Long before, when she was a very little girl, a word of hers had saved her father from listening to a traitorous message from the King of Persia; and every Spartan lady was bred up to be able to say to those she best loved that they must come home from battle "with the shield or on it"–either carrying it victoriously or borne upon it as a corpse.
When Leonidas came to Thermopylæ, the Phocians told him of the mountain path through the chestnut woods of Mount Oeta, and begged to have the privilege of guarding it on a spot high up on the mountain side, assuring him that it was very hard to find at the other end, and that there was every probability that the enemy would never discover it. He consented, and encamping around the warm springs, caused the broken wall to be repaired, and made ready to meet the foe.
The Persian army were seen covering the whole country like locusts, and the hearts of some of the southern Greeks in the pass began to sink. Their homes in the Peloponnesus were comparatively secure–had they not better fall back and reserve themselves to defend the Isthmus of Corinth? But Leonidas, though Sparta was safe below the Isthmus, had no intention of abandoning his northern allies, and kept the other Peloponnesians to their posts, only sending messengers for further help.
Presently a Persian on horseback rode up to reconnoitre the pass. He could not see over the wall, but in front of it, and on the ramparts, he saw the Spartans, some of them engaged in active sports, and others in combing their long hair. He rode back to the king, and told him what he had seen. Now, Xerxes had in his camp an exiled Spartan Prince, named Demaratus, who had become a traitor to his country, and was serving as counsellor to the enemy. Xerxes sent for him, and asked whether his countrymen were mad to be thus employed instead of fleeing away; but Demaratus made answer that a hard fight was no doubt in preparation, and that it was the custom of the Spartans to array their hair with special care when they were about to enter upon any great peril. Xerxes would, however, not believe that so petty a force could intend to resist him, and waited four days, probably expecting his fleet to assist him, but as it did not appear, the attack was made.
The Greeks, stronger men and more heavily armed, were far better able to fight to advantage than the Persians, with their short spears and wicker shields, and beat them off with great ease. It is said that Xerxes three times leapt off his throne in despair at the sight of his troops being driven backwards; and thus for two days it seemed as easy to force a way through the Spartans as through the rocks themselves. Nay, how could slavish troops, dragged from home to spread the victories of an ambitious king, fight like freemen who felt that their strokes were to defend their homes and children!
But on that evening a wretched man, named Ephialtes, crept into the Persian camp, and offered, for a great sum of money, to show the mountain path that would enable the enemy to take the brave defenders in the rear! A Persian general, named Hydarnes, was sent off at nightfall with a detachment to secure this passage, and was guided through the thick forests that clothed the hillside. In the stillness of the air, at daybreak, the Phocian guards of the path were startled by the crackling of the chestnut leaves under the tread of many feet. They started up, but a shower of arrows was discharged on them, and forgetting all save the present alarm, they fled to a higher part of the mountain, and the enemy, without waiting to pursue them, began to descend.
As day dawned, morning light showed the watchers of the Grecian camp below a glittering and shimmering in the torrent bed where the shaggy forests opened; but it was not the sparkle of water, but the shine of gilded helmets and the gleaming of silvered spears! Moreover, a Cimmerian crept over to the wall from the Persian camp with tidings that the path had been betrayed, that the enemy were climbing it, and would come down beyond the Eastern Gate. Still, the way was rugged and circuitous, the Persians would hardly descend before midday, and there was ample time for the Greeks to escape before they could be shut in by the enemy.
There was a short council held over the morning sacrifice. Megistias, the seer, on inspecting the entrails of the slain victim, declared, as well he might, that their appearance boded disaster. Him Leonidas ordered to retire, but he refused, though he sent home his only son. There was no disgrace to an ordinary tone of mind in leaving a post that could not be held, and Leonidas recommended all the allied troops under his command to march away while yet the way was open. As to himself and his Spartans, they had made up their minds to die at their post, and there could be no doubt that the example of such a resolution would do more to save Greece than their best efforts could ever do if they were careful to reserve themselves for another occasion.
All the allies consented to retreat, except the eighty men who came from Mycenae and the 700 Thespians, who declared that they would not desert Leonidas. There were also 400 Thebans who remained; and thus the whole number that stayed with Leonidas to confront two million of enemies were fourteen hundred warriors, besides the helots or attendants on the 300 Spartans, whose number is not known, but there was probably at least one to each. Leonidas had two kinsmen in the camp, like himself, claiming the blood of Hercules, and he tried to save them by giving them letters and messages to Sparta; but one answered that "he had come to fight, not to carry letters"; and the other, that "his deeds would tell all that Sparta wished to know". Another Spartan, named Dienices, when told that the enemy's archers were so numerous that their arrows darkened the sun, replied, "So much the better, we shall fight in the shade." Two of the 300 had been sent to a neighbouring village, suffering severely from a complaint in the eyes. One of them, called Eurytus, put on his armour, and commanded his helot to lead him to his place in the ranks; the other, called Aristodemus, was so overpowered with illness that he allowed himself to be carried away with the retreating allies. It was still early in the day when all were gone, and Leonidas gave the word to his men to take their last meal. "To-night," he said, "we shall sup with Pluto."
Hitherto, he had stood on the defensive, and had husbanded the lives of his men; but he now desired to make as great a slaughter as possible, so as to inspire the enemy with dread of the Grecian name. He therefore marched out beyond the wall, without waiting to be attacked, and the battle began. The Persian captains went behind their wretched troops and scourged them on to the fight with whips! Poor wretches, they were driven on to be slaughtered, pierced with the Greek spears, hurled into the sea, or trampled into the mud of the morass; but their inexhaustible numbers told at length. The spears of the Greeks broke under hard service, and their swords alone remained; they began to fall, and Leonidas himself was among the first of the slain. Hotter than ever was the fight over his corpse, and two Persian princes, brothers of Xerxes, were there killed; but at length word was brought that Hydarnes was over the pass, and that the few remaining men were thus enclosed on all sides. The Spartans and Thespians made their way to a little hillock within the wall, resolved to let this be the place of their last stand; but the hearts of the Thebans failed them, and they came towards the Persians holding out their hands in entreaty for mercy. Quarter was given to them, but they were all branded with the king's mark as untrustworthy deserters. The helots probably at this time escaped into the mountains; while the small desperate band stood side by side on the hill still fighting to the last, some with swords, others with daggers, others even with their hands and teeth, till not one living man remained amongst them when the sun went down. There was only a mound of slain, bristled over with arrows.
Twenty thousand Persians had died before that handful of men! Xerxes asked Demaratus if there were many more at Sparta like these, and was told there were 8000. It must have been with a somewhat failing heart that he invited his courtiers from the fleet to see what he had done to the men who dared to oppose him! and showed them the head and arm of Leonidas set up upon a cross; but he took care that all his own slain, except 1000, should first be put out of sight. The body of the brave king was buried where he fell, as were those of the other dead. Much envied were they by the unhappy Aristodemus, who found himself called by no name but the "Coward", and was shunned by all his fellow citizens. No one would give him fire or water, and after a year of misery, he redeemed his honour by perishing in the forefront of the battle of Plataea, which was the last blow that drove the Persians ingloriously from Greece.
The Greeks then united in doing honour to the brave warriors who, had they been better supported, might have saved the whole country from invasion. The poet Simonides wrote the inscriptions that were engraved upon the pillars that were set up in the pass to commemorate this great action. One was outside the wall, where most of the fighting had been. It seems to have been in honour of the whole number who had for two days resisted–
"Here did four thousand men from Pelops' land
Against three hundred myriads bravely stand".
In honour of the Spartans was another column–
"Go, traveller, to Sparta tell
That here, obeying her, we fell".
On the little hillock of the last resistance was placed the figure of a stone lion, in memory of Leonidas, so fitly named the lion-like, and Simonides, at his own expense, erected a pillar to his friend, the seer Megistias–
"The great Megistias' tomb you here may view,
Who slew the Medes, fresh from Spercheius fords;
Well the wise seer the coming death foreknew,
Yet scorn'd he to forsake his Spartan lords".
The names of the 300 were likewise engraven on a pillar at Sparta.
Lions, pillars, and inscriptions have all long since passed away, even the very spot itself has changed; new soil has been formed, and there are miles of solid ground between Mount Oeta and the gulf, so that the Hot Gates no longer exist. But more enduring than stone or brass–nay, than the very battlefield itself–has been the name of Leonidas. Two thousand three hundred years have sped since he braced himself to perish for his country's sake in that narrow, marshy coast road, under the brow of the wooded crags, with the sea by his side. Since that time how many hearts have glowed, how many arms have been nerved at the remembrance of the Pass of Thermopylæ, and the defeat that was worth so much more than a victory!
THE ROCK OF THE CAPITOL
B. C. 389
The city of Rome was gradually rising on the banks of the Tiber, and every year was adding to its temples and public buildings.
Every citizen loved his city and her greatness above all else. There was as yet little wealth among them; the richest owned little more than a few acres, which they cultivated themselves by the help of their families, and sometimes of a few slaves, and the beautiful Campagna di Roma, girt in by hills looking like amethysts in the distance, had not then become almost uninhabitable from pestilential air, but was rich and fertile, full of highly cultivated small farms, where corn was raised in furrows made by a small hand plough, and herds of sheep, goats, and oxen browsed in the pasture lands. The owners of these lands would on public days take off their rude working dress and broad-brimmed straw hat, and putting on the white toga with a purple hem, would enter the city, and go to the valley called the Forum or Marketplace to give their votes for the officers of state who were elected every year; especially the two consuls, who were like kings all but the crown, wore purple togas richly embroidered, sat on ivory chairs, and were followed by lictors carrying an axe in a bundle of rods for the execution of justice. In their own chamber sat the Senate, the great council composed of the patricians, or citizens of highest birth, and of those who had formerly been consuls. They decided on peace or war, and made the laws, and were the real governors of the State, and their grave dignity made a great impression on all who came near them. Above the buildings of the city rose steep and high the Capitoline Hill, with the Temple of Jupiter on its summit, and the strong wall in which was the chief stronghold and citadel of Rome, the Capitol, the very centre of her strength and resolution. When a war was decided on, every citizen capable of bearing arms was called into the Forum, bringing his helmet, breast plate, short sword, and heavy spear, and the officers called tribunes, chose out a sufficient number, who were formed into bodies called legions, and marched to battle under the command of one of the consuls. Many little States or Italian tribes, who had nearly the same customs as Rome, surrounded the Campagna, and so many disputes arose that every year, as soon as the crops were saved, the armies marched out, the flocks were driven to folds on the hills, the women and children were placed in the walled cities, and a battle was fought, sometimes followed up by the siege of the city of the defeated. The Romans did not always obtain the victory, but there was a staunchness about them that was sure to prevail in the long run; if beaten one year, they came back to the charge the next, and thus they gradually mastered one of their neighbors after another, and spread their dominion over the central part of Italy.
They were well used to Italian and Etruscan ways of making war, but after nearly 400 years of this kind of fighting, a stranger and wilder enemy came upon them. These were the Gauls, a tall strong, brave people, long limbed and red-haired, of the same race as the highlanders of Scotland. They had gradually spread themselves over the middle of Europe, and had for some generations past lived among the Alpine mountains, whence they used to come down upon the rich plans of northern Italy for forays, in which they slew and burnt, and drove off cattle, and now and then, when a country was quite depopulated, would settle themselves in it. And thus, the Gauls conquering from the north and the Romans from the south, these two fierce nations at length came against one another.
The old Roman story is that it happened thus: The Gauls had an unusually able leader, whom Latin historians call Brennus, but whose real name was most likely Bran, and who is said to have come out of Britain. He had brought a great host of Gauls to attack Clusium, a Tuscan city, and the inhabitants sent to Rome to entreat succour. Three ambassadors, brothers of the noble old family of Fabius, were sent from Rome to intercede for the Clusians. They asked Brennus what harm the men of Clusium had done the Gauls, that they thus made war on them, and, according to Plutarch's account, Brennus made answer that the injury was that the Clusians possessed land that the Gauls wanted, remarking that it was exactly the way in which the Romans themselves treated their neighbors, adding, however, that this was neither cruel nor unjust, but according–
"To the good old plan
That they should take who have the power
And they should keep who can." 2
The Fabii, on receiving this answer, were so foolish as to transgress the rule, owned by the savage Gauls, that an ambassador should neither fight nor be fought with; they joined the Clusians, and one brother, named Quintus, killed a remarkably large and tall Gallic chief in single combat. Brennus was justly enraged, and sent messengers to Rome to demand that the brothers should be given up to him for punishment. The priests and many of the Senate held that the rash young men had deserved death as covenant-breakers; but their father made strong interest for them, and prevailed not only to have them spared, but even chosen as tribunes to lead the legions in the war that was expected. 3 Thus he persuaded the whole nation to take on itself the guilt of his sons, a want of true self-devotion uncommon among the old Romans, and which was severely punished.
The Gauls were much enraged, and hurried southwards, not waiting for plunder by the way, but declaring that they were friends to every State save Rome. The Romans on their side collected their troops in haste, but with a lurking sense of having transgressed; and since they had gainsayed the counsel of their priests, they durst not have recourse to the sacrifices and ceremonies by which they usually sought to gain the favour of their gods. Even among heathens, the saying has often been verified, "a sinful heart makes failing hand", and the battle on the banks of the River Allia, about eleven miles from Rome, was not so much a fight as a rout. The Roman soldiers were ill drawn up, and were at once broken. Some fled to Veii and other towns, many were drowned in crossing the Tiber, and it was but a few who showed in Rome their shame-stricken faces, and brought word that the Gauls were upon them.
Had the Gauls been really in pursuit, the Roman name and nation would have perished under their swords; but they spent three day in feasting and sharing their plunder, and thus gave the Romans time to take measures for the safety of such as could yet escape. There seems to have been no notion of defending the city, the soldiers had been too much dispersed; but all who still remained and could call up something of their ordinary courage, carried all the provisions they could collect into the stronghold of the Capitol, and resolved to hold out there till the last, in hopes that the scattered army might muster again, or that the Gauls might retreat, after having revenged themselves on the city. Everyone who could not fight, took flight, taking with them all they could carry, and among them went the white-clad troop of vestal virgins, carrying with them their censer of fire, which was esteemed sacred, and never allowed to be extinguished. A man named Albinus, who saw these sacred women footsore, weary, and weighted down with the treasures of their temple, removed his own family and goods from his cart and seated them in it–an act of reverence for which he was much esteemed–and thus they reached the city of Cumae. The only persons left in Rome outside the Capitol were eighty of the oldest senators and some of the priests. Some were too feeble to fly, and would not come into the Capitol to consume the food that might maintain fighting men; but most of them were filled with a deep, solemn thought that, by offering themselves to the weapons of the barbarians, they might atone for the sin sanctioned by the Republic, and that their death might be the saving of the nation. This notion that the death of a ruler would expiate a country's guilt was one of the strange presages abroad in the heathen world of that which alone takes away the sin of all mankind.
On came the Gauls at last. The gates stood open, the streets were silent, the houses' low-browed doors showed no one in the paved courts. No living man was to be seen, till at last, hurrying down the steep empty streets, they reached the great open space of the Forum, and there they stood still in amazement, for ranged along a gallery were a row of ivory chairs, and in each chair sat the figure of a white-haired, white-bearded man, with arms and legs bare, and robes either of snowy white, white bordered with purple, or purple richly embroidered, ivory staves in their hands, and majestic, unmoved countenances. So motionless were they, that the Gauls stood still, not knowing whether they beheld men or statues. A wondrous scene it must have been, as the brawny, red-haired Gauls, with freckled visage, keen little eyes, long broad sword, and wide plaid garment, fashioned into loose trousers, came curiously down into the marketplace, one after another; and each stood silent and transfixed at the spectacle of those grand figures, still unmoving, save that their large full liquid dark eyes showed them to be living beings. Surely these Gauls deemed themselves in the presence of that council of kings who were sometimes supposed to govern Rome, nay, if they were not before the gods themselves. At last, one Gaul, ruder, or more curious than the rest, came up to one of the venerable figures, and, to make proof whether he were flesh and blood, stroked his beard. Such an insult from an uncouth barbarian was more than Roman blood could brook, and the Gaul soon had his doubt satisfied by a sharp blow on the head from the ivory staff. All reverence was dispelled by that stroke; it was at once returned by a death thrust, and the fury of the savages wakening in proportion to the awe that had at first struck them, they rushed on the old senators, and slew each one in his curule chair.
Then they dispersed through the city, burning, plundering, and destroying. To take the Capitol they soon found to be beyond their power, but they hoped to starve the defenders out; and in the meantime they spent their time in pulling down the outer walls, and such houses and temples as had resisted the fire, till the defenders of the Capitol looked down from their height on nothing but desolate black burnt ground, with a few heaps of ruins in the midst, and the barbarians roaming about in it, and driving in the cattle that their foraging parties collected from the country round. There was much earnest faith in their own religion among the Romans: they took all this ruin as the just reward of their shelter of the Fabii, and even in their extremity were resolved not to transgress any sacred rule. Though food daily became more scarce and starvation was fast approaching, not one of the sacred geese that were kept in Juno's Temple was touched; and one Fabius Dorso, who believed that the household gods of his family required yearly a sacrifice on their own festival day on the Quirinal Hill, arrayed himself in the white robes of a sacrificer, took his sacred images in his arms, and went out of the Capitol, through the midst of the enemy, through the ruins to the accustomed alter, and there preformed the regular rites. The Gauls, seeing that it was a religious ceremony, let him pass through them untouched, and he returned in safety; but Brennus was resolved on completing his conquest, and while half his forces went out to plunder, he remained with the other half, watching the moment to effect an entrance into the Capitol; and how were the defenders, worn out with hunger, to resist without relief from without? And who was there to bring relief to them, who were themselves the Roman State and government?
Now there was a citizen, named Marcus Furius Camillus, who was, without question, at that time, the first soldier of Rome, and had taken several of the chief Italian cities, especially that of Veii, which had long been a most dangerous enemy. But he was a proud, haughty man, and had brought on himself much dislike; until, at last, a false accusation was brought against him, that he had taken an unfair share of the plunder of Veii. He was too proud to stand a trial; and leaving the city, was immediately fined a considerable sum. He had taken up his abode at the city of Ardea, and was there living when the plundering half of Brennus' army was reported to be coming thither. Camillus immediately offered the magistrates to undertake their defense; and getting together all the men who could bear arms, he led them out, fell upon the Gauls as they all lay asleep and unguarded in the dead of night, made a great slaughter of them, and saved Ardea. All this was heard by the many Romans who had been living dispersed since the rout of Allia; and they began to recover heart and spirit, and to think that if Camillus would be their leader, they might yet do something to redeem the houour of Rome, and save their friends in the Capitol. An entreaty was sent to him to take the command of them; but, like a proud, stern man as he was, he made answer, that he was a mere exile, and could not take upon himself to lead Romans without a decree from the Senate giving him authority. The Senate was–all that remained of it–shut up in the Capitol; the Gauls were spread all round; how was that decree to be obtained?
A young man, named Pontius Cominius, undertook the desperate mission. He put on a peasant dress, and hid some corks under it, supposing that he should find no passage by the bridge over the Tiber. Traveling all day on foot, he came at night to the bank, and saw the guard at the bridge; then, having waited for darkness, he rolled his one thin light garment, with the corks wrapped up in it, round his head, and trusted himself to the stream of Father Tiber, like "good Horatius" before him; and he was safely borne along to the foot of the Capitoline Hill. He crept along, avoiding every place where he saw lights or heard noise, till he came to a rugged precipice, which he suspected would not be watched by the enemy, who would suppose it too steep to be climbed from above or below. But the resolute man did not fear the giddy dangerous ascent, even in the darkness; he swung himself up by the stems and boughs of the vines and climbing plants, his naked feet clung to the rocks and tufts of grass, and at length he stood on the top of the rampart, calling out his name to the soldiers who came in haste around him, not knowing whether he were friend or foe. A joyful sound must his Latin speech have been to the long-tried, half starved garrison, who had not seen a fresh face for six long months! The few who represented the Senate and people of Rome were hastily awakened from their sleep, and gathered together to hear the tidings brought them at so much risk. Pontius told them of the victory at Ardea, and that Camillus and the Romans collected at Veii were only waiting to march to their succour till they should give him lawful power to take the command. There was little debate. The vote was passed at once to make Camillus Dictator, an office to which Romans were elected upon great emergencies, and which gave them, for the time, absolute kingly control; and then Pontius, bearing the appointment, set off once again upon his mission, still under shelter of night, clambered down the rock, and crossed the Gallic camp before the barbarians were yet awake.
There was hope in the little garrison; but danger was not over. The sharp-eyed Gauls observed that the shrubs and creepers were broken, the moss frayed, and fresh stones and earth rolled down at the crag of the Capitol: they were sure that the rock had been climbed, and, therefore, that it might be climbed again. Should they, who were used to the snowy peaks, dark abysses, and huge glaciers of the Alps, be afraid to climb where a soft dweller in a tame Italian town could venture a passage? Brennus chose out the hardiest of his mountaineers, and directed them to climb up in the dead of night, one by one, in perfect silence, and thus to surprise the Romans, and complete the slaughter and victory, before the forces assembling at Veii would come to their rescue.
Silently the Gauls climbed, so stilly that not even a dog heard them; and the sentinel nearest to the post, who had fallen into a dead sleep of exhaustion from hunger, never awoke. But the fatal stillness was suddenly broken by loud gabbling, cackling, and flapping of heavy wings. The sacred geese of Juno, which had been so religiously spared in the famine, were frightened by the rustling beneath, and proclaimed their terror in their own noisy fashion. The first to take the alarm was Marcus Manlius, who started forward just in time to meet the foremost climbers as they set foot on the rampart. One, who raised an axe to strike, lost his arm by one stroke of Manlius' short Roman sword; the next was by main strength hurled backwards over the precipice, and Manlius stood along on the top, for a few moments, ready to strike the next who should struggle up.
The whole of the garrison were in a few moments on the alert, and the attack was entirely repulsed; the sleeping sentry was cast headlong down the rock; and Manlius was brought, by each grateful soldier, that which was then most valuable to all, a little meal and a small measure of wine. Still, the condition of the Capitol was lamentable; there was no certainty that Pontius had ever reached Camillus in safety; and, indeed, the discovery of his path by the enemy would rather have led to the supposition that he had been seized and detected. The best hope lay in wearying out the besiegers; and there seemed to be more chance of this since the Gauls often could be seen from the heights, burying the corpses of their dead; their tall, bony forms looked gaunt and drooping, and, here and there, unburied carcasses lay amongst the ruins. Nor were the flocks and herds any longer driven in from the country. Either all must have been exhausted, or else Camillus and his friends must be near, and preventing their raids. At any rate, it appeared as if the enemy was quite as ill off as to provisions as the garrison, and in worse condition as to health. In effect, this was the first example of the famous saying, that Rome destroys her conquerors. In this state of things one of the Romans had a dream that Jupiter, the special god of the Capitol, appeared to him, and gave the strange advice that all the remaining flour should be baked, and the loaves thrown down into the enemy's camp. Telling the dream, which may, perhaps, have been the shaping of his own thoughts, that this apparent waste would persuade the barbarians that the garrison could not soon be starved out, this person obtained the consent of the rest of the besieged. Some approved the stratagem, and no one chose to act contrary to Jupiter's supposed advice; so the bread was baked, and tossed down by the hungry men.
After a time, there was a report from the outer guards that the Gallic watch had been telling them that their leader would be willing to speak with some of the Roman chiefs. Accordingly, Sulpitius, one of the tribunes, went out, and had a conference with Brennus, who declared that he would depart, provided the Romans would lay down a ransom, for their Capital and their own lives, of a thousand pounds' weight of gold. To this Sulpitius agreed, and returning to the Capitol, the gold was collected from the treasury, and carried down to meet the Gauls, who brought their own weights. The weights did not meet the amount of gold ornaments that had been contributed for the purpose, and no doubt the Gauls were resolved to have all that they beheld; for when Sulpitius was about to try to arrange the balance, Brennus insultingly threw his sword into his own scale, exclaiming, Voe victis! "Woe to the conquered!" The Roman was not yet fallen so low as not to remonstrate, and the dispute was waxing sharp, when there was a confused outcry in the Gallic camp, a shout from the heights of the Capitol, and into the midst of the open space rode a band of Roman patricians and knights in armour, with the Dictator Camillus at their head.
He no sooner saw what was passing, than he commanded the treasure to be taken back, and, turning to Brennus, said, "It is with iron, not gold, that the Romans guard their country."
Brennus declared that the treaty had been sworn to, and that it would be a breach of faith to deprive him of the ransom; to which Camillus replied, that he himself was Dictator, and no one had the power to make a treaty in his absence. The dispute was so hot, that they drew their swords against one another, and there was a skirmish among the ruins; but the Gauls soon fell back, and retreated to their camp, when they saw the main body of Camillus' army marching upon them. It was no less than 40,000 in number; and Brennus knew he could not withstand them with his broken, sickly army. He drew off early the next morning: but was followed by Camillus, and routed, with great slaughter, about eight miles from Rome; and very few of the Gauls lived to return home, for those who were not slain in battle were cut off in their flight by the country people, whom they had plundered.
In reward for their conduct on this occasion, Camillus was termed Romulus, Father of his Country, and Second Founder of Rome; Marcus Manlius received the honourable surname of Capitolinus; and even the geese were honoured by having a golden image raised to their honour in Juno's temple, and a live goose was yearly carried in triumph, upon a soft litter, in a golden cage, as long as any heathen festivals lasted. The reward of Pontius Cominius does not appear; but surely he, and the old senators who died for their country's sake, deserved to be for ever remembered for their brave contempt of life when a service could be done to the State.
The truth of the whole narrative is greatly doubted, and it is suspected that the Gallic conquest was more complete than the Romans ever chose to avow. Their history is far from clear up to this very epoch, when it is said that all their records were destroyed; but even when place and period are misty, great names and the main outline of their actions loom through the cloud, perhaps exaggerated, but still with some reality; and if the magnificent romance of the sack of Rome be not fact, yet it is certainly history, and well worthy of note and remembrance, as one of the finest extant traditions of a whole chain of Golden Deeds.
[Page 44]
2 These lines of Wordsworth on Rob Roy's grave almost literally translate the speech Plutarch gives the first Kelt of history, Brennus.
3 These events happened during an experiment made by the Romans of having six military tribunes instead of two consuls.
THE TWO FRIENDS OF SYRACUSE
B. C. 380 (CIRCA)
Most of the best and noblest of the Greeks held what was called the Pythagorean philosophy. This was one of the many systems framed by the great men of heathenism, when by the feeble light of nature they were, as St. Paul says, "seeking after God, if haply they might feel after Him", like men groping in the darkness. Pythagoras lived before the time of history, and almost nothing is known about him, though his teaching and his name were never lost. There is a belief that he had traveled in the East, and in Egypt, and as he lived about the time of the dispersion of the Israelites, it is possible that some of his purest and best teaching might have been crumbs gathered from their fuller instruction through the Law and the Prophets. One thing is plain, that even in dealing with heathenism the Divine rule holds good, "By their fruits ye shall know them". Golden Deeds are only to be found among men whose belief is earnest and sincere, and in something really high and noble. Where there was nothing worshiped but savage or impure power, and the very form of adoration was cruel and unclean, as among the Canaanites and Carthaginians, there we find no true self-devotion. The great deeds of the heathen world were all done by early Greeks and Romans before yet the last gleams of purer light had faded out of their belief, and while their moral sense still nerved them to energy; or else by such later Greeks as had embraced the deeper and more earnest yearnings of the minds that had become a "law unto themselves".
The Pythagoreans were bound together in a brotherhood, the members of which had rules that are not now understood, but which linked them so as to form a sort of club, with common religious observances and pursuits of science, especially mathematics and music. And they were taught to restrain their passions, especially that of anger, and to endure with patience all kinds of suffering; believing that such self-restraint brought them nearer to the gods, and that death would set them free from the prison of the body. The souls of evil-doers would, they thought, pass into the lower and more degraded animals, while those of good men would be gradually purified, and rise to a higher existence. This, though lamentably deficient, and false in some points, was a real religion, inasmuch as it gave a rule of life, with a motive for striving for wisdom and virtue. Two friends of this Pythagorean sect lived at Syracuse, in the end of the fourth century before the Christian era. Syracuse was a great Greek city, built in Sicily, and full of all kinds of Greek art and learning; but it was a place of danger in their time, for it had fallen under the tyranny of a man of strange and capricious temper, though of great abilities, namely Dionysius. He is said to have been originally only a clerk in a public office, but his talents raised him to continually higher situations, and at length, in a great war with the Carthaginians, who had many settlements in Sicily, he became general of the army, and then found it easy to establish his power over the city.
This power was not according to the laws, for Syracuse, like most other cities, ought to have been governed by a council of magistrates; but Dionysius was an exceedingly able man, and made the city much more rich and powerful, he defeated the Carthaginians, and rendered Syracuse by far the chief city in the island, and he contrived to make everyone so much afraid of him that no one durst attempt to overthrow his power. He was a good scholar, and very fond of philosophy and poetry, and he delighted to have learned men around him, and he had naturally a generous spirit; but the sense that he was in a position that did not belong to him, and that everyone hated him for assuming it, made him very harsh and suspicious. It is of him that the story is told, that he had a chamber hollowed in the rock near his state prison, and constructed with galleries to conduct sounds like an ear, so that he might overhear the conversation of his captives; and of him, too, is told that famous anecdote which has become a proverb, that on hearing a friend, named Damocles, express a wish to be in his situation for a single day, he took him at his word, and Damocles found himself at a banquet with everything that could delight his senses, delicious food, costly wine, flowers, perfumes, music; but with a sword with the point almost touching his head, and hanging by a single horsehair! This was to show the condition in which a usurper lived!
Thus Dionysius was in constant dread. He had a wide trench round his bedroom, with a drawbridge that he drew up and put down with his own hands; and he put one barber to death for boasting that he held a razor to the tyrant's throat every morning. After this he made his young daughters shave him; but by and by he would not trust them with a razor, and caused them to singe of his beard with hot nutshells! He was said to have put a man named Antiphon to death for answering him, when he asked what was the best kind of brass, "That of which the statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton were made." These were the two Athenians who had killed the sons of Pisistratus the tyrant, so that the jest was most offensive, but its boldness might have gained forgiveness for it. One philosopher, named Philoxenus, he sent to a dungeon for finding fault with his poetry, but he afterwards composed another piece, which he thought so superior, that he could not be content without sending for this adverse critic to hear it. When he had finished reading it, he looked to Philoxenus for a compliment; but the philosopher only turned round to the guards, and said dryly, "Carry me back to prison." This time Dionysius had the sense to laugh, and forgive his honesty.
All these stories may not be true; but that they should have been current in the ancient world shows what was the character of the man of whom they were told, how stern and terrible was his anger, and how easily it was incurred. Among those who came under it was a Pythagorean called Pythias, who was sentenced to death, according to the usual fate of those who fell under his suspicion.
Pythias had lands and relations in Greece, and he entreated as a favour to be allowed to return thither and arrange his affairs, engaging to return within a specified time to suffer death. The tyrant laughed his request to scorn. Once safe out of Sicily, who would answer for his return? Pythias made reply that he had a friend, who would become security for his return; and while Dionysius, the miserable man who trusted nobody, was ready to scoff at his simplicity, another Pythagorean, by name of Damon, came forward, and offered to become surety for his friend, engaging, if Pythias did not return according to promise, to suffer death in his stead.
Dionysius, much astonished, consented to let Pythias go, marveling what would be the issue of the affair. Time went on and Pythias did not appear. The Syracusans watched Damon, but he showed no uneasiness. He said he was secure of his friend's truth and honour, and that if any accident had cause the delay of his return, he should rejoice in dying to save the life of one so dear to him.
Even to the last day Damon continued serene and content, however it might fall out; nay even when the very hour drew nigh and still no Pythias. His trust was so perfect, that he did not even grieve at having to die for a faithless friend who had left him to the fate to which he had unwarily pledged himself. It was not Pythias' own will, but the winds and waves, so he still declared, when the decree was brought and the instruments of death made ready. The hour had come, and a few moments more would have ended Damon's life, when Pythias duly presented himself, embraced his friend, and stood forward himself to receive his sentence, calm, resolute, and rejoiced that he had come in time.
Even the dim hope they owned of a future state was enough to make these two brave men keep their word, and confront death for one another without quailing. Dionysius looked on more struck than ever. He felt that neither of such men must die. He reversed the sentence of Pythias, and calling the two to his judgment seat, he entreated them to admit him as a third in their friendship. Yet all the time he must have known it was a mockery that he should ever be such as they were to each other–he who had lost the very power of trusting, and constantly sacrificed others to secure his own life, whilst they counted not their lives dear to them in comparison with their truth to their word, and love to one another. No wonder that Damon and Pythias have become such a byword that they seem too well known to have their story told here, except that a name in everyone's mouth sometimes seems to be mentioned by those who have forgotten or never heard the tale attached to it.
THE DEVOTION OF THE DECII
B. C. 339
The spirit of self-devotion is so beautiful and noble, that even when the act is performed in obedience to the dictates of a false religion, it is impossible not to be struck with admiration and almost reverence for the unconscious type of the one great act that has hallowed every other sacrifice. Thus it was that Codrus, the Athenian king, has ever since been honoured for the tradition that he gave his own life to secure the safety of his people; and there is a touching story, with neither name nor place, of a heathen monarch who was bidden by his priests to appease the supposed wrath of his gods by the sacrifice of the being dearest to him. His young son had been seized on as his most beloved, when his wife rushed between and declared that her son must live, and not by his death rob her of her right to fall, as her husband's dearest. The priest looked at the father; the face that had been sternly composed before was full of uncontrolled anguish as he sprang forward to save the wife rather than the child. That impulse was an answer, like the entreaty of the mother before Solomon; the priest struck the fatal blow ere the king's hand could withhold him, and the mother died with a last look of exceeding joy at her husband's love and her son's safety. Human sacrifices are of course accursed, and even the better sort of heathens viewed them with horror; but the voluntary confronting of death, even at the call of a distorted presage of future atonement, required qualities that were perhaps the highest that could be exercised among those who were devoid of the light of truth.
In the year 339 there was a remarkable instance of such
|
|||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 15
|
https://www.academia.edu/75962112/Environmental_reconstruction_and_stratigraphy_in_the_Palaeozoic_Late_Westphalian_terrestrial_biotas_and_palaeoenvironments_of_the_Variscan_foreland_and_adjacent_intramontane_basins
|
en
|
Environmental reconstruction and stratigraphy in the Palaeozoic" "Late Westphalian terrestrial biotas and palaeoenvironments of the Variscan foreland and adjacent intramontane basins
|
http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif
|
http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif
|
[
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-redesign-2015-A.svg",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-redesign-2015.svg",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/single_work_splash/adobe.icon.svg",
"https://0.academia-photos.com/attachment_thumbnails/83648350/mini_magick20220409-1891-vuthby.png?1649569530",
"https://0.academia-photos.com/2743605/888427/1109846/s65_olaf.elicki.jpg",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loaders/paper-load.gif",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Olaf Elicki",
"tu-freiberg.academia.edu"
] |
2022-04-09T00:00:00
|
Environmental reconstruction and stratigraphy in the Palaeozoic" "Late Westphalian terrestrial biotas and palaeoenvironments of the Variscan foreland and adjacent intramontane basins
|
https://www.academia.edu/75962112/Environmental_reconstruction_and_stratigraphy_in_the_Palaeozoic_Late_Westphalian_terrestrial_biotas_and_palaeoenvironments_of_the_Variscan_foreland_and_adjacent_intramontane_basins
|
Combined palaeoecological and sedimentological analyses of a core from a kettle-hole in Vorpom-mern (NE Germany) allow the reconstruction of the interaction between vegetation and environment during the Weichselian late Pleniglacial, Lateglacial, and Early Holocene. A humus-containing soil horizon (Reinberg horizon) occurs in the upper part of Pleniglacial sand. This humus formed in a local environment of shallow wet ponds and low dry mineral mounds. Water levels were generally rather low. Rising water levels at the beginning of the Lateglacial drowned this environment and a lake formed. The vegetation development shows a phase with an open regional vegetation (Oldest Dryas or earlier part of the Meiendorf), a period with prominence of Hip-pophaë (Bølling or later part of the Meiendorf), and a subsequent second phase with a more open regional veg-etation (Older Dryas). The sediment parameter, together with the reconstructed vegetation, point at a gradual shift to a more humid climat...
The Westphalian C was a time of marked tectonic and climatic changes within the Variscan Foreland, but our understanding of these changes is hampered by a poor appreciation of large-scale palaeogeography and palaeogeographic evolution within this key stratigraphic interval. The distribution of tonsteins, marine bands and faunal occurrences related to marine incursions or the proximity of marine conditions in Britain and on the European mainland during the Westphalian C (Bolsovian) is briefly summarised. The favoured environmental conditions of some selected fossil taxa (Lingula, arenaceous foraminifers, Geisina, conchostracan faunas and Torispora producing tree ferns) are highlighted. A palaeogeographic model shows the relationship between major sedimentary facies belts in the Westphalian C of western Europe and the influence of major marine incursions on the distribution pattern of incursion-related faunas. The frequent succession of transgressive-regressive faunal phases in beds w...
The project D4 of the Collaborative Research Center (CRC) 806 at the University of Cologne deals with the study of the Mesolithic in North Rhine-Westphalia. The cultural transition from Final Palaeolithic to Early Mesolithic, the “Mesolithization”, forms one important research focus of the Mesolithic unit. This research focus currently consists of three different projects, which will be introduced in this presentation: 1. The dating of the barbed points from Dinslaken puts the artefacts at the transition from the Allerød period to the beginning of the Younger Dryas. The typo-chronological context of the points suggest a cultural connection between the Final Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers from the Rhine to the modern North Sea region and the east of England. 2. Most of the aurochs remains from Bedburg-Königshoven can be dated to the Early Preboreal and might therefore point to two different phases of the site. This early date further questions the chronological context of the lithic assemblage, which exhibits a Final Palaeolithic character, and the antler frontlets from Bedburg. Consequently, further investigations of the assemblage are required. Moreover, Amelie Scheu from the Palaeogenetics Group at the University of Mainz is analysing the well-preserved aDNA material from an aurochs at Bedburg in order to decode the genome of the European aurochs for the first time. 3. The Early Holocene assemblages of Heek-Nienborg (long blades and microliths) and Werl-Büderich (microblades and microliths) offer a special insight into the Pleistocene-Holocene transition in Westphalia. Werl-Büderich represents the earliest AMS-dated Mesolithic assemblage in Westphalia so far. Both assemblages allow a detailed study of transformations in Earliest Mesolithic silex material in this region. This detailed investigation involves an analysis of resin residues on long blades from the Heek assemblage to gain material for AMS-dating and information about tool usage. The comparison of both inventories will lead to a better understanding of possible transformations in blank production and tool function during the Pleistocene-Holocene interface. Dr. Birgit Gehlen bgehlen1@uni-koeln.de Annabell Zander B.A. azander1@smail.uni-koeln.de University of Cologne CRC 806, Project D4 Mesolithic Research Unit Bernhard-Feilchenfeld-Str. 11 D-50969 Cologne Dr. Amelie Scheu am.scheu@uni-mainz.de Palaeogenetics Group Johannes-Gutenberg-University Mainz Anselm-Franz-von Bentzel-Weg 7 D-55099 Mainz Dr. Martin Street street@rgzm.de Archaeological Research Center and Museum for Human Behavioural Evolution Römisch-Germanisches-Zentralmuseum Leibniz Research Institute for Archaeology Schloss Monrepos D-56567 Neuwied
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 6
|
https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q607636
|
en
|
Eibenstock Dam
|
[
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg",
"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,13,50.5233,12.5892,310x180.png?lang=en&domain=www.wikidata.org&title=Q607636&groups=_596d4e621b18d33148358ee0253245b48d2c5245",
"https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1",
"https://www.wikidata.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg",
"https://www.wikidata.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
dam in Germany
|
en
|
/static/apple-touch/wikidata.png
|
https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q607636
| ||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 40
|
https://issuu.com/chemnitz2025/docs/visit_2023_english_online
|
en
|
VISIT Chemnitz 2024/2025 - English
|
[
"https://static.isu.pub/fe/product-header-frontend/781e53c/31d186ba39f38e8c4fac.png",
"https://static.issuu.com/fe/silkscreen/0.0.3042/icons/gradient/icon-canva-gradient.svg",
"https://static.isu.pub/fe/product-header-frontend/781e53c/1e794a8c4ec65e549678.png",
"https://photo.isu.pub/chemnitz2025/photo_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/240530063148-6734dea25edf0a77beb1bc4815957b26/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/240419112529-1bc0a89d6c906466c9ddfd4e5ed092f8/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/240419115212-842de91936dc173ae1bb91095cc3710b/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/240418082001-d999b42f3473ab4af1ef8a3ce13441e8/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/240402142819-e346392fad633d17e758c3a96e13131e/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/220318194302-19231283e2d4e5caa49a14290e4de292/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/221216123706-820cd384c2d01aebaf4e78d49057c005/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/201207114138-b3e0677b7d06aa9b3a3b716204040291/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://static.issuu.com/fe/silkscreen/0.0.2541/icons/gradient/icon-instagram-gradient.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2024-04-02T00:00:00+00:00
|
Read VISIT Chemnitz 2024/2025 - English by chemnitz2025 on Issuu and browse thousands of other publications on our platform. Start here!
|
en
|
/favicon.ico
|
Issuu
|
https://issuu.com/chemnitz2025/docs/visit_2023_english_online
|
Welcome to Issuu’s blog: home to product news, tips, resources, interviews (and more) related to content marketing and publishing.
Here you'll find an answer to your question.
|
||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 6
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwickauer_Mulde
|
en
|
Zwickauer Mulde
|
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Mulde_in_Zwickau_-_big.jpg/250px-Mulde_in_Zwickau_-_big.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Zwickauer_Mulde.png/220px-Zwickauer_Mulde.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Wilkau-Ha%C3%9Flau_Mulde_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Wilkau-Ha%C3%9Flau_Mulde_%28aka%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Burg_Stein2.jpg/220px-Burg_Stein2.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Ruine_Isenburg1.jpg/220px-Ruine_Isenburg1.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Russkohlenfloez02.JPG/220px-Russkohlenfloez02.JPG",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png",
"https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"
] |
2003-03-15T22:05:20+00:00
|
en
|
/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwickauer_Mulde
|
River in Germany
Zwickauer MuldeLocationCountryGermanyStateSaxonyPhysical characteristicsSource • locationOre MountainsMouth
• location
Mulde
• coordinates
Length166 km (103 mi)Basin featuresProgressionMulde→ Elbe→ North Sea
The Zwickauer Mulde (German pronunciation: [ˈtsvɪkaʊɐ ˈmʊldə]) is a river in Saxony, Germany. It is the left tributary of the Mulde and 166 km (103 mi) in length.
The source of the river is in the Ore Mountains, near Schöneck, in the Vogtlandkreis. It runs northeast to Aue, then northwest to Zwickau (hence the name), and further north through Glauchau, Rochlitz and Colditz. A few kilometers north of Colditz, the Zwickauer Mulde is joined by the Freiberger Mulde to form the united Mulde. The Mulde is a tributary of the Elbe.
The valleys in the catchment area of the Mulde were presumably used from the end of the last cold stage as access routes into the Ore Mountains that was covered in dense, ancient forests. This is evinced by the remains of artifacts left behind by Old Stone Age hunters, as well as Bronze Age and Iron Age discoveries as far as the higher regions of the Ore Mountains.
Later, the western Ore Mountains became the territory of Germanic and Slavic tribes. Paths, trade routes and military roads, linked the old settlement areas around Leipzig and Altenburg with Bohemia. The mule tracks, however, avoided the rivers in favour of the ridges. At unavoidable river crossings, (fords, later ferries and bridges) and at intersections castles, villages and monasteries were established. Of the palaces and manor houses, Rochsburg, Rochlitz, Wolkenburg [de], Waldenburg [de], Forderglauchau, Hinterglauchau and Osterstein have survived. Of the castles, Wiesenburg, Stein Castle and the Isenburg remain. Fortifications constructed in the side valleys include Hartenstein [de], Wildenfels [de; fr] and Schwarzenberg. With the discovery of the rich silver deposits in the late Middle Ages, settlements grew up around the source streams in the upper Ore Mountains and the mining towns emerged.
Eibenstock Dam
Prince's Cave [ceb; de; pl] in the side of the valley below Bad Schlema (Poppenwald)
Stein Castle and
Schloss Wolfsbrunn in Hartenstein
Annual demonstration timber rafting on the Muldenberg rafting waterway system
Above Zwickau, in Cainsdorf [de], the Mulde cuts the Rußkohlenflöz (soot coal seam). This outcrop of a permanently exposed coal seam is unique in Saxony. It is also a rare example in Europe of an outcrop representing three geological time periods (the Silurian, the Devonian and the Upper Carboniferous). It is protected as a geotope and geological natural monument.[1]
Osterstein Castle in Zwickau
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 50
|
https://alk3r.wordpress.com/tag/eibenstock-dam/
|
en
|
Eibenstock Dam
|
https://secure.gravatar.com/blavatar/f50ae80703f73099aa71d67af9cd81ab22a61d976fa5e42f53a8859a6c205e5b?s=200&ts=1723897436
|
https://secure.gravatar.com/blavatar/f50ae80703f73099aa71d67af9cd81ab22a61d976fa5e42f53a8859a6c205e5b?s=200&ts=1723897436
|
[
"https://alk3r.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/000-alk3r-2.gif",
"https://alk3r.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/15-65.jpg?w=300&h=168&crop=1",
"https://static.xx.fbcdn.net/rsrc.php/yV/r/hzMapiNYYpW.ico",
"https://cdn2.iconfinder.com/data/icons/new-social-network-icons/154/instagram-16.png",
"https://cdn0.iconfinder.com/data/icons/Pinterest/16/small-p-button.png",
"https://cdn2.iconfinder.com/data/icons/new-social-network-icons/154/twitter-16.png",
"https://i0.wp.com/ww1.sinaimg.cn/crop.0.0.1080.1080.1024/763a58d1jw8emnoeb9u9qj20u00u0abs.jpg?resize=200%2C200",
"https://alk3r.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/castle-house-island-dublin-ireland.jpg?w=200&h=200&crop=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/lh3.googleusercontent.com/-4zJ9_1Bqat8/VwOOTUW285I/AAAAAAABMtw/nNHq42sE9Fg/clingstone-house-66.jpg?resize=200%2C200&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/files.brightside.me/files/news/part_15/157255/111.jpg?resize=200%2C200",
"https://i0.wp.com/alk3r.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/80372317_o.png?resize=200%2C200&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.contemporist.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/treetop-walks_070616_01.jpg?resize=200%2C200",
"https://i0.wp.com/alk3r.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/3ef5d-1478555468441.gif?resize=200%2C200&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.fubiz.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Minimalist-Black-and-White-Photography-0-900x720.jpg?resize=200%2C200",
"https://i0.wp.com/alk3r.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/kai-carpenter32.jpg?resize=200%2C200&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/alk3r.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/2.jpg?resize=200%2C200&ssl=1",
"http://www.edmsauce.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/5269444_300.jpg",
"http://s10.flagcounter.com/count/QBOn/bg_FFFFFF/txt_000000/border_000000/columns_3/maxflags_81/viewers_0/labels_1/pageviews_0/flags_0/",
"https://2.gravatar.com/avatar/8454c253bdbd0bd14de31858cb82ff80cb0aaa19e87b5618c8a8f38eda9540eb?s=32&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://1.gravatar.com/avatar/4674d480e28f5dd5aa2010709e563edce259e004e20604cd83bf1020e131667f?s=32&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://0.gravatar.com/avatar/99a277f43d6457329a9b286a908c66f75da4638fafe03053008409959f4bee12?s=32&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://1.gravatar.com/avatar/4ef147605984d4e0d890d17478179c55556e56d57814ab7d56887ab6f814068e?s=32&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://bromidebooks.files.wordpress.com/2016/02/logo_carrc3a9_500500rgb-01.png?w=32",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/blavatar/f50ae80703f73099aa71d67af9cd81ab22a61d976fa5e42f53a8859a6c205e5b?s=50&d=https%3A%2F%2Fs2.wp.com%2Fi%2Flogo%2Fwpcom-gray-white.png",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/blavatar/f50ae80703f73099aa71d67af9cd81ab22a61d976fa5e42f53a8859a6c205e5b?s=50&d=https%3A%2F%2Fs2.wp.com%2Fi%2Flogo%2Fwpcom-gray-white.png",
"https://pixel.wp.com/b.gif?v=noscript"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2016-08-04T12:00:32+02:00
|
Posts about Eibenstock Dam written by Alk3r
|
en
|
https://secure.gravatar.com/blavatar/f50ae80703f73099aa71d67af9cd81ab22a61d976fa5e42f53a8859a6c205e5b?s=32
|
ALK3R
|
https://alk3r.wordpress.com/tag/eibenstock-dam/
| |||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 11
|
https://www.eibenstock.de/english/
|
en
|
Bergstadt Eibenstock im Erzgebirge
|
[
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/Pool/Fotos/Fotos_Internetseite/background2.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/logo.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/search.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/de_i.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/en.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/cz_i.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/wetter.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/webcam.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/home.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/wetter_weiss.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/webcam_weiss.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/home.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/e/6/csm_eibenstock4_88314d6108.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/9/2/csm_rathaus_9f7ff4a95c.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/2/2/csm_eibenstock2_a04bc95c68.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/8/d/csm_wanderbank_113f2fa3c4.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/2/5/csm_erlebniskarte_ad5b9b48eb.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/6/d/csm_Logo_Familienurlaub_ENG_rgb_d252cffa2b.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/logo_erz.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo-montanregion.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo_fachkraefteportal.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo_eplr.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo_leader.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo_leader_westerzgebirge.jpg",
"https://webanalytics.kabeljournal.de/matomo.php?idsite=30&rec=1"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
de
|
/fileadmin/files/favicon.ico?v=xQO7OjawKd
|
https://www.eibenstock.de//english/this/districts-history/eibenstock
|
In the Middle Ages the town had already acquired the right to be called a "Bergstadt" (mining town with special privileges defined by means of a charter from the ruling monarch) and thus played a central role in the Auersberg area. In addition to the mining of iron ores, Eibenstock was mostly known for its tin mining. The tin was reported to have a very fine gloss and was even used by Venetian glassmakers for the manufacture of their mirror glass products.
Centuries of mining had formed the history of Eibenstock, where even today, an attentive guest can encounter numerous historical witnesses of the mining industry. After its shutdown, at the end of the 18th century, a new skill found its way to the Auersberg region: "Tambourieren" (a kind of artistic embroidery). The intricate embroidery that evolved gave the tranquil mining town worldwide fame, a U.S. consulate and an attractive urban development. Impressive buildings, such as the town hall, built in the Art Nouveau style, are evidence of that flourishing time, and are now interesting tourist attractions.
Especially families and those who want an active holiday get their money's worth, besides the many nature lovers seeking tranquility. The many leisure facilities in the town offer a great deal of holiday activities, such as the "Badegärten" spa with pools and sauna landscape, Wurzelrudi's Adventure World with an all-weather bob sled run, maze, tubing and children's playground, equestrian with large indoor riding arena, mini golf hall with pit-pat, embroidery-show workshop, playgrounds and climbing courses, mining heritage trail, an observation tower at the Bühl hill and in the winter season a ski arena, cross-country ski runs, sledding and horse-drawn sleigh rides.
With its hotels, pensions, hostels and many private rentals, the town offers a wide range of accommodations in various categories. Due to its central location, Eibenstock is an ideal base for reaching all the attractions and things to do in the Auersberg region. Thanks to an extensive network of hiking trails, this can also be done on foot or by bicycle. A constant companion is the healthy fresh mountain air in the woods and meadows.
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 85
|
https://www.flickr.com/photos/michael_westdickenberg/51669760172
|
en
|
Talsperre Eibenstock / Eibenstock Dam
|
[
"https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/51669760172_5fcb295e2f.jpg",
"https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/51669760172_5fcb295e2f.jpg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
"germany",
"deutschland",
"sachsen",
"2021",
"talsperre",
"eibenstock",
"nadelwald",
"dam"
] | null |
[
"Flickr",
"Fotos aus den östlichen dt. Bundesländern und der DDR 1990 – 2023"
] |
2024-08-17T12:27:52.982000+00:00
|
Eibenstock 2021.
|
en
|
https://combo.staticflickr.com/pw/favicon.ico
|
Flickr
|
https://www.flickr.com/photos/michael_westdickenberg/51669760172
| |||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 24
|
https://archive.org/stream/europeitspastpre00unge/europeitspastpre00unge_djvu.txt
|
en
|
Full text of "Europe, its past and present condition: being a comprehensive manual of European geography and history"
|
[
"https://archive.org/services/img/etree",
"https://archive.org/services/img/librivoxaudio",
"https://archive.org/services/img/metropolitanmuseumofart-gallery",
"https://archive.org/services/img/clevelandart",
"https://archive.org/services/img/internetarcade",
"https://archive.org/services/img/consolelivingroom",
"https://archive.org/images/book-lend.png",
"https://archive.org/images/widgetOL.png",
"https://archive.org/services/img/tv",
"https://archive.org/services/img/911",
"https://athena.archive.org/0.gif?kind=track_js&track_js_case=control&cache_bust=1802575388",
"https://athena.archive.org/0.gif?kind=track_js&track_js_case=disabled&cache_bust=296490702"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
|
https://archive.org/details/europeitspastpre00unge
|
See other formats
\ r Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/europeitspastpreOOunge THE HOME CYCLOPEDIA. EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT CONDITION OF EUROPEAN GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY; WITH SEPARATE DESOEIPTIOKS AND STATISTICS OF EACH STATE, AND A COI'IOUS INDEX, FAOILITATINa REFERENCE TO EVERT ESSENTIAL FACT IN THE HISTORY AND PRESENT STATE OF EUROPE. BY FRAXCIS H. UXGEWITTER, LLD. NEW YOEK: A. S. BARNES & CO., 51 JOHN-STREET. CINCINNATI: — n. W. DERBY. 1854. Enteeed, according to Act of Congress, In the year 1 854, by A, 8. BARNES & CO. In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New-York, PREFACE. As author of several extensive geographical works, which have been successfully published in Germany, my native country, I have ventured to prepare this vol- ume with the view of offering to the American public a guide in European Geography and History. It is superfluous to say that the value of such a work depends entirely upon its authenticity and accuracy : and that these qualities are, especially in Germany, es- sential to success. In endeavoring to avoid all superficial and unfounded statements, I have hoped also to steer clear of pedantry and prolixity. For such a volume, in the present state of popular information, I should not have felt justified in using any other than original and authentic materials. Fortunately, materials of this land are not at all lack- ing in Europe. First, in most European countries an official almanac is published every year, which contains more or less copious statistical particulars to be relied PREFACE. on. Secondly, a census is taken in certain periods, not restricted to the population only, but extended to a great variety of other statistical matters. Thirdly, there is scarcely a European state without its special g-eog-raphi- cal and historical description, written by a native scholar. Beside these abundant materials, the official parliamen- tary reports and documents in many states furnish au- thentic statements with regard to the public finances, the army, the na\y, etc. Moreover, I have visited most of the European countries, and have thus been enabled to fill up deficiencies almost inevitable with him who knows a people or a country merely by books. The index, annexed to this volume, and containing nearly ten thousand names, will enable the reader to find readily any essential fact connected with European geog- raphy or history. The table of contents, prefixed to the volume, gives at once a clear view of all those fifty-six states, which constitute Europe in a political sense. The arrangement with reference to the mountain ranges, rivers, lakes, etc., of all Europe, by compressing them within the compass of one common description, will perhaps meet with the approbation of the reader ; tedi- ous repetitions being avoided in this way. Beside this, llio introduction contains a general, yet condensed history of I'iUrnpc. Concerning the description of each of these fifty-six European states, the order observed is thus: first, the statements about area and population, surface, soil, PREFACE. natural products, manufactures, commerce and trade, public finances, form of government, strength of the army and (with maritime states) of the navy, and the orders of honor ; secondly, the history ; and thirdly, the topography of the state. Trusting that the public will kindly make allowance "^ for my want of an elegant English style, the more so as until the last year I never had any suitable oppor- tunity to improve in it practically, I sincerely wish, that for the rest this volume may answer every reasonable expectation on the part of the reader. F. H. UNGEWITTER. New Toek, June 26iA, 1850. I CONTENTS. n.ot INTRODUCTION, OR GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE, 1 The Moimtain Ranges of Europe, 4 Inland Seas, Bays, Sounds, Straits, 9 Lakes of Europe, 10 Rivers of Europe, 12 Independent States of Europe, 21 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY OF EUROPE, 23 PORTUGAL, 62 History of Portugal, 67 SPAIN, 16 History of Spain, 84 ITALY, 99 1. The Kingdom of Sardinia 103 2. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, 115 3. The Duchy of Parma, 115 4. The Duchy of Modena, lit 6. Tlie Grand-Duchy of Tuscany, (including Lucca) 120 6. The States of the Church, 121 7. Tlie Republic of San Marino, 136 8. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 137 9. Malta, 149 SWITZERLAND, 151 History of Switzerland, 164 CONTENTS. PAOI FRANCE, 170 History of France 179 Tlie Provinces of Ible de France, NormanJy, Picardy, 182 The Provinces of Artois, Frencli Flanders, Champagne 189 The Provinces of Lorraine and Alsace, 193 The Provinces of Burgundy and Franche Comte, 199 The Provinces of Bourbonnais, Nivernais and BeiTy 203 Tlie Provinces of Orltanais, Touraine and Anjou 205 The Provinces of JIaine, Perche and Brittany 207 Tlie Provinces of Poitou, Aunis, Angoumais, La Marche, 210 The Provinces of IJmousiu, Auvergue and Lyonnais, 213 The Provinces of Guyenne and Gascony 214 The Provinces of Navarre, Beam, Foix and Roussillon, 218 The Provinces of Languedoc and Dauphiny, 219 I'lie Provinces of Provence, Avignon and Corsica, 223 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 227 British History 232 A. Tlie Kingdom of England, 234 B. The Kingdom of Scotland 248 a Tlie Kingdom of Ireland, 256 THE NETHERLANDS, 261 1. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, 266 2. The Kingdom of Belgium, 275 GERMANY, 284 1. German Provinces of Austria, , 309 2. German Provinces of Prussia, 310 3. The Kingdom of Bavaria, 311 4. The Kingdom of Wirtemberg, 329 5. The Grand Duchy of Baden, .337 6-7. Tlie Principalities of Hohenzollern, 347 8. The Principality of Liechtenstein, 350 9. The Grand-Duchy of Hesse, 351 10. Tlie Landgraviatc of Hesse, 368 11. The Duchy of Nassau 360 12. Tlic Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg, and Duchy of Limburg, 365 13. The Electorate of Ilesse , 368 14. The PrincipaUty of Waldeck, 375 16. The Kingdom of Saxony 376 16. The Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar 386 17. Tlic Duchy of Saxe-Meiningcn 389 CONTENTS. PAOB 18. The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 392 19. The Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, 396 20-21. The Principalities of Reuss, 397 22-23. The Principahties of Schwarzburg, 399 24-25. The Duchies of Anlialt, 402 26. The Graixl-Duchy of Mecklenburg Schwerin 406 27. The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 410 28. The Duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, 412 29. The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg, 420 30. The Principality of Lippe-Detraold 42T 31. Tlie Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe, 428 32. The Kingdom of Hanover 430 33. The Duchy of Brunswick, 444 34. The Free City of Hamburg, 448 35. The Free City of Lubec, 451 36. The Free City of Bremen 453 37. The Free City of Frankfort 454 THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, 457 History of Prussia, 462 THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE 501 1. The German Provinces of Austria, 508 2. The Kingdom of Galicia 518 3. The Kingdom of Hungary, 520 4. The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania,. 530 5. The Mihtary Frontier, 533 6. The Kingdom of Dalmatia, 534 7. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice 536 DENMARK, 543 1. The Danish Islands 549 2. Jutland 552 3. The Duchy of Sleswick 554 4. The Faroe Isles 557 5. Iceland, 559 SWEDEN AND NORWAY, 562 A. The Kingdom of Sweden, 567 B. The Kingdom of Norway, 575 RUSSIA IN EUROPE, 579 1. Great Russia, 590 CONTENTS. PAQB 2. Little Russia, 694 5. The Baltic Provinces, 595 4. The GramlDuchy of Finland, 598 6. West, or Polish Russia, 60O 6. TIjc Kingdom of Poland, 603 7. The Kingdom of KJisan, 607 8. Tlie Kingdom of Astracban, 608 9. South Russia, 610 THE IONIAN ISLANDS 614 History of the Ionian Islands, 615 GREKCE, 617 History of Greece, 619 EUROPEAN TURKEY 624 1. Roumclia, 628 2. Bulgaria 629 3. Macedonia, 630 4. Tbcssalia 631 5. The Islands, 631 6. Albania 632 7. Bosnia 633 8. Tributary Provinces 634 Servia 634 Wallachia, 635 Moldavia, 636 EUROP.E, PAST AND PRESENT. INTRODUCTION: GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. Area of Eueope : 3,816,936 square miles. Population of Eueope : 262,800,000 inhabitants. 1. Before entering upon the subject, it may be remarked that most of the statistical statements in this work, especially those concerning the population of states, cities, towns, etc., correspond with the official and other authentic reports from the beginning of the year 1848. The political revolutions which since have occurred in most of the European countries, have in many in- stances changed the state of things, caused numerous emigrations, and, at all events, prevented a careful investigation in statistical matters. Moreover, a census is in Europe nowhere taken annu- ally, but, for instance, in France every fifth, in Germany every third year, and so on. However, the statements in this work being thoroughly authentic, they will afford a sure stand-point with regard to all future events, until matters and things are completely settled again in Europe. 2. The above-stated area of 3,816,936 square miles, is distrib- uted as follows : — Germany, 244,375 square miles. The Prussian provinces of Prussia and Posen, 36,508 " " Hungary, Galicia, etc., . . . 164,521 " " EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Area and Populalion of each country. Italy, . Switzerland, . Holliuul aiid Bt'lgiiim, France, Spain aiid Portugal, British Islands (including Guernsey, etc. Denmark (including Iceland), Sweden and Norway, Russia (in Europe), Ionian Islands, Greece, . Turkey (in Europe), Total, 119,706 square milea 15,315 " " 24,644 " u 204,825 « u 216,429 « a 117,921 (( u 49,927 " a 293,280 « M 2,099,903 " <i 1,108 " c 19,149 « i< 209,422 " « 3,816,936 K « Thus, the extent of Europe is almost equal to that of tho .United States, and of Mexico, put together. 3. The population of Europe, is distributed as follows : — Germany, The Prussian provinces of Prussia and Posen, Hungary, Galicia, etc., . Italy, .... Switzerland, . Holland and Belgium, France, .... Spain, .... Portugal, British Islands (including Guernsey, Denmark (including Iceland), Swcflon and Norway, Russia (in Europe), Ionian Islands, Greece, .... Turkey (in Europe), Total. etc. 42,000,000 inhabitanta 3,865,000 " 20,082,000 " 24,573,100 « 2,400,000 « 7,558,000 « 35,401,000 « 12,000,000 « 3,750,000 « 28,500,000 " 1,800,000 « 4,650,0f0 62,000,000 « 220,000 " 1,000,000 - « 12,500,000 " 262,209,100 GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. Density of ropulation — Boundaries— Climate. This makes a population of about 70 inhabitants to a square mile — the highest ratio in any division of the world. For Asia (including the Indian Archipelago) has only 32, Africa has 13, America (i. e., North and South America) has but 3, and Aus- tralasia and Polynesia have no more than 1 inhabitant on a square mile. If the United States, whose extent (including Texas, but excluding California) is estimated at 2,620,000 square miles, and where, upon an average^ at present only 9 souls live on a square mile, were as thickly settled as Europe, they would have a population of 183,400,000 inhabitants; and not less than 801,720,000, if the proportion were like that of Holland and Belgium, where the population is 306 to a square mile. 4. The most northerly point of the European continent is North Cape (which belongs to Norway), N. lat. 71° 11' ; and its most southerly point is Gibraltar^ N. lat. 36° 7'. Thus these parallels correspond with those of the northern part of Hudson's Bay, and of Ilillsboro, or Louisburg, in North Carolina. The distance between North Cape and Gibraltar, is 2,424 miles. The most easterly point of Europe is Caihariyiburg (at the frontier of European Russia and Siberia), long. 60^ 40' E. from Greenwich ; and its most westerly point is Cape Roxa?it (belonging to Portu- gal), long. 9° 31' W. from Greenwich; and the distance between these two extreme points, is 3,370 miles. '5. Europe is bounded on the north by the Arctic, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. On the east the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Bosphorus, the Dardanelles, and the Archi- pelago, form the boundaries towards Asia : and on the south, Europe is separated from Asia by the Black Sea, and from Africa by the Mediterranean Sea. 6. The climate is generally much warmer than in the same parallels in America and Asia, and the difference is equivalent to eight or ten degrees of latitude. This may be accounted for by EUROPE, PAST AXD PRESENT. 8urf»ce.— Mountains : Alps— PyreneeB. the almost universal cultivation of the soil in Europe, and by the absence of those extensive forests, which are to be found in America and Siberia. 7. In the north (with the exception of European Russia) and in the south, the surface is generally mountainous ; but in the middle parts of Europe, plains, here and there intersected by ranges of low mountains and hills, are prevailing. From the mouths of the Rhine, an immense plain runs through Holland, the north of Germany, the provinces of West and East Prussia, Poland, and Russia, to the Ural Mountains ; and its highest elevation, near the sources of the Volga, Dnieper, and Don, is 1,064 feet. Other plains of smaller extent are to be found in Hungary, Wallachia, Lombardy, France. &c. The mountainous regions of the Euro- pean continent, occupy together an area of about 979,800 square miles. The most remarkable mountain ranges of Europe are the following : — a. The Alps, the principal chain of mountains in Europe, occupying an area of nearly 74,550 square miles, run from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, at the boundary between France and Italy, through Savoy, Switzerland, Tyrol, and other provinces of Austria, to the western parts of Tiu"key, at a distance of about 550 miles. Several regions of them have particular names, as, Maritime Alps (nearest to the coast), Cottian Alps (with the Pelvoux de Yallouise), Gray Alps (between Savoy and Piedmont), Pennine Alps (with the Mont Blanc), Lrpontine Alps (with the Mount Rosa), etc. The highest peaks of the Alps, are: the Mont Blanc (in Savoy, 15,668 feet high), M<mnt Rosa (in Savoy, but near the frontier of Switzerland, 15,527 f), Finsteraar- horn (in Switzerland, 14,325 f), Pelvoux de Vallouise (on the French territory, 14,044 f), Junrjfrau (or Virgin, 13,730 f), Schreckhorn (13,310 f— the two latter in Switzerland), Ortles (in Tyrol, 13,065 f), Watzmann (m Bavaria, 9,150 f.), and Terglou (in Carintliia, 10,194 f. high). b. The Pykenees separate France from Spain, running in an almost westerly direction from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, to that of the Bay of Bi-cay. The higliest peaks f)f this mountain range, are: the Maladrtta (11,430 f), Mont Perdu (10,482 £), and Pico Las Posets (10,584 f.) on the Spanish side, GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. Mountains : Sierra Nevada — Appenines — Carpathians, etc. and the Marbore (10,374 f.), Vignemale (10,350 f.), Piclong (9,972 f.), and Canigou (8,800 f.) on the French side. c. The SiEERA Nevada, the principal mountain range of Spain, covers chiefly that part of tlie country commonly called Upper Andalusia, or the province of Granada. Its highest peaks are the Cumbre de Mulhaccn (11,678 f), and Picacho de Velcta (11,200 f). One branch of the Sierra Nevada, running in the direction of Cadiz, and ending in Cape Trafalgar, is partly named Alpvr jarras, partly Sierra de Honda. Parallel with the Sierra Nevada, and in the direction of Algarve (the southern province of Portugal), nms the Sierra Morena, which, in Portugal, bears the name of Sierra Monchique. Other mountain ranges in Spain, are the Cantabrian and Iberian Mountains, the Sierra de Cuenca, Sierra de Gnadarama, and Sierra de Ouadalupe. d. The Apennines skirt the Gulf of Genoa, and nm south-east to the south extremity of Italy. They b^r particidar names, according to tlieir local position. Ligurian Apenni^^ (witli (he ifonte Cimone, in the Duchy of Modena, 6,778 feet high), Etruscan Apennines, Roman Apennines (with the Monte di Sibylla, 7,038 f.), Neapolitan Apennines, and Abruzzi (in the northern part of the kingdom of Naples, with the Gran Sasso d' Italia, 9,577 thigh). The volcano Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, is 3,932 feet higL On the island of Sicily are, besides the volcano Mount Etna or Monte Gibello (10,870 £ high), to be noted the Callata bellata (3,699 f), Cuceio (3,329 £), and Scudenj (3,190 f); on the island of Sardinia, the Gennargcntu (5,630 f), and Gigantinu (3,744 f ) ; and on the island of Corsica, the Monte Rotondo (8,500 f), Pagalia Orba (8,100 I), and Omto (7,900 £). e. The Carpathes, forming the boundary between Hungary and Galicia, run in a south-easterly direction from the sources of the Oder River to the Danube. The western part bears the particular name of the Beskides, the middle part that of the Carpathes Proper or Tatra Mountains, awA the south- east part, comprising Transylvania, Upper Hungary, and tlie north of "Walla- chia, is called the Highland Erdely. The highest peaks of the Carpathian Mountains are, the Ruska Poyana (9,912 £), Gailuripi (9,000 £), Lomnitzer Spitze (Peak of Lomnitz, 8,316 £), and Krivan (7,818 £). Tlie highest peak of the Beskides in particular, is the Babia Gura, which rises to 5,420 feet /. The Scandinavian Mountains form, for a great part, the boundary be- tween Sweden and Noi-way, where they are called Kolen (hterally, the Keel). Near Roeraas, in Norway, the chief branch of the range, running south-west, assumes the name of Dovre-fjeld (fjeld has the signification of Alpine range), EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Mountains : in Turliey, France, Germany. ami its highest pciik is here the Skagastceltind (8,400 f.). Other peaks of the Skaiuhnaviiui Mountains, arc the Snoelicctta (8,122 f.), a.ml Sulitolma (6,o40 f.). g. The Balk.\n or Haeinus, running east through the midst of Turkey, rises to the hfight of no more than 3,000 feet, and is tlioroughly covered with extensive forests. Among its five passes, those of Schumla are renowned in military history. Another mountsiin range in Turkey, and partly in Greece, is the Pindus, rising to the height of more than 5,000 faet, and some of its divisions are cidled the Bora, Mezzovo, and Ar/rapha Mountams, h. In France are, besides the Pyrenees, to be noted : the Jura Mou>fTAiNS, forming the boundary between France and Switzerland (with the Reculet, 6,280 f , and Grand Colombier, 5,220 f., on the French side ; and with the Dolf,5,Wt L,Mont Tendre, 5,170 f, Chasseron, 4,976 f., Creux du Vent, 4,512 f , and Tcte de Rang, 4,384 f., on the side of Switzerland) ; the Sevennes, commencing near the east end of the Pyrencc^^nd running north, form ^he dividing ridge between the valleys of the ifline and Loire (then- highest eummits are, the Mezin of 6,162 f, Lozere of 5,584 f., Tarare of 4,350 f., and Pilat of 8,696 f in height) ; the Mountains of Auvergne, branching from the Sevcnnes and running north-west, form the dividing ridge between the valleys of the Loire and the Garonne ; their principal part is known by the name of Mont Dore, and their highest peaks, commonly called Puy, are : Pwj de Sancy (5,838 f ), Pny de Dome (4,548 f ), and Plomh de Cantal (5,718 f ) ; the Vosges, running parallel with the Rhine, separate the provinces of Lorraine and Alsace, and rise to 4,400, 4,300, 3,900, and 3,100 feet, in the Ballon de 8uh, Tete d^ Ours, Ballon d' Alsace, and. Grand Donnon (branches at the north end of the Vosges, bear the names of Monts de Fancille and JIardt Mounta'nis, the latter with the Mont de Tonnere, 2,035 f. high) ; the Cote d'Or (in the prov- ince of Burgundy), and Morwan Mountains (on the high road between Paris and Lyoas), rise to 1,842 and 2,000 feet; lastly, the Ardennes, running from the northern parts of Champagne to Luxemburg, are woody hills rising to 1,800 feet, and part of them are called the Argonncs. i. The highest mountain range in the north of Germany, are the Sudetes, or Sud/lic Mountains, along the southern frontier of Silesia, with diiferent divisions and names. The Sudetic Mountains proper form the boundary between Austrian Silesia and Moravia (with the Altvater 4,640 f., and the Oreat Schneeberg or Snow-peak, 4,400 f high). Tlie Riesengehirge, or Giants' Mountains, form the boundary between Silesia and Bohemia, (with the Ricscn, or Schncekoppe, 5,056 f., the Great Sturmhaube, 4,540 f, lA'ile Stunnhaub* GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. Mountains of Germany. 4,400 f., and Great Rod, or Wheel, 4,707 f.), and the Lusatian Mountains (with the Jvschken, 3,140 f., and Lausche, 2,460 f.), form the boundary between Lusatia and Bohemia. Other divisions of the Sudetes are : the Moravian Mountains, (between Moravia and Bohemia), the Ilahchchwerdt Mountains (in Silesia), the Eulcn-Gebirge, or Owl Mountains, (with the Hohc Eule, 3,082 f., in Silesia), and Heuscheuer Gcbirge, or Haybarn Mountains (partly in Silesia, partly in Bohemia). Between Breslau and the Eulen-Gebirjje, rises the Zobtenbcrg to 2,280 feet. j. Other mountain ranges in Germany, are : the Boehmerwald Mountains, which form the boundary between Bohemia and Bavaria, and rise to 4,000 and 4,500 f. ; the Erzgebirge, or Ore Mountains, which form the boundary between Bohemia and Saxony, and rise to 3,870 f. (in the Sonnenwirbel), 8,732 f. {Kldne or Little Fichtelberg), and 3,721 £ {Grosse or Great Fichtel- berg); the Fichtel-Gebiege, in the north-east part of Bavaria, with the Schneeberg, 3,221 f., and Ochsenhopf, 8,123 f ; the Black Forest {Schwarz- wald), partly belonging to "U'irtemberg, but chiefly occupying the southern part of Baden ; it is covered with gloomy pine forests (hence its name), and its middle elevation is between 3,000 and 3,500 feet ; altliough the Feldberg and Bclchen (both in Baden), rise to 4,650 and 4,397 feet ; the Alp (which has nothing in common with the Alps in Switzerland and Italy), in Wirtem- berg, where it is commonly called Swabian Alp (with the Ober-Hohenberg, 3,160 f, Schafberg, 8,121 f, and Plattenbcrg, 3,100 f), and partly Rauhe (rough) Alp, and then running north-east through Bavaria, by the name of Franconian Alp; the ODE>nvALD, branching from the Black Forest and rimning north through Hesse Darmstadt (with the Katzenbuckel, 2,180 f, and Malchcn, or Melibocus, 1,690 f); parallel with it runs on its western side •the so-called Bergstrasse, between Frankfort and Heidelberg ; the Spessaut, between Aschaffenburg and Wurtzburg, in Bavaria, with an elevation not exceeding 1,900 feet, and having in its neighborhood the inferior ranges of the Hass-Gebirge, and the Steigerwald; the Rhoen-Gebirge, on the north-west boundary of Bavaria, with the Holy Kreuzberg (2,856 f.), Dammersfeld (2,840 f), and Beierberg (2,264 f ); to the westward, in Hesse Darmstadt, is to be noted the range of the Vogehberg, with an elevation of 2,388 feet; the Thuringerwald {Forest of Thuringia), forming the boundary between Bavaria and the Saxon Ducliies, with the Beerberg (3,064 f ), Schneekopf (3,043 £), Inselsberg (2,855 f), and Kickelhahn (2,643 f.); its eastern extrem- ity is called the Frankenwald; the Hartz, a more or less isolated mountain EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Mountains of Great Britain, Iceland, Russia. range, occupying tlie south of Hanover, part of Brunswick, and part of the Prussian province of Saxony ; it has its highest elevation in the Brockcn or Bloclfhcrg (3,500 f ), and tliat part situated on the west side of the Brocken is called Upper Hartz, and the other part is called Lower Hartz ; the HuNSr riVken, or JTimdimick (dog's back), a rough and woody table-land between Treves and Coblcntz, rising to 2,263 feet in the Idarkopf; the Eifel, between Aix la Chapelle and Treves, rising to 2,2G0 feet; the Taunus, in Nassau, with the Greut Feldherg (2.605 f.), and Altk'onig (2,400 f.); the Westebwald, partly in Nassau, partly in the Prussian province of Westphalia ; its north- west slope is formed by the Sichmgehirge, or Seven Hills, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite to Bonn ; the Osning, or Teutohurger Wald, in Lippe- Detmold ; the "Wesekgebiege, or Weser Mmmtains, along the Weser River. Other inferior or hilly ranges, are : the Habichtswald, near Cassel, the Sollin- ger Wald, the Dcister, and Silntel, in Hanover. k. The principal mountain ranges in Great Britain, are : the Grampian Hills (with the Ben Lawers, 4,051 f., Ben Nevis, 4,379 f, and Cairngorm, 4,050 £), running from the head of the frith of Clyde, north-east through the centre of Scotland ; and the Cheviot Hills, on the southern boundary of Scotland. The highest peaks in England are, the Wharnside (4,052 f), and Ingleborough (3,987 f), and, in Wales, the Snowdon (3,5G8 f), and Coder Idris (3,550 f ). /. Iceland — this rocky island on the borders of the frigid zone, is almost entirely covered with volcanoes, among them the celebrated Mount Hecla, rising to 5,210 feet. The highest peaks of the island are, the Oeraefe-Joekul (6,240 f), and the Oester-Jockul, or Eyjafialle-Joekul (5,794 f). m. In European Russia is only to be noted the Tauric Mountains, in Crimea, rising to 4,740 feet in the Tschadyrdagh. The Wolchonsky Forest, between St. Petersburg and Moscow, is nothing else but a ridge of low hills, not exceeding 1,000 £ in height; although the Volga and other mighty rivers have their sources here. The Ural and Caucasus Mountains belong to Asiatic Russia. 8. The Northern and Atlantic Oceans, by which Europe is boundod on the north and west, penetrate in many parts of the continent, thus forming a great number of peninsulas, bays, and inland aeas. The most remarkable of the latter, formed by the GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. Inland Seas, Bays, Sounds, Straits. Arctic Ocea7i, is the White Sea, which penetrates the northern coast of Russia to the extent of 276 miles. The principal inland seas, bays, etc., formed by the Atlantic Ocean, are the following : — The North Sea, which separates the British Islands from the European continent, and has an extent nearly equal to that of Germany. A branch of the North Sea, called Skagerack, and 69 miles wide, separates the Danish plliinsula of Jutland from Norway; the then following Caticgat (about 140 miles long and 70 wide), separates Jutland from Sweden ; and the following three channels, or straits, lead from the Cattegat into the Baltic Sea, viz. : the Ocrcsound, commonly called Sound (between Zealand and Sweden), the Great Belt (between Funen and Zealand), and the Little Belt (between Sleswick and Funen). The Baltic Sea, with an extent of 135,680 square miles, and surrounded by Sweden, Russian, Prussian, German, and Danish countries, is, between Ystad and the island of Rugen, only 53 miles wide. Two gulfs set up from the Baltic : the Gulf of Bothnia^ between Sweden and Finland, and the Gulf of Finland, between Finland and Esthland. Inferior to them in extent is the Gulf of Riga, before the mouth of the Duna River. Between Tilsit and Memel is the Curische Haff, or Sea, almost entirely enclosed by a long and small tongue of land, with a narrow pass- age into the Baltic. Other seas of the same kind, are the Fresh Haff, before the mouths of the Pregel and other rivers, and the Great and Little Haff, before the mouth of the Oder. A great inland sea, or bay, in the north of Holland, is the Zuyder Zee, 90 miles long, and 45 miles wide. Far inferior to it in extent is the Dollart, before the mouth of Ems River. The Strait of Dover, separating England from France, is about 27 miles wide ; and the well-known English Channel, is, upon an average, 70 miles wide. 1* 10 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Seas, Channels, Straits, Lakes. iS^. Georges Channel separates Ireland from England and Wales ; at its south end is to be noted the Bristol Channel^ be- bre the mouth of Severn River, and at its north end the North Channel, which separates Ireland from Scotland. 13etween the French peninsula of Bretagne, and the northern .•oast of Spain, is the Day of Biscay^ about 345 miles wide. A narrow passage, connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the Mediterranean Sea, is thS'Strait of Gibraltar, which separates Spain from Africa. The Mediterranean Sea, separating Europe from Africa, and on the east bordered by Asia, has an extent of 1,01 1,750 square miles, and is 2,415 long, while its breadth is very different. Before the mouth of the Rhone, is the Gulf of Lyons, and before the city of Genoa, the Gulf of Genoa. The Strait of Bonifacio separates the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, and the Strait of Messina separates the island of Sicily from continental Italy. At the south-east extremity of Italy, is the Gulf of Taranto ; farther to the east, the Strait of Otranto separates Italy from Turkey, and connects the Ionian Sea (between the Ionian Islands and Sicily) with the Adriatic Sea, which latter separates Italy from Dalmatia, and whose extent is estimated at nearly 63.900 square miles. The Grecian Archipelago separates Greece and European Turkey from Asia Minor, and is connected by the Dardanelles Strait, the Sea of Marmora, and the Bosphorus Strait., with the Black Sea, the extent of which is computed at 182.115 square miles. The Strait of Jenikale connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Aznf before the mouth of the Don. 9. The most remarkable lakes are in the north of Europe, and in the region of the Alps. In Russia are to be noted : Lake Ladoga, east of the Gulf of Finland, and in the neiglilxjrhood of St. Petersburg; its extent, computed at 0,220 square miles, exceeds that of the kingiom of Saxony , Lake Onega, east of the former, GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 11 Lakes. with an extent of 4,260 square miles ; Lake llmen, 28 miles long and 20 wide, in the prorince of Novogorod ; Lake Saima, about 40 miles long and wide, in Finland. In Sweden, which aboiuids in lakes, are to be noted : Lake Wener, not very far from Gottenburg, with an extent of 2,130 square miles ; Lake Wetter, in the midst of the country, celebrated for its romantic environs, and remark- able by its extraordinary depth, is 100 miles long, and between 14 and 28 miles wide ; Lake Maelar, near Stockholm, contains about 1,300 islands and islets, with many handsome mansions and castles on them ; Lake Iljelmar, in the neighborhood of the former, 46 mU^ long and 20 wide; Lake Star (literally. Great Lake), in the province of Jemtland, and Lake Silja, in the province of Dalame. In Norway, are I^ake Mjos (north of Christiana, 83 miles long and 1 1 wide), and Lake Faemund (at the frontier of Sweden, about 40 miles long). On the boundary of Switzerland and Germany, is the Lake of Constance, 3*7 miles long and about 9 wide. Three bays set up from it, and are called Ueberlingen, Lower, and Zeller Lakes. On the confines of Switzerland and Savoy, is the Lake of Geneva, 42 miles long and 1 wide. ^^ In Switzerland are to be noted: the Lake of Neufchatel, 18 miles long *and about 5 wide, in the canton of Neufchatel ; Lake of Biel, m the canton of Bern ; Lake of Thun, in the canton of Bern ; Lake of Luzerne, in the centre of Switzerland ; Lake of Zurich, surrounded by the cantons of Zurich, St. Gall, and Schwytz ; and Lake of Lugano, in the canton of Tesino. The most remarkable lakes of Italy are : Lake Maggiore, in Lombardy and Piedmont, 37 miles long and about 8 wide ; Lake Como, in Lombardy, *• 32 miles long ; Lake di Garda, east of the fonner ; iMke of Perugia, in the States of the Church. In Hungary, are the Lake of Balaton, or Platten-See (in Lower Hungary, 46 miles long), and Lake of Neusiedl, near the frontier of Austria. In Germany are to be noted : the Lakes of Gmunden, of Ossiach, of Cla- genfurt, and of Cirknitz, in Austria ; the Lakes of Chiem, of Starenberg, and of Tegcrn, in Bavaria ; of Muritz, Schwerin, and Malchin, in Mecklenburg ; of Ploen, in Holstein, and Lake of Madue, in Prussia. In Holland is the Haarlem Lake, covering a tract of 33,000 acres. In Scotland are to be noted: the Loch Lomond (23 miles long and 9 12 EUROPE, PAST -AND PRESENT. wide), Loch Ness (20 miles long), and Loch Awe ; in Ireland, Lough Neagh (18 miles long) ; and in Engl.vnd, Lake Winander (14 miles long). In the otlier countries of Europe, are no remarkable lakes to be found. 10. Among the rivers of Europe, ranks, foremost, the Volga; next in length is the Danube; then follow the Dnieper, Don, Rhine, etc. "We describe the course and tributaries of the prin- cipal rivers of Europe in the following order: — Through Russia flow : the VoLO^Jiaving its head in the Wolchonsky Forest (see § 7, m.), and a length of course of 2,166 miles, and emptying by about 70 outlets into the Caspian Sea, Its chief branches are the Oka, Sura, Mologa, Kostroma, Wetluga, and Kama. The DxiEPEE (the Borysthenes of the ancients), having its sources in the province of Smolensk, and a length of course of 1,209 miles, and emptying, in the neighborhood of Odessa, into the Black Sea, forming there the Gulf of Liman. Its chief branches are the Leresina, Pripct, Bog, Desna, and Sa- mara (the latter is by the Cossacks called the Holy River). The Don (in ancient times Tanais) : its sources in the neighborhood of Tula, its length of course 1,081 miles, emptying into the Sea of Azof. Its chief branches are the Choper and Doncz. • The Dniesteu (in ancient times called Tyras, or Banastris) : its sources in the Carpathian Mountains, not far from Lemberg ; its length 506 miles, and emptying into the Black Sea, near the mouth of the Dnieper. The Kuban (by Herodotus called Hypanis, by Ptolemy Vardanes, and by the Genoese, in the middle ages, Copa) ; its sources in the Caucasus Mountains ; its length 473 miles, and emptying by one outlet into the Sea of Azof, and by another into the Black Sea. The Tebek, liaving its sources in the Caucasus Mountains, and emptying into the Caspian Sea. The Petsciioua: its sources b the Ural Mountains; its length 690 miles; its mouth in the Arctic Ocqao. The Mezen : its sources in the province of Wologda ; its length 552 milo« ; its mouth in the White Sea. The Dwina; its head in the province of Wologda; its length 736 miles; ite mouth in the White Sea. Its chief branches are the Wytschegda, Finega and Waga. GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. Rivers. The O.vEGA^aving its sources in the province of Olonetz, and emptying into the Wliite Sea. The Kemi, having its sources in Finland, and emptying into the GuK of Bothnia. The Newa, issuing from the Lake Ladoga, and emptying into the Gulf of Finland, has a length of only 39 miles, but is at St. Petersburg from 1,800 to 2,400 feet wide. The DuNA, risbg near the sources of the Volga, has a length of 644 miles, and flows, below Riga, into the Gulf of Riga. The ToENEA, emptying into the Gulf of Bothnia, forms the boundary between Hussia and Sweden. The NiEMEN rises in the Russian province of Minsk, has a length of 530 miles, and crossing Prussia, where it receives the name of Memel, empties into the Curische Hafif (see § 8). Poland and Prussia are crossed by the Vistula, which rises at the frontier of Austrian Silesia, has a length of 681 miles, is in Prussia from 1,000 to 2,000 feet wide, and empties into the Baltic Sea by two outlets, of wliich the eastern is called Nogat. The chief branches of the Vistula are the Bug, San, Wieprz, Brcwcnz, Ossa, Pilica, and Mottlau. Through Peussia flow : the Pregel, in East Prussia, empties into the Fresh Haff [see § 8]. The Passarge, in East Pnissia, empties into the same Haffi The Peesajite and the Rega, in Pomerania, emptying into the Baltic Sea The Oder, which rises in the Sudetic Mountains, at the frontier of Moravia, crosses Silesia, Brandenburg, and Pomerania, and empties, below Stettin, into the Great HaSj which, by the Peene, Swine, and Divenow, is connected with the Baltic Sea. Its length is 616 miles. The chief tributary of the Oder is the Wartke, into which flows the N'efze. Other branches are the Oppa, the Silesian, and the Lusatian Neisse, the Ohlau, Katzbach, Bober, Olsa, Klod- nitz, Malapane, and Stober. In Sweden are to be noted : the Clara river which has its sources in the Dovrefjeld, flows tlu-ough the Wener Lake after wliich it is called the Gotha river, and empties, below Gottenburg, into the Cattegat. Its whole length is 322 miles. The Dal river, which rises in the province of Dalame, and empties into the Gulf of Bothnia. 14 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Rivers. In Norway arc to be noted: the Glommen, which rises in Dovrefjeld, and emptio-! into the Cattegat The LouvEN : sources in Dovrefjeld, and mouth in the Skager Rack. Dexmahk has no remarkable river, besides the Gudkn, m Jutland, where it empties into the Cattegat. Tlie Eider, wliich has ever formed the boundary between Denmark and Gennaiiij since tlie days of Charlemagne, has its source in Holstein, and Jimpties into the North Sea. In Great Britain and Ireland are to be noted : the Thames and Humber (formed by the united rivers Oiise and Trent), emptying into the North Sea, and the Severn, which flows into the Bristol Channel, — in England. The Tay and the Forth, emptying into the North Sea, and the Clyde, which flows into the North Channel, — in Scotland. The Shannon and Barrow, iu Ireland, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. Li Spain are to be noted : the Ebro, which has its sources in the Canta- brian Mountains, forming then the boundary between Old Castile and the Bas- cyan provinces and Navarre, and crossing Aragon and Catalonia, empties into the Mediterranean Sea. Its length is 405 miles, and its chief branches are tlie Aragon, Gallego, and Segro. The GuADALAviAR, which rises in the province of Arragon, and crossing the province of Valencia, empties into the Mediterranean Sea. Likewise, into the latter flow the Xucar and the Segura. The Guadalquivir, which rises on the boundary of Jaen and Murcia, and empties into the Atlantic Ocean, a few miles north of Cadiz. Its length is 300 miles. Spain and Portugal are crossed by : the Tagus, which rises at the frontier of Aragon and New Castile, crosses the latter province, Estremadura, and Portugal, wliere it is called Tejo, and empties, below Lisbon, into the Atlantic Ocean. Its length is 552 miles. The DcERo (in Portugal called Douro) rises between Saragossa and Bur- gos, crosses Old Castile, Leon, and Portugal, and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its length is 478 miles. The MixHo, which has its sources in the Spanish province of Galicia, forms tlie boundary between the latter and Portugal, and empties into tJie Atlantic Ocean. The Guadiana, which has its sources in the southern part of New Castile, forms the boimdary between the Portuguese province of Algare and the Span- GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPR 15 Bivere. ish province of Sevilla, and empties into the Atlantic Oceaa Its length is 483 miles. In Italy are to be noted : the Po, the chief river of Italy, has its sources on the Cottic Alps, crosses Piedmont and Lombardy, has a length of 405 miles, and empties by several outlets into the Adriatic Sea. Its chief branches are tlie lanaro, Scrivia, Dora Riparia, Dora Baliea, Sesia, Ticino, Adda, Oglio, and Mindo. The Adige, having its som-ces in Tyrol, and a length of 221 miles, empties into the Adriatic Sea. The Tagliamento, Piave, and Beenta, in Lombardy, flow into the Adriatic Sea also. Tlie Arno (in Tuscany), the Volturno (in Naples), and the Tiber and Garigliano (rising in the States of the Church), flowing west, and emptying into tlie Mediterranean Sea. In Turkey are : the Marissa, liaving its sources in the Balkan, a length of 243 miles, and its mouth in the Archipelago. The Kv\rasu or Mcsto, the Stromza or Struma (by the ancients called Stri/mou), and the Vardar (Axius by the ancients), have their mouths in the Archipelago also ; while tlie Dkh^ and Narenta (partly crossing Dalmatia) empty into the Adriatic Sea. In France are to be noted : The Seine, having its sources in Burgimdy, near Dijon, a length of 442 miles, and emptying into the English Channel. Its chief branches are the Marne, Oise, Aube, Yonne, and Ertre. The Loire, the largest river in France, rising in the Sevennes, crossing the centre of the country, having a length of 607 miles, and emptying into the Atlantic Ocean, below Nantes. Its chief branches are the Allier, Cher, Indre, Vicnne, Sevre No.ntaise, Arroux, Nievre, and Mayenne. The G.\KONNE, rising in the Pyrenees, having a length of 416 miles, and emptying into the Atlantic Ocean, below Bordeaux, where it receives the name of Gironde. Its chief branches are the Dordogne, Tarn, Lot, and Gers. The Rhone, having its sources at the foot of the St. Gotthard, in Switzer- land, flowing through the Lake of Geneva, then crossing the southern prov- inces of France, and emptying into the ilediterranean Sea. west of Marseilles. Its outlets form a delta, called Camargue ; its length is 460 miles, and its chief branches are the Saone, here, Droine, Durance, Ardeche, and Gard. Other rivers are : the Var, Herault, and Aude, emptying into the Medi- terranean Sea ; the Somme, and Orne, emptying into the English Channel ; 16 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Riven. and the Vilaink, Si:v-RE Nioktaise (into which flows the Vendee), Chaeente, and Adovb, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. Through Feance, Belgium, and Holland flows: the Meu^e, which rises at the frontier of Champagne and Franche-Comte, crosses Lorraine and Cham- pagne, then the eastern part of Belgium, receives below Gorkum in Holland the name of Merwe, but above Rotterdam is called 3feuse again, and eoipties into the North Sea. Its cliief branches are the Saitibre, Ourthe, and Rocr. Through BELcroM and part of Holland flows : the Scheldt, which rises near the frontier of France and Belgium, runs through the west of Belgium, by Ghent and Antwerp, and dividing, forms a delta at its mouth. One outlet, which runs northward into the North Sea, is called East Sclieldt, and the other, running southward, is called West Scheldt. The chief tiibutaries of the Scheldt are the Scarpe, Lys, Bender, and Rupcl. From Switzerland, thi'ough Germany, into Holland, runs the Rhine, which has its sources on the east side of Mount St. Gotthard, in the canton of Orisons, forms the boundary between Switzerland and Tyrol, flows through the Lake of Constance, divides France and Germany, is in the neighborhood of Spire 3,000, and below Mentz 2,500 feet wide, and divides within the boundary of Holland into several branches, calle'd Waal, Ysscl, Leek, and Old Rhine. Its length is 874 miles. Its principal tributaries are the Mayne (rising at the Fichtelgebirge ; see § 7, j.), and the Moselle (rising in the Vosges, at the frontier of Lorraine and Alsace). Other branches of the Rhine are, namely : the Neekar (having its sources m. the Black Forest), the Nahe, Lahn, Sieg, Wuppcr, Ruhr, and Lippe. Through Germany, Hungary, and Turkey flows : the Danube, having its sources at Donaueschingen, in Baden, crossing the middle parts of Bavaria, the archduchy of Austria, Lower and Upper Hungary, dividing the Turkish provinces of Bulgaria and Wallachia, and emptying into the Black Sea. Its length is 1,8C8 miles, and its chief branches are: the lller, Lech,Isar, Inn, Allmiihl, Nab, and Rerjen (in Bavaria) ; the Traun, Ens, March, and Trasen (in Austria) ; the Waag, Neitra, Gran, Theiss, Leitha, Raab, Drave, and Save (in Hungary); the Morawa, Aluta, Sereth, and Pruth (in Turkey). In Germany are to be noted: the Elbe, rising in the Giant Mountains, crossing Bohemia, Saxony, and Prussia, forming the boundary between Hano- ver and Mecklenburg and Holstein, and emptying into the North Sea ; its length being 713 miles. Its chief branches are : i\iQ Moldau and Eger (iu Bohemia) ; the Black El.itcr and Saale (in Prussia) ; the Mulde (in Anlialt- GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 17 Natural Productions. Dessau); the Havel (in Prussia); the Jhnenau, Luke, and Sdivdnge (in Han- over) ; the Alstcr (in Hamburg) ; and the Stoer (in Holstein). The Wesee, formed by the junction of the War a and Fulda, near Munden (in Hanover), divides Oldenburg and Hanover, and enters the North Sea near the Elbe. Its length is 253 miles; and its chief branches are the Aller (whose principal branch is the Lcine), the Wumnie or Lcsum, Geeste, and Hunte. The Ems, rising in thfi Teutoburger Wald (see § 7, j.), and emptying into the Dollart (see § 8). Its chief branch is the Ilaase. Tlie Trave, rising in Holstein, and entering the Baltic Sea below Lubec. Its chief branch is the Stcckcnitz. The Waknow, in Mecklenburg, entering the Baltic Sea below Rostock. Its only bnmch is the Kebel. 1 1. Europe abounds in a variety of useful natural productions. As for minerals, no other division of the \vorld has so many iron, lead, copper, tin, quicksilver, salt, and coal mines ; whereas, pre- cious metals are more abundant in America, Asia, and Africa. The Russian gold and silver mines, are situated in Asia. Hun- gary and Transylvania have the richest gold mines in Europe. Silver is chiefly found in the Carpathic, Ore, Hartz, and Scandi- navian Mountains ; copper, in Sweden, Norway, Russia, Hungary, and England ; iron, in Sweden, Russia, Austria, France, Prussia, England, and Belgium ; ti/i, in England. Lead is very generally diffused in Europe ; but quicksilver is obtained exclusively from tbe mines of Almaden, in Spain ; of Idria, in Austria ; and of Wolfstein, in the Palatinate of Bavaria. The most noted coal mines are near Newcastle, in England ; yet this mineral is also found, in almost inexhaustible quantities, in France, Belgium, and Germany. Galicia, Hungary, and Transylvania, abound in root salt ; and the salt mines of Wieliezka, in Galicia, are the most noted in the world. Nowhere are found so many mineral springs as in Europe. The staple agricultural products of Europe, are wheat, rye, barley, and oats. Maize is cultivated in the south of 18 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Natural Produclions— Animals — Races of Men. Europe, and rice only in Lombardy, and Turkey. The potato is very common in Europe ; and the highest degree of latitude, where it thrives, is the 60th. In the cultivation of the vine (from 48° and 49° of latitude down to the southern extremity of Europe), olive (chiefly in France and Italy), and chestnut, Europe excels ; and this division of the world is, at the same time, the only one where the forests are regularly managed. With regard to animals, horses (the finest breed in England and Germany), callle (the finest in Switzerland, Germany, Great Britain, and Holland), sheep (of various breeds, but the finest in Germany, Spain, and England), hogs, and other valuable domestic animals are found in great perfection throughout Europe, nearly to the parallel of 60°. Mules are reared in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and in the south of France. The ferocious and other wild animals of Europe, are generallly less in number than those of some of the other quarters of the earth. The wolf and bear are still found in Russia, Sweden, and in the mountainous regions of France ; elks, in some parts of Sweden, Russia, and East Prussia ; the wild ox (in ancient times, very common in Germany) is still pre- served in the forest of Bialowicza, in Lithuania. The largest bird of Europe, is the great bustard {olis tarda.) Silkworms are most abundant in Italy. 12. Nearly all the Europeans belong to the Caucasian race. Only a few tribes in Russia are Mongolians. With respect to their origin, the Europeans form three great divisions : the Germames, Slavonians, and Romanians, {a.) The Germanes are to be con- sidered as descendants of Gomer (Gen. x. 2), or of the Kimres, who at first lived in the countries near the mouths of the Dnieper lind Dniester, whence they afterwards moved to the north and northwest, and peopled the Scandinavian peninsula, the present kingdom of Denmark, Germany, etc. The old Goths were like- wise Germanes. Thus, to the great family or tribe of the Ger- GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 19 Races of Men— Religion. manes belong the Germans proper, most of the Swiss, and part of the English, the Dutch, the Flemings (in Belgium), the Danes, Icelanders, Nonoegians, and Swedes, {b.) The Slavonians (or rather Slaves, but in another sense than those who are in bondage), in ancient times called Sannates, are probably descendants of Magog and Madai. (Gen. x. 2), or of the Scythians and Medes. In the beginning they lived in the country between the Don, Volga, and the Caucasus Mountains, and in the course of time spread over the present Russia and Poland, and westward to the Elbe River. To the great family or tribe of the Slavonians, belong the Russians, Poles, Servians, Bosniacs, Bulgarians, Croats, Slavonians proper, Bohemians, etc. (c) The Romanians are de- scendants, partly of the ancient Iberians, Gauls, etc., partly of the ancient Romans and Greeks, and partly of the Germanes ; and the Italians, French, Spaniards, Portuguese, and part of the Swiss, belong to this great family, or tribe. Besides these three great divisions, there are still found descendants of the ancient Celts, or Gaels, in Ireland and Wales, and the highlands of Scotland ; and Basques, or descendants of the Iberians, in Biscay, and the neighborhood of Bayonne, in France. The Turks belong to the Tartar tribe ; the Magyars, in Hungary, are probably descend- ants of the ancient Scythians, and lived, until the close of the ninth century of' the Christian era, in the vicinity of the Ural River ; and the Greeks are descendants partly of the ancient Greeks, but chiefly of Slavonian tribes. The descent of the Jews is universally known. 13. With the exception of about 7,000.000 Mohammedans, 3.000,000 Jcips, and a few Pagans among the Samojedes and Kaluiucs, all the Europeans are Christians. Of these, nearly 133.000.000 are i?o/«rt^?i Catholics (occupying the Pyrenean pe- ninsula and Italy, and prevailing in France, Ireland, Belgium, Poland, Austria, and Bavaria), more than 59,000,000 are attached 90 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Civilization— Science and Arts. to the Greek Church (chiefly in Kussia, and moreover prevailing in Turkey, Greece, and the Ionian Islands), and about 58,000,000 are I'rotcstants (almost exclusively occupying the Scandinavian peninsula and Denmark, and prevailing in Great Britain, Prussia, Holland, Finland, in the Baltic provinces of Russia, and in most of the German states). 14. All Europeans are civilized^ except the Laplanders, Samo jedes, some Kalmuc tribes, and the Gipsies (the latter chiefly in Hungary, Russia, Spain, and England), who are to be regarded as half-civilized ; and as civilization has prevailed among them for many hundred years, Europe is not only the most enlightened, but also the best cultivated grand division of the earth. By its emi- grants, America, and civilized countries of other parts of the world, have been peopled. Husbandry is at the highest pitch of improvement in England, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Switzer- land, and Lombardy. In manufactures and commerce, Great Britain excels all other empires ; but in the former, or at least in many branches of manufactures, France, Belgium, and Ger- many rival it. The states of Europe, next after Great Britain in commercial importance, are : France, Russia, Germany, Austria, Holland, etc. The improvement of all the sciences, and the finest productions of genius, belong exclusively to the Europeans. In almost all European countries, numerous universities, colleges, and other schools, provide for every branch of learning ; and, on • the other hand, the fine arts have their chief scat in Europe. All the great painters, sculptors, artists in music, architects, and poets of ancient and modern times, were Europeans.* There are to be found, it is true, huge monuments of ancient architecture in Africa, Asia, and America, but compared with the sublime * These remarks are intended to include the descendants of Europeans in the United States and elsewhere. GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 21 Independent States. works of the ancient Greeks and Romans, with the Gothic build- ings of the middle ages, and even with the performances of mod- ern architects in Europe, they must yield the palm to them. Most of the European countries are noted for their excellent roads (above all England), and only Turkey and Hungary are without them. Canals are most numerous in England, and, as for the European continent, in Russia, Holland, Belgium, France, and Sweden. Besides this, England is crossed in almost every direction by rail-roads, which are now also to be found in every country of the continent. 15. Europe comprises 55 independent states, of which 33 belong to Germany, (exclusive of Prussia and Austria, the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, and the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg), 7 to Italy, and 2 to the Netherlands (Belgium and Holland being called thus in a general signification). If we mai-k Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands with the name of countries, we may say that Europe comprises 16 countries, of which 14 are at the same time states, or political bodies. These IG Eui'opean countries are the following: — 1, Russia; 2, Sweden and Norway ; 3, Denmark ; 4, Great Britain and Ire- land ; 5, Portugal ; 6, Spain ; 7, France ; 8, the Netherlands ; 0, Germany ; 10, the kingdom of Prussia ; 11, the Austrian em- pire ; 12, Switzerland; 13, Italy; 14, the Ionian Islands; 15, Turkey; and IG, Greece. Of those 55 states, 8 have a republican, and the remaining 47 a monarchic form of government. The 7 republics are : France, San Marino, the Helvetic and the Ionian Republics, and the free German cities, Hamburg, Bre- men, Lubec, and Frankfort. Among the 47 monarchic states are — 3 Empires: Austria, Russia, and Turkey (for the Grand Sig- uier is in some respect considered as successor of the ancient 22 EUROPE, PAST AND PRE3EM. Independent States. Greek emperors, auJ, partly for this reason, entitled emperor by the Europeans). 15 Kingdoms: Prussia, Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Great Britain and Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Two Sicilies, Sar- dinia. Holland, Belgium, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and Wur- temberg. 7 Grand Duchies: Tuscany, Saxe Weimar, Mecklenburg — Schwerin, Mecklenburg — Strelitz, Oldenburg, Hesse — Darm- stadt, and Baden. 9 Duchies : 3 Saxon, 2 Anhaltian, Brunswick, Nassau, Modena, and Parma. 10 F riiicipalities : 2 Reussian, 2 Lippian, HohenzoUern — Hech- ingen, HohenzoUern — Sigmaringen, Schwartzburg — Rudolstadt, Schwartzburg — Sondershausen, Waldeck, and Liechtenstein : (the other principalities in Europe are not independent). 1 Electorate : Hesse — Cassel. 1 Landgraviate : Hesse — Homburg. 1 Ecclesiastical State : the States of the Church. The oldest republic in Europe is San Marino, (from 4G9 A. D.); the oldest empire is the Turkish (from 1453; the Russian dates from 1721, and the Austrian from 1804); the oldest kingdoms are Spain, Denmark, and England ; the oldest grand duchy is Tuscany, and the oldest duchy is Brunswick. Russia comprises the most extensive territory, the principality of Liechtenstein is the smallest state in population, and San Ma- rino the smallest in extent among the European states. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. The history of Europe can, as a general historical sketch of all the European states, of course, not go farther back than to the time of the migration of nations^ or to that of the dissolu- tion of the wesier7i Roman empire ; because until that time most of the European countries were constituent parts of the Roman empire, while the rest were then still in a too barbarous stage of society to form a proper subject of political history. We will only add, that at the time of the Christian era, the Roman em- pire comprised the whole south of Europe, all France, England, the greatest part of the Netherlands, Switzerland and the south of Germany, Hungary, Turkey, and Greece, beside many other nations and kingdoms in Asia and Africa. 1. In the fourth century after Christ, the Goths (see In trod. 4 12) occupied the north-east of Europe, the Visigoths were settled in Dacia (Moldavia and Wallachia) and west of the Dnieper : and the Ostrogoths east of the Dnieper river. The Goths were the first among all the Germanic tribes, who adopted Christianity. Retwcen the Volga and Don rivers lived the Alans. 2. Meanwhile the Huns, whose primitive seat was near the northern boundary of China, had moved onward to the west : in 375, they attacked and pressed forward the Alans, and then both nations pressed on the Goths. In this way commenced the great 24 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Alans— Vundals—BurgunUians— Saxons. migration of nations into the several parts of the Roman empire. In 378 the Visigoths, conjointly with the Huns and Alans, in- vaded Thracia, and defeated the Roman emperor Valens at Adrianople. Afterwards Alaric, king of the Visigoths, was in- vested with the government of Illyricum (Dalmatia and the southern provinces of Turkey), and in 403 he invaded Italy, threatened Rome twice with destruction, and in the year 410 he took the city and gave it up to plunder. He shortly after died, and his successor, Athaulf, making peace with emperor Hono- rius, conducted his Visigoths to Gaul or France (in the year 412), and in 4 1 4 to Spain, where the Visigoths soon became the ruling nation, and founded an empire which comprised Aquitania (Guy- enne, Gascogne, and Languedoc, in France) also, and whose capi- tal was Toulouse. 3. About the same time, other Germanic tribes, the Alans, Vandals, Burgundians, and Sueves (ancestors of the Suabians in Wurtemberg), had moved on in the same direction, and, crossing the Rhine (in 406), settled themselves permanently in various parts of the Roman empire. The Vandals had their primitive seat in the north of Germany, between the Elbe and Vistula rivers, and in the first half of the 4th century transferred it to Pannonia (Bosnia and parts of Hungary). The Burgundians, at first residing in the vicinity of the Vandals, were compelled by the Gcp'uks (a Gothic tribe) to move from the mouth of the Vistula into Germany, and afterwards into Switzerland and the south-eastern provinces of the present France. The SuEVES had their primitive seat near the Elbe and in the middle parts of Germany, and many of them joined afterwards the Alans and Vandals on their march to the south-west of Europe. 4. In 420, the last Roman troops withdrew from Britannia, or England, which since was invaded and ravaged by the ancient Scots. The Britons, therefore, asked the assistance of two tribes SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 25 The Herali—(Odoacer)— Ostrogoths— (TheoUoric)— Franks. of people from Germany, called Saxons (occupying the present kingdom of .Hanover and the duchy of Holstein) and Angles (in the pr(^ent duchy of Sleswick). These people readily com- plied with the request, and in 449 went over to Britain ; they drove back the Scots, but instead of then returning to Germany, they took possession of the country. Britain was afterwards divided by them into seven small kingdoms, called the Saxon He-piarchy. The Britons partly retired into "Wales, partly emi- grated to Armorica (in France), which since received the name of Bretagne, or Brittany. 5. At the same time the Huns, now ruled by an enterprising king, Attila, re-appeared on the European theatre of war. At the head of 700,000 men, Attila marched from Hungary into Germany, ravaging and plundering everywhere, and then invaded Gaul, or France, which he was about to conquer likewise. But in a bloody battle at Chalons on the Marne, in 451. he was de- feated, whereupon he invaded Italy, and died (in 452). After his death the ties of his empire loosened, and the Huns them- selves dispersed by degrees among other nations. 6. In the year 47G, almost the last independent part of the Western empire, or Italy, with Home itself, was entirely subju- gated by Odoacer, the leader of another northern tribe, called the Ileruli ; and it remained under this dominion for 14 years. 7. Meanwhile the Ostrogoths (see ^ 1 of the History) had transferred their seat into Pannonia (Bosnia) and Thracia, and were on good terms with the rulers of the Eastern empire at Constantinople. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, now made to emperor Zeno the offer of conquering Italy for him. His proposal being agreed to, Theodoric emigrated with all the Os- trogoths to Italy, defeated in 490 Odoacer in three battles, made himself master of the whole country, and was by emperor Anas- tasius, successor of Zeno, acknowledged as king of Itahj. But 2 26 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Merovingian Dynasty, Tounded by Clovis in Gaul. after his death, which occurred in 52G, emperor Justinian (who reigned from 527 to oijo), anxious to realize his claims on Italy, sent thither two eminent commanders, Belisarius and Narscs who, after a struggle of eighteen years, succeeded in their task, and made of Italy a province of the Eastern empire. The Eastern and Western empires were thus reunited, but only for a short period, as we soon shall see. 8. It is now time to cast a look at Gaul, or France. This latter name the country derived from the Thanks, a German tribe, who, between the third and fourth centuries, or in the period from 237 to 375, got possession of the northern part of Gaul. It is said, their first king here was Pharamond, who died in 428. His grandson Meroveus, who died in 458, was the founder of the dj'nasty of the Merovingians^ reigning in France for about three hundred years. But the most eminent of the Merovingians was Clovis, who drove the Eomans out of France (in 48G), subdued the Armoricans in Bretagne, subjected the Burgundians (see ^ 3) to tribute, wrested considerable tracts of land from the Visigoths in the south of France (see § 2), and extended his compcsts northward to the Rhine. Clovis, having married a Christian princess, and attributing his success to the God whom she worshipped, determined to become a Christian himself, and in 49(3, he, with three thousand of his subjects, was baptized and anointed as king of .the Franks, at Rheims, by the bishop Remigius. After his death (which occurred in 511), France was divided among his four sons. This impolitic proceed- ing proved fatal to the common interest ; the more so, as it was followed by subsequent divisions. At last, after the death of king Charibcrt, of Paris, or since the year 5G9, France, or rather the Prankish empire, was divided into three distinct states, viz. : Austiasia, or the eastern empire (comprising the north-east of Gaul and the southern half of Germany, between Tyrol and the SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 8t The Mnjores-domus in France. — Carlovincrian Dynasty. forest of Thuriugia, aud between the Rhine and the Inn rivers); Neuslria^ or the western empire (comprising the north-west of Gaul, between the Waal and Loire rivers) ; and Burgundy, or the southern empire (comprising Provence, parts of Aquitania, parts of Switzerland and Alsace). The capital of Austrasia was Metz, that of Neustria Soissons, and that of Burgundy Orleans. In the beginning of the 7th century, the Frankish king used to invest eminent men with the superintendence of the domains and fiefs of the crown, and with the command of the royal military forces. These men, endowed with great power, were called Majores-domus ; one of them had the superintendence in Aus- trasia, another in Neustria, and a third in Burgundy. The last kings of the Merovingian dynasty being weaklings, and not much better than mock-kings, the Majores-domus came soon to be con- sidered as the actual rulers. In 687, Pepin of Iltrslall (the latter name was derived from his estate near Liege), Major-domus of Austrasia, was invested with the superintendence in the other Frankish kingdoms too, and from that time assumed the title of '•duke and prince of the Franks." He was succeeded in his dig- nity by his son Charles Martcll, renowned for his brilliant and decisive victory over the Moors or Arabs, between Tours and Poitiers, in 732. The son and successor of Charles Martell was Pepin the Little, who was indeed but a very small man, but had a mighty spirit in his little body, and moreover an enormous deal of strength. The weakness and inaptitude of the Merovingian kings having become now too obvious, the la.st of them, Childeric III., was, in 752, by an assembly of the states of the empire held at Soissons, declared to have forfeited his throne, and was exiled to a monastery ; while Pepin the Little was elected king of the Franks, and anointed by the bishop Bonifacius. "With him began the sway of the dynasty of the Carlovingians (which 28 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT, The Lombards— Visigoths — Moors. name was derived from Pepin's son, Charles the Great, or Charle- magne). 9. The Greek emperors exercised their sway in Italy only for fourteen years. The Lombards (a Suevian or German tribe, at first having their seat near the middle course of the Elbe), who had once already been called on for assistance by the imperial governor Narses, returned to Italy in 568, headed by their val- iant king- Alboin, wrested the northern part, since called Lom- bardy, from the Greeks, and got possession of most of the other parts of the Italian peninsula. They even threatened Rome, but pope Stephen III., calling on the Frankish king, Pepin the Little, for help, the latter defeated the Lombards, and compelled them to cede to the holy seat the maritime country on the Adriatic Sea, which they lately had conquered. In this way the pope's temporal power was established, and the foundation laid of what is now called the States of the Church. This occurred in 755. In 774 new differences between the pope and the Lombards brought on tho intervention of Charlemagne, who vanquished the Lombards completely and embodied their kingdom with that of the Franks. Lower Italy (comprising the continental part of the present kingdom of Naples) and the Island of Sicily remained under the sway of the Greek emperors until 842, when this island and Calabria came into the possession of the Arabs. 10. The Visigoths had since their inroad in Spain (see § 2) established their power there permanently, and extended it in the course of time over all parts of the peninsula. Their capital and royal residence was Toledo since 531. But as soon as the wars with other tribes and nations had ceased, there arose civil wars md other intestine commotions, which caused one party to call on the Moors or Arabs (who then had conquered the whole north- ern coast of Africa) for assistance. The latter acted the same part as the Saxons and Angles had done in Britain. Scarcely SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 29 Slaves — Croalea — Servians, etc. had they set their foot on the Spanish ground, in 711, when they attacked the Visigoths and defeated them completely in a battle at Xercs de la Frontera, which lasted nine days. The fate of Rod- eric, the last king of the Visigoths in Spain, was never known ; his horse and weapons were found near the field of battle, but his body was nowhere to be seen. Pelagio, a prince of the blood- royal, took command of the Goths who had not been slain by the Moors, led them into the mountainous region of Asturias, and founded there a little kingdom, the boundaries of which his suc- cessors enlarged in the course of time. But for the present, and for the next centuries, the Moors possessed the greatest part of the Pyrenean peninsula. 1 1 . During the migration of nations, many countries in the east of Europe were depopulated, and this circumstance gave oc- casion to the Slaves (see Introduction, ^ 12, i), to move farther to the west, and occupy the abandoned seats. The main body of the Slaves remained in Russia and Poland, but some tribes peopled Bohemia, others settled themselves in the German coun- tries bordering on the Baltic Sea ; while lower Hungary and Austria were occupied by the Avares (who had their primitive seat between the Black and Caspian Seas), Dalmatia, and other countries in the vicinity, by the Croates and Servians^ and Bul- garia by the Bulgarians (a Tartar tribe, who in the 5th century 'had emigrated from their primitive seat between the Volga and Ural rivers). x\bout the Magyars^ see Introduction, ^12. 12. The European territory of i\iQ Eastern empire, or of the Roman emperors residing at Constantinople, had, by all these circumstances, been greatly reduced ; nevertheless, it yet ranked highest among the Christian kingdoms by its civilization, wealth, and flourishing commerce. Constantinople was then the largest and handsomest city in Europe, and the imperial court displayed much splendor and luxury, though the history of this court pre- 80 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Scandinavians— Normans— Charlemagne. sents a series of cruelties and infamous actions, seldom or never heard of in other countries. 13. The Scandinnvian countries, or Sweden, Norway, and Den- mark, were, if not first, 3'et chiefly peopled by the German tribe of GoTiis, who immigrated there about the Christian era. In the course of time those countries became, in a certain degree, overpopulated, which gave rise to the famous naval expeditions of the Normans, who after the 9th century invaded the shores of England, Germany, Holland, Belgium, and France, every- where plundering and ravaging. They proved themselves to be as daring freebooters, as they were gallant warriors, and acted an important part in the political affairs of several European countries in the west and south. 14. Charlemagne (see ^ 8), who was born in 742, reigned from the year 768 to 814, and in this whole period he was almost continually at war. In 774 he wrested the kingdom of Italy from the Lombards (see § 9), and added its crown to that which he wore already as king of the Franks. Meanwhile the long- nourished hostile sentiments between the Franks and their next neighbors in the north, the Saxons, had finally led to an erup- tion, which was followed by a war of more than thirty years. Charlemagne was indeed in this war the aggressor ; but beside his anxious desire to introduce Christianity among the pagan Saxons, he had well-founded political reasons to act as he did. For the Saxons had made frequent inroads into his empire, and moreover being a very valiant and enterprising people, it was to be feared they would sooner or later try to conquer it, or at least wrest some provinces from it. Thus the war commenced against them in 772, and lasted, though with some intervals, until P04, when a final treaty of peace was concluded, according to which tlie Saxons acknowledged the sovereignty of Charle- magne, and adopted the Christian faith. In one of those inter- SOCIAL AXD POLITICAL HISTORY. 31 Division of the Empire of Uliarlemagne — Germany. vals, in 778, the Moorish governor of Saragossa requested Charle- magne to lend him his assistance against the Emir Abderrahman. Accordingly, a Prankish army was sent to Spain, and this cam- paign terminated in the annexation of all the country north of the Ebro to the FrankisK empire. This new acquisition was called the Spanish mark (margraviate). A war against the Danes was in 810 terminated by a treaty of peace, which stipu- lated that the Eider river was to be considered as the boundary between the Danes and Franks ; and indeed this river has since continually been the boundary between Denmark, and Germany. To secure the boundaries in the east and south-east, Charlemagne founded there several margraviatcs, for instance ; the Avarian mark (comprising what is now called the arch-duchy of Austria) against the Avares (see § 11); Friaul. etc. In the year 800 when Charlemagne happened to be at Rome, the pope (who for many substantial services, was highly indebted to him) placed the imperial crown upon his head, and thus, as it were, revived the Western Roman Empire. Charles the Great died in the year 814 at Ais-la-Chapelle, and was succeeded by his son Louis, sur- named the Pious, who was in point of mental power almost the reverse of his father. Louis the Pious died in 840. and left h'" dominions to his three sons, Louis, Charles, and Lothaire, whi divided them by a treaty, concluded at Verdun in 843, in t^ Allowing manner : Louis (since surnamed the German) acquired Germany, whic* since that time has ever been separated from France, and where after the death of the last descendant of Louis (which occurred in 911) an elective monarchy was established, and so it continued, even so late as the year 1806. Louis the German had shortly before his death inherited the rights to the i^nperial croicn, as well as to Italy, Burgundy, part of Switzerland, to Alsace. Lor- raine, etc., and entailed these rights on his descendants and sue- 32 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. France — Kingdom of Italy — England. cessors to the German crown. They were realized for the first time by his grandson Arnulph (reigning in the period from 887 to 899), who not only was crowned as Roman-German emperor, but also brought the kingdom of Italy and Burgundy into a po- litical connection with Germany. Charles (surnamed the Bald) acquired France, which was ruled by his descendants until the year 987, when the Capetians supplanted the race of the Carlovingians. Lothairc acquired the imperial crown and the kingdom of Italy, and besides this a long tract of land situated between France and Germany, viz. Provence, Dauphimj, Bv.rgtindy, Al- sace, Lorraine and the Netherlands. But his race became extinct even so early as the year 875 ; and thus the German kings, his nearest relations, became the heirs of his rights. 15. As for England (see § 4), all the seven kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy were united into one, under the government of Egbert, King of Wessex. This occurred in the year 827. Egbert was therefore the first King of England — a name de- rived from that of Anglia, the home of the Angles, and sub- stituted for the former name of Britannia by Egbert. During his reign, and for many years afterwards, the Normans (see § 13) made frequent incursions into England, and sometimes overran the whole country. King Alfred the Great (who reigned from the year 871 to 901) opposed them with good success, but a hun- dred years after his death the Normans again broke into Eng- land, and were now completely victorious, so that in the period from lOlG to 1042 three Danish kings governed the country in succession (Swcn, Canute, and Hardicanute). In the year 1042, the Normans or Danes were driven out of England, and another Saxon King, Edward II., surnamed the Confessor, was placed upon the throne. Meanwhile the Normans had settled in France, and acquired there (at the end of the 9th century) a large tract SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 33 Norman Conquest of England— Moore in Spain. of land, since called Normandy. William duke of Normandy, who was related to King Edward, made claim to the English tiirone, and after Edward's death, which occurred in 1U66, he in- vaded England, at the head of sixty thousand men, defeated his rival Harold (son of the mighty Count Godwin ; for Edward had left no children) in the battle of Hastings (on the 14th of Oct. lOGG), and became King of England. He was now called \Vil- Ham the Conqueror.^ and is the ancestor of the still reigning royal family of Great Britain. 16. The Moors'va. Spain (see ^ 10) were in the beginning ruled by governors of the Caliphs then reigning at Damascus (the seat of the latter not being transferred to Bagdad until the year 754) ; but in 756 the Arabian prince Abderrahman founded an inde- pendent empire in Spain, and took his seat in Cordova (north-east, and 120 miles distant from Cadiz), which soon rose to be a splen- did city, and at one time numbered 1,000,000 inhabitants. The Moorish empire was at that time separated from that of the Christians by the Duero. Concerning the Christian empire, the little kingdom of Asturias, founded by Pelagio (see ^ 10), was since its first enlargement called the Kingdom of Leon. The Spanish marJc^ conquered by Charlemagne (see ^ 14), having meanwhile been divided into two counties, Barcelona and Navarre, and the count of Navarre having since assumed the royal title, there were now two Christian kingdoms in Spain; which, in the course of time, brought into existence the kingdoms of Aragon, Castile^ Galicia, the principality of Catalonia, etc. Portugal, being first a province of the united kingdoms of Cas- tile and Leon, became in 1139 an independent kingdom. The power of the Moors in Spain was more and more restricted by the conquests of the Christian kings, till in 1492 Granada, the last Moorish possession on the Pyrenean peninsula, was conquer- ed by the Queen Isabella of Castile, and King Ferdinand, of 2* 34 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ferdinand and Isabella— Society in the Middle Ages. Aragon. At this time the kingdom of Aragon comprised not only Aragon, but the whole north-cast part of Spain, while the kin^'dom of Castile comprised all other parts ; and as Ferdinand and Isabella were united by marriage, all Spain came after their death under the sway, first of their daughter Johanna (or rather their son-in-law Philip), then of their grandson, the celebrated King Charles I. (or Charles V. as emperor of Germany), who entailed the Spanish crown on his descendants. 17 This sketch of the political history of Europe will suffice for the present ; and deferring the further particulars of it to the his^ torical introduction of each separate state, we shall now give a condensed description of the state of European culture in the mid- dle ages. Had the time of blooming and vigor of the Roman empire last- ed forever, there is no doubt but Roman culture would at last have prevailed throughout Europe. But the migration of nations (see ^ 2), and with it perpetual wars, interfered and destroyed almost the last remains of it. Thus a commencement was to be made anew. But a quiet and peaceful development being impos- sible at that time, matters went on in the following succession : 1. Improvement of warlike or military conditions. 2. Agriculture. 3. Foundation of new towns and cities. 4. Commercial intercourse and rudiments of industry. 5. A more general efficiency and propagation of Christianity, and subsequently the extension of the clerical power. G. The foundation of universities and the generalization of other schools. 7. The gradual improvement of sciences and fine arts. 8. Fresh life and activity in commercial and industrious enter- prises, generated by the Crusades. 9. Origination of free citizens and corporations. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 35 Social Progress in tiie Middle Ages. 10. New progress of sciences and fine arts. 11. The invention of gunpowder and of the art of printing ; the Reformation and the discovery of America, and of the passage by sea to India ; and the immense social and intellectual revolu- tions brought on by these events, whose consequences are still apparent. In the period from the latter time of the migration of nations until the crusades, Italy (as the former millennial seat of the Roman empire), Spain (as the seat of the industrious and intel- ligent Moors since the Sth century), and the Eastern empire (as retaining the remains of Roman culture) were to be considered as illuminated directly, and the other European countries as il- luminated indirectly, by the beams of the sun of culture. Mean- while the progress of culture went on in the above indicated man- ner. Thus we shall begin with the (fl.) Improvement of warlike or military conditions ; — of course only with reference to the Germanic tribes (see §§ 1, 2, 3, etc.), as all other European nations (with the exception of the Romans) lived at that time in a state of complete barbarity. Among the Germanic tribes it was the custom and practice to wage war in two different ways: viz , either to call to arms all freeborn war- riors under the command oi dukes elected by each tribe (this way .was less frequent, and chiefly used in defensive wars) ; or to select warriors of profession out of those freeborn men, who were upon terms of a particular political dependence with the com- mander-in-chief With this warfare the feudal system was closely connected. As soon as a foreign country was conquered) either the whole (as in the case of the Saxons in England, and of the Lombards in Italy), or some part of it (sometimes one third, but most frequently two thirds) was divided between the king (as commander-in-chief) and his military retinue ; each member of the latter receiving a lot, called Allodium, which as a patrimonial 36 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Feudal System — Agi-icultiu-e— Bondage. estate was at Lis free disposition. The king, receiving a far greater lot than any member of his retinue, used to confer parts of it, by the name of fees (in Latin feuda or beneficia)^ ou single members of this retinue in usufruct for lifetime. The feoffees, called vassals, were bound to faith and homage towards the feofl'er, and to warfare in case of war. In this way all allodial proprietors became gradually feudal tenants also. The feoffer was under the obligation to protect his vassal, and for this reason many allodial proprietors, being incompetent to their own pro- tection, conferred their estate upon any powerful neighbor, and received it back again from him as a fee. At first the fees were not transmissible by inheritance, but in the course of time the heritable quality was partly conceded, partly usurped ; and since that time, only in case of felony the fee was allowed to be with- drawn. Considering the peculiar condition of society in the middle ages, it cannot be denied that the feudal system was quite adapted to it, and afforded many advantages. [b.) Agriculture, formerly in a more or less flourishing state throughout most of those European countries that were under the Eoman sway, but since the beginning of the migration of nations almost totally neglected (except in the Eastern empire), made but poor progress in the period from the year 476 till 752 (when the sway of the Carlovingians commenced), because the freeborn men being for -the most time engaged in warfare, gave themselves seldom the trouble to cultivate the soil, which thus was chiefly tilled by the bondsmen or serfs. Bondage or servitude had from the earliest time been in practice not only among the Germanos. but also among the Slavonians (see ^ 12 of the Intro- duction), and lias not, in most of the countries where it existed, been abolished before the last and the present centuries. It may indeed be called a kind of slavery, but in various respects it dif- fers from proper slavery, which was in use among the ancient SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 37 Foundation of Towns and Cities. Romans, Greeks, etc., and is still in use amongthe Mohammedans and other peoples ! — In the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries agriculture was in the Christian countries of Europe promoted chiefly by the endeavors of the monks ; and since the beginning of the crusades (at the end of the 11th century), when many bondsmen entered the armies of the cross, in order to partake of their privileges of personal freedom, agriculture and other branches of husbandry became more and more the occupation of free farmers, and at the same time attained a higher degree of importance. In the East- ern empire the culture of silk-ioorms was introduced during the reign of Justinian I. (527-565). The Moors in Spain managed the cultivation of the soil in an exemplary manner ; and even steep and sandy hills were by their perseverance transformed into fertile arable land. The meadows of Andalusia were never parched by the scorching sun, as the Moors took care to keep them humid by irrigating canals. Along the Guadalquivir river were situated more than 12,000 flourishing villages, and the township of Seville alone contained not less than 100,000 villages and farms. (f.) In speaking of the foKwlalioii of towns and cities since the commencement of European culture in general, we of course have ouly in view those countries which but then emerged from their state of barbarity, and where hitherto the people had more or less Tbeen accustomed to live in huts lying scattered about in the woods or open field. This was the custom among the ancient Germans (for the towns and cities on the left bank of the Rhine had been founded by the Romans), among the Poles, Magyars, Britons, and in general among all the northern nations of Eu- rope. In the north and north-east of Europe, the foundation of towns and cities, in the style of those in the southern countries, did not take place before the middle of the 13th century, and the few existing ones were not endowed with municipal laws before EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Roeskilde— Moscow — London— Constantinople. that time. In Sweden the city of BJocrkoc, on an island of the lake Maelar. (see ^ 9, of the Introduction), was indeed, even so early as iu the first half of the 9th century, distinguished by its numerous population, its riches and power ; but the country in general had but few towns of any importance. Roeskilde, the capital of Denmark until the year 1443, was founded at a very early period, and had since the 11th century a population of 100,000 inhabitants, and not less than 27 magnificent churches and monasteries ; but this was rather an exception from the rule. Moscoiv in Russia may have been founded in the 9th centur}', but it is more probable that its foundation did not take place before the middle of the 12th century. In 13G7 the first palace of stone was built here. The first foundation of London was laid by the Romans even so early as the year 52 ; in the beginning of the 7th century it was, says a contemporary, " a commercial town frequented by many nations by sea and by land ;" and since the 11th century, the commercial intercourse was still more ac- tive here ; yet until towards the end of the 12th century most of the houses here were built of wood and thatched, till in 1189 King Richard I. ordered all houses with more than two stories to be built of stone, and roofed with tiles or slates. In Germany, the lack of cities or fortified towns was first felt when the fierce Magyars or Huns (as they commonly were called, and from which name originated that of the Hungarians) made their plundering incursions at the end of the 9th, and in the beginning of the 10th century; and not until now most of the principal towns in the interior of Germany were founded. Constantinople was at that time not only the emporium, but also in other respects the most important city of Europe. Besides this capital, the Eastern empire had many other fine cities ; while in Italy those which had been founded by the ancient Romans, were multiplied by new SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY 39 Commercial Intercourse— Industry. ones, for instance, by Venice. Likewise in Spain and in some parts of Prance, there were many cities of early origin. (d.) In the period from the 5th to the latter half of the 8th century, the conimercial intercourse as well as the iiidustry, was in general very insignificant, and almost entirely confined to Con- stantlnopk. where industry was considerably promoted by the luxury of the magnificent imperial court, and an important trade was at that time carried on with several maritime countries on the Mediterranean Sea. In the next period until the beginning of the crusades or of the 12th century, the Moors in Spain ex- celled all other nations of Europe in point of manufactures and other branches of industry. Their woollen cloth, silk stuffs, em- broideries in gold and silver, Morocco-leather, hardware, their ex- cellent workmanship in arms, etc. found everywhere in Europe as well as in Africa and Asia, a lucrative market. In the art of dyeing, the Moors were eminently skilled. Likewise the work- ing in the Spanish gold and silver mines was managed by them with ability and circumspection, and added greatly to their wealth. In other countries of Europe in the latter period, the commercial preponderance of Constantinople gradually went over to the Italian sea-towns of Venice, Pisa, Genoa and Amalfi (the last-named town is situated in the vicinity of Naples). These towns had risen to be independent commercial states, while in other western countries of Europe (with the exception of the Arabian part of Spain) the commercial intercourse was almost confined to trade by barter, or provision only for the daily supply. But now the circumstances there were more favorable. Indian and Levantine goods were sent from Constantinople by way of the Danube river up to Ratisbon (on the Danube), which was at that time the most considerable and populous city of Grermany, and mediated the intercourse not only between the eastern and west- ern countries, but also between the north-east part of Europe and " 1 40 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT, Christianity— Monastic Life. Italy. In France the southern cities, above all Marseilles^ traded with the Levant, while those of the north carried on commerce chiefly with England. Even the Slavonian tribes in the vicinity of the Elbe River and on the Baltic Sea, especially the citizens of Julin (on an island at the mouth of the Oder River; it was de- stro3"cd in 1170), kept up a commercial intercourse with neigh- boring countries. The increasing number of towns and cities, the establishment of fairs, and the discovery of gold and silver mines in the Hartz (see ^ 7, k. Introd.) and in other parts of Germany were promoting the industry in those quarters. (e.) A more general effi,ciency and propagation of Christianity was almost impossible during the troubles and disturbances in the period of the migration of nations. Yet a roundabout ground of it was laid by the transplantation of vwnastic life from the dioceses of the oriental church to those of the occidental. This was effected by St. Benedict of Nursia, who in 529 founded a mon- astery on Mount Cassino, near Naples, that gave rise to the es- tablishment of monasteries in other countries of Europe. These institutions were not only the seminaries for nearly all those heroes of the faith, who in the earlier time of the middle ages, as missionaries, propagated Christianity among the pagan tribes of Europe, frequently at the risk of their lives ; but may likewise be considered as the only nurseries and preservers of classical literature and of sciences in general in those dark ages. With- out the monasteries, even genuine manuscripts of the Holy Bible might be very rare. That monks deserved well for their cultiva- tion of the soil, has already been mentioned ; and moreover they were engaged in handiwork, in the instruction of youth, in writ- ing chronicles, in copying classical manuscripts, etc. Before the time of Charlemagne, the pope^ as the visible head of the occiden- tal church, had but little influence or authority in temporal mat- ters ; but since he had placed the imperial crown upon the head SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 41 Papal Power— Instruction of the Peoijle. of this king (see ^ 14), he assumed the privilege of crowuing all his successors, and subsequently (in the next period until the 11 th century) the supreme legislative power in ecclesiastical matters, the supreme judicial power in the same matters and in all causes concerning the clergy, and the right of pronouncing the interdict (a papal prohibition to the clergy to celebrate the holy offices) against whole districts and even countries, and the anathema against persons, in cases of transgressions against the church. But the preponderance of the papal authority dated from the time of Pope Gregory VII. (1073-1085) and of the crusades (from the end of the 11th to that of the 13th century). Tho popes now went so far as to declare that God had given them all the kingdoms of heaven and earth ; they actually dethroned kings, treated them as their vassals, and continued for more than three hundred years to exercise an almost undisputed sway over both kings and peoples of the Christian world. It was about the pe- riod of the reign of Imwcentus III. (1198-1216) that the power of the pope was at its highest pitch. But after Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) had been deeply humbled, and treated with con- tempt by King Philip IV. of France, the papal power went rap- idly to decay. (/) It cannot be denied that the Roman Catholic church has done far more for 'promoting knowledge and instruction than the oHental church, especially in the middle ages. Yet many kings were not behind in their endeavors, among them Charlemagne, who established a great number of schools and interested himself even personally in the progress of the pupils. In the preceding period, the objects of instruction in the higher schools consisted of the so-called seven liberal arts, viz. study of the. classical liter- ature, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. The best schools of this kind were at that time those of Cambridge, York and Canterbury in England, from whence sci- 42 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Schools — Universities. entific knowledge gradually spread over the European continent. In the Eastern e7)ipire the Roman literature had lost its strength- ening freshness by the prevalence of a depraved taste ; all attain- ments in literature and science were nearly concentrated in Con- stantinople i yet until the reign of Justinian I. (527-5G5) there was still a renowned academy at Athens. The 31oors in Spain, so distinguished in other branches of human exertions, excelled also in the cultivation of sciences, especially in the period from the 8th to the 12th century. Cordova was the seat of literary institutions, academies and numerous common schools. The academies were celebrated, and much resorted to from other countries. Both Christians and Jews attended the instruction in matters of philosophy, medicine, mathematical and physical sciences. In the last-named period (752-1100) France. Ger- many and Switzerland were possessed of excellent cloister, cathe- dral and episcopal schools in Paris and Normandy, at Corvey, Fulda, Paderborn and Hildcsheim, and at St. Gall. About the same time the first ukiversities of Europe were founded. The most celebrated among them were those of Salerno (in the vicin- ity of Naples), of Bologna (in the States of the Church), and of Paris. The object of instruction in the first was principally med- icine, in the second jurisprudence, and in the third theology and philosophy. At the medical faculty or seminary of Salerno, founded in the beginning of the I2th century, and endowed with the privileges of a university in 1150, it was chiefly Arabian pro- fessors who directed the instruction. In 1119, or about that time, the university of Bologna took its rise ; but its glory dates from the professorship of the celebrated legist Irnerius (flHO) ; in 1158 it was endowed with the privileges of a university by Emperor Frederick I, About the year 1200, when another re- nowned professor, named Azzo, illustrated this university, it was frequented by 10,000 students. It must be remarked here, that SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 43 Universities—Literary Productions. many of the latter were indeed youth ; yet the greatest part of those students consisted of men of rank, or who filled high offices. For them was the knowledge of the Roman law (which was ex- plained here, and which had become the common law in most of the Eui'opean countries) indispensable ; and as at that time the art of printing was not yet invented, and thus the study of books impossible, it was a matter of course, that they betook themselves to universities. The title of Doctor came first in use at the University of Bologna. Never did any university maintain its renown so long, nor influence church and state to such a de- gree as that of Paris. Though the opinion that its origin might be dated from the days of Charlemagne, is untenable, yet it orig- inated at a very early period, perhaps in the beginning of the 10th century. In the 12th century this university numbered among its professors several men distinguished for their attain- ments in literature and science, of whom Peter Lombardus (+1164), a disciple of Abelard, was the most celebrated. His " libri sententiarum," comprise a theological system that for cen- turies vindicated its authority among the theologians. The uni- versities of Oxford and Cambridge are of so early origin too, that the period of their foundation cannot be stated with certainty. Before the end of the 13th century, there had been founded uni- versities at Padua, Naples, Reggio, Rome and Treviso ; at Mont- pellier, Orleans and Toulouse ; and at Salamanca in Spain. [g.) The literary productions in the western countries of Eu- rope during the period from the 5th to the latter half of the Sth century, consisted only of philosophical and church historical works, and were entirely written in Latin. Bcda. Venerabilis, author of a history of the Christian church in England, intro- duced first the Christian chronology into the western countries of Europe. In this period too, the first essays in the art of painting (wholly neglected since the first period of the Roman 44 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Literary" Productions— Fine Arts — Architecture. emperors) were made, and a transition from ancient to modern architecture was effected by the Gothic style (invented by the Ostrogoths, but in the course of time much improved and brought to its high state of grandeur), and likewise by the tasteless Lom- bardic style mingled with that of the Byzantines. In the Eastern empire the Latin language prevailed until the latter half of this period, when it began to be supplanted by a corrupt- ed Greek dialect. Literary productions at that time were rather insipid, and poetry was almost confined to the epigram. The church of St. Sophia, built in Constantinople during the reign of Justinian L (527-5G3), was considered as a pattern of the early Christian architecture, the peculiar properties of which were the form of a cross, the cupola and the semicircular arch resting on cubical capitals. It was not until the 9th century that the arts of painting and sculpture began to be improved in the Eastern empire. — In the next period (752-1100) it was chiefly the Moors in Spain who excelled in poetry. The ballad was devised by them. Their architectonic performances in the Arabian style (an improved imitation of the Byzantine style) were distinguished for their easy forms and rich ornaments. In scientifical matter they chiefly cultivated the mathematical and physical sciences. Edrisi.( + 1180) who made his studies at Cor- dova, wrote several geographical works of great value. In the other European countries (with the exception of the Eastern em- pire) the Latin ceased to be a living language, since in the 9th century the Romanic and Germanic languages had been im- proved with more success. In the same period (752-1100) sev- eral poetical and other works were, for the first time, written in German, and the grand cathedrals of Bamberg, Worms, Mentz, Spires, etc., built in the mixed Lorabardo-Byzantine style. In the 1 1th century, the first feudal castles were built ; among them the celebrated Wartburg (now belonging to Saxe Weimar), in SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 46 The Crusades. 10G7. About the same time music and painting on glass were cultivated successfully. (h.) As the Crusades, nndertaken since the end of the llth century by European nations for the recovery of the Holy Land, were attended by most important consequences with regard to the social condition and culture of Europe, we must previously give some historical outlines of them. The Holy Land, or Pal- estine, had, since the end of the 4th century, formed part of the Eastern empire, but in the 7th century been conquered by the Arabs. The latter granted free exercise of religion to the Chris- tian population, and in general, treated them with equity. lu 968 the sultan of Egypt took possession of Palestine, which continued to be under the sway of himself and his successors until the year 1078, when the Scldschuks (or Turks, who from other Turkish tribes differed only by their particular name, which they had derived from that o-f their former sultan, named Seldschuk) subdued the country ; and by them, the Christians, especially the pilgrims to Jerusalem, were often treated with cruelty and scorn. The pilgrims returned to Europe and gave an account of the
|
|||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 4
|
https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/
|
en
|
The Thiem team â Adolf and Günther Thiem, two forefathers of hydrogeology
|
[
"https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/800952/13/ssl",
"https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/800952/13/ssl",
"https://www.hydrology-and-earth-system-sciences.net/licenceSVG_16.svg",
"https://www.hydrology-and-earth-system-sciences.net/licenceSVG_16.svg",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-avatar-thumb150.png",
"https://www.hydrology-and-earth-system-sciences.net/mendeley.png",
"https://www.hydrology-and-earth-system-sciences.net/reddit.png",
"https://www.hydrology-and-earth-system-sciences.net/twitter.png",
"https://www.hydrology-and-earth-system-sciences.net/facebook.png",
"https://www.hydrology-and-earth-system-sciences.net/linkedin.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f01-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-t01-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f02-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f03-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f04-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f05-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f06-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f07-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f08-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f09-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-t02-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f10-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f11-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f12-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f13-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f14-thumb.png",
"https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/hess-26-4055-2022-f15-thumb.png",
"https://www.hydrology-and-earth-system-sciences.net/mendeley.png",
"https://www.hydrology-and-earth-system-sciences.net/reddit.png",
"https://www.hydrology-and-earth-system-sciences.net/twitter.png",
"https://www.hydrology-and-earth-system-sciences.net/facebook.png",
"https://www.hydrology-and-earth-system-sciences.net/linkedin.png",
"https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/319373/13/ssl",
"https://contentmanager.copernicus.org/319376/13/ssl"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Georg J"
] | null |
Abstract. Adolf and Günther Thiem, father and son, left behind a methodological legacy that many current hydrogeologists are probably unaware of. It goes far beyond the DupuitâThiem analytical model for pump test analysis, which is connected to their name. Methods, which we use on a day-to-day basis today, such as isopotential maps, tracer tests, and vertical wells, were amongst the many contributions which the Thiems either developed or improved. Remarkably, this was not done in a university context but rather as a by-product of their practical work of designing and building water supply schemes in countries all over Europe. Some of these waterworks are still active. Both Thiems were also great science communicators. Their contributions were read and applied in many countries, especially in the USA, through a personal connection between Günther Thiem and Oscar Edward Meinzer, the leading United States Geological Survey (USGS) hydrogeologist of the time.
|
en
|
https://www.hydrology-and-earth-system-sciences.net/favicon_copernicus_16x16_.ico
|
https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/4055/2022/
|
2.1âBiography
Adolf Thiem (Fig. 1) was born on 21 February 1836, under the full name of Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf Thiem in the town of Liegnitz (now Legnica, Poland) in the Prussian province of Silesia, where he obtained his high school diploma (Herfried Apel, personal communication, 2021; Anonymous, 1906). His family had been living in Liegnitz at least since the 18th century. His father was the eponymous Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf Thiem (born 1804), who married Johanna Natalie Julianne Thiem, née Küpper, in 1835. The family had a background of being craftsmen but were all self-employed; the father was a master plumber, the grandfather, Gottlieb Wilhelm, was a master nailsmith, and the great-great-grandfather, Johann, was a master cartwright. Adolf had a younger brother, Paul Thiem (born in 1841 in Liegnitz and died in 1883 in Munich), who also became an engineer. Adolf left his parents' house at the age of 14 for apprenticeship and self-study (Vieweg, 1959). He never attended a university but became an autodidact. At the age of 25, he published his first paper in the influential Journal für Gasbeleuchtung (Journal for Gas Lighting; Thiem, 1861), where he introduces himself as an inspector at the gasworks of his hometown, Liegnitz, a job he still held at least into the following year (Thiem, 1862). In his 1864 paper in the same journal, he signs his name as the inspector of the gasworks of the much larger town of Munich (Thiem, 1864), a job he kept until 1865. The early papers already show his mathematical proficiency and his will to improve technical concepts (Thiem, 1861, 1864, 1866). Through contact with Nicolaus Schilling (1826â1894), founder of the now renamed Journal für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung (Journal for Gas Lighting and Water Supply), based in Munich, he was recommended to Heinrich Gruner (1833â1906), a German engineer based in Basel, Switzerland, at that time. Gruner had mainly built gasworks until that point but wanted to expand into the water supply market and hired Thiem as an assistant in 1865 (Mommsen, 1962). Gruner introduced the aspiring Thiem to some fundamental French literature, including the works by Henry Darcy (1856) and Jules Dupuit (1854, 1863). His first work assignments led Thiem to the French town of Beaucourt, near Belfort, where he built spring captures and pipelines, and to Winterthur, Switzerland. After a bumpy start, Thiem proved to be an excellent technician, and in 1868, Gruner made him his partner and the head of the branch office in Dresden (Mommsen, 1962). The company was called Heinrich Grunerâ&âThiem, Ingen. und Unternehmer von Wasseranlagen (engineers and entrepreneurs of water schemes). Thiem was mainly tasked with obtaining a share of the quickly expanding market for water supply in Germany. Again, after a bumpy start, Thiem managed to acquire several contracts, mainly convincing his clients through his technical competence. One of the projects was for the historic mining town of Freiberg, Saxony, where he installed a dual system in 1871, consisting of a separate, spring-fed drinking water and service water network (Grahn, 1883, 1902). Gruner, however, was not equally happy, since Thiem showed much less enthusiasm for financial issues and the day-to-day supervision of the construction sites than for the technical details. Therefore, he decided to move to Dresden himself in 1873 to regain control (Mommsen, 1962). Together, they designed and built the water supply schemes for the cities of Zwickau (1875) and Regensburg (1875), both fed by springs. For the latter, they relocated their company to this town in 1874. In the newspaper announcements from this time, Thiem is mentioned as an Ingenieur von Kamburg, Sachsen-Meiningen (engineer from the city of Camburg, Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen), where he must have lived briefly. The Regensburg scheme was a technical challenge, since it involved capturing springs located in a river bed which needed to be protected from the river water itself. Additionally, the pipeline had to be laid through the bed of the Danube and Regen rivers, which they accomplished by the intensive use of divers (Thiem, 1877a; Mommsen, 1962). It was not unusual that such projects were financed by issuing stock for a designated public water supply company, in this case with a value of 1â028â400 German Marks, of which the Gruner and Thiem company assumed a substantial share of 340â000 Marks (Grahn, 1902). The project was so time-consuming that Thiem moved his family to Regensburg. He had married Luisa Thekla Groà (born in 1852 in Zöblitz and died in 1931 in Leipzig) in 1871 in Freiberg, while working there. All of his three children were born in Regensburg, i.e. Paul Adolf (1874â1907), Ernst Gerhard Günther (1875â1959), and Katharina Else (1876â?) (Mommsen, 1962; Hoffmann, 2017). Gruner and Thiem's first truly groundwater-based supply system was the one for the city of Augsburg (1873â1879). Groundwater head observations for this study were already plotted in the form of an isopotential map.
Pumping tests, using observation wells to investigate the aquifer response, were already performed by the German engineer Bernhard Salbach (1833â1894) in Halle, Germany, in 1866 (Houben, 2019). Thiem's significant improvement, first applied in Augsburg, was the comparison of the drawdown to predictions by the DupuitâThiem model, which he had published previously (Thiem, 1870; see below). This was probably the first pumping test subjected to a rigorous mathematical evaluation. Another pumping test in Strassburg, Alsace, received more attention since its results were published in much more detail (Thiem, 1876b). Through their work in Augsburg and Strassburg, Thiem had clearly set the standard for identifying and quantifying groundwater resources. But he also considered the basic engineering problems of water supply, e.g. the design of pipeline networks (Thiem, 1876a, 1883a, 1884a, 1885b, c, 1915).
The conflicts between Gruner and Thiem had not abated. Thiem considered himself to be the underappreciated and underpaid workhorse, and in 1876, the partnership was dissolved (Mommsen, 1962). Both, independently of each other, moved to Munich, where several concepts for a central water supply were being considered. Thiem favoured groundwater, based on an intensive investigation in the fluvial Gleisenthal aquifer and published a detailed report (Thiem, 1878). In the end, the city council selected a concept proposed by Bernhard Salbach, based on karst springs located 38âkm away in the Alps, due to their high yield, pristine water quality, and the fact that the system was purely gravitational. This proved to be a wise decision, since the system is still the backbone of the city's water supply today. After the split from Gruner, Thiem successfully promoted himself by advertising the projects with Gruner as his own exploits. An irate Gruner felt obliged to publish a piece in a Munich newspaper, where he denounced Thiem as a mere assistant, whose responsibility had been to travel, acquire projects, take measurements, and prepare calculations, which then had to be submitted to Gruner (1876).
In 1886, following an invitation by the city mayor Otto Georgi, Thiem moved for the last time to Leipzig. In the first year, they lived in KramerstraÃe but then moved into the newly built Haus Pommer at HillerstraÃe 9 in 1887, which was to become the Thiem family residence at least until the late 1950s. His consulting company, which at the turn of the century was named A. Thiemâ&âSöhne, Civilingenieure (A. Thiem and sons, civil engineers; Mommsen, 1962), became so successful that he had to rent a separate office in 1891, located at Thomaskirchhof 18, right in the city centre, which he later moved to QuaistraÃe 2 in 1902 (today Carl-Maria von Weber-StraÃe). The company employed up to 12 people, including his two sons. His older son, Paul Adolf, a graduated civil and mechanical engineer, died in December 1907, aged only 33, a few months before Adolf (Anonymous, 1908). Adolf Thiem was the leading planner of the groundwater supply scheme for several larger cities (Table 1), including his new hometown Leipzig, which was expanded in several stages (Thiem, 1881b, d, e, 1906, 1908).
Other cities in Germany that he was working for include â in alphabetical order â Biebrich, Blasewitz, Crimmitschau, Eilenburg, Essen, Frankenstein (ZÄ bkowice ÅlÄ skie, Poland), Greifswald, Harburg/Hamburg, Hirschberg (Jelenia Góra, Poland), Hohenstein, Kiel, Liegnitz (Legnica, Poland), Limbach, Magdeburg (Thiem and Fränkel, 1902; Thiem, 1904), Mansfeld, Markranstädt, Meerane, Metz, Mittweida, Oels (OleÅnica, Poland), Plauen, Posen (PoznaÅ, Poland), Warmbrunn (Cieplice ÅlÄ skie-Zdrój, Poland), Wismar, and Zeitz (Grahn, 1902; Anonymous, 1906; Dyck, 1986). His expertise was also valued abroad (Anonymous, 1906, 1952; Dyck, 1986) and, in addition to the entries in Table 1, led him to work in Romania (Bucharest, Czernowitz, Klausenburg/Cluj-Napoca), Scandinavia (à bo/Turku, Finland; Malmö, Sweden), and Brazil (Porto Alegre). His work was not restricted to studies of aquifers and wells but also encompassed the hydraulics of pipeline networks, the improvement of pumps, the development of water treatment techniques (especially iron removal), and even the construction of water towers, e.g. the still-existing tower in Strasbourg from 1878, which is the first with a semi-spherical wrought iron tank (Thiem, 1876b, 1877a, 1878, 1880c, 1883a, 1884a, 1885b, 1896, 1897a, 1894b, 1898b, 1915, 1929q; Grahn and Thiem, 1885). He briefly worked on inland navigation, in particular on the hauling of cargo vessels on the HohensaatenâSpandau canal near Berlin, and he presented the work he did there at a conference in Paris in 1892 (Thiem, 1892c). Curiously, his home base is given as Eberswalde. He offered his clients the full package, ranging from groundwater exploration to the planning and construction of wells and pipeline networks, water treatment plants, and storage tanks, including economic considerations (Thiem, 1884b). He was probably one of the first to use the term âsustainabilityâ (Nachhaltigkeit) in the context of groundwater (Thiem, 1881a). He had observed the groundwater levels in observation wells located along the LeipzigâGrimma train track over the course of 15 years. The relatively stable drawdowns led him to the conclusion that the drawdown caused by the extraction for the Leipzig water supply had become stable and extraction was thus sustainable (Thiem, 1881a).
In 1892, Thiem received the honorary title of Königlich Sächsischer Baurat (Royal Saxon building officer). Probably in 1899, he received the Königlich Sächsischer Verdienst-Orden (Royal Saxon Order of Merit) and, as of 1900, he proudly added the title Ritter 2c (knight, second class) to his entry in the Leipzig address book. A striking feature of his work ethic was that he never took out any patents in order to foster the advancement of science (Anonymous, 1906, 1952). When asked about it by his pupils, he would smile and answer the following:
Dies ist für die Allgemeinheit und nicht für mich alleine da (this is for the public and not for me alone). (Anonymous, 1952)
However, this claim is not entirely true, since he registered at least one patent on a water valve that would automatically close after a sudden pressure loss, e.g. caused by a pipeline rupture (Thiem, 1894a). On his 70th birthday, he was honoured by a page-long biographical sketch in the Journal für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung, which states his role as founding father of hydro(geo)logy (Anonymous, 1906). Adolf Thiem died after a short but severe illness at the age of 72 in Leipzig on 2 May 1908 (Anonymous, 1908). He was buried there in the Südfriedhof (cemetery) in an honorary grave that still exists (Fig. 2). It is only a few metres away from the still active Probstheida waterworks and its impressive water tower, which Thiem designed shortly before his death. In 1912, the city of Leipzig named a street after him (ThiemstraÃe), which still bears this name today and leads to the Probstheida waterworks (Fig. 2). Several important German hydrologists, such as Emil Prinz, Max Rother and his son, Günther Thiem, were his pupils. In Germany, his legacy was recognized and kept alive, as evidenced by several commemorative articles (Thiem, 1929q; Prinz, 1936; Anonymous, 1949, 1952, 1958; Vieweg, 1958a, b, 1959; Dyck, 1986; Engemann, 1989). As late as 1956, his seminal 1870 publication was reprinted (Thiem, 1956).
Thiem's contributions to the growing field of hydrogeology were also noted outside Germany, already during his lifetime. His work for the water supply of Leipzig was considered important enough to be presented at the world exhibition in Chicago in 1893 (Hillger, 1893). In their 1899 book on groundwater flow, Franklin Hiram King and Charles Sumner Slichter cite seven of Adolf Thiem's papers, including those on tracer tests and other German papers by Lueger and Hagen (King and Slichter, 1899).
2.2âContributions to pumping tests
The analytical model describing the radial flow of groundwater to a well embedded in a horizontal circular island aquifer is sometimes called the Dupuit model, after Jules Dupuit (1863), sometimes the Thiem model, after Adolf Thiem (1870) or Günther Thiem (1906), and sometimes the DupuitâThiem model. It is therefore important to compare the seminal contributions. After an analysis of open-channel flow, in chapter VIII of his 1863 publication, Dupuit turned his attention to flow in permeable soil (Du mouvement de l'eau travers les terrains perméables). Based on his work on open-channel flow, Dupuit stated that the slope of a groundwater table should follow a parabolic equation of the type of Eq. (1):
(1) i = α â Q + β â Q 2 ,
where i is the slope, Q is the flow rate, and α and β are coefficients. This is basically identical to the later Forchheimer equation (Forchheimer, 1901). However, Dupuit realized that the velocity term βâ Q2 could be ignored due to the commonly very low flow velocities of groundwater. Assuming a radial symmetry and a horizontal aquifer, he then derived the fundamental equations describing groundwater flow to a well at steady state, for both the water table and artesian aquifers. Thiem (1870) had clearly read Dupuit's paper, as he duly cites it and ends his paper with a literal quote in French from Dupuit. Günther Thiem claimed that his father had actually been a friend of Dupuit, which is technically possible since Dupuit died in 1876, well after the 1870 publication by Adolf (Thiem, 1951a). There is, however, no other evidence that both knew each other, apart from Günther's claim. Thiem's paper follows parts of the outline of Dupuit's chapter VIII closely. So, was Thiem just a copycat? Not quite! In his equations, Dupuit used two heights of the water table above the impermeable aquitard, namely (1) h0 in the well itself at the well radius r0 (la hauteur de l'eau dans le puit) and (2) H at the outer radius of the cone of influence (la hauteur de l'eau extérieure) at a radius R (le rayon du massif filtrant). While the choice of these two points was sufficient for the mathematical derivation, they were both a rather poor choice from a practical point of view. The water levels in the well were often affected by additional, non-laminar head losses caused by the well tubing itself, something which Dupuit was aware of (see below) but chose to ignore. He also gave no practical hints on how to obtain the outer limit. He only realized that the value for the outer radius is of limited influence as it appears in a logarithmic term (log(R/r0) ). As such, the equations were of limited practical use and were not taken up by practitioners.
It was Adolf Thiem's merit to have grounded the Dupuit equation in the real world. He used two observation wells located within the cone of depression at different radii, r1 and r2, thus avoiding the problems of turbulent losses in the well and of finding the radius of influence. While Dupuit (1863) takes precedence for the mathematical derivation (Ritzi and Bobeck, 2008), Thiem (1870) and his later papers (e.g. Thiem, 1876b) converted the method into a practical tool and popularized it. It is thus justified to call the method the DupuitâThiem model. Remarkably, his first-ever paper on groundwater became a classic. For the confined case, it takes the form of Eq. (2):
(2) h 2 - h 1 = Q 2 â Ï â K aq â B â ln r 2 r 1 ,
with h1, h2 being the head at radial distance r1, r2 (L), Q being the pumping rate (L3âTâ1), Kaq being the hydraulic conductivity (LâTâ1), B being the constant thickness of confined aquifer (L), and r1, r2 being the radius from the well axis, with r1<r2 (L).
Although the first well-documented pumping test in Germany was performed in 1866 in Beesen near Halle (Saale) by Bernhard Salbach (Houben, 2019), Adolf Thiem's work defined some of the standard procedures. Already for his first pumping tests in Augsburg, Strassburg, Alsace, und Munich, he developed several approaches that are still in use today (Thiem, 1876b, 1879a, 1880a). To delineate the geometry of the cone of depression and the radius of influence, he installed several observation wells, both perpendicular and parallel to the estimated flow direction of groundwater (Fig. 3). For this purpose, he mostly used Abyssinian wells (Norton tubes), sturdy prefabricated well tubes, usually of 50âmm inner diameter, which could be rammed into the ground and recovered â if necessary â afterwards. They were spaced more closely to the well and further apart from it (Fig. 3). He also insisted on installing observation wells outside of the radius of influence to study the influence of natural variations in the groundwater levels, e.g. the ones caused by varying river water levels. By default, not only the drawdown phases for different pumping rates (Fig. 3) but also the recovery phase was observed (Thiem, 1876b). Another regular procedure was measuring the groundwater temperature during the test and taking water samples for later analysis. Already in Strassburg 1874/1875, he used a Locomobile mit Centrifugalpumpe, a submerged centrifugal pump driven by an external steam engine (Thiem, 1876b). The drive shaft of the pump was probably connected to the engine via a belt, like a primitive drive shaft pump.
Adolf Thiem used one procedure, which is not common anymore â he increased the depth of the pumping well during the test to find productive zones (Thiem, 1876b), as he had realized early on that thin layers of high conductivity provide a disproportional yield of water (van Lopik et al., 2020). He was also probably the first to notice â and quantify â the difference between horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity. From the results of his pumping test in Strassburg, he determined a value of eight for the ratio of horizontal to vertical conductivity (Thiem, 1876b). This is remarkably similar to the default value of 10 recommended in most textbooks today. During his exploration of the hydrogeology around Leipzig, Thiem realized the concept of multi-aquifer systems, i.e. the presence of several aquifers stacked on top of each other and separated by aquitards (Thiem, 1881a). He referred to these individual aquifers as Grundwasseretagen (groundwater floors/levels).
Dupuit (1863) had realized that flow in pipes connected to the well, e.g. a riser pipe, can cause additional head losses. To address this, he brought back a velocity term from his studies on pipe flow and added it as a second term, very similar to the one shown in Eq. (3). Again, Thiem (1870) follows him in this, adding a velocity term in the slightly different form of the well-known DarcyâWeisbach equation (Eq. 3). Interestingly, Dupuit (1863) references his previous work as the source for the velocity term, and Thiem (1870) calls it a âwell-known equationâ without citing any reference. Both thus ignore the contribution by Julius Weisbach (1845).
(3) h 2 - h 1 = Q 2 â Ï â K aq â B â ln r 2 r 1 + f D â L B 4 â r b 5 â Ï 2 â g â Q 2 ,
with fD being the Darcy friction coefficient, LB being the length of borehole (L), rb being the radius of casing/screen (L), and g being the acceleration of gravity (LâTâ2).
Dupuit (1863) realized that he could use the velocity term to investigate the relative influence of pipe flow on well hydraulics. He retroactively studied two wells in Grenelle and Passy, both near Paris. Again, Thiem (1870, 1879b) converted Dupuit's theoretical approach into a practical tool, the step-discharge test, which is still being used today. Therefore, he simplified Eq. (3) to the following:
(4) H - h = A â Q + B â Q 2 ,
with H being the head in well at zero flow (L), h being the head in well while pumping (steady state) (L), Q being the pumping rate (L3âTâ1), A being the aquifer loss coefficient (TâLâ2), and B being the well loss coefficient (T2âLâ5).
This equation is still the main model to interpret step-discharge tests today. In his pump tests, Thiem plotted the drawdown s as a function of different pumping rates Q and could identify the presence and quantify the contribution of the velocity term or, in other words, the non-linear laminar and turbulent losses of the well itself (Houben, 2015a, b). If the sâQ pairs plotted on a straight line, then the flow was laminar and the velocity term negligible. Any deviations from a straight line could then be attributed to additional well losses and quantified. Therefore, Thiem usually employed several pumping rates during his tests, plotted the resulting drawdown curves, and evaluated the contribution of non-laminar flow (e.g. Thiem, 1876a, b, 1879b, 1880a).
Adolf Thiem realized that removing fines from the aquifer at high pumping rates can improve its hydraulic conductivity and thereby discovered the principle of well development (Thiem, 1876). In some cases, he took this to the limit and beyond. In the course of a pumping test in Strassburg, Alsace, the highest pumping rate of 136âLâsâ1 (490âm3âhâ1) induced such a high degree of suffusion that the ground around the well subsided, and the well tubing was deformed (Thiem, 1876).
The method for a pumping test evaluation after Adolf Thiem (1870) remained one of the most important hydrogeological tools for several decades. It was intensively discussed and applied in the USA (Wenzel, 1932, 1933, 1936; Wenzel and Fishel, 1942; Meinzer, 1934), which can be traced back to the good contacts of Günther Thiem to the leading United States Geological Survey (USGS) hydrogeologist of its times, Oscar Edward Meinzer (see Sect. 4). The DupuitâThiem method was not without flaws: as a steady state method, it commonly required long times until the drawdown had become stable and needed two observation wells. The transient method by Theis (1935), which does not require steady drawdown and can do with one observation well, was the first serious challenger but remained problematic due to the use of type curves, which was both tedious and a bit subjective. Only its later simplification by Cooper and Jacob (1946) relegated the DupuitâThiem method to the second place.
Nevertheless, the DupuitâThiem equation can still be found in many textbooks (e.g. Batu, 1998; Kruseman and de Ridder, 2000; Bear, 2007; Kresic, 1997; Kasenow, 2010). Due to its geometrical set-up and simple mathematics, it is often used to teach students how to derive analytical models for groundwater flow (e.g. Hendriks, 2010). It is still helpful for the design of water wells and the planning of construction dewatering (Houben, 2015a, b). For pumping tests, it has become a niche method when steady-state pumping test data are available (Misstear, 2017). The DupuitâThiem equation forms the basis for several later analytical models, including the old but still commonly used Forchheimer (1901) model, which describes the contribution of non-linear flow processes in the flow towards wells (Houben, 2015a, b). The Forchheimer equation consists of two terms; the first is the DupuitâThiem equation, which describes the linear laminar losses. The second term describes the non-linear laminar losses. Until today, the DupuitâThiem equation is used as a base case for validation or as quality control for more advanced analytical models (see Tügel et al., 2016, for examples). Despite its simplicity and high age of 150 years, to this day, the DupuitâThiem equation is still an important method for groundwater professionals worldwide.
Prior to the full development of vertical wells, many hydrologists used backfilled drainage trenches instead, which could be of substantial length and depth (Houben, 2019). While working for the water supply of Winterthur, Switzerland, with Heinrich Gruner, Adolf Thiem considered such an option (Thiem, 1870). Therefore, he adapted his equation for well flow to a linear sink. Despite its simplicity, it only considered the height of the water table from the constant head boundary to the drain in a 2D projection (Thiem, 1870). This was probably the first model for horizontal wells.
2.3âContributions to well design
The first pumping wells Thiem had used were shaft wells of large diameter, e.g. in Strassburg. They were difficult and expensive to build and often displayed poor performance. He realized that he could overcome these problems by developing the concept of the Norton wells (Abyssinian wells) further, which he had used as observation wells during his pump tests. In 1881â1883, for the waterworks of Naunhof (Leipzig), he increased their diameter to 150âmm, which still allowed them to be rammed into the subsurface. At first, he tried to emulate the shaft wells by installing so-called Ringbrunnen (ring wells), a central collector shaft surrounded by up to 20 individual rammed vertical wells, aligned on a circle with a radius of 10âm from the shaft (Engemann, 1989). The vertical wells were drilled first and then partially excavated down to the depth of the pipeline towards the central collector (Fig. 4). The latter still proved to be a difficult and expensive construction, and the many wells tended to interfere with each other. The Ringbrunnen were operational until 1926 (Engemann, 1989).
Later, he installed vertical well galleries connected to a central siphon pipeline. This concept proved to be much more useful and cost-effective and became the standard. However, the vertical wells caused a lot of trouble due to corrosion, sand intake, and incrustations, which often led to their complete failure to deliver water after only a few years. Thiem even equipped his wells with a noose, attached to the bottom, which could be used to pull out the whole well (Fig. 5). Later, a detachable screen was tried (Thiem, 1925a). Thiem introduced cast iron as a material for the screen and casing, which was more corrosion resistant than the forged iron used before. Since the slots in the cast or forged iron screens were â due to technical reasons â quite wide (often up to 1âcm), sand control was a critical problem. Many wells filled with sand eroded from the aquifer quite quickly. The solution used by Thiem was to wrap fine metal meshes around the screens, which, however, were prone to blockage by the very sand they were supposed to retain and by corrosion and incrustations. Due to their small diameter and the described clogging processes, the yield of the early Thiem wells was quite small, often in the range of a few cubic metres per hour. Therefore, Thiem had to install 225 of them for the first well field of Leipzig in 1883 and 300 for a later one (1907) in the same town (Thiem, 1925a). Thiem kept tinkering with the well design, e.g. by simplifying the design (Fig. 5), increasing the diameter to 150âmm (1907 in Leipzig), installing rubber seals, and introducing copper pipes, which were lighter, easier to manufacture and much more corrosion-resistant, although more expensive. For the Nuremberg waterworks, the tedious and problematic metal meshes were replaced by an artificial gravel pack, a technique that had already been used for horizontal drains (Thiem, 1879; Houben, 2019). In Nuremberg, Thiem (1879a) proposed a gravel pack of four layers with gradually increasing grain size towards the well (2, 4, 8, and 15âmm). The well itself was made from perforated brickwork.
Thiem also found time to study the flow of groundwater towards wells under laboratory conditions. In 1879 and 1882, Gustav Oesten had presented sand tank experiments on the groundwater flow to vertical, partially penetrating, wells installed at two different depths in a square box (Oesten, 1879a, 1882a, b, c). Using colour tracers, he correctly observed that the highest flow velocities occurred around the screen. For a short screen installed at a shallow depth, he found that coloured water from the bottom of the aquifer did not flow to the well (Oesten, 1882a). He thus postulated an interface separating a pumping affected from a not affected area. Only a deeper placement of the screen induced flow from below. Adolf Thiem was very unhappy with this and stated in his rebuttal that his previous theoretical work had already clarified how water should flow around a well (Thiem, 1879d, 1882). However, he still felt obliged to perform his own sand tank experiments, which he called âdemonstratio ad oculosâ (Latin for âdemonstration to the eyesâ). At first, he used a square box but later a wedge-shaped sand body to simulate the convergent flow towards the well. The main objection of Thiem to the experiment of Oesten (1882a) was that Oesten infiltrated water through a small trench at the surface of the box. As this did not represent the reality of flow to wells, Thiem allowed water to be infiltrated from one side over the entire thickness of the sand and the water level in this reservoir was kept constant by an overflow (basically a constant head boundary). The well was simulated by a little sieve body from which water was extracted. The images indicate that the bottom of the well was probably not closed. The well screen only covered the uppermost third of the saturated aquifer thickness. The flow paths were visualized by injecting small volumes of coloured water at different depths at the inflow side. This conclusively showed that water from below the screened interval also entered the well, inducing a vertical flow component close to the well and elevated inflow rates at both the top and the bottom of the screen. Thus, Thiem had conclusively demonstrated the flow field around a partially penetrating well. Oesten responded to the rebuttal (Oesten, 1882b), claiming rather unconvincingly that Thiem had not sufficiently considered the influence of capillarity, but the case was settled.
Unbeknown to many well designers, Adolf Thiem defined one of the most critical and most criticized values, i.e. the maximum permissible entrance velocity. Many textbooks and international standards on well design cite a value of 0.03âmâsâ1 (0.1âftâsâ1; e.g. Campbell and Lehr, 1973, Driscoll, 1986, and Sterrett, 2007). Keeping the entrance velocity below this value is said to curb head losses, maintain fully laminar flow conditions, prevent suffusion of sand particles, minimize incrustation build-up, and even control corrosion. The value is sometimes attributed to Bennison (1947), who, however, presented neither theoretical concepts nor experimental or field data to back up his claim. It is very likely that this value goes back to experiments executed by Adolf Thiem, while he was designing wells and their gravel packs for the Nuremberg waterworks (Thiem, 1879a). Thiem understood that the flow velocity of groundwater is the critical parameter that controls particle mobilization and thus sand intake. Therefore, he investigated the minimum vertical flow velocity required to keep grains of different diameters in suspension. At velocities below, the grains would not be transported. For sand grains up to a grain diameter of 0.25âmm, he obtained maximum flow velocities of 0.028âmâsâ1, under which no transport would take place, which is basically the recommended value above. The value found its way into the influential German textbooks by Smreker (1914b) and Thiem's pupil Emil Prinz (1919) and the monograph by Günther Thiem (1928a). It is quite probable that USA hydrologists became aware of this value from the German literature and through personal exchanges between Oscar Edward Meinzer of the USGS and Günther Thiem (see below) and adopted it without further questioning.
For the water supply of the town of Greifswald, located at the German Baltic coast, Adolf Thiem built a rather unusual construction in 1890 to extract groundwater. He had found an artesian aquifer of 6âm thickness under a confining layer of 5âm of glacial till (Houben, 2019). Instead of wells, he had a trench of 9âm depth and 450âm length constructed, equipped with two strings of perforated stoneware tubes of 500âmm diameter each, installed at different depths and then backfilled. He also had an impervious underground cutoff wall installed to impound the groundwater, allowing it to flow towards the town by gravity alone. Unfortunately, this most likely very expensive construction never lived up to the expectations. The yield was very low, at 10.8âm3âhâ1, and soon had to be augmented by additional vertical wells.
2.4âDevelopment of tracer test methods
Although reports on â sometimes involuntary â tracer experiments in karst aquifers predate the 19th century, Adolf Thiem played a crucial role in developing tracer experiments into a scientific instrument, especially for porous aquifers (Thiem, 1887a, 1888a). His first field tests were done in 1886 in the towns of Greifswald and Stralsund, located at the Baltic coast of Germany. He dissolved 75 to 100âkg of table salt (NaCl) in water and measured the breakthrough curves in several observation wells (Thiem, 1888a). Therefore, the chloride concentrations were determined via titration with silver nitrate, using potassium chromate as an indicator. During a tracer test in Plauen (Saxony), he observed five to six tracer peaks, which he attributed to the heterogeneity of the aquifer. To understand the fundamental processes of tracer migration, Thiem (1888a) performed laboratory experiments using a sand column of 4âm length. Based on his experiences, Thiem (1888a) was the first to postulate the following fundamental requirements for tracer chemicals: (1) non-reactive, (2) non-toxic, (3) cheap, and (4) easy and quantitative analysis.
2.5âEquipotential and hydrogeological maps
During his work in Augsburg with Gruner, Adolf Thiem made extensive use of Norton (or Abyssinian) wells, which are small but thick-walled pipe screens that could be rammed into the ground, to measure groundwater levels. Since they also determined the ground elevation of the observation wells, they were able to construct one of the world's earliest isopotential maps in 1873 (Mommsen, 1962; Dassargues et al., 2021). Strangely enough, Thiem considered the map produced for a later project in Strassburg, Alsace (now Strasbourg, France), as his first isopotential map, probably because he published a detailed account of this study in the Journal für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung (Thiem, 1876b), which was widely received and acclaimed. Figure 6 shows a typical example of Thiem's clear graphical style, showing equipotentials based on observation wells, time series of groundwater levels, and cross sections showing aquifer thickness and water table.
Thiem immediately realized the influence of the water level of the neighbouring river Rhine on groundwater levels and thus constructed two equipotential maps, i.e. one for high and one for low river stages (Thiem, 1878). Due to its importance, the original drawing of the equipotential map was donated to the German Museum (Deutsches Museum) in Munich (Thiem, 1929q, 1941a), the most important technical collection of Germany. Unfortunately, it seems to have been lost during the war, as a request for it from the museum's archive department in 2020 by the authors led to no results. However, a copy is reproduced in some publications of Günther Thiem (1929q, 1931f, 1941a).
Mainly due to the increasing demand for mineral resources, geological mapping became an important task in Germany during the second half of the 19th century. The role of unconsolidated rocks as aquifers, however, was not overlooked. Adolf Thiem contributed a chapter âOn the hydrology of the old river bed of the River Mulde near Naunhofâ to the Annotations on the Geological Map of the Kingdom of Saxony, section Naunhof, Sheet 27 (near Leipzig), which is one of the first hydrogeological contributions to a geological map (Thiem, 1881c; Sauer, 1881; Sauer et al., 1906). The cooperation with geologists was thus no anathema to Thiem. It had been the geologist Hermann Credner (Fig. 4), head of the Saxon Geological Survey, who pointed Thiem towards Naunhof, where the second waterworks for Leipzig was installed in 1887, the largest and most modern groundwater works in Europe at the time (Credner, 1883; Thiem, 1892a, b; Heinker, 2005). Credner later supported Günther Thiem when he wanted to become a member of the German Geological Society in 1911.
2.6âArtificial groundwater recharge
Thiem quickly realized that not all aquifers were productive enough to satisfy the demand and that an augmentation via surface water might be useful (Thiem, 1898a). Early on, he studied bank filtration, e.g. in Fürth in 1880 and for the town of Essen, and recommended using temperature as a tracer to distinguish ground and surface water (Thiem, 1898a). He was also aware of the danger of colmation of the riverbed (Thiem, 1929q). For the water supply of Stralsund, Thiem had unsuccessfully proposed artificial groundwater recharge via drainage trenches (Thiem, 1888b), a concept already applied in Chemnitz in 1875, using trenches with an artificial sand bed (see the discussion in Thiem, 1898a; Houben, 2019). However, Thiem's Swedish pupil Johann Gustaf Richert (1857â1934) perfected the concept (Svensson, 2013). It was implemented for the first time in Göteborg (Gothenburg) in 1898. Richert published his experiences in a book in German (Richert, 1911), and the concept became quite popular in Germany after the turn of the century, especially in the Ruhr valley.
2.7âConstruction dewatering
The construction of deep basements often requires working in the saturated zone and thus the control of groundwater. In the 19th century, this problem was â if not avoided altogether â tackled by encapsulating the construction site and sealing it off from the surrounding groundwater, e.g. by ramming sheet piles, injecting cement or freezing parts of the aquifer. These procedures were technically demanding, costly, and not always successful. Adolf Thiem realized that dewatering by verticals wells was a viable alternative since the well type he had developed could be installed cheaply and quickly, and his equations allowed him to dimension the dewatering scheme. In 1886, Thiem applied this concept, using a shaft well, for the first time, in the construction of the Leipzig water supply in Naunhof (Prinz, 1907; Thiem, 1929q, 1931f). Therefore, Thiem can be considered one of the founding fathers of construction dewatering.
2.8âScientific feuds
Thiem regularly attended conferences, e.g. those of the German Association of Water Professionals (DVGW), and was an avid contributor to the discussions (e.g. Thiem, 1880b, c, d, 1885c, 1888b, c). He did not shy away from voicing controversial opinions, which led to some prolonged scientific feuds.
The main opponent of Adolf Thiem was Oskar Smreker, who was born in 1854 in Castle Görzhof/Cilli, AustriaâHungary (now Celje, Slovenia), and who died in Paris in 1935. He was a graduate of the Swiss Technical University (ETH) in Zurich (1870â1874), where he, much later, in 1914, at the age of 60, received his doctorate on a groundwater-related study (Smreker, 1914a). In 1876, he was hired by Heinrich Gruner in Regensburg as a replacement for Adolf Thiem, after Gruner and Thiem had parted ways, but he was sacked in 1877 (Mommsen, 1962). After several years as an engineer in Germany and Italy, Smreker founded a successful company in Mannheim, Germany, in 1882 that designed and built many groundwater supply systems in Germany and abroad. Smreker published several papers (Smreker, 1878, 1879, 1881, 1883, 1907) criticizing both the work of Darcy (1856) and Thiem (1870, 1876b). He doubted the validity of the Darcy law â and the DupuitâThiem equation deduced from it â due to the supposed ignorance of the increase in velocity around a well. He even formulated his own non-linear law of groundwater movement and dared to use the results of Thiem's pumping tests from Strassburg to test it (Smreker, 1878). Adolf Thiem responded by citing ample literature based on both field and experimental data, which showed the validity of Darcy's law for practically all applications (Thiem, 1880c).
Even after Thiem had died in 1908, Smreker would not relent. In his 1914 doctoral thesis, several papers, and his textbook, Smreker still attacks the validity of Darcy's law and upholds his alternative law (Smreker, 1914a, b, 1915a, b, c, d, e). He argued that
The Darcy lawââ¦â fails completely when applied to the principle of groundwater abstraction, because the differences in velocities at the varying distances from the well are large. (Smreker, 1914b)
Several prominent authors, including Max Rother (1855â1928), Adolf Thiem's last collaborator, felt obliged to publish a defence of the Darcy law. In the middle of the First World War (WWI) and shortly afterwards, a war of papers ensued across several journals and countries and arguments flew back (Brix, 1915; Rother, 1915, 1916, 1919, 1920; Lummert, 1916a, b, 1917a, b; Hocheder, 1919) and forth (Smreker, 1915a, b, c, d, e, f, 1916a, b, 1918, 1919a, b, 1920a, b, c), with Smreker receiving support from Hache (1919) and Henneberg (1919). Based on an extensive experimental comparison of equations using a Darcy permeameter, which he calls âThiem apparatusâ, Krüger (1918) found the best fit using a modified Smreker equation. Other authors, like Robert Weyrauch (1916), the Dutchman Jan Versluys (1915, 1919), the AustroâHungarian J. Zavadil (1915) and Ferdinand Zunker (1920), tried to reconcile the approaches by investigating their limits. The latter also proposed a new equation based on experimental data. In 1919, the Journal für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung had apparently had enough of the discussion and tried to declare it finished (Anonymous, 1919) but to no avail (Rother, 1920; Smreker, 1920a, b, c). Adolf's successor, his son Günther Thiem, participated only marginally in the feud (Thiem, 1920i, l). He probably did not want to compromise his role as neutral editor of his journal (Sect. 3.5). The feud lost steam in the early 1920s, after more than 40 years of struggle. Although several review papers had tried to declare Smreker's approach to be the correct one (Krüger, 1918; Hache, 1919), his struggle was in vain, and his equation fell into oblivion and is hardly cited today (Benedikt et al., 2018). Unbeknown to most participants of the feud, Philipp Forchheimer, who was only marginally involved in it (Lummert, 1916b), had already solved the problem in 1901 by proposing the law today known as Forchheimer law (Forchheimer, 1901). It expands on the Darcy law with a velocity term that can be used when flow velocities are high, e.g. in the vicinity of pumping wells. This fixes the deficiency of the Darcy law that Smreker had correctly identified. With low velocities, the Forchheimer equation reduces to the Darcy law, which thus remains valid for most situations. Smreker's feud with the Thiem school of thought must have been quite bitter, as Smreker mentions the hydraulic study of neither Adolf nor Günther Thiem in his otherwise excellent book (Smreker, 1914b). This is quite unusual for a time when there were few published studies available, and Thiem had already been recognized as the founding father of hydrogeology in Germany.
Another hydrologist who landed into trouble with Adolf Thiem was Gustav Oesten, a civil engineer and sub-director of the Berlin waterworks and later the author of an influential textbook on water supply that went through several editions (Oesten, 1904). He had published on the flow of groundwater to well screens based on sand tank experiments and interpreted them in a non-Darcian manner (Oesten, 1879a), which Thiem attacked in a quite sarcastic style (Thiem, 1879c; Oesten, 1879b). In 1882, Oesten published basically the same results in a different journal (Oesten, 1882a). Again, Thiem attacked his interpretations and even conducted experiments to prove his point (Thiem, 1882; Oesten, 1882b). Details can be found in Sect. 2.3.
3.1âBiography
Günther Thiem was born under the full name Ernst Gerhard Günther Thiem on 11 October 1875, in Regensburg, Bavaria, where his father was working with Heinrich Gruner (1833â1906) at the time (Fig. 7). After his father had relocated to Leipzig in 1886, he attended the renowned Thomasschule, Germany's oldest public school, founded in 1212, which was right next door to his childhood home in the HillerstraÃe. He started his academic career in 1895, studying philosophy at the University of Leipzig. In 1896, he changed to civil engineering at the Königlich Technische Hochschule (Royal Technical University) in Stuttgart to follow the classes of Robert Weyrauch (1874â1924) and Otto Lueger (1843â1911), with the latter being Germany's leading expert on water supply and the author of influential textbooks (Lueger, 1883, 1895). During semester breaks, Günther worked in his father's consulting company. Lueger, in his book The water supply of towns (Lueger, 1895), advocated for the use of springs and groundwater instead of surface water (Loehnert, 2013). However, some of his theoretical concepts were wrong; he followed the doctrine that groundwater under free water table conditions could not flow upwards (de Vries, 2006). In 1901, he reappeared in Leipzig with the title Regierungs-Bauführer (government building chief), which indicates that he intended to join the Saxon state administration. But this was not meant to be. Instead, he pursued his doctorate in Stuttgart (Sect. 3.2) and later took over the family consulting company after the rather sudden deaths of his older brother in 1907 and his father in 1908 (Sect. 3.4).
Günther Thiem married Erna Carola Auguste Goelitz (1887â1976) in Marburg in 1909. They had three children, all born in Leipzig, called Auguste Luisa Ingeborg (born 1911), Anna Else Erika (born 1913), and Karl Wolf Gunther (1917â2015). The latter became a renowned art historian and head of the graphical collection of the state art gallery in Stuttgart (Hoffmann, 2017; Herfried Apel, personal communication, 2021). After the death of Adolf Thiem, Günther's family moved into the old Thiem residence at HillerstraÃe 9, where they stayed at least until 1949 (according to an entry in the last available address book) but probably even longer until Günther's death and possibly beyond. Adolf's widow Thekla moved to the neighbouring SchwägrichenstraÃe, where she lived until her death in 1931. In the address book, she appears with the description âPrivataâ, indicating that she was a wealthy widow who could afford to live from her inherited means.
3.2âThiem (1906) doctoral thesis
Otto Lueger was also the advisor of Thiem's doctoral thesis, which Günther dedicated to his father (Thiem, 1906). It was probably one of the first doctoral studies solely dedicated to groundwater and was widely received in Germany and abroad. The doctoral thesis was remarkably short; it had 45 pages with three annexes providing 10 borehole descriptions, three tables with results of calculations, and eight plans or cross sections. The thesis had no formal reference list but referred in the text to publications of six authors (Darcy, Adolf Thiem, Slichter, Forchheimer, Dupuit, and Lueger). Verbatim quotes were referenced from Slichter and Dupuit in English and French, respectively. In the thesis, he presented the so-called ε-Verfahren (epsilon method). In essence, it was the DupuitâThiem pump test analysis method for obtaining the hydraulic conductivity. However, instead of using a hydraulic conductivity K, he defined ε, which he called the unit capacity, as the product of the K and a unit cross section normal to the groundwater flow. He derived and presented unconfined and confined flow to wells and equations for ε, i.e. the DupuitâThiem equations. He then applied this method by performing 10 pump tests to estimate the groundwater flow in a 6âkm long section of the Iser river valley (now Jizera river) near its confluence with the Elbe river, close to the city of Altbunzlau (now Stará Boleslav, Czech Republic). The pumping tests were part of a study to develop groundwater resources for Prague, a project initiated by Adolf Thiem (Anonymous, 1903). The field investigation was executed in the first half of 1902. He showed that the Iser river is the receptor of the groundwater flow and that the higher the river bed is above the base of the unconfined aquifer, and the closer one is to the river, the more vertical upward flow there is, which was in contradiction to the ideas of his advisor Lueger (1895).
The last chapter of Thiem's thesis is probably one of the first published extensive analyses of groundwaterâsurface water interaction. Thiem explained and presented in clear figures how equipotential lines are differently oriented towards a river dependent on gaining or losing river conditions (Fig. 8). But also he showed how, during an infiltrating flood wave passing through the river, the equipotential lines change their curvature near the river. Hence, he recognized and described the process of bank infiltration and storage. During 5 months, in support of studying groundwaterâsurface water interactions, he observed groundwater levels in piezometers at different distances from the river at the 10 pump test locations. In one of the 10 locations, he suffered data loss due to the vandalism of his piezometer, apparently an issue of all times. By calculating the changing gradients, he observed, e.g. on 25 March 1902, that the high river water levels caused infiltrating conditions in the valley aquifer. Based on observed strongly changing gradients in the time frame of 48âh, he concluded that groundwater level observations during at least 1 year are required to obtain an average gradient with which the groundwater flow to the river can be estimated. He also extensively discussed the temporal changes in groundwaterâsurface water interaction and sources of extracted water under the influence of seasonal groundwater level variations and the regime of a well located near the river. In designing the well field, Thiem aimed to avoid extracting low-quality surface water. Hence, Thiem developed an analytical equation to estimate the required distance between the river and the well, based on phreatic flow between two assumed fully penetrating canals (representing the river and the well). In the same chapter, he discussed the different infiltration and recharge characteristics of the study area, which were low on the loamy valley soils and high on the sandy terraces. Moreover, he described the strongly delayed response of rainfall on the groundwater levels, warning that the delay is generally well underestimated.
The proposed ε-Verfahren never became widely popular under this name, despite being discussed in detail in the book by Prinz (1919) in German but also in French by Imbeaux (1921, 1930). The approach Günther Thiem proposed was actually not novel, as his father had essentially already published the derivation of the DupuitâThiem equation for estimating the hydraulic conductivity in 1870. Nevertheless, the 1906 doctoral thesis very clearly details and applies the method and is well cited â at least 521 times (Google Scholar, October 2020). Often the thesis is erroneously cited as the source of the DupuitâThiem model or Thiem equation (e.g. Wenzel, 1936; Meinzer and Wenzel, 1940), but this honour belongs to Adolf Thiem (1870), who has so far received only 30 citations. The clear exposition of the DupuitâThiem equation and Günther Thiem's support in transferring his method to the USA (see below) explain the erroneous citation.
3.3âWork overseas
After graduating in 1900, Günther Thiem went to the USA and worked in New York for the Hering and Fuller consulting company. One of the founders was the famous civil engineer Rudolph Hering (1847â1923), a member of the Hall of Fame of the American Water Works Association and the eponym of the Rudolph Hering Medal, which is awarded by the American Society of Civil Engineers for outstanding contributions to environmental engineering. Being of German descent, Hering had been sent by his parents to Dresden to attend school and university. Whether he came into contact with Adolf Thiem during this period remains unclear. One of Günther Thiem's projects in the USA was building the water supply for the city of Jersey, New Jersey. He also travelled to Egypt, India, and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) during this time (Thiem, 1915c, 1936c, 1955a). In 1903, he returned to Leipzig and became a junior partner in his father's company. While the bulk of the work there was in Germany, he was also involved in projects in AustriaâHungary, Switzerland, and Russia (details see below).
3.4âConsulting engineer
After the death of his older brother and father, Günther took over the consulting company in Leipzig in 1908, employing five to seven engineers and several technical staff (Anonymous, 1910). In 1911, he moved the offices to MarschnerstraÃe 13, in 1915 to Plagwitzer StraÃe 9, and, finally, in 1939 to Plagwitzer StraÃe 7 (today Käthe-Kollwitz-StraÃe), which was basically in the same corner house as his home in HillerstraÃe 9. All mentioned buildings survived the war with minor damage, were nicely refurbished after the reunification, and still exist today (Fig. 9). Public water supply companies were his main clients. For them, he designed and supervised the construction of many water supply schemes in Germany and abroad (Table 2). Most of them were based on groundwater and a few on bank filtration, which he considered artificial groundwater (Thiem, 1919k). He also served on the city council of Leipzig (1913â1918 and 1921â1922). In 1912, he was appointed as Gerichtlicher Sachverständiger (surveyor appointed by the court). During the First World War, he served in the German army as a field engineer and published papers on military aspects, e.g. the construction and drainage of trenches (Thiem, 1915a, 1916e, 1917e), field water supply (Thiem, 1917a, 1919c), and the disinfection of water (Thiem, 1916d, 1918a, d, 1919c). For his efforts, he was awarded the Saxon medal of war merit (Kriegsverdienstkreuz), a fact that is curiously never mentioned in any of his later biographies (Anonymous, 1917).
After the war, he applied his skills in the growing field of lignite mining, which had major impacts on groundwater resources through the dewatering of the open-pit mines in central Germany and Bavaria (Thiem, 1920b, m, 1921c, 1922a, b, 1923d, 1924a, b, 1928d, 1929b, i, 1930b, 1935b, 1937d, 1938a, 1939b, 1940c, e, 1950, 1952). In his publications at this time, he introduced himself as Montanhydrologe (mining hydrologist) and tried to convince the mining engineers that geohydrology was an important contribution to their field. The industrial water supply also became important (Thiem, 1919k, 1920k, 1922e, 1924c, d, e, f, 1929l, 1931e, 1935d, e, 1937a). Building on the work of his father, he was also an important contributor to the improvement of the design and construction of vertical wells (Thiem, 1911d, 1916b, 1917d, 1919f, 1920c, d, j, 1923c, f, 1924h, 1925a, 1928a, d, 1929f, 1936a, 1938d, 1941b, 1942, 1951b, c, 1953c, d). Similar to his father, he investigated the hydraulic and economic aspects of pipeline networks (Thiem, 1910b, h, 1912b, c, 1915d, 1918c, 1919b, d, e, 1920a, 1924c, e, 1931b, c, i, n, 1932a, d, e, 1938b, c, 1954) and their maintenance (Thiem, 1914b, 1929d). Water treatment, especially the removal of ferrous iron, was a side issue (Thiem, 1910i, 1914d, 1915b, 1924d, 1928c, e, f, 1929a, 1931m). He also designed and, unlike his father, patented technical equipment, amongst them a device to measure groundwater levels (Thiem, 1908b), a detachable riser pipe (Thiem, 1911d), a water meter (Thiem, 1911e, f, 1912a), a device for screened wells that allow the injection of chemical reactants to dissolve incrustations (Thiem, 1931d), an acid-proof coating for metal well screens (Thiem, 1931j), a rubber pipe seal (Thiem, 1933d), a check valve with the wonderfully German name of Rückschlagklappenventil (Thiem, 1935c), and a gate valve (Thiem, 1937c).
Due to his age, he did not serve in the Second World War (WWII) but contributed several short publications detailing the water supply for troops in the field, copying his work produced during WWI (Thiem, 1937b, 1940b).
Other cities that he worked for include Zwickau, Freiberg, Spremberg, Gera, Linz (Austria), and Suceava, Romania, then AustriaâHungary (Pöpel, 1956). Regarding his study in Mönchengladbach, he lists the prices for several of his hydrogeological investigations, including drilling costs and their duration (Thiem, 1911c). The investigations in Prague and Leipzig took about 200âd each and cost 51â000 and 30â000 German Marks. The study in Czernowitz took 67âd, while the one for Mönchengladbach required 150âd, both at the cost of about 15â000 Marks. To roughly convert these prices into Euros, one has to multiply them by 5.2. During his work in Switzerland in the early 1930s, he briefly became the technical director of the Hydrotechnik AG, Zurich (Thiem, 1933c).
3.5âEditor, publisher, and author
In 1914, Günther Thiem became the executive editor of the Internationale Zeitschrift für Wasser-Versorgung (International Journal for Water Supply), founded by the Internationaler Verband der Wassersachverständigen (International Association of Water Experts; Weber, 2020), the first international journal exclusively dedicated to hydrology. The journal was published through his own publishing company called Technischer Verlag Dr.-Ing. Günther Thiem. Rudolph Hering (USA), Ãdouard Imbeaux (France), Felice Poggi (Italy), and Johan Gustaf Richert (Sweden) acted as additional editors (Fig. 10). His contacts thus went further than the USA (see Sect. 4) and, despite all of the political problems, included the French-speaking world, e.g. through Ãdouard Imbeaux, whom he calls ââ¦âa dear old friendâ in the letter shown in Fig. 11. Even in 1916, when the war between Germany and France was in its third year, Günther Thiem published a paper on the water supply for Nice, France (Thiem, 1916a). The friendship with Imbeaux outlasted the war, and as early as 1921, Imbeaux promoted the Thiem epsilon method in an article (Imbeaux, 1921). Contributions to the journal came from all over the world, including from leading USA hydrologists of the time, such as Charles Slichter (Slichter, 1915). Günther also republished several of his father's older publications (A. Thiem, 1914, 1915, 1918, 1920).
Interestingly, the 1917 issue of the journal still mentions all of the original foreign editors, although Germany was at war with France and Italy (Höfer von Heimhalt from Vienna and his former teacher Robert Weyrauch from Stuttgart had been added in the meantime). The journal was active throughout WWI but only published articles in German. In 1918, Günther Thiem realized that the term âinternationalâ in both the journal title and the name of the association was awkward during a time of war and dropped it. The names of Hering, Imbeaux, and Poggi disappeared as coeditors, while H. Peter from Zurich, Switzerland, was added. In mid-1919, the journal was renamed Zeitschrift für Wasserversorgung und Abwasserkunde (Journal for Water Supply and Wastewater Science). In 1920, he decided to give up the journal, and it was subsequently merged into the journal Wasser und Gas, which appeared until 1934, with Günther serving as the associate editor. He also worked in the same position for the Kalender für das Gas- und Wasserfach (a yearbook for the gas and water field), which appeared between 1921 and 1938. After WWII, Günther Thiem did reappear as editor of a journal. From 1951 to 1956 he was listed as a co-worker of the journal Bohrtechnik, Brunnenbau (Drilling techniques, well construction). Ironically, after his death in 1959, the East German government forgot to remove his now inactive publishing company from the public registry. Finally, in 2007, several years after the German reunification, the authorities finally deleted it.
Günther Thiem was a prolific author. He left a legacy of around 200 publications treating theoretical concepts, technical inventions, case studies from his consulting work, and promoting the general benefits of groundwater. He repeatedly published papers or booklets that summarized the gained knowledge on hydrogeology (e.g. Thiem, 1907, 1909a, 1913d, 1914a, 1917b, c, 1918b, e, 1919g, 1920e, h, 1922d, 1923e, 1925b, c, 1926a, b, 1927a, b, 1928b, 1929j, l, 1930a, c, 1931a, f, g, k, 1939c, 1940a, d, f, 1941a, 1951a, 1953a, b, 1955c; Thiem and Gagneur, 1929). His interest in international hydrological affairs is evidenced by several review articles on foreign water supply schemes, stretching as far as the former Soviet Union and Egypt (Thiem, 1915c, 1916a, 1923b, 1924g, 1936c). Many of his publications appear in a series published by himself, called Thiems Hydrologische Sammlung (Thiem's Hydrological Collection), a series of small booklets, which often are reprints of some of his papers published in journals. He was also a great communicator, whose oral explanations of by integrals supported hydrological calculations were even understandable for lawyers (Grahmann, 1960). This was often necessary since the quantitative methods introduced by both Thiems were initially often met with scepticism. As late as the early 20th century, a senior government official told Günther Thiem the following:
Your whole hydrology is nonsense, I simply build well after well, until I obtain the desired quantity of water. (Thiem, 1911c)
Luckily, these random searches for groundwater, often aided by the use of the divining rod, were slowly overcome due to the persistent work and the publications by both Thiems. During his search for groundwater for the city of Bautzen, Günther actually hired two water diviners to compare their results to his drill holes, with the conclusion being that there were less than convincing results for the divining rods (Thiem, 1931b, h, l).
3.6âHonours
Like his father's work, Günther's contributions to Leipzig and Prague's water supply were considered important enough to be shown at the world exhibition in Brussels 1910, where he was even awarded a silver medal (Stoffers, 1910). The occasions of his 60th, 75th, and 80th birthdays in 1935, 1950, and 1955 were honoured by the publication of short biographies (Anonymous, 1935, 1950, 1955, 1956; Lang, 1950; Paavel, 1955; Herzner, 1955). Although not of working class background, Thiem was also honoured by the East German communists, who took over in Leipzig after WWII. In December 1952, they awarded him the somewhat peculiar title of Verdienter Techniker des Volkes (merited technician of the people), and he was one of the first to receive this honour (Henneberg, 1952). In the same year, he was appointed Ehrensenator (honorary senator) of the Hochschule für Bauwesen (University of Construction) in Leipzig (Schöne, 1959). Not to be outdone by their East German counterparts, Günther also received prices from West Germany. In 1956, the German Association for Gas and Water (DVGW) awarded him their highest honorary prize, the BunsenâPettenkofer-Ehrentafel (an Ehrentafel is a shield of honour; Anonymous, 1956), and the Technical University of Stuttgart commemorated the 50th anniversary of his doctorate by awarding him the golden doctoral diploma (Pöpel, 1956; Schöne, 1956). His death was mourned in both East and West Germany (Anonymous, 1959a, b; Schöne, 1959; Grahmann 1960).
The work by Adolf Thiem had already been noted in USA literature (e.g. King and Slichter, 1899), but it was Günther who popularized the Thiem methods abroad, especially in the USA. Trying to understand the background of why, generally in the USA literature (Ritzi and Bobeck, 2008), the DupuitâThiem equation is called the Thiem method after Thiem (1906), and why it became so popular, we investigated the contacts between Günther Thiem and USA scientists, especially Oscar Edward Meinzer.
Charles Vernon (âCVâ) Theis, former district geologist and division scientist at the USGS Office of Ground Water from 1930 until his official retirement in 1970, was interviewed by John Bredehoeft in 1985 (Theis, 1985; Bredehoeft, 2008). CV was at that time already 85 years old. Although he took time to respond, his mind was still sharp, and he remembered details quite clearly (Bredehoeft, 2008). Bredehoeft asked CV about the pumping test in Grand Island, Nebraska, run by the USGS (Wenzel, 1932, 1933, 1936). Theis replied that Meinzer had gone to Europe to meet Günther Thiem, who had been using pumping tests for water supply, and âbrought back the idea and to really try it outâ. He said that âit was the only one at that time [in this country],ââ¦,âwell, no, who was it that presumably made some sort of a pumping test in Pennsylvania?â. He also related that âthis was just before Hitler's time and Meinzer was sending back to Thiem various baskets of food because Thiem was having a hard time thereâ. The food baskets were most likely sent after the war, since Thiem was a successful businessman before it.
The Grand Island pumping test was planned in 1930 under the supervision of Oscar Edward Meinzer, who had been the geologist in charge of the Office of Ground Water of the USGS since 1912. The measurements took place in summer 1931; the results were described in short in Wenzel (1932, 1933) and fully documented in Wenzel (1936). The goal of the two performed pumping tests was âto ascertain the accuracy of the Thiem method and to investigate the possibilities of determining specific yield by a pumping testâ (Wenzel, 1936). Wenzel's publications in 1932 and 1936 both have âThe Thiem method for determining permeability of water-bearing materialsââ¦â in their title and described the method extensively. Meinzer (1932) also explained the method; it is likely that he presented the method already at a meeting of the Society of Economic Geologists in New York City on 29 December 1928.
Mimeographed copies of the paper in abbreviated form had been sent to the members prior to the meeting. The paper has been revised and enlarged for the present publication (Meinzer, 1932).
Both Meinzer and Wenzel referred to Adolf Thiem and particularly the Thiem (1887a) tracer test paper but not to the Thiem (1870) paper. However, Meinzer (1934) also referenced Adolf Thiem (1870).
He introduced field methods for making tests of the flow of ground water and applied the laws of flow in developing water supplies. Under his influence Germany became the leading country in supplying the cities with ground water. The results of his work appeared in a number of papers, the first in 1870.
Hence, we may assume that Meinzer had been, at least since 1928, aware of the Thiem method based on Thiem (1906, 1870). The Wenzel (1936) âWater-Supply Paper 679-Aâ effectively established the Thiem (1906) method as a standard for the permeability assessment of pumping tests and received broad uptake. In the acknowledgement of Wenzel (1936), Leland Wenzel thanks Günther Thiem for his criticism of the manuscript, which shows the existence of contact between Thiem and the USGS at least during the 1930s.
It took between 66 and 30 years after, respectively, Thiem (1870, 1906) until the Thiem type of pumping test was introduced and made popular in the USA. Although Meinzer and Hard (1925) and Meinzer (1928) realized the importance of compressibility and elasticity of aquifers in the 1920s, the dominant groundwater flow theory was steady state and dictated by the DupuitâThiem model until Theis published his transient solution in 1935 (Theis, 1935; Deming, 2002). The slow acceptance of the Theis equation (in part by Meinzer) meant that, by 1936, the USGS âWater-Supply Paper 679-Aâ could still widely introduce and popularize the Thiem method in the USA.
To investigate in more detail the contacts between Günther Thiem and the USGS, we requested a search of the USA National Archives, resulting in about 42 pages of relevant correspondence, mainly between Günther Thiem and Oscar Edward Meinzer dated between 1 December 1936 and 23 August 1940 (USGS, 1936â1940). The correspondence consists of 17 letters from Thiem to Meinzer and one to John Adam Fleming, 13 letters from Meinzer to Thiem, one from Fleming to Thiem, one from the chief clerk to Thiem, and a copy of a publication about Thiem (Anonymous, 1935). Thiem writes in German to Meinzer, while Meinzer writes back in English. However, it is clear that both have a good command of the other language. Of the 17 letters by Thiem, only three seem to have been translated. The first letter (USGS, 1936â1940; Thiem to Meinzer, 1 December 1936) appears to have been translated by Meinzer himself in handwritten notes on the letter from Thiem (Fig. 11). The second and third translated letters (USGS, 1936â1940; Thiem to Meinzer, 23 April 1938 and 31 July 1939) are typewritten, with the likely purpose of transferring them to a colleague. Some remarks by Thiem concerning the (upcoming) war in Europe received particular interest and are translated in English on the original letters in Meinzer's handwriting.
I hope that more peaceful time will soon come and that the scientific exchange will no longer be obstructed. (USGS, 1936â1940; Thiem to Meinzer, 3 November 1939)
In the following year, he wrote
We all hope that the light of peace will come to Europe from America. Then I will actually make my trip to America which I have had to give up. (USGS, 1936â1940; Thiem to Meinzer, 28 February 1940)
It follows from the letters that one or more letters are probably missing and that there might have been correspondence before the first letter (USGS, 1936â1940; Thiem to Meinzer, 1 December 1936). In this first letter (Fig. 11), Thiem wrote, as translated by Meinzer,
So you have returned safely to America with your esteemed wife! You have seen the birthplace of your parents and have said to yourself how much has occurred since your parents emigrated to the present time. I am glad that you took back with you good impressions of your European journey. You will certainly think back over it often. Mother Europe is indeed very beautiful, but she is also very tired, if one may be permitted to say so. Your country on the contrary is young and full of development possibilities. (USGS, 1936â1940; Thiem to Meinzer, 1 December 1936)
Thiem further wrote that he was sorry that he could not travel to Edinburgh (for the 1936 International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics â IUGG â General Assembly), as he had hardly any money. Thiem noted that Meinzer travelled to Nancy, France, to see Thiem's good old friend Imbeaux, a former president of the Commission on Subterranean Water of the International Association of Scientific Hydrology (IASH)âIUGG. Thiem thanked Meinzer for sending some additional copies of âWater-Supply Paper 679-Aâ (i.e. Wenzel, 1936). He also wrote the following:
Recently I made the acquaintance of the men in the American Institute in Berlin. They were very friendly and lovable, and my wife had to see the institute. These gentlemen also want to get me some copies of this paper. The demand for it is great, especially from many geological institutions in Germany that are not able to send money because of governmental restrictions. (USGS, 1936â1940; Thiem to Meinzer, 1 December 1936)
In closing the letter, Thiem remarked the following:
Please tell your esteemed wife many heart greetings from me and my wife. It was a fine afternoon when you took tea with us. Many thanks for the journey photos. I find them excellent and they will be for me a dear reminder. May you keep real well, and have a happy Xmas; and don't forget your old professional comrade, who greets you many times. (USGS, 1936â1940; Thiem to Meinzer, 1 December 1936)
Oscar Edward Meinzer was born on 28 November 1876, on a farm near Davis, Illinois (Sayre, 1948, 1949b). He was one of six children of William and Mary Julia Meinzer, born in Karlsruhe, Germany. His grandparents and parents emigrated to escape a culture which they considered oppressive.
This may have directly influenced Meinzer's future religious convictions, independent thought, hatred of war, and industriousness. (Reuss, 2000)
The European travel of Meinzer took place in 1936. He travelled to the IUGG Assembly at Edinburgh, Scotland, but he also visited hydrologists in Germany, the Netherlands, and France (Meinzer, 1936, includes a four-page trip report; however, it was not published, and we have not been able to obtain a copy; Waring and Meinzer, 1947; Sayre, 1949a). In the interview with Theis, CV must have been confused about Meinzer bringing back the idea of doing a Thiem method pumping test from this trip, as the pumping test was executed in 1931, and as there is no indication that Meinzer made a trip to Europe earlier than 1936 (Sayre, 1949a). Meinzer was the first chairman (1930) of the Hydrology Section of the American Geophysical Union (AGU), which served as the American National Committee of the IUGG (Meinzer, 1931). He was also, from 1936â1948, president of the Commission on Subterranean Water of the IASH-IUGG, from 1947â1948, president of the AGU, and as such, he was active in the organization of the IUGG 1936, 1939, and 1948 assemblies. He anticipated a second trip to Europe to attend the Oslo 1948 IUGG meeting before he passed away (Sayre, 1949a).
Most of the correspondence of Thiem and Meinzer, between 23 April 1939 and 23 August 1940, related to the possible participation of Thiem and contribution by Thiem to the IUGG 7th Assembly, Washington, DC, 4â15 September 1939. Thiem asked Meinzer for an invitation to participate in the assembly (USGS, 1936â1940; Thiem to Meinzer, 23 April, 1938) as, normally, these invitations only went to the official institutes and not to independent hydrological scientists like him. Thiem also expressed his concern about whether the German government would provide him with the necessary foreign currency (USGS, 1936â1940, Thiem to Meinzer, 7 January 1939). Meinzer replied that he is happy to note that Thiem and his wife are definitely planning to come to the USA.
We will do all that we can to make your visit pleasant and profitable
and
As you know, Mr Wenzel has done a large amount of work on different methods of determining permeability and flow of ground water so that your contact with him will be mutually helpful. (USGS, 1936â1940; Meinzer to Thiem, 24 May 1938 and 23 January 1939)
He sends a copy of the last letter to Vladimir Frolow and John Adam Fleming, with the latter being the General Secretary of the American Geophysical Union and organizer of IUGG 1939 Assembly, and adds the following message to John Adam Fleming:
Dr. Thiem indicates his intention to come to the Washington meeting and to bring his wife with him, provided he can make the necessary arrangements with the German government. It is obvious to me that he does not stand in very well with the official representatives of Germany but we in this country esteem him very highly. (USGS, 1936â1940; Meinzer to Thiem, 23 January 1939)
Meinzer asked Thiem to contribute to question no. 3 of the International Commission on Subterranean Water, âDetermination of runoff and physical conditions of the flow of underground water in natural or altered ground, the flow being natural or inducedâ, of the forthcoming meeting (USGS, 1936â1940; Meinzer to Thiem, 28 November 1938). This question was coordinated by Leland Wenzel of the USGS. Thiem submitted, via the official channel of Werner Koehne of the Landesanstalt für Gewässerkunde in Berlin (Koehne, 1939), his written contribution of Berechnete und beobachtete Grundwassermengen (Thiem, 1939c, 1940d). Meinzer's reaction was as follows:
Your paper on Question No. 3 with introduction by Dr. Koehne was received a long time ago and is being pre-published for the Washington meeting. Mr. Wenzel and I have read it in part and he will include it in his general report. We find it very interesting. (USGS, 1936â1940; Meinzer to Thiem, 29 June 1939)
In July 1939, Thiem reported to John Adam Fleming, who forwarded a translation to Meinzer, about his suffering for weeks:
My health has not yet fully improved, for I am suffering in my right knee from rheumatism of the joints so that I cannot bear much weight on it. Also I have trouble going up stairs. â¦âYou cannot imagine how much my refusal (of your invitation) distresses me. (USGS, 1936â1940, Thiem to Fleming, 31 July 1939)
Meinzer replied as follows:
I regret very much that the condition of your health will prevent your attending and taking part in the meetings of the Union. As you know, I had anticipated with pleasure meeting you again and discussing with you personally hydrologic problems of mutual interest.
He also noted that he translated Thiem's assembly paper into English for use at the meeting (USGS, 1936â1940; Meinzer to Thiem, 31 August 1939).
Meinzer reported, three days after the Washington meeting, the following to Thiem:
â¦âalthough most of the European delegates were not able to attend the meeting in Washington, a considerable number of representative delegates from different countries were nevertheless able to attend and the meeting was very successful. In the Commission on Subterranean Water a total of 55 papers were in hand in either printed or typewritten form, and these were effectively reviewed by the general reporters. The relatively few authors who were present were called upon to present their own papers at greater length. The only one of the officers of the Association who was able to attend was Vice-President Slettenmark who served efficiently as the President during the meetings. President Lutschg's Presidential address, which was submitted in German, was translated and presented by Mr. Slettenmark in the English language. It was accompanied by beautiful lantern slides. We all regretted that you and the other German delegates were not able to attend. (USGS, 1936â1940; Meinzer to Thiem, 18 September 1939)
Wenzel (1939) provided a summary of the contributions of question no. 3, while Meinzer (1939) reported on question no. 2: âDefinitions of the different kinds of subterranean waterâ. Official reports of the assembly, which took place under the emerging cloud of WWII, are provided in Chapman (1939) and Fleming (1940) as follows:
On 30 August, when the European political crises was at its height, it was decidedââ¦âthat the Assembly should be held as scheduled but that its activities should be confined to scientific matters only.
The IUGG President la Cour closed the assembly with the following words:
â¦âit has been an extremely important meeting, furthering our science and showing to the world a battlefield where only victory can be recorded because even the overthrow of a theory is a victory for truth. (Fleming, 1940)
In January 1940, Thiem wrote to Meinzer that he had received a package with extensive documents of the meeting in Washington and that now he really regretted that he could not participate. He also noted that he translated the question no. 3 report of Wenzel (1939) into German and would publish it in a German professional journal (USGS, 1936â1940; Thiem to Meinzer, 6 January 1940), which he indeed did (Wenzel, 1940). He continued as follows:
It is for me a special recognition that the Thiem method for the estimation of the hydraulic conductivity of the subsurface and its water discharge in your country is applied. Do you think, that it later would be suitable to present myself in America to undertake there hydrological investigations for groundwater supply for cities based on my method? I would be very willing to come to America. I would like to ask you to tell me to whom I should direct myself in this case or do you think that your office could take on the negotiation for my appointment as expert? However, these questions can only be discussed with successful prospect when normal times in Europe, let alone in the world, have set in again. (USGS, 1936â1940; Thiem to Meinzer, 6 January 1940)
Meinzer replied to Thiem that he would like to have a copy of the translated report and wrote the following:
We would be glad to have a visit from you at any time. However, I would not wish to encourage you as to the prospects of obtaining professional work in this country. You might be able to make a success of such an undertaking but there are so many difficulties in establishing oneself in a new country that I do not feel at all sure as to the success that you might have. (USGS, 1936â1940; Meinzer to Thiem, 1 February 1940).
Meinzer was friendly, but he definitely discouraged Thiem from working in the USA.
The last letter in the correspondence is from Thiem to Meinzer in August 1940. Meinzer translated the following lines:
Your friendly letter of 17 April was received by me on 20 Augustââ¦âI suppose you will not receive my letter till Christmas. Therefore I will already today wish you a merry Christmas. My wife and I send our best greetings to you and your wife. Auf Wiedersehen either in America or Europe. Yours Dr. Engineer G. Thiem. (USGS, 1936â1940; Thiem to Meinzer, 23 August 1940).
It is not known if the correspondence ceased or continued during or after WWII. However, in 1946, shortly after WWII ended, Meinzer retired as geologist in charge of the Office of Ground Water. He died rather suddenly on 14 June 1948, while taking an afternoon nap, aged 71 (Sayre, 1948).
In the 1949 address book of Leipzig, Thiem is listed as the Beratender Ingenieur für Wasser und Abwasser, Stadtrat a.D. (consulting engineer for water and waste water, former member of the city council) and still living in HillerstraÃe 9. According to Grahmann (1960), Günther Thiem was active until his death in Leipzig on 31 August 1959, aged 83.
Forevermore, the name Thiem will be connected to the DupuitâThiem equation, the first practical model for pump test analysis. However, father and son Thiem were far more prolific contributors to the canon of methods currently used in hydrogeology than most people know. All of their method development was done out of practical need, which arose during their many projects, while devising solutions for the many problems they were facing when building water supply schemes from scratch. This is even more remarkable since it was done while running a successful consulting business and planning many water supply schemes all over Europe, which today can be found in Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic, Austria, Switzerland, France, Finland, Sweden, Latvia, Romania, Ukraine, and Russia (Fig. 12). The infrastructure they planned and designed is a lasting legacy, since some of their waterworks are still active today after often more than 100 years, albeit in modernized form (Figs. 13 and 14). A few buildings have been preserved as protected monuments, e.g. in Leipzig and Suceava. The most striking buildings are, of course, the water towers, e.g. in Leipzig (Probstheida, Möckern, and GroÃzschocher), Markranstädt (1895), Liebertwolkwitz (1904; now used for housing), OleÅnica (1898, then Oels), and Strasbourg (1878; now a museum of voodoo).
While most of the Thiem methods, such as isopotential maps, tracer tests, and screened vertical wells were devised by Adolf Thiem, who was a true explorer and inventor, it was Günther's role to perfect and propagate them, despite the turmoils of two world wars and several regime changes. Considering the cumbersome communication channels of the late 19th and early 20th century and the language barriers of that time, it is amazing to see that both Thiems were in close contact with many leading scientists from Europe and abroad. The field was small, and the members were well aware of the work of others, and publications in different languages did not seem to be a barrier. Especially Günther's contacts to Oscar Meinzer of the USGS led to the introduction of their methods into the repertoire of English-speaking hydrogeologists. Meinzer's international contacts and his (German) language skills have played a crucial role in the exchange of the strongly developing science of groundwater hydrology.
Both Adolf and Günther Thiem were highly concerned with the practical applicability of their theoretical work and with presenting it in a way that non-experts could follow their arguments. In his study for the water supply of Riga, Adolf Thiem stated that
Es war mir nicht darum zu tun, Behauptungen und Schlüsse lediglich vom Standpunkt des Fachmannes aufzustellen, sondern ich beabsichtige vielmehr, auch dem auÃerhalb des Fachs stehenden Leser den logischen Gang der Untersuchungen klarzulegen und ihn so in die Lage zu versetzen, meine Methode kritisch prüfen zu können. (It was not my intention to present my claims and conclusions solely from the point of view of an expert but to clearly show to a reader, who is not from the field, the logical structure of my investigations, enabling him to critically judge my method). (Thiem, 1883b)
The engineering work of the Thiems can only be understood in the light of the social and technical problems arising during the late 19th and the early 20th centuries. Increasing population, industrialization, and urbanization had increased the water demand but â at the same time â had negatively affected water quality. Groundwater came into focus as a safe, reliable and often abundant resource to overcome both the demand for a sufficient quantity of water and for improved hygiene by better water quality. However, little was known about this mysterious underground resource. The Thiems reacted to this societal problem by adapting current technology but also by innovation, e.g. the development of new techniques and methods. One example is the vertical well, for which they improved the design continuously over several decades and paved the way towards the modern-day wells. At the same time, they were early adopters of new technology (e.g. the pumps driven by steam engines used in pumping tests) and new, mass-produced materials (e.g. steel and copper used for wells). Both Thiems were also great educators, and their wealth of publications and presentations shows their tireless dedication to the improvement in the delivery of water supply.
In the 19th century, the German states and German-speaking countries saw a professionalization of the engineering industry, the development of an independent technical educational system, and increasing specialization of engineering disciplines (König, 2016; Weber, 2020). Professional organizations developed strongly and published many specialized journals (Weber, 2020). Günther Thiem's editorial activity is a great example of this broader trend in the engineering discipline. Engineers were trained at Technische Hochschulen (institutes of technology), and all other professions were trained at universities, which had a much longer tradition. The role of the Technische Hochschulen was to provide a labour force for the strongly developing industry (Picon, 2004). Only around the year 1900 were the Technische Hochschulen allowed to confer doctorates (König, 2016). While Adolf Thiem was an autodidact, Günther Thiem was one of the first (1906) to receive a doctorate in groundwater hydrology from the Königlich Technische Hochschule (Royal Technical University) in Stuttgart. Hence, the engineering work of the Thiems was in response to the rapidly changing times in which they were living. However, equally, they benefitted strongly from the developing engineering profession and approaches, providing opportunities for experimenting and creating solutions for societal problems.
The lives and work of Adolf and Günther Thiem are not only documented in their legacy of references, of which we have tried to collect and list as many as possible. Several museums hold collections containing reports, letters, and photographs. These include the archives of the Deutsches Museum (https://www.deutsches-museum.de/en/library/searches/, last access: 24 June 2021), the Sächsisches Staatsarchiv (Saxon State Archive), Dresden, and the Museum der Leipziger Stadtgeschichte (Museum of City History), Leipzig.
Although many hydrogeologists today are using the methods developed by the Thiems, albeit often unbeknown to them, the Thiems' legacy is not forgotten. According to Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com/, last access: 17 May 2022), the 1906 doctoral thesis of Günther Thiem has been cited 534 times, usually as a reference for the Thiem method for pumping tests. Figure 15 shows that its citations have increased steadily over the last few decades, and the paper can well be considered to be a cornerstone of hydrogeological literature. It should be noted that the almost linear increase in its citations is a mirror image of the continuous rise in the number of groundwater-related publications over the last decades, which have experienced annual growth rates of around 10â% since the late 1970s (Jia et al., 2020). Nevertheless, the fact that such an old publication can keep up with the high modern pace of citations is a testimony to its importance. Ironically, Adolf Thiem's seminal 1870 paper, which contains the actual Thiem equation, only stands at 31 citations and only pops up randomly, often in the literature from Germany (Fig. 15).
Anonymous: Zur Wasserversorgung von Breslau, Journal für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung, 45, 386â387, 1902.â
Anonymous: Vorarbeiten für die Wasserversorgung von Prag, Journal für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung, 46, 133-134, 1903. â
Anonymous: A. Thiem, Journal für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung, 49, 156â157, 1906.â
Anonymous: A. Thiem, Journal für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung 51, 438, 1908.â
Anonymous: Dr.-Ing. Günther Thiem â Zivil-Ingenieur â Leipzig, Adolf Eckstein, Berlin-Charlottenburg, 1910.â
Anonymous: Amtliches: Dienst-Nachrichten, Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung, 37, 117, 1917.â
Anonymous: Das Widerstandsgesetz bei der Bewegung des Wassers im Untergrunde, Journal für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung, 62, 769â770, 1919.â
Anonymous: Dr-Ing. Günther Thiem 60 Jahre, Deutsche Licht- und Wasserfach-Zeitung, 21, 1935.â
Anonymous: 75 Jahre Grundwasserforschung; Das Gas- und Wasserfach, 90 (12), 301, 1949.â
Anonymous: Dr.-Ing. Günther Thiem 75 Jahre, Bohrtechnik-Brunnenbau, 1, 283, 1950.â
Anonymous: Bahnbrecher der öffentlichen Wasserversorgung, Das Gas- und Wasserfach, 93, 193â194, 1952.â
Anonymous: Günther Thiem 80 Jahre, Bohrtechnik-Brunnenbau, 6, 262, 1955.â
Anonymous: 97. Mitgliederversammlung des DVGW anläÃlich der Jahrestagung des deutschen Gas- und Wasserfaches in Berlin am 16. Mai 1956, Das Gas und Wasserfach, 97, 33â35, 1956.â
Anonymous: Baurat Adolf Thiem â 50. Todestag; Brunnenbau, Rohrleitungsbau, 9, 268, 1958.â
Anonymous: Persönliche Nachrichten, Das Gas- und Wasserfach, 100, 1368, 1959a.â
Anonymous: Dr.-Ing. Günther Thiem; Bohrtechnik, Brunnenbau, Rohrleitungsbau, 10 (11), 535, 1959b.â
Batu, V.: Aquifer Hydraulics: A Comprehensive Guide to Hydrogeologic Data Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, New York, ISBN 978-0-471-18502-4, 1998.â
Bear, J.: Hydraulics of Groundwater, Dover Publications Inc., New York, ISBNÂ 0-486-453355-3, 2007.â
Benedikt, J., Girg, P., Kotrla, L., and Takac, P.: Origin of the β-Laplacian and A. Missbach, Elect. J. Different. Equat., 16, 1â17, 2018.â
Bennison, E. W.: Ground Water: Its Development, Uses and Conservation, Edward E. Johnson Inc., St. Paul, 1947.â
Bredehoeft, J. D.: An interview with C.V. Theis, Hydrogeol. J., 16, 5â9, 2008.â
Brix, J.: Das Darcysche Gesetz für die Grundwasserbewegung, Internationale Zeitschrift für Wasserversorgung, 2, 101â102, 1915.â
Campbell, M. D. and Lehr, J. H.: Water Well Technology, MacGraw-Hill, New York, 1973.â
Chapman, S.: International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, Nature, 144, 717, 1939.â
Cooper H. H. and Jacob C. E.: A generalized graphical method for evaluating formation constants and summarizing well field history, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 27, 526â534, 1946.â
Credner, H.: Der Boden der Stadt Leipzig â Erläuterungen zu den geologischen Profilen durch den Boden der Stadt Leipzig und deren nächster Umgebung, Leipzig, Hinrichs, p. 71, 1883.â
Darcy, H.: Les Fontaines Publiques de la Ville de Dijon, Victor Dalmont, Paris, France, 1856.â
Dassargues, A., Batelaan, O., and Anceau, A.: The first potentiometric map, Groundwater, 59, 772â779, https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.13123, 2021.â
Deming, D.: Introduction to hydrogeology, McGraw-Hill, Boston, ISBNÂ 978-0072326222, 2002.â
de Vries, J. J.: Early developments in groundwater research in The Netherlands: a societally driven science, in: A history of water, Volume 3: The world of water, edited by: Tvedt, T. and Oestigaard, T., I. B. Tauris, London, 185â206, ISBN 13: 9781780764474, ISBN 10: 1780764472, 2006.â
Driscoll, F. G.: Groundwater and Wells, 2nd Edn., Johnson Division, St. Paul, ISBN 0-9616456-0-1, 1986.â
Dupuit, J.: Traité théorique et pratique de la conduite et de la distribution des eaux, Carilian-Goeury et Dalmont, Paris, 1854.â
Dupuit, J.: Ãtudes théoriques et pratiques sur le mouvement des eaux dans le canaux découverts at a travers les terrains perméables avec des considerations relatives au regime des grandes eaux, au débouché al leur donner, et a la marche des alluvions dans le rivieres a fond mobile, 2nd Edn., Dunod, Paris, p. 304, 1863.â
Dyck, S.: Adolf Thiem â Pionier der Grundwasserwerke â zu seinem 150. Geburtstag, Wasserwirtschaft-Wassertechnik, 36, 31â32, 1986.â
Engemann, K.: Adolf Thiem â Pionier der Grundwasserwerke, Wasserwirtschaft-Wassertechnik, 39, 69â70, 1989.â
Fleming, J. A.: Washington Assembly of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics and the American Geophysical Union, Science, 91, 439â442, 1940.â
Forchheimer, P.: Wasserbewegung durch Boden [Movement of water through soil], Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, 45, 1736â1741 and 50, 1781â1788, 1901.â
Franke, P.-G. and Kleinschroth, A.: Kurzbiographien Hydraulik und Wasserbau. Persönlichkeiten aus dem Deutschsprachigen Raum, Karl M. Lipp Verlag, München, ISBN 13: 9783874905176, ISBN 10: 3874905179, 1991.â
Gagneur, B. and Thiem, G.: Grundwasser-Nachweis für Tammerfors in Finnland, Gesundheits-Ingenieur, 51, 491-492, 1928.â
Gagneur, B. and Thiem, G.: Grundwasser-Nachweis für Tammerfors in Finnland, Thiems hydrologische Sammlung, 5, Kröner, Leipzig, p. 6, 1929.â
Grahmann, G.: Dr.-Ing. Günther Thiem zum Gedächtnis, Die Wasserwirtschaft, 50, 48, 1960.â
Grahn, E.: Die Art der Wasserversorgung der Städte des Deutschen Reiches mit mehr als 5000 Einwohnern, Oldenbourg, Munich, Oldenbourg, p. 339, 1883.â
Grahn, E.: Die Städtische Wasserversorgung im Deutschen Reiche sowie von einigen Nachbarländern. Teil II. Die deutschen Staaten auÃer PreuÃen, Oldenbourg, Munich, Berlin, Oldenbourg, p. 852, 1902.â
Grahn, E. and Thiem, A.: Ueber den in Wasserleitungen nöthigen Druck mit Rücksicht auf Feuerlöschzwecke, Journal für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung, 28, 942â949, 1885.â
Gruner, H.: P. P. Münchener Gemeinde-Zeitung, 5, 240, 1876.â
Gruner, H. and Thiem, A.: Project einer neuen Wasserversorgungsanlage, Journal für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung, 17, 640â644, 1874.â
Hache, S.: Das Widerstandsgesetz bei der Bewegung des Grundwassers, Wasser, 15, 309â311, 1919.â
Heinker, H.-H.: Wasser macht Geschichte â 500 Jahre Wasserversorgung in Leipzig, KWL, Leipzig, p. 80, 2005.â
Hendriks, M. R.: Introduction to Physical Hydrology, Oxford University Press, ISBNÂ 978-0-19-929684-2, 2010.â
Henneberg, L.: Das Widerstandsgesetz bei der Bewegung des Wassers im Untergrunde, Journal für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung, 62, 4â10, 1919.â
Henneberg, L.: Günther Thiem â Verdienter Techniker des Volkes, Wasserwirtschaft-Wassertechnik, 2, 391, 1952.â
Herzner, A.: Günther Thiem 80 Jahre, Wasserwirtschaft-Wassertechnik, 50, 338, 1955.â
Hillger, H. (Ed.): Die Columbische Welt-Ausstellung Chicago, 1893 (German EDn.), Combian History Co., Chicago, 1893.â
Hocheder, M.: Bestimmung der DurchfluÃmenge von Grundwasserströmen, Journal für Gasbeleuchtung und Wasserversorgung, 62, 406â409, 1919.â
Hoffmann, A.: Thiem, Günther, in: Neue Deutsche Biographie, 26, 121, https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd117336645.html#ndbcontent (last access: 24 June 2021), 2017.â
Houben, G.: Hydraulics of water wells. Flow laws and influence of geometry, Hydrogeol. J., 23, 1633â1657, 2015a.â
Houben, G.: Hydraulics of water wells. Head losses of individual components, Hydrogeol. J., 23, 1659â1675, 2015b.â
Houben, G. J.: Die Rolle des Grundwassers bei der Entwicklung der Wasserversorgung im deutschsprachigen Raum bis zum Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts [The role of groundwater in the development of water supply in the German-speaking countries up to the beginning of the 20th century], Schriftenreihe FH-DGGV, 1. Fachsektion Hydrogeologie e.V. in der DGGV e.V., Neustadt, ISBN 978-3-926775-74-0, 2019.â
Imbeaux, E.: Methode de Thiem, dite Epsilon, pour l'evaluation des eaux d'une nappe souterraine (alluvions), Le Genie Civile, 79, 370â371, 1921.â
Imbeaux, E.: Essai d'hydrogéologie: rech
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 88
|
https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/18942154/aerogeophysics-in-finland-1972-2004-arkistogsffi-geologian-
|
en
|
Aerogeophysics in Finland 1972-2004 - arkisto.gsf.fi - Geologian ...
|
[
"https://assets.yumpu.com/release/ou6ZPgO72P294QN/v5/img/logo/Yumpu_Logo_RGB.png",
"https://assets.yumpu.com/release/ou6ZPgO72P294QN/v5/img/account/document_privacy_modal/step1.png",
"https://assets.yumpu.com/release/ou6ZPgO72P294QN/v5/img/account/document_privacy_modal/step2.png",
"https://img.yumpu.com/18942154/1/500x640/aerogeophysics-in-finland-1972-2004-arkistogsffi-geologian-.jpg",
"https://assets.yumpu.com/v4/img/avatar/female-200x200.jpg",
"https://img.yumpu.com/22684168/1/174x260/commission-geologioue-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/22350143/1/184x260/relation-between-till-geochemistry-and-the-occurrence-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/21977835/1/175x260/geologique-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/21977834/1/174x260/ihre-entstehunc-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/21977828/1/177x260/gold-deposits-in-northern-finland-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/21977819/1/182x260/xenolith-type-orbicular-gabbro-boulder-from-jussinjarvi-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/21977817/1/185x260/suomen-geologinen-kartta-geological-map-of-finland-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/21734133/1/169x260/commission-geologique-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/21706325/1/172x260/gohmission-geologiqve-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/21650789/1/172x260/commission-geologique-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/21642329/1/169x260/commission-geologique-de-finlande-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/21602381/1/172x260/commission-geologique-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/21584544/1/174x260/commission-geologique-de-finlande-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/20707162/1/177x260/commission-geologique-de-finlande-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://img.yumpu.com/20707155/1/177x260/commission-geologioue-arkistogsffi.jpg?quality=85",
"https://assets.yumpu.com/release/ou6ZPgO72P294QN/v5/img/logo/yumpu-footer2x.png",
"https://assets.yumpu.com/v5/img/footer/worldmap-retina.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
"arkisto.gtk.fi",
"finland",
"survey",
"magnetic",
"geological",
"airborne",
"geophysical",
"anomaly",
"anomalies",
"mapping",
"altitude",
"aerogeophysics",
"geologian",
"arkisto.gtk.fi"
] | null |
[
"Yumpu.com"
] | null |
Aerogeophysics in Finland 1972-2004 - arkisto.gsf.fi - Geologian ...
|
en
|
yumpu.com
|
https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/18942154/aerogeophysics-in-finland-1972-2004-arkistogsffi-geologian-
|
Attention! Your ePaper is waiting for publication!
By publishing your document, the content will be optimally indexed by Google via AI and sorted into the right category for over 500 million ePaper readers on YUMPU.
This will ensure high visibility and many readers!
Inappropriate
You have already flagged this document.
Thank you, for helping us keep this platform clean.
The editors will have a look at it as soon as possible.
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 1
|
https://www.eibenstock.de/english/active/attractions-nature/dams-/-raised-bogs
|
en
|
Bergstadt Eibenstock im Erzgebirge
|
[
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/Pool/Fotos/Fotos_Internetseite/background2.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/logo.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/search.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/de_i.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/en.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/cz_i.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/wetter.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/webcam.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/home.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/wetter_weiss.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/webcam_weiss.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/home.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/talsperre_eibenstock.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/talsperre_carlsfeld.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/talsperre_sosa.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/typo3conf/ext/bootstrap_core/Resources/Public/Icons/fileicons/pdf.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/2/5/csm_erlebniskarte_ad5b9b48eb.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/6/d/csm_Logo_Familienurlaub_ENG_rgb_d252cffa2b.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/logo_erz.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo-montanregion.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo_fachkraefteportal.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo_eplr.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo_leader.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo_leader_westerzgebirge.jpg",
"https://webanalytics.kabeljournal.de/matomo.php?idsite=30&rec=1"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
de
|
/fileadmin/files/favicon.ico?v=xQO7OjawKd
|
https://www.eibenstock.de//english/active/attractions-nature/dams-/-raised-bogs
|
Both the storage capacity (75 million m³), and the height of the dam (65 m) make this the largest dam in the Free State of Saxony. This dam is on the Mulde River which joins the Elbe which flows through Hamburg to empty into the North Sea. Eibenstock Dam supplies drinking water and flood control. With this volume of water, it is the second largest drinking water reservoir in the new states of eastern Germany.
Construction time: 1978 - 1984
Carlsfeld Dam holds the record for the highest drinking water reservoir in Germany at 905 meters above sea level. It is also called "Weiterswiese Dam" after the small settlement that was flooded. The top of the dam wall can be crossed in any season. Bikers and cyclists and skiers can enjoy a very nice track around the dam.
Construction time: 1926 - 1929
The dam wall of the Sosa dam is the last stone wall that was built in Germany. In the former GDR their construction was realized shortly after their founding as a so-called youth object and thereby experienced a strong political ideology. Hence its name "dam of peace".
Construction time: 1949 - 1952
You can recognise family-friendly establishments at first glance by the "family badge". It stands for tested quality, e.g. for child-friendly leisure activities, space to play in the hotel or children's meals in the restaurant.
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 33
|
https://dokumen.pub/international-encyclopedia-of-pseudonyms-band-9-texlor-zzambokreti-9783110946420-9783598249693.html
|
en
|
International Encyclopedia of Pseudonyms: Band 9 Texlor – Zzámbokréti 9783110946420, 9783598249693
|
[
"https://dokumen.pub/dokumenpub/assets/img/dokumenpub_logo.png",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/international-encyclopedia-of-pseudonyms-band-1-a-bradds-9783110944440-9783598249617.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/international-encyclopedia-of-pseudonyms-band-4-gokevic-kaekebeke-9783110951424-9783598249648.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/international-encyclopedia-of-pseudonyms-band-3-dibattista-gosiorovsky-9783110952711-9783598249631.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/international-encyclopedia-of-pseudonyms-band-16-tau-zzz-9783110945409-9783598249761.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/international-encyclopedia-of-pseudonyms-band-11-campdefullos-ezzilo-9783110946406-9783598249716.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/international-encyclopedia-of-pseudonyms-band-10-a-campbell-9783110946413-9783598249709.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/international-encyclopedia-of-pseudonyms-band-15-prewning-tatya-9783110946369-9783598249754.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/international-encyclopedia-of-pseudonyms-band-5-kaelin-lunceford-9783110951417-9783598249655.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/international-encyclopedia-of-pseudonyms-band-14-mario-prevostito-9783110946376-9783598249747.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/international-encyclopedia-of-pseudonyms-band-7-orth-russenberger-9783110935370-9783598249679.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/international-encyclopedia-of-pseudonyms-band-9-texlor-zzambokreti-9783110946420-9783598249693.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/dokumenpub/assets/img/dokumenpub_logo.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
This Encyclopedia is the first to compile some 500,000 pseudonyms of roughly 270,000 people from all over the world, fro...
|
en
|
dokumen.pub
|
https://dokumen.pub/international-encyclopedia-of-pseudonyms-band-9-texlor-zzambokreti-9783110946420-9783598249693.html
|
Table of contents :
Contents / Inhalt / Contenu / Contenuto / Contenido
Notes for the user / Hinweise für den Benutzer / Notes pour l'utilisateur / Avvertenze / Indicaciones para el uso
List of Sources / Quellenliste / Liste des sources / Elenco delle fonti / Lista de fuentes
Abbreviations of cited Reference Works / Abkürzungen der Quellen / Abreviations des sources / Abbreviazioni bibliografiche / Abreviaturas de las fuentes
General Abbreviations / Allgemeine Abkürzungen / Abreviations generates / Elenco delle abbreviazioni / Abreviaturas generates
Real Names / Wirkliche Namen / Vrais noms / Veri nomi / Nombres verdaderos. 9. Texlor - Zzämbokreti
T.
U.
V.
W.
X.
Υ.
Ζ.
Citation preview
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 66
|
https://www.agoda.com/hotel-am-buhl/hotel/eibenstock-de.html
|
en
|
https://www.agoda.com/favicon.ico
|
https://www.agoda.com/favicon.ico
|
[
"https://cdn6.agoda.net/images/MVC/default/agoda-logo-v2.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
|
/favicon.ico
| null | ||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 3
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore_Mountains
|
en
|
Ore Mountains
|
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Myslivny_bozi_dar_lake.jpg/250px-Myslivny_bozi_dar_lake.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Lage_des_Erzgebirges_in_Deutschland.png/150px-Lage_des_Erzgebirges_in_Deutschland.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Krusne_hory_CZ_I3A-2.png/250px-Krusne_hory_CZ_I3A-2.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Erzgebirge_phys_map_de.png/250px-Erzgebirge_phys_map_de.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Osterzgebirge1b.jpg/280px-Osterzgebirge1b.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Sachsen.Landschaften.jpg/220px-Sachsen.Landschaften.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Joachimsthaler_Stra%C3%9Fe.jpg/220px-Joachimsthaler_Stra%C3%9Fe.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Pano_keilberg_fichtelberg.jpg/1000px-Pano_keilberg_fichtelberg.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Burg_Stein2.jpg/290px-Burg_Stein2.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Erzgebirge_Naturraum_map_de.png/220px-Erzgebirge_Naturraum_map_de.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/St%C3%BCrmer_2.jpg/220px-St%C3%BCrmer_2.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Klimadiagramm-deutsch-Annaberg-Buchholz_%28SN%29-Deutschland.png/260px-Klimadiagramm-deutsch-Annaberg-Buchholz_%28SN%29-Deutschland.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Klimadiagramm-deutsch-Freiberg_%28SN%29-Deutschland.png/260px-Klimadiagramm-deutsch-Freiberg_%28SN%29-Deutschland.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Klimadiagramm-deutsch-Fichtelberg_%28SN%29-Deutschland.png/260px-Klimadiagramm-deutsch-Fichtelberg_%28SN%29-Deutschland.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Klimadiagramm-deutsch-Zinnwald-Georgenfeld_%28SN%29-Deutschland.png/260px-Klimadiagramm-deutsch-Zinnwald-Georgenfeld_%28SN%29-Deutschland.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/WLA_hmns_Silver.jpg/170px-WLA_hmns_Silver.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Glashuettenmuseum_002_Glas_2009.jpg/220px-Glashuettenmuseum_002_Glas_2009.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Annaberger-Bergaltar2.jpg/220px-Annaberger-Bergaltar2.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/FrohnauerHammerSchmiede.jpg/220px-FrohnauerHammerSchmiede.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Lauta_Rudolphschacht_Pferdeg%C3%B6pel_%2803pa%29.jpg/220px-Lauta_Rudolphschacht_Pferdeg%C3%B6pel_%2803pa%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P068876%2C_Seiffen%2C_Staatliche_Spielwaren-Fachschule.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-P068876%2C_Seiffen%2C_Staatliche_Spielwaren-Fachschule.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Kl%C3%B6pplerinnen_Erzgebirge_1936.jpg/220px-Kl%C3%B6pplerinnen_Erzgebirge_1936.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Album_der_S%C3%A4chsischen_Industrie_Band_1_0163.jpg/220px-Album_der_S%C3%A4chsischen_Industrie_Band_1_0163.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Metallwaren-Fabrik_Louis_Krauss_Schwarzenberg_1910.jpg/220px-Metallwaren-Fabrik_Louis_Krauss_Schwarzenberg_1910.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Klinovec_mapa.jpg/220px-Klinovec_mapa.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Muldenhuetten2.jpg/220px-Muldenhuetten2.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Fotothek_df_n-11_0000305.jpg/220px-Fotothek_df_n-11_0000305.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Bo%C5%BE%C3%AD_Dar_radnice_10.jpg/220px-Bo%C5%BE%C3%AD_Dar_radnice_10.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/St._Annenkirche_Annaberg_2010.jpg/170px-St._Annenkirche_Annaberg_2010.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Jachimov_radom_palace.jpg/220px-Jachimov_radom_palace.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Saxony_location_map.svg/400px-Saxony_location_map.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png/8px-Gfi-set01-coal-mine.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/J%C3%A1chymov_t%C4%9B%C5%BEn%C3%AD_v%C4%9B%C5%BE_dolu_Svornost_srpen_2019_%282%29.jpg/220px-J%C3%A1chymov_t%C4%9B%C5%BEn%C3%AD_v%C4%9B%C5%BE_dolu_Svornost_srpen_2019_%282%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/BergparadeMarienbergDez2005.jpg/220px-BergparadeMarienbergDez2005.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Seiffen_Volkskunst_%2808%29_2006-11-30.jpg/220px-Seiffen_Volkskunst_%2808%29_2006-11-30.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/St%C3%BCrmer.jpg/380px-St%C3%BCrmer.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Erzgebirge_adit.jpg/144px-Erzgebirge_adit.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/J%C3%A1chymov_radnice_muzeum.JPG/300px-J%C3%A1chymov_radnice_muzeum.JPG",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Klinovec_von_haj_aus.jpg/300px-Klinovec_von_haj_aus.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Pichblende.jpg/258px-Pichblende.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Krupka%2C_hrad_Krupka_%28Rosenberg%29.jpg/300px-Krupka%2C_hrad_Krupka_%28Rosenberg%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Canal_in_Karlovy_Vary_%28Carlsbad%29.jpg/338px-Canal_in_Karlovy_Vary_%28Carlsbad%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Auersberg_panorama_%28aka%29.jpg/1200px-Auersberg_panorama_%28aka%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Krkono%C5%A1e%2C_od_Zlat%C3%A9ho_n%C3%A1vr%C5%A1%C3%AD_k_jihu_%2801%29.jpg/123px-Krkono%C5%A1e%2C_od_Zlat%C3%A9ho_n%C3%A1vr%C5%A1%C3%AD_k_jihu_%2801%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Wasserkuppe_wiki_mgk.jpg/105px-Wasserkuppe_wiki_mgk.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png",
"https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"
] |
2003-03-10T22:59:34+00:00
|
en
|
/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore_Mountains
|
Mountain range in Central Europe
For other similarly named ranges, see Ore Mountains (disambiguation).
The Ore Mountains (German: Erzgebirge, Czech: Krušné hory) lie along the Czech–German border, separating the historical regions of Bohemia in the Czech Republic and Saxony in Germany. The highest peaks are the Klínovec in the Czech Republic (German: Keilberg) at 1,244 metres (4,081 ft) above sea level and the Fichtelberg in Germany at 1,215 metres (3,986 ft).
The Ore Mountains have been intensively reshaped by human intervention and a diverse cultural landscape has developed. Mining in particular, with its tips, dams, ditches and sinkholes, directly shaped the landscape and the habitats of plants and animals in many places. The region was also the setting of the earliest stages of the early modern transformation of mining and metallurgy from a craft to a large-scale industry, a process that preceded and enabled the later Industrial Revolution.
The higher altitudes from around 500 m above sea level on the German side belong to the Ore Mountains/Vogtland Nature Park – the largest of its kind in Germany with a length of 120 km. The eastern Ore Mountains are protected landscape. Other smaller areas on the German and Czech sides are protected as nature reserves and natural monuments. On the ridges there are also several larger raised bogs that are only fed by rainwater. The mountains are popular for hiking and there are winter sports areas at higher elevations. In 2019, the region became a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[1]
Name
[edit]
In English, the Ore Mountains are sometimes referred to as the Ore Mountain Range, but are also sometimes called the Erzgebirge [ˈeːɐ̯tsɡəˌbɪʁɡə] or Erz Mountains after their German name or the Krušné Mountains after their Czech name. In Czech they are the Krušné hory [ˈkruʃnɛː ˈhorɪ], from old Czech krušec, meaning "piece of ore", and were historically known as Rudohoří, a literal translation of the German name, and Vyšehory, meaning "high mountains".[2] In Upper Sorbian the mountains are known as the Rudne horiny. The German and Upper Sorbian names, as well as the historical Czech Rudohoří, literally mean "ore mountains".
Geography
[edit]
Geology
[edit]
The Ore Mountains are geologically considered to be one of the most heavily researched mountain ranges in the world. The Ore Mountains are a Hercynian block tilted so as to present a steep scarp face towards Bohemia and a gentle slope on the German side.[3] They were formed during a lengthy process.
During the folding of the Variscan orogeny, metamorphism occurred deep underground, forming slate and gneiss. In addition, granite plutons intruded into the metamorphic rocks. By the end of the Palaeozoic era, the mountains had been eroded into gently undulating hills (the Permian massif), exposing the hard rocks.
In the Tertiary period these mountain remnants came under heavy pressure as a result of plate tectonic processes during which the Alps were formed and the North American and Eurasian plates were separated. As the rock of the Ore Mountains was too brittle to be folded, it shattered into an independent fault block which was uplifted and tilted to the northwest. This can be very clearly seen at a height of 807 m above sea level (NN) on the mountain of Komáří vížka which lies on the Czech side, east of Zinnwald-Georgenfeld, right on the edge of the fault block.
Consequently, it is a fault-block mountain range, which has been incised by a whole range of river valleys whose rivers drain southwards into the Ohře and northwards into the Mulde or directly into the Elbe.
The main geologic feature in the Ore Mountains is the Late Paleozoic Eibenstock granite pluton, which is exposed for 25 miles along its northwest–southeast axis and up to 15 miles in width. This pluton is surrounded by progressive zones of contact metamorphism in which Paleozoic slates and phyllites have been changed to spotted hornfels, andalusite hornfels, and quartzites. Two key mineral centres intersect this pluton at Joachimsthal, one trending northwesterly from Schneeberg through Johanngeorgenstadt to Joachimsthal, and a second trending north–south from Freiberg through Marienberg, Annaberg, Niederschlag, Joachimsthal, and Schlaggenwald. Late Tertiary faulting and volcanism gave rise to basalt and phonolite dikes. Ore veins include iron, copper, tin, tungsten, lead, silver, cobalt, bismuth, uranium, plus iron and manganese oxides.[4]
The most important rocks occurring in the Ore Mountains are schist, phyllite and granite with contact metamorphic zones in the west, basalt as remnants in the Plešivec (Pleßberg), Scheibenberg, Bärenstein, Pöhlberg, Velký Špičák (Großer Spitzberg or Schmiedeberger Spitzberg), Jelení hora (Haßberg) and Geisingberg as well as gneisses and rhyolite (Kahleberg) in the east. The soils consist of rapidly leaching grus. In the western and central areas of the mountains it is formed from weathered granite. Phyllite results in a loamy, rapidly weathered gneiss in the east of the mountains producing a light soil. As a result of the subsoils based on granite and rhyolite, the land is mostly covered in forest; on the gneiss soils it was possible to grow and cultivate flax in earlier centuries and, later, rye, oats and potatoes up to the highlands. Today the land is predominantly used for pasture. But it is not uncommon to see near-natural mountain meadows.
To the north of the Ore Mountains, west of Chemnitz and around Zwickau lies the Ore Mountain Basin which is only really known geologically. Here there are deposits of stone coal where mining has already been abandoned. A similar but smaller basin with abandoned coal deposits, the Döhlen Basin, is located southwest of Dresden on the northern edge of the Ore Mountains. It forms the transition to the Elbe Valley zone.
Terrain
[edit]
The western part of the Ore Mountains is home to the two highest peaks of the range: Klínovec, located in the Czech part, with an altitude of 1,244 metres (4,081 ft) and Fichtelberg, the highest mountain of Saxony, Germany, at 1,214 metres (3,983 ft). The Ore Mountains are part of a larger mountain system and adjoin the Fichtel Mountains to the west and the Elbe Sandstone Mountains to the east. Past the River Elbe, the mountain chain continues as the Lusatian Mountains. While the mountains slope gently away in the northern (German) part, the southern (Czech) slopes are rather steep.
Topography
[edit]
The Ore Mountains are oriented in a southwest–northeast direction and are about 150 km long and, on average, about 40 km wide. From a geomorphological perspective the range is divided into the Western, Central and Eastern Ore Mountains, separated by the valleys of the Schwarzwasser and Zwickauer Mulde and the Flöha ("Flöha Line"), the division of the western section along the River Schwarzwasser is of a more recent date. The Eastern Ore Mountains mainly comprise large, gently climbing plateaux, in contrast with the steeper and higher-lying western and central areas, and are dissected by river valleys that frequently change direction. The crest of the mountains themselves forms, in all three regions, a succession of plateaux and individual peaks.
To the east it is adjoined by the Elbe Sandstone Mountains and, to the west, by the Elster Mountains and other Saxon parts of the Vogtland. South(east) of the Central and Eastern Ore Mountains lies the North Bohemian Basin and, immediately east of that, the Bohemian Central Uplands which are separated from the Eastern Ore Mountains by narrow fingers of the aforementioned basin. South(east) of the Western Ore Mountains lie the Sokolov Basin, the Eger Graben and the Doupov Mountains. To the north the boundary is less sharply defined because the Ore Mountains, a typical example of a fault-block, descend very gradually.
The topographical transition from the Western and Central Ore Mountains to the loess hill country to the north between Zwickau and Chemnitz is referred to as the Ore Mountain Basin; that from the Eastern Ore Mountains as the Ore Mountain Foreland. Between Freital and Pirna, the area is called the Dresden Ore Mountain Foreland (Dresdner Erzgebirgsvorland) or Bannewitz-Possendorf-Burkhardswald Plateau (Bannewitz-Possendorf-Burkhardswalder Plateau). Geologically the Ore Mountains reach the city limits of Dresden at the Windberg hill near Freital and the Karsdorf Fault. The V-shaped valleys of the Ore Mountains break through this fault and the shoulder of the Dresden Basin.
The Ore Mountains belong to the Bohemian Massif within Europe's Central Uplands, a massif that also includes the Upper Palatine Forest, the Bohemian Forest, the Bavarian Forest, the Lusatian Mountains, the Iser Mountains, the Giant Mountains and the Inner-Bohemian Mountains. At the same time it forms a y-shaped mountain chain, along with the Upper Palatine Forest, Bohemian Forest, Fichtel Mountains, Franconian Forest, Thuringian Slate Mountains and Thuringian Forest, that has no unique name but is characterised by a rather homogeneous climate.
According to cultural tradition, Zwickau is seen historically as part of the Ore Mountains, Chemnitz is seen historically as just lying outside them, but Freiberg is included. The supposed limit of the Ore Mountains continues southwest of Dresden towards the Elbe Sandstone Mountains. From this perspective, its main characteristics, i.e., gently sloping plateaus climbing up to the ridgeline incised by V-shaped valleys, continue to the southern edge of the Dresden Basin. North of the Ore Mountains the landscape gradually transitions into the Saxon Lowland and Saxon Elbeland. Its cultural-geographical transition to Saxon Switzerland in the area of the Müglitz and Gottleuba valleys is not sharply defined.
Notable peaks
[edit]
The highest mountain in the Ore Mountains is the Klínovec (German: Keilberg), at 1,244 metres, in the Bohemian part of the range. The highest elevation on the Saxon side is the 1,215-metre-high Fichtelberg, which was the highest mountain in East Germany. The Ore Mountains contain about thirty summits with a height over 1,000 m above sea level (NN), but not all are clearly defined mountains. Most of them occur around the Klínovec and the Fichtelberg. About a third of them are located on the Saxon side of the border.
Important rivers
[edit]
From west to east:
Zwota / Svatava (Zwodau)
Rolava (Rohlau)
Zwickauer Mulde
Schwarzwasser
Chemnitz
Würschnitz
Zwönitz
Freiberger Mulde
Zschopau
Flöha
Red Weißeritz and Wild Weißeritz
Müglitz
Gottleuba
Natural regions in the Saxon Ore Mountains
[edit]
In the division of Germany into natural regions that was carried out Germany-wide in the 1950s[5] the Ore Mountains formed major unit group 42:
42 Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge)
420 Southern slopes of the Ore Mountains (Südabdachung des Erzgebirges)
421 Upper Western Ore Mountains (Oberes Westerzgebirge)
422 Upper Eastern Ore Mountains (Oberes Osterzgebirge)
423 Lower Western Ore Mountains (Unteres Westerzgebirge)
424 Lower Eastern Ore Mountains (Unteres Osterzgebirge)
Even after the reclassification of natural regions by the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation in 1994 the Ore Mountains, region D16, remained a major unit group with almost unchanged boundaries. However, at the beginning of the 21st century, the working group Naturhaushalt und Gebietscharakter of the Saxon Academy of Sciences (Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften) in Leipzig merged the Ore Mountains with the major unit group of Vogtland to the west and the major landscape units of Saxon Switzerland, Lusatian Highlands and Zittau Mountains to the east into one overarching unit, the Saxon Highlands and Uplands. In addition, its internal divisions were changed. Former major unit 420 was grouped with the western part of major units 421 and 423 to form a new major unit, the Western Ore Mountains (Westerzgebirge), the eastern part of major units 421 and 423 became the Central Ore Mountains (Mittelerzgebirge) and major units 422 and 424 became the Eastern Ore Mountains (Osterzgebirge).
The current division therefore looks as follows:[6]
Saxon Highlands and Uplands (Sächsisches Bergland und Mittelgebirge)
Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge)
Western Ore Mountains (Westerzgebirge)
Central Ore Mountains (Mittelerzgebirge)
Eastern Ore Mountains (Osterzgebirge)
The geographic unit of the Southern Slopes of the Ore Mountains remains unchanged under the title of Southern Ore Mountains (Süderzgebirge).
Climate
[edit]
The climate of the higher regions of the Ore Mountains is characterised as distinctly harsh. Temperatures are considerably lower all year round than in the lowlands, and the summer is noticeably shorter and cool days are frequent. The average annual temperatures only reach values of 3 to 5 °C. In Oberwiesenthal, at a height of 922 m above sea level (NN), on average only about 140 frost-free days per year are observed. Based on reports of earlier chroniclers, the climate of the upper Ore Mountains in past centuries must have been even harsher than it is today. Historic sources describe hard winters in which cattle froze to death in their stables, and occasionally houses and cellars were snowed in even after snowfalls in April. The population was regularly cut off from the outside world.[7] The upper Ore Mountains was therefore nicknamed Saxon Siberia already in the 18th century.[8]
The fault block mountain range that climbs from northwest to southeast, and which enables prolonged rain to fall as orographic rain when weather systems drive in from the west and northwest, gives rise to twice as much precipitation as in the lowlands which exceeds 1,100 mm on the upper reaches of the mountains. Since a large part of the precipitation falls as snow, in many years a thick and permanent layer of snow remains until April. The ridges of the Ore Mountains are one of the snowiest areas in the German Central Uplands. Foehn winds, and also the so-called Bohemian Wind may occur during certain specific southerly weather conditions.
As a result of the climate and the heavy amounts of snow a natural Dwarf Mountain Pine region is found near Satzung, near the border to Bohemia at just under 900 m above sea level (NN). By comparison, in the Alps these pines do not occur until 1,600 to 1,800 m above sea level (NN).
Climatic diagram of Annaberg-Buchholz[9]
Climatic diagram of Freiberg[9]
Climatic diagram of the Fichtelberg[9]
Climatic diagram of Zinnwald-Georgenfeld[9]
History
[edit]
Etymology of the name
[edit]
The term Saltusbohemicus ("Bohemian Forest") for the region emerged in the 12th century. In the German language the names Böhmischer Wald, Beheimer Wald, Behmerwald or Böhmerwald were used, in Czech the name Český les. The last-mentioned names are used today[when?] for the mountain range along the Czech Republic's southwestern border (see: Bohemian Forest).
From earlier research, other names for the Ore Mountains have also appeared in a few older written records. However, the names Hircanus Saltus (Hercynian Forest) or Fergunna, which appeared in the 9th century, were only used in a general sense for the vast forests of the Central Uplands. Frequently the term Miriquidi is used to refer directly to the Ore Mountains, but it only surfaces twice in the 10th and early 11th centuries, and these sources do not permit a clear identification with the ancient forest that formerly covered the whole of the Ore Mountains and its foreland.
Following the discovery of large ore deposits the area was further renamed in the 16th century. Petrus Albinus used the name Erzgebirge ("Ore Mountains") for the first time in 1589, in his chronicle. In the early 17th century, the name Meißener Berge ("Meissen Mountains") was temporarily used. A quarter of a century later the names Erzgebirge in German and Rudohoří in Czech became established. The Czech toponym is Krušné horyⓘ, derived from an old Czech expression krušec,[10] meaning "ore".
The mountains are sometimes divided into the Saxon Ore Mountains and Bohemian Ore Mountains. A similarly named range in Slovakia is usually known as the Slovak Ore Mountains.
Economic history
[edit]
Europe's earliest mining district appears to be located in Erzgebirge, dated to 2500 BC. From there tin was traded north to the Baltic Sea and south to the Mediterranean following the Amber Road trading route, of great importance in the Bronze Age. Tin mining knowledge spread to other European tin mining districts from Erzgebirge and evidence of tin mining begins to appear in Brittany, Devon and Cornwall, and in the Iberian Peninsula around 2000 BC.[11] These deposits saw greater exploitation when they fell under Roman control between the third century BC and the first century AD.[12] Demand for tin created a large and thriving network amongst Mediterranean cultures of Classical times.[13][14] By the Medieval period, Iberia's and Germany's deposits lost importance and were largely forgotten while Devon and Cornwall began dominating the European tin market.[12]
From the time of the first wave of settlement, the history of the Ore Mountains has been heavily influenced by its economic development, especially that of the mining industry.
Settlement in the Ore Mountains was slow to begin with, especially on the Bohemian side. The harsh climate and short growing seasons hindered the cultivation of agricultural products. Nevertheless, settlements were supported by the aristocratic Hrabischitz family and established mainly at the foot of the mountains and along mountain streams into the deep woods.
In 1168, as a result of settlement in the early 12th century at the northern edge of the Ore Mountains, the first silver ore was discovered in the vicinity of present-day Freiberg, resulting in the First Berggeschrey or mining rush. Almost simultaneously, the first tin ore was discovered on the southern edge of the mountains in Bohemia.
In the 13th century, colonization of the mountains took place only sporadically along the Bohemian Way (antiqua Bohemiae semita). It was here that Sayda was built, a station on the trade route from Freiberg via Einsiedl, Johnsdorf and Brüx to Prague. In Sayda it joined the so-called salt road that ran from Halle via Oederan and onto Prague. Glass-making was introduced into the region from the second half of the 13th century. The emergence of this branch of trade benefited from the abundance of excess timber, which was created by clearings and new settlements and which was able to meet the high demand of the glassworks. Monks from Waldsassen Abbey brought a knowledge of the glass manufacture to the Ore Mountains. Most glassworks were located in the vicinity of Moldau, Brandau and the Frauenbach valley. The oldest glassworks site is Ulmbach. This timber-hungry industry lost its importance, however, with the boom in mining, which also enjoyed royal patronage.
Mining on the Bohemian side of the mountains probably began in the 14th century. An indication of this is a contract between Boresch of Riesenburg and the Ossegg abbot, Gerwig, in which the division of revenue derived from ore was agreed. Grains of tin (Zinnkörner or Graupen) were obtained at that time in the Seiffen mining area and gave the Bohemian mining town of Graupen (Czech Krupka) its name.
With the further settlement of the Ore Mountains in the 15th century, new, rich, ore deposits were eventually discovered around Schneeberg Annaberg and St. Joachimsthal. The Second Berggeschrey started and triggered a massive wave of colonization. In quick succession, new, planned, mining towns were built across the Ore Mountains in the vicinity of newly discovered ore deposits. Typical examples are the towns of Marienberg, Oberwiesenthal, Gottesgab (Boží Dar), Sebastiansberg (Hora Sv. Šebestiána) and Platten (Horní Blatná). Economically, however, only silver and tin ores were used. From that time, the wealth of Saxony was built on the silver mines of the Ore Mountains. As a metal used for coinage, silver was minted on site in the mountain towns into money. The Joachimsthaler coins, minted in the valley of Joachimsthal, became famous and gave their name to the medieval coin known as the Thaler from which the word "dollar" is derived.[15] After the end of the Hussite Wars, the economy in Bohemia, which had been disrupted by the conflict, recovered.
In the 16th century the Ore Mountains became the heartland of the Central European mining industry. New ore discoveries attracted more and more people, and the number of residents on the Saxon side of the mountains continued to rise rapidly. Bohemia, in addition to migration from within the country, also received migration from elsewhere, mainly of German miners, who settled in the mountain villages and in the towns at the edge of the mountains.
Under Emperor Ferdinand II an unprecedented Re-Catholicization began in Bohemia from 1624 to 1626, whereupon a large number of Bohemian Protestants then fled into the neighbouring Electorate of Saxony. As a result, many Bohemian villages became devastated and desolate, while on the Saxon side new places were founded by these migrants, such as the mining town of Johanngeorgenstadt.
Ore mining largely came to a standstill in the 17th century, especially after the Thirty Years' War. Due to the very sharp decline of the mining industry and because the search for new ore deposits proved fruitless, the population had to resort to other occupations. Agricultural yields were low, however, and also the demand for wood was reduced by the closure of smelteries. Many people were already active at that time in textile production. However, since that was not enough for subsistence, the manufacture of wooden goods and toys developed, especially in the Eastern Ore Mountains. Here, the artisans were required by Prince-Elector Augustus under the Timber Act of 1560, to buy their wood in Bohemia. Wood from the Saxon Ore Mountains was still needed for the mines and smelters in Freiberg. This export of timber led, among other things, to the construction of an artificial cross-border rafting channel, the Neugrabenflöße, along the river Flöha. Because of the decline in industrial production in that period, people without any ties migrated to the interior of Germany or Bohemia.
After the discovery of the cobalt blue pigments the mining industry experienced a revival.[4] Cobalt was extracted especially in Schneeberg, and processed in the state paintworks to produce cobalt blue paints and dyes. They succeeded in keeping the method of production secret for a long time, so that for about 100 years the blue colour works had a worldwide monopoly. From about 1820 in Johanngeorgenstadt, uranium was also extracted and was then used to colour glass, amongst other things. Even richer deposits of uranium ore were found in St. Joachimsthal. St. Andrew's White Earth Mine (Weißerdenzeche St. Andreas) at Aue supplied kaolin to the Meissen Porcelain Factory in Meissen for nearly 150 years. Its export from the state, however, was prohibited by the Prince-electors under threat of severe punishment or even death.
Towards the end of the 19th century, mining slowly declined again. Drainage costs increased, from the mid-19th century, led to a steady decrease in yield, despite sinking of deeper galleries (Erbstollen) and the expansion of ditch and tunnel (Rösche) systems for supplying the necessary water for overshot wheels from the crest of the mountains, such as the Freiberg Mines Water Management System or the Reitzenhainer Zeuggraben. Only a few mines remained profitable over a long period. Amongst them was the Himmelsfürst Fundgrube near Erbisdorf, whose 50 continuous years of profitable operation were commemorated in 1818 with the issue of a commemorative coin (Ausbeutetaler) and which went on to make a profit continuously until 1848. Thanks to discoveries of rich ore seams it became the most productive Freiberg mine of the 19th century.
But even the excavation of the Rothschönberger Stolln, the largest and most important Saxon drainage adit, which drained the entire Freiberg district, could not stop the decline of mining. Because even before the completion of this technical achievement the German Empire introduced the gold standard in 1871, the price of silver dropped rapidly and led to the unprofitability of the entire Ore Mountain silver mining industry. This situation was not altered even by short-term discoveries of rich deposits in various mines nor the state's purchase of all the Freiberg mines and their incorporation into the state-owned enterprise, Oberdirektion der Königlichen Erzbergwerke, founded in 1886. In 1913, the last silver mines closed and the company was disbanded.
Mining in the Ore Mountains was given new life during the First and Second World Wars in order to supply raw materials. Nazi Germany also saw the resumption of silver mining. Afterwards the people returned to the manufacture of wooden products and toys, especially in the Eastern Ore Mountains. The clock industry is centred on Glashütte. In the Western Ore Mountains, economic alternatives were offered by the engineering and textile industries.
In 1789 the chemical element uranium was discovered in St. Joachimsthal; then in pitchblende from the same area, radium was discovered by Marie Curie in 1898. In the late 1930s, following the discovery of the nuclear fission, uranium ore became of particular interest for military purposes. After the incorporation of Sudetenland into Germany in 1938 all the uranium production facilities were commandeered for the development of nuclear weapons. After the American atomic bomb was dropped on Japan in 1945, Soviet experts searched for evidence of the German nuclear energy project to support Soviet atomic bomb development. Shortly thereafter, the processing of uranium ore for the Soviet Union began in the Ore Mountains under the code name SAG Wismut, a cover up for the Eastern Bloc's highly secretive uranium mining.[4][16][17]
For the third time in history, thousands of people poured into the Ore Mountains to build a new life. The principal mining areas were located around Johanngeorgenstadt, Schlema and Aue. Uranium ore deposits were also exploited for the Soviet Union in Bohemian Jáchymov (St. Joachimsthal). Its processing was associated with serious health consequences for the miners. In addition a dam burst in 1954 at Lengenfeld at a uranium mining waste lake; 50,000 cubic metres of waste water poured down 4 kilometres into the valley.[18] Until 1991 uranium ore was also mined in Aue-Alberoda and Pöhla.
Mining operations in Freiberg that had begun in 1168 finally ceased in 1968 after 800 years. In Altenberg and Ehrenfriedersdorf tin mining continued to 1991. The smelting of these ores took place mainly in Muldenhütten until the early 1990s. In St. Egidien and Aue there were important nickel smelting sites. In Pöhla in the Western Ore Mountains, during exploratory work for SDAG Wismut new, rich lodes of tin ore were discovered in the 1980s. The test workings of that time are now considered the largest tin finds in Europe. Another well-known place of tin production was Seiffen. The village in the Eastern Ore Mountains has become a leading centre of wood and toy manufacturing. Here, wooden smoking figures, nutcrackers, hand-carved wooden trees (Spanbäume), candle arches, (Schwibbogen), Christmas pyramids and music boxes are made. Up to the last third of the 20th century, Coal was mined near Zwickau until 1978, around Lugau and Oelsnitz until 1971 and in the Döhlen Basin near Freital until 1989.
The mountains that until the late 11th (and early 12th century) were covered in dense forests were almost completely transformed into a cultural landscape by the mining industry and by settlement. The population density is high right up into the upper regions of the mountains. For example, Oberwiesenthal, the highest town in Germany, lies in the Ore Mountains, and neighbouring Boží Dar (German: Gottesgab) on the Czech side, is actually the highest town in Central Europe. Only on the relatively inaccessible, less climatically favourable ridges are there still large, contiguous forests, but since the 18th century these have been managed economically. Due to the high demand for timber by the mining and smelting industries, where it was needed for pit props and fuel, large-scale deforestation took place from the 12th century onwards, and even the forests owned by the nobility could not cover the growing demand for wood. In the 18th century, industries were encouraged to use coal as fuel instead of timber in order to preserve the forests, and this was enforced in the 19th century. In the early 1960s the first signs of forest dieback were seen in the Eastern Ore Mountains near Altenberg and Reitzenhain, after local damage to the forests had become apparent since the 19th century as a result of smelter smoke (Hüttenrauch). The German population of the Bohemian part of the Ore Mountains was expelled in 1945 in accordance with to the Beneš decrees.
Nature
[edit]
The upper western part of the Ore Mountains, known in German as Erzgebirge, belongs to the Ore Mountains/Vogtland Nature Park. The eastern part, called the Eastern Ore Mountains (Osterzgebirge), is a protected landscape. Further small areas are nature reserves and natural monuments, and are protected by the state.
Nature reserves
[edit]
Germany (selection)
Western Ore Mountains Special Protected Area (SPA Westerzgebirge)
Valley of the Große Bockau Special Area of Conservation (FFH-Gebiet Tal der Großen Bockau)
Mountain meadows in the Eastern Ore Mountains major nature conservation project (Naturschutzgroßprojekt Bergwiesen im Osterzgebirge)
Geisingberg nature reserve, 314.00 ha
Georgenfelder Hochmoor nature reserve, 12.45 ha
Fürstenau Heath (Fürstenauer Heide) nature reserve (Black Grouse conservation area near Fürstenau), 7.24 ha
Kleiner Kranichsee nature reserve, 28.97 ha
Großer Kranichsee nature reserve, 611.00 ha
Hermannsdorf Meadows (Hermannsdorfer Wiesen) nature reserve, 185.00 ha
The Czech Republic (selection)
NPR Božídarské rašeliniště, 929.57 ha (1965)
NPR Velké jeřábí jezero, 26.9 ha (1938)
NPR Velký močál, 50.27 ha (1969)
NPR Novodomské rašeliniště, 230 ha (1967)
PR Černý rybník, 32.56 ha (1993)
PR Malé jeřábí jezero, 6.02 ha (1962)
PR Ryžovna, 20 ha
Mining and pollution
[edit]
Ever since the settlement in mediaeval times, the Ore Mountains were farmed intensively. This led to widespread clearings of the originally dense forest, also to keep up with the enormous need for wood in mining and metallurgy. Mining including the construction of dumps, impoundments, and ditches in many places also directly shaped the scenery and the habitats of plants and animals.
Evidence for local forest dieback due to the smoke from smelting furnaces was first noted the 19th century. In the 20th century, several mountain crests were deforested because of their climatically exposed location. Thus, in recent years, mixed forests are cultivated which are more resistant to weather effects and pests than the traditional monocultures of spruces.
The Ore Mountains/Vogtland Nature Park
[edit]
Human interventions have created a unique cultural landscape with a large number of typical biotopes which are worthy of protection such as mountain meadows and wetlands. Today, even old mining spoil heaps offer a living environment for a variety of plants and animals. 61% of the area of Ore Mountains/Vogtland Nature Park is covered with woodland. In particular in the western Ore Mountains, huge contiguous woodlands spread all the way to the highest altitudes and are used for forestry. Moreover, in this area several rain water fed bogs are found. Many of these protected areas offer a retreat for rare species with special environmental adaptations such as different species of orchids and gentian, the Eurasian pygmy owl and kingfishers. Some alpine species of plants and animals that have been found at higher altitudes of the Ore mountains are otherwise only known from more distant places in the Sudeten mountains or the Alps. After conditions improved, once displaced species such as Eagle owls and Black storks have returned in the early 21st century.
Economy
[edit]
The German part of the Ore Mountains is one of the major business locations in Saxony. The region has a high density of industrial operations. Since 2000, the number of industrial workers has risen against the Germany-wide trend by about 20 percent. Typical of the Ore Mountains are mainly small, often owner-managed, businesses.
The economic strengths of the Ore Mountains are mainly in manufacturing. 63 percent of the industrial workforce is employed in the metalworking and electrical industry.
Only of minor importance is the formerly dominant textile and clothing industry (5 percent of industrial net product) and the food industry. The newly established chemical, leather and plastic industries and the industries traditionally based in the Ore Mountains-based – wood, paper, furniture, glass and ceramics works – each contribute about 14 percent of regional net product.
Mining, the essential historical basis of industrial development in the Ore Mountains, currently plays only a minor economic role on the Saxon side of the border. For example, in Hermsdorf/Erzgeb. in the Eastern Ore Mountains, calcite is mined, and near Lengefeld in the Central Ore Mountains, dolomitic marble is extracted. For the first time in two decades, an ore mine was opened in Niederschlag near Oberwiesenthal on 28 October 2010. It is expected that 50,000-130,000 tons of fluorspar per year will be extracted there.
In the Czech part of the Ore Mountains, tourism has gained a certain importance, even though the Giant Mountains are more important for domestic tourism. In addition, mining still plays a greater role, particularly coal mining in the southern forelands of the Ore Mountains. Europe's largest deposits of lithium-bearing mica zinnwaldite in Cínovec, a Czech village between town of Dubí and the border with Germany which gave its old German name Zinnwald to the mineral, are expected to be mined starting 2019 (as of June 2017).[19][20]
Tourism
[edit]
When several Ore Mountain passes were upgraded into chaussees in the 19th century, and the Upper Ore Mountains were accessed by the railway, tourism began to develop. One of the early promoters of tourism in the Ore Mountains was Otto Delitsch. In 1907, a memorial was erected to him in Wildenthal. In many places mountain inns and observation towers were erected on the highest peaks. At that time, skiers used the ridges with their guaranteed snow. Today, steam-worked narrow gauge railways dating to that era, such as the Pressnitz Valley Railway, are popular tourist attractions.
In 1924 the Fichtelberg Cable Car became the first cable car in Germany, and it still takes visitors to the highest mountain in Saxony. The Ridgeway (Kammweg) was one of the first long-distance paths to be established. This once ran from Hainsberg near Asch over the Ore Mountains, Bohemian Switzerland and the Lusatian Mountains to Sněžka in the Giant Mountains. Today there is not only a dense network of trails, but also an extensive cross country skiing network and downhill ski slopes for winter sports. The most important ski resort is Oberwiesenthal on the Fichtelberg mountain. And the Ore Mountain/Krušné hory Ski Trail is a German-Czech ski mountaineering trail along the entire Ore Mountain crest.
Based on the historical Silver Road a tourist road was created in 1990 running from Zwickau to Dresden traversing the entire Ore Mountains and linking its main attractions. These include visitor mines, mining trails, technical and local history museums and numerous other smaller attractions, especially the medieval town centres in the old mining towns and its major churches, such as Freiberg Cathedral, St. Anne's Church in Annaberg-Buchholz or St Wolfgang's Church at Schneeberg. On the Bohemian and Saxon sides of the border there are also many castles, built in different architectural styles, which may be visited. One of the best known examples is Augustusburg Castle.
In the Advent and Christmas season the Ore Mountains, with its distinct traditions, Christmas markets and miners' parades is also a popular destination for short breaks.
Unique and popular spa resorts are located in Jáchymov in the Czech Republic. In the historical town are some of the most unique spas in the world. Musculoskeletal system is treated here with radon water and direct irradiation. This treatment is suitable for vascular diseases. Furthermore, for the nerve, rheumatic diseases or inflammation of nerves. The most important use is the treatment of diseases of the musculoskeletal system (gout etc.). The spa was founded in 1906. One of the spa buildings is Radium Palace – spa neoclassical hotel palace, already at the time of its establishment in 1912 was one of the best that Europe could offer in the field of spas.
With 960,963 guests staying for 2,937,204 nights in 2007[21] the Ore Mountains and West Saxony is the most important Saxon holiday destination after the cities, and tourism is an important economic factor in the region. Since 2004 the Ore Mountain Tourist Association (Tourismusverband Erzgebirge) has offered the Ore Mountain Card (ErzgebirgsCard) with which over 100 museums, castles, heritage railways and other sights may be visited free of charge.
UNESCO World Heritage Site
[edit]
In 2019, the following 22 mines or mining complexes were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List as the Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region.[1]
Site Country Location Area
ha (acre) Buffer Area
ha (acre) Dippoldiswalde Medieval Silver Mines Germany 536.871 - Altenberg-Zinnwald Mining Landscape Germany 269.367 1,716.705 Lauenstein Administrative Centre Germany 2.926 18.885 Freiberg Mining Landscape Germany 624.434 2,202.532 Hoher Forst Mining Landscape Germany 44.799 103.604 Schneeberg Mining Landscape Germany 218.15 670.351 Schindlers Werk Smalt Works Germany 2.659 2.7 Annaberg-Frohnau Mining Landscape Germany 191.994 926.131 Pöhlberg Mining Landscape Germany 118.94 - Buchholz Mining Landscape Germany 37.346 - Marienberg Mining Town Germany 25.306 44.603 Lauta Mining Landscape Germany 20.592 - Ehrenfriedersdorf Mining Landscape Germany 71.148 891.575 Grünthal Silver-Copper Liquation Works Germany 12.917 25.294 Eibenstock Mining Landscape Germany 100.656 248.312 Rother Berg Mining Landscape Germany 4.519 38.556 Uranium Mining Landscape Germany 811.213 746.263 Jáchymov Mining Landscape Czech Republic 738.452 637.9 Abertamy – Boží Dar – Horní Blatná – Mining Landscape Czech Republic 2,608.279 3,011.867 The Red Tower of Death Czech Republic 0.2 2.804 Krupka Mining Landscape Czech Republic 317.565 474.299 Mědník Hill Mining Landscape Czech Republic 7.724 1,255.41
Culture
[edit]
The culture of the Ore Mountains was shaped mainly by mining that goes back to the Middle Ages. The old saying, coined here, that "everything comes from the mine" (Alles kommt vom Bergwerk her!) refers to many areas of life in the region, from its landscape, to its handicrafts, industry, living traditions and folk art. The visitor may recognise this on his arrival from the normal everyday greeting Glück Auf! that is used in the region.
The Ore Mountains has its own dialect, Erzgebirgisch, which sits on the boundary between Upper German and Central German and is not therefore uniform.
The first important native dialect poet of the Ore Mountains was Christian Gottlob Wild in the early 19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century, Hans Soph, Stephan Dietrich and especially Anton Günther were active; their works have a lasting impact to this day in Ore Mountain songs and writings. Erzgebirgisch songs were later popularised by various local groups. The most famous include the Preßnitzer Musikanten, Geschwister Caldarelli, Zschorlauer Nachtigallen, the Erzgebirgsensemble Aue and Joachim Süß and his Ensemble. Today it is mainly De Randfichten, but also groups like Wind, Sand und Sterne, De Ranzn, De Krippelkiefern, De Erbschleicher and Schluckauf that sing in the Erzgebirgisch dialect.
The Ore Mountains are nationally known for their variety of customs at Advent and Christmas time. This is epitomized by traditional Ore Mountain folk art, in the form of smoking figures, Christmas pyramids, candle arches, nutcrackers, miners' and angels' figures, all of which are used as Christmas decorations. Above all, places in the Upper Ore Mountains decorate their windows during the Christmas season in such a way that they are transformed into a "sea of light". In addition, traditional Christmas mining celebrations such as the Mettenschicht and Hutzenabende draw many visitors and have made the Ore Mountains known as "Christmasland" (Weihnachtsland).
In addition to the Christmas markets and other smaller traditional and modern folk festivals, the Annaberger Kät is the most famous and largest Ore Mountain folk festival. Started in 1520 by Duke George the Bearded, it has been held annually since.
Also interesting is Ore Mountain cuisine, which is simple, but rich in tradition.
In 2019 the region was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List as the Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Region.[1]
Gallery
[edit]
Stürmer mountain in March 2008
Old adit near Johanngeorgenstadt
Jáchymov town hall
Klínovec mountain
Uranite from the Ore Mountains
Castle Krupka (the Czech Republic)
Karlovy Vary (Karlsbad in German, Carlsbad in English) is one of the most famous spas in the world. They are located below the Ore Mountains on the river Ohře.
See also
[edit]
Erzgebirgisch, the local German dialect
List of mountains in the Ore Mountains
List of regions of Saxony
Hans Carl von Carlowitz (1645–1714), mining and forestry expert
Saxon Highlands and Uplands
References
[edit]
Further reading
[edit]
Harald Häckel, Joachim Kunze: Unser schönes Erzgebirge. 4th edition, Häckel 2001, ISBN 3-9803680-0-9
Peter Rölke (Hrsg.): Wander- & Naturführer Osterzgebirge, Berg- & Naturverlag Rölke, Dresden 2007, ISBN 978-3-934514-20-1
Müller, Ralph u.a.: Wander- & Naturführer Westerzgebirge, Berg- & Naturverlag Rölke, Dresden 2002, ISBN 3-934514-11-1
NN: Kompass Karten: Erzgebirge West, Mitte, Ost. Wander- und Radwanderkarte 1:50.000, GPS kompatibel. Kompass Verlag, 2002, ISBN 3-85491-954-9
NN: Erzgebirge, Vogtland, Chemnitz. HB Bildatlas, Heft No. 171. 2., akt. Aufl. 2001, ISBN 3-616-06271-3
Peter Rochhaus: Berühmte Erzgebirger in Daten und Geschichten. Sutton Verlag, Erfurt 2006, ISBN 978-3-86680-020-5
Siegfried Roßberg: Die Entwicklung des Verkehrswesens im Erzgebirge – Der Kraftverkehr. Bildverlag Böttger, Witzschdorf 2005, ISBN 3-9808250-9-4
Bernd Wurlitzer: Erzgebirge, Vogtland. Marco Polo Reiseführer. 5., akt. Aufl. Mairs Geographischer Verlag, 2001, ISBN 3-8297-0005-9
Emmermann, Rolf; Tischendorf, Gerhard; Trumbull, Robert B; Möller, Peter (1994): Magmatism and Metallogeny in the Erzgebirge. Geowissenschaften; 12; 337–341; doi:10.2312/GEOWISSENSCHAFTEN.1994.12.337
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 27
|
https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/en/
|
en
|
Hotel Am Bühl
|
https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/%28cms%29/media/resize/size=1024x576/2428877-luftaufnahmen_in_4k_fuer_das_hotel_am_buehl_-_das_blaue_wunder-720p1.mp4
|
https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/%28cms%29/media/resize/size=1024x576/2428877-luftaufnahmen_in_4k_fuer_das_hotel_am_buehl_-_das_blaue_wunder-720p1.mp4
|
[
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/media/67061/logo-am-buehl-weiss-2199449.svg",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/media/67061/logohotel-lang-weiss-2220599.svg",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/media/67061/logo-am-buehl-weiss-2199449.svg",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/media/67061/logohotel-lang-weiss-2220599.svg",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/%28cms%29/media/resize/size=1920x0%2Cscale=crop/2428879",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/(cms)/media/resize/size=1024x768%2Cscale=crop%2Cinterlace=1%2Cquality=70/2178427",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/(cms)/media/resize/size=1024x768%2Cscale=crop%2Cinterlace=1%2Cquality=70/2218479",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/%28cms%29/media/resize/size=640x400%2Cscale=crop%2Cinterlace=1%2Cquality=70/2914993",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/%28cms%29/media/resize/size=640x400%2Cscale=crop%2Cinterlace=1%2Cquality=70/2962303",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/%28cms%29/media/resize/size=640x400%2Cscale=crop%2Cinterlace=1%2Cquality=70/2920399",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/%28cms%29/media/resize/size=640x400%2Cscale=crop%2Cinterlace=1%2Cquality=70/2178819",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/%28cms%29/media/resize/size=640x400%2Cscale=crop%2Cinterlace=1%2Cquality=70/2178733",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/%28cms%29/media/resize/size=640x400%2Cscale=crop%2Cinterlace=1%2Cquality=70/2907099",
"https://cst-media2.viomassl.com/5838/488449/700x438s",
"https://cst-media4.viomassl.com/5838/494479/700x438s",
"https://cst-media3.viomassl.com/5838/494466/700x438s",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/%28cms%29/media/resize/size=320x227%2Cscale=crop%2Cinterlace=1%2Cquality=70/2178835",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/%28cms%29/media/resize/size=320x227%2Cscale=crop%2Cinterlace=1%2Cquality=70/2178755",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/%28cms%29/media/resize/size=320x227%2Cscale=crop%2Cinterlace=1%2Cquality=70/2645747",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/%28cms%29/module/pass/117/image/1204573.640x360,scale=crop",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/(cms)/media/resize/size=1920x480%2Cscale=crop%2Cquality=95/2197747",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/media/67061/logo-2848689.png",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/media/67061/logo2024-1-2848687.png",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/media/67061/logo-kinderhotelinfo-award-2023-2848691.png",
"https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/media/67061/logo-famfreu-uebernachtung-de-cmyk-2848693.jpg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
|
/static/template-2113/i/favicon.ico
|
https://www.hotel-blaues-wunder.de/en/
|
We use cookies on our website. Some of them are essential, while others help us to improve this website and your experience.
You can change the settings at any time in the content dialog. More information on data processing can be found in the privacy policy.
|
||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 24
|
https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/FLAGS/keywordt.html
|
en
|
T
|
[
"https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/images/linea2.gif"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null | null | |||||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 26
|
https://www.komoot.com/highlight/1186109
|
en
|
Staumauer Talsperre Eibenstock Routes for Walking and Hiking
|
https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/000/1k4/wu/wugapveu349jofdti3glato63buwmd2l-uhi11305274/0?width=768&height=576&crop=true
|
https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/000/1k4/wu/wugapveu349jofdti3glato63buwmd2l-uhi11305274/0?width=768&height=576&crop=true
|
[
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/ri/ri9qj6r00o10zd4hwqu76jxbjteq4z91295699-full/0?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/ri/ri9qj6r00o10zd4hwqu76jxbjteq4z91295699-full/0?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1g/1g40lwup49ydd16ay8gikghc7c1bz29ise1356100-full/18e6a802e2a/p?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/1g/1g40lwup49ydd16ay8gikghc7c1bz29ise1356100-full/18e6a802e2a/p?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/xf/xf1q01i0pn82k85h98zy4czm8mip43r588445-full/0?width=32&height=32&crop=true&q=80 32w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/xf/xf1q01i0pn82k85h98zy4czm8mip43r588445-full/0?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/q1/q1m575xv6xaw1cnddian1h9w93k278psf-u1657770251126-full/1757e07b3d0?width=48&height=48&crop=true&q=80 48w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/q1/q1m575xv6xaw1cnddian1h9w93k278psf-u1657770251126-full/1757e07b3d0?width=96&height=96&crop=true&q=80 96w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/19/19p7c4dgloxjvpxcdon2y0iwj2kl82ht8-u605752672826-full/17b179eea10?width=48&height=48&crop=true&q=80 48w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/19/19p7c4dgloxjvpxcdon2y0iwj2kl82ht8-u605752672826-full/17b179eea10?width=96&height=96&crop=true&q=80 96w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/ge/ge077e3dlqbjyjhim5hue0h92mxqcf0j-u635320101227-full/164b44bd988?width=48&height=48&crop=true&q=80 48w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/ge/ge077e3dlqbjyjhim5hue0h92mxqcf0j-u635320101227-full/164b44bd988?width=96&height=96&crop=true&q=80 96w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/aea12c6e16c3d343c78f.svg",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/a8f071fcb146fa0ac508.svg",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/f306df4b8a91db944909.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
Discover the best hikes and paths to Staumauer Talsperre Eibenstock in Stützengrün, Erzgebirgskreis. Explore it on the map and plan your own route to Staumauer Talsperre Eibenstock.
|
en
|
/assets/321c2ca1bae0372f55bd.png
|
komoot
|
https://www.komoot.com/highlight/1186109
|
Dams always have something gigantic about them. Especially here there are many display boards on which the construction and the connections to the dam are documented. The overflow looks like a ski jump - when it really gets that far, there is spectacular water jumping.
|
||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 30
|
https://www.bing.com/travel/place-information%3Fq%3DEibenstock%26SID%3D28048216-8cfa-28db-c462-2f572a38d470%26scenario%3DSeeAndDo%26itemId%3DYN6740x2589130535197522076%26form%3DMSTA01
|
en
|
Microsoft Bing Travel
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
de
| null | ||||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 2
|
https://www.eibenstock.de/english/this/districts-history/blauenthal
|
en
|
Bergstadt Eibenstock im Erzgebirge
|
[
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/Pool/Fotos/Fotos_Internetseite/background2.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/logo.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/search.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/de_i.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/en.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/cz_i.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/wetter.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/webcam.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/home.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/wetter_weiss.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/webcam_weiss.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/home.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/b/9/csm_blauenthal1_632bcca570.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/c/1/csm_blauenthal2_883a7b47ee.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/4/5/csm_blauenthal4_12f3091c06.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/4/f/csm_blauenthal5_cd85541e29.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/2/5/csm_erlebniskarte_ad5b9b48eb.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/_processed_/6/d/csm_Logo_Familienurlaub_ENG_rgb_d252cffa2b.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/bsdist/theme/img/logo_erz.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo-montanregion.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo_fachkraefteportal.png",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo_eplr.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo_leader.jpg",
"https://www.eibenstock.de/fileadmin/user_upload/logo_leader_westerzgebirge.jpg",
"https://webanalytics.kabeljournal.de/matomo.php?idsite=30&rec=1"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
de
|
/fileadmin/files/favicon.ico?v=xQO7OjawKd
|
https://www.eibenstock.de//english/this/districts-history/blauenthal
|
The incorporation of Blauenthal goes back hundreds of years and is closely linked to the abundance of water in this place. In the 15th century there was a water-powered flour mill as well as a saw mill where the Mulde and Bockau rivers joined. In 1518 Andreas Blau came from Nuremberg to Erzgebirge. The sheet metal producer and dealer later bought the flour mill and re-built it as an important hammer mill for the production of black and white sheet metal (black sheet metal = iron, white sheet metal = tin-coated iron). This Andreas Blau laid the foundation for the development of the town named after him (formerly called lower Blauenthal, while the village situated upstream was called the upper Blauenthal which is now Wolfsgrün).
Along with his brother, Balthasar, Andreas Blau maintained a trade office in Schneeberg for tin and other metals. In 1537 he founded the "New Company of the Sheet Metal Trade" in Zwickau. Later a blast furnace, a bar hammer, and an iron foundry was built, as well as a brewery and an inn. By 1840, high-quality white sheets were still being produced, until the hammer mill folded up.
Around 1880 the "Hammergut" estate with all of its vast property of forest and meadows came into the possession of the Toelle family. After World War II this family was dispossessed and fled to escape from the Soviet occupation zone. After 1989, the family then returned to Blauenthal.
The only building that remains standing from the old hammer mill is the elegant "Hammerherrenhaus": a two-story baroque manor with a huge hipped roof. In the middle of the ridge is a square clock tower with a baroque dome. The early baroque main portal has a capstone, engraved with the year 1677.
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 13
|
https://dokumen.pub/the-geology-of-germany-a-process-oriented-approach-1st-ed-978-3-319-76101-5-978-3-319-76102-2.html
|
en
|
The Geology of Germany: A Process
|
[
"https://dokumen.pub/dokumenpub/assets/img/dokumenpub_logo.png",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-geology-of-iberia-a-geodynamic-approach-volume-3-the-alpine-cycle-1st-ed-978-3-030-11294-3978-3-030-11295-0.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-geology-of-iberia-a-geodynamic-approach-volume-2-the-variscan-cycle-1st-ed-2019-978-3-030-10518-1-978-3-030-10519-8.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-beauty-of-geology-art-of-geology-mapping-in-china-over-a-century-1st-ed-978-981-13-3785-7-978-981-13-3786-4.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-geology-of-iberia-a-geodynamic-approach-volume-4-cenozoic-basins-1st-ed-978-3-030-11189-2978-3-030-11190-8.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-geology-of-the-egyptian-nubian-shield-1st-ed-9783030497705-9783030497712.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/discovering-the-unique-geology-of-the-bergell-alps-geoguide-1st-ed-2023-3031307372-9783031307379.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/petroleum-geology-and-exploration-of-the-bongor-basin-1st-ed-2023-9811926727-9789811926723.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/a-text-book-of-geology-1999nbsped.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-structure-of-geology-0870741624.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/geology-of-the-moon-a-stratigraphic-view-9781400870479.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-geology-of-germany-a-process-oriented-approach-1st-ed-978-3-319-76101-5-978-3-319-76102-2.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/dokumenpub/assets/img/dokumenpub_logo.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
This richly illustrated book presents Germany’s geological evolution in the context of the Earth’s dynamic history. It s...
|
en
|
dokumen.pub
|
https://dokumen.pub/the-geology-of-germany-a-process-oriented-approach-1st-ed-978-3-319-76101-5-978-3-319-76102-2.html
|
Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-xxxvii
Introduction (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 1-1
Time and Geological Periods (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 3-7
Rocks and the Geological Record (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 9-18
The Age of the Rocks (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 19-24
Plate Tectonics, the Unifying Theory (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 25-31
Tectonics Units of Europe (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 33-35
Overview of the Plate Tectonic History of Europe (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 37-40
The Dynamic Earth, Earthquakes in Germany (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 41-52
Early Geological Evolution of Germany (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 53-62
Late Paleozoic of Germany (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 63-114
Permian and Mesozoic Geology of Germany (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 115-190
The Evolution of the Alps (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 191-208
Tertiary Basins (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 209-231
Tertiary and Quaternary Volcanism (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 233-249
Asteroid Craters (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 251-257
Germany During the Glacial Periods (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 259-282
Back Matter ....Pages 283-304
Citation preview
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 0
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eibenstock_Dam
|
en
|
Eibenstock Dam
|
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Wasserschanze_der_Trinkwassertalsperre_Eibenstock.jpg/220px-Wasserschanze_der_Trinkwassertalsperre_Eibenstock.jpg",
"https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"
] |
2011-02-06T17:00:33+00:00
|
en
|
/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eibenstock_Dam
|
Dam in Erzgebirgskreis, Germany
Eibenstock Dam (German: Talsperre Eibenstock) near Eibenstock in the Ore Mountains, Germany, is the largest dam in the Free State of Saxony in terms of the height of the dam above the valley floor, and its reservoir is the largest in volume in Saxony.[1] The dam impounds the waters of the Zwickauer Mulde and supplies drinking water to the region of Chemnitz and Zwickau, as well as providing flood protection, delivering extra water during times of drought and, to a lesser extent, generating electricity from hydropower. Its dimensions make it the second largest drinking water reservoir in Germany's new federal states.
In order to make way for its construction, the inhabitants of the village of Muldenhammer (also called Windischhammer or Windischthal), whose former buildings (10 homes, 1 wood pulp factory, 1 large estate for the breeding of Höhenfleckrinder cattle and a paper mill) lie today under the water surface, had to be resettled. Many of them moved to new houses that were built in Eibenstock. In addition, the Chemnitz–Aue–Adorf railway between Wolfsgrün and Schönheide Ost was interrupted. The Schönheiderhammer tunnel on that stretch of the route was flooded. At low water levels the old portals of the tunnel can still be seen.[2] Likewise, the branch line from Eibenstock unt. Bf. to Eibenstock ob. Bf. had to be closed. This section, the only standard gauge railway in Saxony with an incline of 1:20, was once known as the Eibenstock Ramp (Steilstrecke Eibenstock).[3]
The barrier itself is a straight gravity dam made of concrete. It was built between 1974 and 1984; it was taken into service in 1982 and completed in 1987. The first partial impoundment had already been carried out by 1980.
The dam has an upstream auxiliary dam (Schönheiderhammer Dam) and four subsidiary upstream basins (Rähmerbach, Geidenbach, Weißbach, Rohrbach).
Above the dam is an observation point offering a view across the reservoir. The dam itself is not accessible to the public. Bathing and water sports are also banned, because the dam impounds a drinking water reservoir.
See also
[edit]
List of dams in Germany
References
[edit]
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 25
|
https://github.com/garethsprice/libretext/blob/master/api/wordlists/german.txt
|
en
|
libretext/api/wordlists/german.txt at master · garethsprice/libretext
|
https://opengraph.githubassets.com/dd8ad53bb9c5b3ae4841a6ad5143e7a62f5bd7092c2e3947b9d5ebe203d5bf83/garethsprice/libretext
|
https://opengraph.githubassets.com/dd8ad53bb9c5b3ae4841a6ad5143e7a62f5bd7092c2e3947b9d5ebe203d5bf83/garethsprice/libretext
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
LibreText generates text for typeface designers to test their typefaces with. - libretext/api/wordlists/german.txt at master · garethsprice/libretext
|
en
|
GitHub
|
https://github.com/garethsprice/libretext/blob/master/api/wordlists/german.txt
|
Skip to content
Navigation Menu
|
|||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 10
|
https://www.kaercher.com/ie/inside-kaercher/sponsoring/monuments-of-the-world/talsperre-eibenstock.html
|
en
|
Eibenstock Dam - Eibenstock, Germany
|
https://www.kaercher.com/favicon.ico
|
https://www.kaercher.com/favicon.ico
|
[
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/kaercher_logo.svg",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/kaercher_logo.svg",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/kaercher_logo.svg",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/237/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/238/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/239/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/241/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/240/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/242/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/243/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/SSL.png#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/ajax_kaercher_v2_500_orig.gif"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
Kärcher is the world's leading solution provider for cleaning and maintenance with products and services for leisure, household, trade and industry.
|
en
|
/favicon.ico
|
https://www.kaercher.com/ie/inside-kaercher/sponsoring/monuments-of-the-world/talsperre-eibenstock.html
|
"Kingdom of Fishes": Eibenstock Dam adorned with large-scale artwork
On the wall of the Eibenstock Dam, the reverse graffiti artist Klaus Dauven has created a large-scale artwork. Using high-pressure cleaners, he etched a drawing out of the 30-year-old dirt layer, depicting two native trout. The picture, entitled "Kingdom of Fishes", can be seen in the contrast between the light and dark of the cleaned and uncleaned surfaces. Kärcher offered support and advice throughout the project as part of its cultural sponsorship programme, contributing both experience and technology.
The two trout are positioned one on top of the other and stretch across the entire width of the dam wall. They are drawn cut across lengthways so that only the back of one of the fish and the underside of the other can be seen. The way the fish are depicted creates the impression of movement – they appear to be moving in the water. The river trout, which is native to the Ore Mountains, is an important bioindicator because it can only survive in very clean water. The image of the fish is therefore symbolic of the quality of the drinking water in the Eibenstock reservoir.
In order to transfer the artist's design onto the dam wall, it was digitised by a surveying company and projected onto the wall using laser technology. Industrial climbers marked points onto the dam wall, which the artist then connected up to create the image. The artist worked from a facade lift and was supported by the industrial climbers, who abseiled from the top of the dam. Three HD 13/18-4 S cold water high-pressure cleaners were used to carry out the work.
The artist
Klaus Dauven has been using Kärcher high-pressure cleaners since 2003 to create temporary artworks in public spaces. He was born in 1966 in Düren (North Rhine-Westphalia) and studied art in Düsseldorf, Münster and Aix-en-Provence. Klaus Dauven has received numerous awards for his work, including the Joseph and Anna Fassbender Prize from the city of Brühl and the Düren Art Prize. He now lives in Kreuzau (North Rhine-Westphalia). In collaboration with Kärcher, he has already adorned several dam walls with his temporary artworks, including the Olef Dam in the Eifel region in 2007 and the Matsudagawa Dam in Japan in 2008.
The Eibenstock Dam
The Eibenstock Dam went into operation in 1982. It is the largest drinking water reservoir in Saxony. With its capacity of around 64 million cubic metres of water, the reservoir supplies drinking water to the greater Zwickau-Chemnitz area. The dam also helps in providing flood protection, raising low water levels and generating power. The mighty wall of the Eibenstock dam is around 300 metres long and 57 metres high.
|
|||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 12
|
https://tripbucket.com/dreams/dream/visit-erzgebirgekrusnohori-ore-mountains-germany-czech-repub/
|
en
|
What's on your Bucket List?
|
https://tripbucket.com/dreams/dream/visit-erzgebirgekrusnohori-ore-mountains-germany-czech-repub/{{ vm.pageImage }}
|
https://tripbucket.com/dreams/dream/visit-erzgebirgekrusnohori-ore-mountains-germany-czech-repub/{{ vm.pageImage }}
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
"{{ vm.pageKeywords }}"
] | null |
[] | null |
{{ vm.pageDescription }}
|
en
|
/site_media/images/favicon.ico
|
https://tripbucket.com/{{ vm.pageUrl }}
| ||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 32
|
https://original-ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/UF00047650/00001
|
en
|
Summary histories
|
[
"https://cdn.sobekdigital.com/instances/ufdc/uf-uf9.gif",
"https://cdn.sobekdigital.com/instances/ufdc/uf-uflib9.gif",
"https://cdn.sobekdigital.com/instances/ufdc/ufdc_16.gif",
"https://cdn.sobekdigital.com/images/misc/printer.png",
"https://cdn.sobekdigital.com/images/misc/email.png",
"https://cdn.sobekdigital.com/images/misc/plussign.png",
"https://original-ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/design/wordmarks/flng.png",
"https://original-ufdc.uflib.ufl.edu/design/wordmarks/palmm.png",
"https://cdn.sobekdigital.com/images/misc/button_next_arrow.png",
"https://cdn.sobekdigital.com/images/misc/button_last_arrow.png",
"https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/UF/00/04/76/50/00001/00000.jpg",
"https://cdn.sobekdigital.com/images/misc/button_next_arrow.png",
"https://cdn.sobekdigital.com/images/misc/button_last_arrow.png",
"https://cdn.sobekdigital.com/instances/ufdc/smallWordmark_333333.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
| null |
Click on image below to switch to zoomable version
|
|||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 29
|
https://www.booking.com/landmark/de/eibenstock-lake.en-gb.html
|
en
|
The 10 best hotels close to Eibenstock reservoir in Eibenstock, Germany
|
[
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/gb/daba79fdd4066d133e8bf59070fd6819b951c403.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/de/668350ee17050ec21845c27503ae960695f341a9.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/us/fa2b2a0e643c840152ba856a8bb081c7ded40efa.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/cn/5a221730f540facc62563bfa6192ce155a9f677e.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/ru/2277320023a64803843c36ca6aa48ad77523dd0d.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/es/b3bd4690290a78b1303198dd6576bdab8d7f9a80.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/gb/daba79fdd4066d133e8bf59070fd6819b951c403.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/us/fa2b2a0e643c840152ba856a8bb081c7ded40efa.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/de/668350ee17050ec21845c27503ae960695f341a9.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/nl/65e3bcc466c4026a08bdb2671799ca26c3228d19.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/fr/c48bc65c9dc57035fa983df37e9732c0f0a2663f.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/es/b3bd4690290a78b1303198dd6576bdab8d7f9a80.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/ar/9cce2b91336709016282f06432a8b6366069e0c2.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/mx/f3a3f562a0185d68fb04b2ec01db2062ca6bdb76.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/catalonia/8578246a75d8b9dceaacb174072d0c6acafcc2df.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/it/b8db3771480bd0c7971b9f94cad3640c89521882.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/pt/715db1dc3acc79e1e109a9563fbf8a172e873ae5.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/br/0cf5e55d996fdcf96a2d31733addf5c10bad1f74.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/no/827be8d24af5667778b4bc651fe03f738a812b60.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/fi/465d3b73ff07d1d696cb5dd26fbb91097c175e1b.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/se/5e126775c25a54a24956ddcc72c8bbcaeed20872.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/dk/744575dd4e87590a543b7c8cbacaef6c3de4e4d2.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/cz/32002e60fead55ce886ff9827dfcf4af8cf4e277.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/hu/fc7cb24c5c7cb9de74a74fad271d6838daabc4cb.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/ro/2d67b91f7beb87bd9286975da3e6dadc70d9c64b.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/jp/9bf7e50bc6dc66599aeede9189ca16de461c60b6.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/cn/5a221730f540facc62563bfa6192ce155a9f677e.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/z4/ced4751e6ac2cbb9884a5878fff59a4e24c3e386.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/pl/4d6b6e962b0b049a03924fc618b959395d60ae39.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/gr/e0e42a97a7b860fc9be71954262902f2a4e94aa6.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/ru/2277320023a64803843c36ca6aa48ad77523dd0d.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/tr/f7ad0cb74f4ea5e7193cb6029c7f977e9786cfa2.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/bg/540f2da5fee31b7385af127619ab5ca4fc3783b5.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/sa/44ab510f37755d1d9d4c4dfa9b1f25bed9b2a95c.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/kr/4cb76b458a73ca4c1de034c7623475278d363ce6.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/il/fc1907ccd86aa051f7fbe22649d1e31ac6aee016.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/lv/393103a26c1d5f1fbd7d9674732bbdfc42296399.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/ua/2ea50f1c1fb480c4557a5578f71657fc3152c3a1.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/in/20aa535a5d3c505dd02fea275ed1a36c0fb1fe08.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/id/e7d3d00965d8c994a72807b43b21c648250cf906.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/my/6d811cf6127cea0a957ca0243546a03339fa19ac.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/th/53a76d6856962953d739d07ac61f04adee50a3d1.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/ee/509074558f4fe7c71ceed57584dec0382274dd16.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/hr/e7a46f4dad977aecafa6a3680972e0c137a1bc41.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/lt/5bb712a60a82b7e075deba5b102aa36348bbb255.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/sk/29e3667f5aca74c157af9225d5a97a74a41e52ef.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/rs/c1bc4fc1d782713cfec17a071dadca6b755a233e.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/si/f0619cdd45548522566c6d72a660ddc011906184.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/vn/90b17da2aafaebce7b0c34189747e1e10dba8041.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/ph/7048127466891462116ee2774154585fb5607aba.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/new/48-squared/is/7d644655f895f8e346b964dc18cf5b6608a98d52.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/square600/380265894.webp?k=0d38966c6ee69b8d3f91ccedc3c92bd16350904318d8d20dccc2729368e2d69c&o=",
"https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/a/AATXAJwq79lNjLb27yqHSbygbPJRQwp5CFD6a9WOtG-4=s96-c",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/12//gb.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/square600/303723688.webp?k=e2fd5f760bbe047a19a0f1ca8338638107c20badcdfa6853e24f6d8357d6b28b&o=",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-k.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/12//cz.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/square600/131337815.webp?k=937609bf3ef3b5a26758c6215b64049be406c1e367aaeedd7f761c98d2af1e01&o=",
"https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/-nZW8SW_F47w/AAAAAAAAAAI/AAAAAAAAAAA/AMZuucmmb5QZ_bkg-sJT1SttqvJCgAAp3g/s96-c/photo.jpg",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/12//ch.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/square600/513761192.webp?k=3a50da03809ccc8d0203ca515441ef8e7f7a49b1b2955b7e418f2790762021fa&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/square600/110312847.webp?k=b885abcce7b0ad42df967adaa2ed2bcd9d9f8969a88035a7d4991736a27580c4&o=",
"https://graph.facebook.com/v2.9/10155351048473152/picture?type=square&height=64&width=64",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/flags/12//au.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/square600/31710599.webp?k=deafdee06b8d7eac38bbd2af6d85ec7896cb3259d873e7295b2cb98bffcdc4bb&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/303723688.webp?k=e2fd5f760bbe047a19a0f1ca8338638107c20badcdfa6853e24f6d8357d6b28b&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/131337815.webp?k=937609bf3ef3b5a26758c6215b64049be406c1e367aaeedd7f761c98d2af1e01&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/259863936.webp?k=16b3e363cfb6d1593ada115076a156dcf675f950cfc7333d73dc67c7acd8ae43&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/60967913.webp?k=db200a86b78c9902cea5951b1cea50ec75bf61f04937e66b84e68a5686e99a49&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/40540184.webp?k=40e6a44316e8e8f73b66aa0451e92f11b409ed48486c1053a6be2532109c9982&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/265855323.webp?k=4b8636b2f17c7c045e76f865c947ce30c897ff2d0a1c8709bde57eb167ed64e4&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/40944073.webp?k=e160f6d3c2d12dafaa3c302bdbe688946fa69dba0ac27177824b77f521418f69&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/549754482.webp?k=502b0dc709b2cf7ce333e47b7e558612a6623a3fd7c8739ced2c0ad20fcd32ab&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/398998989.webp?k=0f9be68ab8d8dde4ef7e217a1afc5a192390e79b925f2c48cdd13ca1a7d52aec&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/567878395.webp?k=b86fecb06e4905018db15ceacb5e3f4f9088b5c0400609487f0249d04502c980&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/50690760.webp?k=a00e90e8b2d8db632886b516a7513b416bfabc133aa05a0f30924761f1cc5d57&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/267169730.webp?k=d90394999fd3564c27fba0c542b7e3b350fb36fe88cafeb5273063ba1910a347&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/49953186.webp?k=f1707f544cc464815dcf800292f4667d8a29ab385a2976204762b10e290b49a3&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/327647108.webp?k=5b122c2ac5ffd9f307aec45da6b7dbb0ca98e610dc0213e4f19716caab8d6627&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/413075302.webp?k=6bb3f680f9095ef7929c92b060142b54d9450dba46f61068f62138e961f21b66&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/310219767.webp?k=5c7cec8c6af99cc2c3b1024ca8258e4383c2c55c5b4c74208c1f117958762015&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/513761192.webp?k=3a50da03809ccc8d0203ca515441ef8e7f7a49b1b2955b7e418f2790762021fa&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/3798722.webp?k=53acffdbd8b8b284bce91fb67cdf845c9a0f066e2f33c8276f273adf1573b4ec&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/62179064.webp?k=ba45c25018dad492582c4c442fe48ff58ba28bb8446c150efefb1951599b1614&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/78972253.webp?k=efec32a12a4e219307e74c8e2a17bc5160cf4d74fc231a459fb39222d0df4f45&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/63669451.webp?k=2e7a842b02c6a38613bfc88f943b4358e3238215b552ca263eb6e15f4e3e5a92&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/92855705.webp?k=5fad0c7792e905081a39eb5e69644b31323836cc5072dc2d7dd178fad831e2eb&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/232763119.webp?k=9b163daf0ad5cd6e1bd11f4a03fc99e4ccb2bc06498c163f43fd821d31d8a733&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/270x200/88806683.webp?k=10bfee7da2bd0c45c824619f82d5dbfc400894e26938754015f50de843a6b7c5&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/region/375x225/74216.jpg?k=892cf58efede425f7e051f79319416a815433044308f1c3b5185ce4befb57bcb&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/region/square100/63770.jpg?k=31f2345735aaba9e3d6b3c582584aa3e5ee90519e9d7a7e7c97355b4e8088a27&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/landmark/square100/268351.jpg?k=054417c3f52b7f6575984d7e373aeff89a16cd366d6b807b2a1e6246e0f8e322&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/landmark/360x140/268348.jpg?k=2d6234091a77ee4abeed485ba8d194157c1d390024cca3fa2cffd4862ccdbb17&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/country/360x140/892.jpg?k=bb030c032568a62cc2873ea68d63125409de6787d595776ea37e658973334a8d&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/city/360x140/924550.jpg?k=21485c5fd8d5c4eb64d56a0ce98a01e80fe67c3d91f7fdf0e600d29d7e810522&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/city/375x225/842025.jpg?k=fc55a591349815b28e2aaa669708c34243949e88acecdf4c849c6f9219890ab8&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/city/square100/809511.jpg?k=a3eed362433559d450d797a462a0985ddc607bdcd712744dfaa7b22a95407a63&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/city/square100/851855.jpg?k=cf26653f72006b1e33d8b336a5ea22ed4f816d9822a4ed2a9357db93c7a8fb05&o=",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/tfl/group_logos/logo_booking/27c8d1832de6a3123b6ee45b59ae2f81b0d9d0d0.png ",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/tfl/group_logos/logo_priceline/f80e129541f2a952d470df2447373390f3dd4e44.png ",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/tfl/group_logos/logo_kayak/83ef7122074473a6566094e957ff834badb58ce6.png ",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/tfl/group_logos/logo_agoda/1c9191b6a3651bf030e41e99a153b64f449845ed.png ",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/tfl/group_logos/logo_opentable/a4b50503eda6c15773d6e61c238230eb42fb050d.png ",
"https://www.booking.com/logo?ver=0&sid=2a0ff8c0363c608028f3896b9ec75a60&t=1723897664"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
"lodging",
"accommodation",
"Hotel",
"Hotels",
"Travel",
"Map",
"Facts",
"Airport",
"Information",
"Pictures"
] | null |
[
"Kateřina Czech Republic",
"Bneuja Switzerland",
"Bronwyn Australia"
] | null |
Find hotels near Eibenstock reservoir, Germany online. Good availability and great rates. Book online, pay at the hotel. No reservation costs.
|
Booking.com
|
https://www.booking.com/landmark/de/eibenstock-lake.en-gb.html
|
In the heart of the Old Town, Hotel Ratskeller Schwarzenberg is centrally located in the picturesque town of Schwarzenberg. Free WiFi access is available in all areas of the hotel.
Breakfast good service good, three stories to the room with no lift wAs hard.
A sauna, traditional beer garden and buffet breakfasts are offered by this hotel. Set in the scenic Erzgebirge mountain region, it is just 800 metres from the historic Old Town.
Breakfast was delicious. Staff was very kind and attentive.
This traditional 4-star Superior hotel is located in the centre of the historic Saxon mining town of Aue. It offers a daily breakfast buffet, free parking, 2 restaurants and a spa.
the owner at the bar and the staff behind the desk
Away from all and any noisiness and hecticness of a crowded city, Sportpark Rabenberg is located between Fichtelberg and Auersberg at an altitude of 900 m, making it the perfect place for a relaxing...
Gute Unterkunft wenn man mit dem MTB unterwegs ist.
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 13
|
https://www.komoot.com/guide/192648/hiking-around-dam-eibenstock
|
en
|
Top 20 Hikes and Walks around Dam Eibenstock
|
https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=768&height=576&crop=true
|
https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=768&height=576&crop=true
|
[
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=540&crop=false&q=80 540w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=720&crop=false&q=80 720w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=1024&crop=false&q=80 1024w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=1080&crop=false&q=80 1080w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=1280&crop=false&q=80 1280w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=1440&crop=false&q=80 1440w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=1680&crop=false&q=80 1680w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=1920&crop=false&q=80 1920w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=2048&crop=false&q=80 2048w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=2560&crop=false&q=80 2560w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=2880&crop=false&q=80 2880w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=3360&crop=false&q=80 3360w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/www/guide/192648/1GON84?width=3840&crop=false&q=80 3840w",
"https://www.komoot.com/images/guide/signup-hike-v001.png?width=540&q=80 540w,/images/guide/signup-hike-v001.png?width=720&q=80 720w,/images/guide/signup-hike-v001.png?width=1024&q=80 1024w,/images/guide/signup-hike-v001.png?width=1080&q=80 1080w,/images/guide/signup-hike-v001.png?width=1280&q=80 1280w,/images/guide/signup-hike-v001.png?width=1440&q=80 1440w,/images/guide/signup-hike-v001.png?width=1680&q=80 1680w,/images/guide/signup-hike-v001.png?width=1920&q=80 1920w,/images/guide/signup-hike-v001.png?width=2048&q=80 2048w,/images/guide/signup-hike-v001.png?width=2560&q=80 2560w,/images/guide/signup-hike-v001.png?width=2880&q=80 2880w,/images/guide/signup-hike-v001.png?width=3360&q=80 3360w,/images/guide/signup-hike-v001.png?width=3840&q=80 3840w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/green-16.jpg?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/green-16.jpg?width=128&height=128&crop=true&q=80 128w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/blue-12.jpg?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/blue-12.jpg?width=128&height=128&crop=true&q=80 128w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/blue-14.jpg?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/blue-14.jpg?width=128&height=128&crop=true&q=80 128w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/blue-10.jpg?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/blue-10.jpg?width=128&height=128&crop=true&q=80 128w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/blue-11.jpg?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/blue-11.jpg?width=128&height=128&crop=true&q=80 128w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/teal-10.jpg?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/teal-10.jpg?width=128&height=128&crop=true&q=80 128w",
"https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/brown-15.jpg?width=64&height=64&crop=true&q=80 64w,https://d2exd72xrrp1s7.cloudfront.net/static/guides/cover-images/placeholder-contours/brown-15.jpg?width=128&height=128&crop=true&q=80 128w",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/a8f071fcb146fa0ac508.svg",
"https://www.komoot.com/assets/f306df4b8a91db944909.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
Browse the best walks around Dam Eibenstock and see interactive maps of the top 20
hiking trails and routes.
|
en
|
/assets/321c2ca1bae0372f55bd.png
|
komoot
|
https://www.komoot.com/guide/192648/hiking-around-dam-eibenstock
|
Looking for the best hikes and walks around Dam Eibenstock? Then browse our collection of routes around this beautiful lake in Erzgebirgskreis below. We present you with hiking trails around Dam Eibenstock — all you’ve got to do is pick your favorite and get going.
Our Tour recommendations are based on thousands of activities completed by other people on komoot.
Learn more
|
||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 52
|
https://www.booking.com/hotel/de/kunsthof-eibenstock.html
|
en
|
Kunsthof Eibenstock, Eibenstock (updated prices 2024)
|
[
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/max1024x768/180862875.jpg?k=47d6715653caa5dc7feff219663b2fa702a42f5f75567883193d9fd18027127c&o=&hp=1",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/max500/528787981.jpg?k=e790ff9520494bd107d988699f06be8a7c432fac973c702f36cf5d465916416b&o=&hp=1",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/max500/556591604.jpg?k=2daa0c6eec96e28b0b2c2da09f5d161ba0fd7a5d879d607f5371ecf6c0c9ebe5&o=&hp=1",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/max300/182726480.jpg?k=492e8ba697cd73184bcf59c0d0c70bd2896cade33544c614d2d3913aa5224f7b&o=&hp=1",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/max300/429106214.jpg?k=e983b9eceb53a16c7fa2e794020caaa6d08c46b270386b1eed21228789995ed1&o=&hp=1",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/max300/182727864.jpg?k=00758c343d565c72f9a7ca0c2b60a51f590d61f827a3ef6352c38c448550049e&o=&hp=1",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/xdata/images/hotel/max300/182722082.jpg?k=524ac9956519ab505341822a67bdc9f73d53b441167188a14c5761ebf935fa56&o=&hp=1",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-r.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/Ch.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-c.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-p.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-i.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-s.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-a.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-b.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-k.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/a-/AFdZucoj6qYXG3Do6xZtbfrZrhSPEigIdYV39Q9V1Z_3=s96-c",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/a/AATXAJyfb_dtYXreUuyyG-851wyeF8uOhZRCmwKq7QUs=s96-c",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://r-xx.bstatic.com/xdata/images/xphoto/248x248/294910959.jpeg?k=e459f57356fb64e8550e5b8c3d2352d50b49de3555b7bcea982678ef36e636ea&o=",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-r.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/Ch.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-c.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-p.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-i.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-s.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-a.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-b.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://xx.bstatic.com/static/img/review/avatars/ava-k.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/a-/AFdZucoj6qYXG3Do6xZtbfrZrhSPEigIdYV39Q9V1Z_3=s96-c",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/a/AATXAJyfb_dtYXreUuyyG-851wyeF8uOhZRCmwKq7QUs=s96-c",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/De.png",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/transparent/8e09e5757781bf4c0f42228d45f422e5e800ae64.gif",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/transparent/8e09e5757781bf4c0f42228d45f422e5e800ae64.gif",
"https://cf.bstatic.com/static/img/transparent/85e02501df1560d359a473f544224481a83c9aa7.png",
"https://t-cf.bstatic.com/design-assets/assets/v3.125.0/images-flags/Gb@3x.png",
"https://www.booking.com/logo?ver=0&sid=8135fe561573d4e00e49540586e41172&t=1724974049"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
"Kunsthof Eibenstock",
"Eibenstock",
"Germany",
"R:Saxony",
"Hotel",
"Hotels"
] | null |
[] | null |
Located within 14 km of German Space Travel Exhibition and 35 km of Göltzsch Viaduct in Eibenstock, Kunsthof Eibenstock provides accommodation with seating...
|
Booking.com
|
https://www.booking.com/hotel/de/kunsthof-eibenstock.en-gb.html
|
Located within 14 km of German Space Travel Exhibition and 35 km of Göltzsch Viaduct in Eibenstock, Kunsthof Eibenstock provides accommodation with seating area. This property offers access to a terrace, free private parking and free WiFi. Featuring family rooms, this property also provides guests with an outdoor fireplace. Each unit is equipped with an oven, toaster, a coffee machine, as well as a fridge and kettle. Some of the units include a satellite TV, a fully equipped kitchen with a dishwasher, and a private bathroom with a walk-in shower and a hair dryer. At the apartment complex, all units come with bed linen and towels. The apartment serves a buffet and continental breakfast and breakfast in the room is also available. A coffee shop can be found on-site, and in the warmer months you can make use of the barbecue facilities. The apartment boasts a variety of wellness options, including spa facilities, wellness packages and yoga classes. For guests with children, Kunsthof Eibenstock offers a children's playground. Skiing and cycling can be enjoyed nearby, while a ski equipment rental service and a ski pass sales point are also available on-site. Fichtelberg is 40 km from the accommodation, while Sachsenring is 48 km away. The nearest airport is Karlovy Vary International Airport, 56 km from Kunsthof Eibenstock.
Couples particularly like the location — they rated it 9.0 for a two-person trip.
Distance in property description is calculated using © OpenStreetMap
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 72
|
en
|
File:Talsperre Eibenstock Luftaufnahme.jpg
|
[
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Talsperre_Eibenstock_Luftaufnahme.jpg/800px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_Luftaufnahme.jpg?20190531164016",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Openstreetmap_logo.svg/20px-Openstreetmap_logo.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/OOjs_UI_icon_help.svg/18px-OOjs_UI_icon_help.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/CC_some_rights_reserved.svg/90px-CC_some_rights_reserved.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Cc-by_new_white.svg/24px-Cc-by_new_white.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Cc-sa_white.svg/24px-Cc-sa_white.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Talsperre_Eibenstock_Luftaufnahme.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_Luftaufnahme.jpg?20190531164016",
"https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1",
"https://commons.wikimedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg",
"https://commons.wikimedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2019-05-05T13:16:36
|
en
|
/static/apple-touch/commons.png
|
This file contains additional information such as Exif metadata which may have been added by the digital camera, scanner, or software program used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details such as the timestamp may not fully reflect those of the original file. The timestamp is only as accurate as the clock in the camera, and it may be completely wrong.
Camera manufacturersamsungCamera modelSM-G930FHExposure time1/1,616 sec (0.00061881188118812)F-numberf/1.7ISO speed rating40Lens focal length4.2 mmLatitude50° 29′ 52.52″ NLongitude12° 35′ 47.13″ EAltitude1,124 meters above sea levelOrientationNormalHorizontal resolution72 dpiVertical resolution72 dpiSoftware usedG930FXXS4ESC3Y and C positioningCenteredExposure ProgramNormal programExif version2.2Meaning of each component
Y
Cb
Cr
does not exist
APEX shutter speed10.66APEX aperture1.53APEX brightness8.52APEX exposure bias0Maximum land aperture1.53 APEX (f/1.7)Metering modeCenter weighted averageFlashFlash did not fireDateTime subseconds0432DateTimeOriginal subseconds0432DateTimeDigitized subseconds0432Supported Flashpix version1Color spacesRGBExposure modeAuto exposureWhite balanceAuto white balanceFocal length in 35 mm film26 mmScene capture typeStandardGPS tag version0.0.3.2
|
||||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 86
|
https://osf.io/mepkc/%3Faction%3Ddownload
|
en
|
OSF
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
| null | ||||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 33
|
https://www.tendersontime.com/tenders-details/tender-eibenstock-dam-schnheiderhammer-dam---clearing-dried-sediments-lying-dump-2d2572c/
|
en
|
Germany Govt Tender for Tender for Eibenstock Dam, Schönheiderhammer Dam ...
|
[
"https://www.tendersontime.com/images/tenders-on-time-logo.png",
"https://www.tendersontime.com/images/google_g_logo.svg.webp",
"https://www.tendersontime.com/images/google_g_logo.svg.webp",
"https://www.tendersontime.com/images/expired.webp"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"www.facebook.com"
] | null |
Germany government tender for Tender for Eibenstock Dam, Schönheiderhammer Dam - Clearing of the Dried Sediments Lying on the Dum..., TOT Ref No: 47339308, Tender Ref No: -, Deadline: 19th Nov 2020, Register to view latest Online Global Tenders, E-Tender, E-Procurement.
|
en
|
TendersOnTime
|
https://www.tendersontime.com/tenders-details/tender-eibenstock-dam-schnheiderhammer-dam---clearing-dried-sediments-lying-dump-2d2572c/
|
LANDESTALSPERRENVERAGEUNG OF THE FREE STATE OF SAXONY has floated a tender for Tender for Eibenstock Dam, Schönheiderhammer Dam - Clearing of the Dried Sediments Lying on the Dump. The project location is Germany and the tender is closing on 19 Nov 2020. The tender notice number is , while the TOT Ref Number is 47339308. Bidders can have further information about the Tender and can request the complete Tender document by Registering on the site.
Procurement Summary
Country : Germany
Summary : Tender for Eibenstock Dam, Schönheiderhammer Dam - Clearing of the Dried Sediments Lying on the Dump
Deadline : 19 Nov 2020
Other Information
Notice Type : Tender
TOT Ref.No.: 47339308
Document Ref. No. :
Competition : ICB
Financier : Self Financed
Purchaser Ownership : -
Tender Value : Refer Document
Purchaser's Detail
Purchaser : LANDESTALSPERRENVERAGEUNG OF THE FREE STATE OF SAXONY
Awarding agency: State dam administration of the Free State of Saxony
Germany
URL :http://www.service.bund.de
Tender Details
Tender for Eibenstock dam, Schönheiderhammer preliminary dam - clearing of the dried sediments lying on the dump
Services and products: Construction work
Documents
Tender Notice
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 90
|
https://www.academia.edu/2357089/4_4_Aspectos_de_Protecci%25C3%25B3n_Ambiental_en_la_Miner%25C3%25ADa_del_N%25C3%25ADquel_ejemplo_de_Moa_Cuba
|
en
|
4.4 Aspectos de Protección Ambiental en la Minería del Níquel: ejemplo de Moa, Cuba
|
http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif
|
http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif
|
[
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-redesign-2015-A.svg",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-redesign-2015.svg",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/single_work_splash/adobe.icon.svg",
"https://0.academia-photos.com/attachment_thumbnails/30395294/mini_magick20180818-32110-1nhrpu0.png?1534645572",
"https://0.academia-photos.com/384280/993626/1249439/s65_allan.pierra_conde.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loaders/paper-load.gif",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Allan Pierra Conde",
"gfdugb.academia.edu"
] |
2013-01-03T00:00:00
|
4.4 Aspectos de Protección Ambiental en la Minería del Níquel: ejemplo de Moa, Cuba
|
https://www.academia.edu/2357089/4_4_Aspectos_de_Protecci%C3%B3n_Ambiental_en_la_Miner%C3%ADa_del_N%C3%ADquel_ejemplo_de_Moa_Cuba
|
This paper is about the trade of copper originating from the Harz Mountains or, more specifically, from Goslar, and concentrates on the period between the 12 th and 14 th centuries. The Harz Mountains can be regarded as the largest and most important copper source of medieval Central Europe until the rise of copper production in Falun in the 14 th century, and mining historians have shown that the trade of metallic products from the Harz was well established by the 12 th century. The recent study of Huneberg has provided a model for the production capacity of a typical 12 th century woodland smelting site producing copper and lead in one of medieval Europe's foremost mining areas. Historians have documented the extent of metal production and trade in Goslar, an important source for raw materials that could be transported up the Rhine to market towns like Cologne and to the Meuse valley, important centres for the production of copper alloy goods. Combining our understanding of the histories of trade and mining allows an approximation to be made of the production volume of the Harz per year for the medieval period. These estimations tally quite well with the demand for copper known to us from written sources, such as the copper roof of the cathedral of Goslar from 1050 or the copper order for the Bamberg cathedral's roof by Bishop Otto in 1128.
Excavations at a Medieval mining settlement in north-west Germany produced a series of metallurgy-related finds, including ore, slag, lead bullion and silver coins. These were analysed by various methods to establish their relationship to one another, in order to reconstruct the lead smelting process. The mineralogical analysis of ores and slags, and particularly of inclusions of matte, speiss and metal trapped in the slag, led to an estimate of roasting and smelting conditions. The analysis of lead isotope ratios of several of the finds further revealed two distinct strands of smelting, indicating the treatment of silver-rich ores separately from the bulk lead ore. This evidence underpins current historic research on the organisation of medieval metal mining and extraction in Central Europe in general, and illustrates the benefits of interdisciplinary research integrating archaeological, scientific and historical approaches alike.
The trade of silver in Viking Age Scandinavia is intertwined with the development and collapse of long distance trade routes stretching as far as the North Atlantic in the west to Central Asia in the east. Hedeby, a Viking emporium, was an important gateway of trade between the Baltic and North Seas, and this makes it is an ideal place to explore the evolution of the silver supply in the 10th and 11th centuries A.D. The elemental and lead isotope compositions of locally minted Hedeby coins were compared to jewelry objects, hacksilver and imported silver coins, and four chronologically related groups could be identified that reflect changes in the origin and type of raw materials used. This study features the use of laser ablation mass spectrometry of ca. 200 silver objects, and these analyses are placed in a broader context of early medieval silver metallurgy, mining archaeology and numismatics to interpret the compositional shifts as shifts in trade. Additionally, studies on crucibles and lead-based finds from Hedeby were carried out as well as the analysis of ore and slag from Central Asia to explore recycling and silver production technologies during the Viking period.
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 1
|
https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/2018/03/01/saving-the-bockau-arch-bridge-an-americans-perspective-day-one/
|
en
|
Saving the Bockau Arch Bridge- An American’s Perspective: Day One
|
[
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/aebf46b7fc5a96a9d76263bc70c1922f?s=100&d=identicon&r=g",
"https://www.clustrmaps.com/map_v2.png?d=vZZFuP7NTWi-eJ_tkPoliH56YXs_VdY9gLEoAb2nHyk&cl=ffffff",
"https://live.staticflickr.com/3885/14584186910_f60eec4007_m.jpg",
"https://live.staticflickr.com/3866/14584255948_346c8e8b2c_m.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/52854047_2299272173436752_5939636859209515008_o.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/i/rss/red-large.png?m=1391188133i",
"https://s-ssl.wordpress.com/wp-includes/images/rss.png?m=1354137473i",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/21273008_1619876831376293_1500923053373351983_o.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/rhb51.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/rhb1.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/rhb31.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/rhb41.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/rhb21.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=183&h=59",
"https://assets.pinterest.com/images/pidgets/pinit_fg_en_rect_gray_20.png",
"https://1.gravatar.com/avatar/4f98335b67c3d8a9d579398ab305935458f37fb4edec133d559dd1626163d3df?s=48&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/cropped-bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=50",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/cropped-bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=50",
"https://pixel.wp.com/b.gif?v=noscript"
] |
[
"https://www.google.com/maps/d/embed?mid=1W9tqkKqn59KjOwvdDLcKpYQ1S8g&hl=en"
] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Bridgehunter's Chronicles"
] |
2018-03-01T00:00:00
|
Nur Heimat gibts nichts- There is never just a homeland. This is a comment that I remember during my first meeting with the committee to save the Bockau Arch Bridge. Located over the Zwickauer Mulde River six kilometers southwest of Aue in western Saxony, this 146-year old stone arch bridge is one of a…
|
en
|
The Bridgehunter's Chronicles
|
https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/2018/03/01/saving-the-bockau-arch-bridge-an-americans-perspective-day-one/
|
Nur Heimat gibts nichts- There is never just a homeland.
This is a comment that I remember during my first meeting with the committee to save the Bockau Arch Bridge. Located over the Zwickauer Mulde River six kilometers southwest of Aue in western Saxony, this 146-year old stone arch bridge is one of a few historic landmarks left in the town of Bockau, with a population of 2,100 inhabitants. Closed since the end of August 2017, I had the dubious priviledge of having to make a detour of enternity in order to arrive at our first meeting. This meant going up the hill along Bockau Creek (which the over 800-year old town was named after), then making a pair of sharp curves going right onto a narrow street which leads me out of town, but not onto the bridge that has been blocked off completely. I had to drive another 15 kilometers on a paved road full of sharp curves, potholes, cracks, ice, and wolves roaming about in the forest until I reached the Eibenstock Reservoir. There, I crossed the next bridge and backtracked on the main highway going on the opposite side of the river which led to the meeting place next to the closed bridge- The Rechenhaus Restaurant. There, I was greeted by the welcoming party, despite my 45-minute late arrival, with happiness and joy that an American was coming to help. 🙂
How did I end up here in the first place? And why do a documentary on an old stone arch bridge that no one really knows much about?
As the two pigs Piggeldy and Frederick would say “Nicht leichter als das.” (No easier than this):
I’ve been a bridgehunter since I was five years old, having photographed and written about tens of thousands of bridges in 14 countries (including the US) and 14 states in the US (including my home state of Minnesota). In Germany, I’ve covered all but three of the 16 Bundesländer. This includes Saxony, the region I’ve been touring since 2016. I’ve been running the Chronicles since 2010 and have worked with groups on how to not only restore historic bridges but also how to make them attractive for tourists. This includes my involvement with historic bridge conventions as coordinator and speaker and my use of social media to garnish the attention of interested readers and other history enthusiasts. I’m also a teacher of English, which I’ve been doing since 2001, and since August 2017, I’ve been based full-time at the Saxony Police Academy in Schneeberg, located only three kilometers from the Bockau Bridge. It was also the same time period as my time in Saxony that I’ve done tours in the region, be it in cities like Dresden, Rochlitz, Leipzig, Glauchau, Zwickau, Aue/Schlema and Chemnitz, just to name a few, or along rivers like the Mulde and Elbe. And it was these bridgehunting tours that got the attention of the regional newspapers, namely the Free Press in Chemnitz, whose news reporters at the regional offices led me to this group saving this particular bridge.
And as for the bridge itself, it has more history than many locals know about. It was built in 1872 and is made of natural stone from the Ore Mountains. It took approximately a full year with lots of manpower to construct a multi-span stone arch bridge that connected Bockau with Albernnau and Zschorlau on the opposite side. At approximately 200 meters in length, the bridge is the longest in the western Ore Mountains and second longest along the Zwickau Mulde River. A local restaurant with the name Rechenhaus was the site of the dam and lock area and headwaters plant, which were built between 1556 and 1559. The first bridge- a wooden covered span- was built in 1559 spanning the river and canal complex. The flow of the water was ideal for transporting materials downstream, and workers constructed several canals in the mountain region less than 90 years later. Even the headwaters plant was once a mill before it eventually became the barracks for the 11th Panzer Division of the German Army during World War II, where they used the bridge to march into Czechoslovakia and Poland.
In an attempt to slow down the progress of advancing soldiers from the east, the 11th Panzer Division was ordered to detonate the bridge in April 1945. This is the same tank division of German army that had fought (and lost) at Stalingrad, Kursk and the Battle of the Bulge before retreating towards Germany. Yet a brave unknown soldier did the unthinkable and relocated the bombs to a temporary bridge in Fährbrücke (south of Zwickau) before blowing that bridge up. This allowed for the Soviets and Americans to easily cross the bridge with their tanks with ease while setting the people free in the process. The 11th Panzer surrendered in Passau on 2 May, 1945, six days before Germany capitulated. The same bridge was used again 23 years later, as soliders from the Warsaw Pact armies, consisiting of mainly Russians and East Germans crossed this bridge enroute to Prague to quash the Spring Movement. By that time, the headwaters house, which had been the barracks, was converted into the Rechenhaus Restaurant, which still serves customers today.
The bridge was renovated in 1988 when concrete decking was added and the arches were reinforced with steel bracing. The bridge has been listed by the German Preservation Commission because of its cultural significance. Yet despite all the history that is involved with this bridge, the historical monument has become a stranger to people in the region, having somewhat lost its face in the eyes of the locals. The mayors of Bockau and Zschorlau would like to see the bridge gone once its replacement opens. The same with the state of Saxony and the German government, both are championing a 6.4 million Euro project to replace the old bridge. And despite the petition going around for saving the bridge, a handful of politicians are interested in keeping the bridge for pedestrian use after the new structure is built- most of them with little affiliation with the region with the exception of the Green party.
And this is where I come in.
Our first meeting at the Rechenhaus Restaurant, the historic building which once had the barracks but was originally the headwaters mill and dam complex. The restaurant has a very Erzgebirge taste to it, with a collection of incense men and wood-carved chandeliers. Opposite the entrance to the restaurant is a mahoghany-framed painting of the dam and mill as it was in the 16th century. Some in the committee would like to see it again as a way to slow the flow of the Zwickau Mulde. The river had flooded towns downstream on six different occasions since the bridge was built, with the worst of them having occurred in 1954, 2002 and 2013. Given its proximity to the bridge, many would like to see the restaurant as is. Yet its location during the construction period has become a painful inconvenience. Talking to the restaurant owner, he was deeply disturbed by the construction and stated that since the project started, he had lost up to 60% of his customers. Whether he can compensate once the new span opens remains unclear.
We were nine people minus the restaurant owner, each one with a new set of ideas on how to keep and possibly fix the bridge so that it can be used again. Yet as seen with the American historic bridges, money needs to be there in order for it to happen. Political connections needs to be there in order for it to happen. The same with the use of media and lastly support from the public. As with all historic bridges, the public is the first line of offence in pursuing the preservation of historic bridges. Whether it is with petitions, technical know-how or even planning events, they always have the ideas first before our elected officials. After that, we get the attention out there via social media. Through that and the events, the politicians come in with bills to approve measure to restore the bridge. Then the money comes in to pay for the costs.
For our bridge in Bockau, we’re already at step one, which is public interest. A petition with 1700 signatures was sent to Dresden to the state parliament. Another one is in the works which includes an English version for people to sign and establishing a website. That will be my job for right now- an important one! Speaking from experience with the Green Bridge in Des Moines, gathering interest in social networking will make waves and influence the thinking of the higher-ups of politics and business. Once that is established and we have the English version to submit to Dresden, the next plan is to meet with officials in Dresden to discuss the situation and ways to make the historic pedestrian crossing a reality. A big plus is the fact that the bridge and the mill area are historic lanbdmarks which make it impossible to tear down unless ordered by the federal government. How that works will come in a later article. Then with the connections and planning will be the events. This is where the tough part comes in. How to make this bridge attractive to tourists of all age? We’ve looked at drawing contests, concerts and the like. But what else could be do there? And how can we raise money for the project? This is independent on any funding available for rehabilitating the bridge, which is scarce at the moment, but the search continues.
It’s a battle that one can lose but it’s better to die trying than to sit and do nothing. The mentality has increased in the US over the past decade, yet Germany does have a lot of pride in its history and culture, too much of it to just sit and do nothing.
And with that, I must set to work. I have my expertise to use and share, while others are garnering some more support from locals and interested people in the project. Therefore, what are we waiting for? Get to work!
More on my involvement in the preservation project to come. Stay tuned! 🙂
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 31
|
https://archive.org/stream/registerdepartm01statgoog/registerdepartm01statgoog_djvu.txt
|
en
|
Full text of "Register of the Department of State"
|
[
"https://archive.org/services/img/etree",
"https://archive.org/services/img/librivoxaudio",
"https://archive.org/services/img/metropolitanmuseumofart-gallery",
"https://archive.org/services/img/clevelandart",
"https://archive.org/services/img/internetarcade",
"https://archive.org/services/img/consolelivingroom",
"https://archive.org/images/book-lend.png",
"https://archive.org/images/widgetOL.png",
"https://archive.org/services/img/tv",
"https://archive.org/services/img/911",
"https://athena.archive.org/0.gif?kind=track_js&track_js_case=control&cache_bust=2068410126",
"https://athena.archive.org/0.gif?kind=track_js&track_js_case=disabled&cache_bust=1892524323"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
|
https://archive.org/details/registerdepartm01statgoog
|
See other formats
Google This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project to make the world's books discoverable online. It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover. Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the publisher to a library and finally to you. Usage guidelines Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing tliis resource, we liave taken steps to prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying. We also ask that you: + Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for personal, non-commercial purposes. + Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help. + Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for in forming people about this project and helping them find additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it. + Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe. About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at |http: //books .google .com/I REGISTER DEPARTMENT OF STATE SEPTEMBER 20, 1911 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE REGISTER DEPARTMENT OF STATE SEPTEMBER 20. 191 1 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 191 I DEC 3 1937 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. I. Secretaries of State 7 II. Assistant Secretaries of State 9 III. Second Assistant Secretaries of State 10 IV. Third Assistant Secretaries of State 10 V. Officers and Clerks of the Department of Stale 11 VI. Organization of the Department of State 17 VII. Present Diplomatic Service of the United States 21 VIII. Classification of Consulates-General and Consulates 24 IX. Consular Districts 26 X. Tariff of United States Consular Fees 29 XI. Compensation of Consular Agents 30 XII. Present Consular Service of the United States 31 Consuls-General at Large 31 Consular Officers in Abyssinia, 32; Argentine Republic, 32; Austria-Hungary, 32; Belgium, 32; Brazil, 32; Chile, 33; China, 33; Colombia, 34; Costa Rica, 34; Cuba, 34; Denmark and Dominions, 34; Dominican Re- public, 34; Ecuador, 35; France and Dominions, 35; German Empire, 36; Great Britain and Dominions, 37; Greece, 42; Guatemala, 42; Haiti, 42; Honduras, 42; Italy, 43; Japan, 43; Kongo, 43; Liberia, 44; Mexico, 44; Morocco, 45; Netherlands and Dominions, 45; Nicaragua, 45; Norway, 45; Oman, 45; Panama, 46; Paraguay, 46; Persia, 46; Peru, 46; Portugal and Dominions, 46: Roumania, 46; Russia, 46; Salvador, 47; Servia, 47; Siam, 47; Spain and Dominions, 47; Sweden, 47; Switzerland, 47; Turkey and Dominions, 48; Uruguay, 49; Vene- zuela, 49; Zanzibar, 49. Consular Assistants 50 Student Interpreters in China 50 Student Interpreters in Japan 50 Student Interpreters in Turkey 50 XIII. Biographical Statement Respecting Persons Serving Under Appointment of ihe Department of State, at home or abroad 51 XIV. Regulations Concerning Precedence of Diplomatic Agents 169 XV. Regulations Governing Appointments and Promotions in the Diplomatic Service and for the Improvement of the Personnel of the Department of State 109 XVI. Information for Applicants Desiring Appointment to Secretaryships of Em- bassy or Legation iii XVII. Posts in the American Diplomatic Service 112 XVIII. General Information Regarding Secretaries in the Diplomatic Service 112 XIX. Information Regarding Clerical Appointments in the Diplomatic Service 113 XX. Sample Examination for the Diplomatic Service 113 XXI. Regulations Governing Appointments and Promotions in the Consular Service.. 117 (3) TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. XLIII. XLIV. XLV. XLVI. XLVIL XLVIII. XLIX. L. LI. LII. LIII. Page. Regulations Governing Examinations for the Consular Service Promulgated by the Board of Examiners December 13, 1906 119 Information for Applicants Desiring Appointment in the Consular Service 120 General Information Regarding Consular Officers 120 Duties of Consular Officers, 120; Vice-Consular Officers, 121; Deputy Con- sular Officers, 121; Consular Agents, 121; Consular Assistants, 121; Clerks in Consular Offices, 122; Student Interpreters, 122; Marshals for Consular Courts, 122. Compensation of Consular Officers 122 Traveling Expenses 122 Examinations (see also Sections XX, XXV, and XXIX) 122 Sample Examination for the Consular Service 123 An Act to Provide for the Reorganization of the Consular Service of the United States, approved April 5, 1906, as amended by the Act approved May 11, 1908.. 127 Regulations Governing Interpreters and Student Interpreters in China, Japan, and Turkey 129 Information for Applicants Desiring Appointment to the Student-Interpreter Corps 131 Sample Examination for the Student-Interpreter Corps 132 Board of Examiners for the Diplomatic Service 135 Board of Examiners for the Consular Service 136 United States Court for China 136 Despatch Agents 136 International Boundary Commission, United States and Mexico 136 Alaskan Boundary Delimitation Commission and Canadian Boundary Delimi- tation Commission 136 International Waterways Commission 136 Boundary Waters Commission, United States and Canada, under the Treaty signed January 11, 1909 136 St. John River Joint Commission 136 Rio Grande River Commission 137 International Fisheries Commission •. 137 International Prison Commission 137 International Institute of Agriculture at Rome, Italy 137 International Office of Public Health at Paris 137 Pan-American Committee of the United States 137 International Exposition of Art and History, Rome, 1911 137 International Exposition of Industry and Labor, Turin, Italy. 191 1 137 International Opium Conference, The Hague 137 Perry's Victory Centennial Commission, Put-in-Bay, 1913 137 Commissioners-General to the National Exposition, Tokyo, 1917 138 International Tribunals of Egypt 138 Permanent Court of Arbitration Provided for by the Convention signed at The Hague July 29, 1899 138 Foreign Embassies and Legations in the United States 145 Foreign Consular Officers in the United Stales 149 Index 175 ABBREVIATIONS. Agt.— Consular Agent. Int.— Interpreter. Agt. & C. G.— Agent (Diplomatic) and Consul- j Mar.— Marshal. General. , Mil. Att.— Military Attach^. Amb. E. & P. — Ambassador Extraordinary and | Nav. Att. Naval Attach^. Plenipotentiary. i Sec. of Em b.— Secretary of Embassy. C* — Consul. I Sec. of Leg. — Secretary of Legation. C. A.— Consular Assistant. ^ Stud. Int.— Student Interpreter. C. G.— Consul-General. V. C— Vice-Consul. D. C— Deputy Consul. V. & D. C— Vice and Deputy Consul. D. C. G.— Deputy Consul-General. I V. & D. C. G.— Vice and Deputy Consul- Dip. Agt.— Diplomatic Agent. I General. E. E. & M. P. — Envoy Extraordinary and Min- I ister Plenipotentiary. KEY TO REFERENCES. A Born of American parents residing abroad. ^ Entered the service after examination under Executive order of September 20, 1895. ^^ Entered the service after examination under Executive order of November 10, 1905. '^ Entered the service after examination under Executive order of June 27, 1906. * Appointed under Executive order of June 27, 1906. /Entered the service as Student Interpreter, after examination. (/Entered the Consular Service as Student Interpreter, after examination. A Incomplete returns. ^Entered the service after examination under Executive order of November 26, 1909. J The Consul-General is also Minister Resident. JkThe Consul-General is also Secretary of the Legation. 'The Consul-General is also Agent (Diplomatic), 'w Accredited to Greece and Montenegro, 'i Naturalized citizen. ^Accredited to the Netherlands and Luxemburg. ^Accredited to Paraguay and Uruguay. ^Accredited to Roumania, Servia, and Bulgaria. ^Date of appointment as Consular Clerk; appointed Consular Assistant July i, 1908. 'And fees. ^Temporary, w Provisional. (5) REGISTER OF THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE. I.-SBCmSTAmiBS OF STATS (1789-ieil). Presidents. George Washington Da« Da Do i John Adams. S Do. Do. Thomas Jefferson Do. James Madison Do Do. Da James Monroe Da Da John Quincy Adams. Do. Andrew Jackson Do. Da Do Do J Martin Van Buren ^ William H. Harrison Do I John Tyler S Do Do Secretaries of State. Ihomas Jefferson, of Virginia , Entered upon duties March 22, 1790. Retired December 31, 1793, Edmund Randolph, of Virginia , Entered upon duties January 2, 1794. Retired August 19, 1795. Timothy Pickering, of Pennsylvania (Secretary of War) , Ad interim August 20, 1795, to December 9, 1795. Timothy Pickering, of Pennsylvania , Entered upon duties December 10, 1795. Retired May 12, 1800. Charles Lee, of Virginia (Attorney-General). , Ad interim May 13, z8oo. John Marshall, of Virginia , Entered upon duties May 14, 1800. Retired March 4, 1801. Levi Lincoln, of Massachusetts (Attorney-General) , Ad interim March 4, 1801, to May i, 1801. . Date of commission. I September 26, 1789. .' January 2, 1794. James Madison, of Virginia Entered upon duties May 2, 1801. Retired March 3, 1809. Robert Smith, of Maryland Entered upon duties March 6, 1809. Retired April i, i8u. James Monroe, of Virginia Entered upon duties April 6, i8ii. Retired September 30, 1814. James Monroe, of Virginia (Secretary of War) Ad interim October i, 1814, to February 28, 1815. James Monroe, of Virginia Entered upon duties March i, 1815, Retired March 3, 1817. John Graham (Chief Clerk) Ad interim March 4, 1817, to March 9, 1817. Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania (Attorney-General) Ad interim March 10, 1817, to September 22, 1817. John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties September 22, 1817. Retired March 3, 1825. Daniel Brent (Chief Clerk) Ad interim March 4, 1825, to March 8, 1825. Henry Clay, of Kentucky Entered upon duties March 9, 1825. Retired March 3, 1829. James A. Hamilton, of New York Ad interim March 4, 1829, to March 27, 1829. Martin Van Buren, of New York , Entered upon duties March 28, 1829, Retired May 23, 1831. Edward Livingston, of Louisiana , Entered upon duties May 24, 1831. Retired May 29, 1833. Louis McLane, of Delaware Entered upon duties May 29, 1833. Retired June 30, 1834. December 10, 1795. May 13, 1800. March 5, 1801. March 6, 1809. April 2, 181 1. February 28, 181 5. March 5, 1817. John Forsyth, of Georgia Entered upon duties July i,.i834. Retired March 3, i8|i. J. L. Martin (Chief Clerk) Ad interim March 4, 1841. March 7, 1825. March 4, 1829. March 6, 1829. May 24, 1831. May 29, 1833. June 27, 1834. Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties March 5, 1841. Retired May 8, 1843. March 5, 1841. Hugh S. Legare, of South Carolina (Attorney-General) , Ad interim May 9, 1843, to June 20, 1843. Died June 20, 1843. William S. Derrick (Chief Clerk) Ad interim June 21, 1843, ^^ June 23, 1843. (7) 8 SECRETARIES OF STATE. Presidents. Secretaries of State. Date of commiasion. John Tyler. Do Do. Do. James K. Polk. Zachary Taylor... Millard Fillmore. Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia (Secretary of the Navy) Ad interim June 24, 1843, to July 33, 1843. Abel P. Upshur, of Virc^inia Entered upon duties July 34, 2843. Died February 28, 1844. John Nelson, of Maryland (Attorney-General) '. Ad interim February 29, 2844, to March 32, 1844. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina Entered upon duties April 2, 2844. Retired March 10, 1845. July 34, 1843. James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania Entered upon duties March 10, 1845. Retired March 7, 1849. John M. Clayton, of Delaware '. Entered upon duties March 8, 2849. Retired July 22, 1850. Do. Do. Do. Franklin Pierce. Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties July 23, 1850. Died October 34, 1852. Charles M. Conrad, of Louisiana (Secretarv of the Navy) Ad interim September 2, 1852, to November 5, 1852. Edward Everett, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties November 6, 1852. Retired March 3, 1853. William Hunter (Chief Clerk) Ad interim March 4, 1853, to March 7, 1853. March 6, 1844. March 6, 1845. March 7, 1849. July 22, 2850. November 6, 1852. Do. James Buchanan. Do. Do Abraham Lincoln | Andrew Johnson f William L. Marcy, of New York Entered upon duties March 8, 1853. Retired March 6, 1857. Lewis Cass, of Michig^an Entered upon duties March 6, 1857. Retired December 14, i86(j. William Hunter (Chief Clerk) Ad interim December 15. i860, to December 16, z86o. Jeremiah S. Black, of Pennsylvania Entered uF>on duties December 17, i860. March 7, 1853. March 6, 1857. Retired March 5, 1861. Ulysses S. Grant. Do. William H. Seward, of New York Entered upon duties March 6, i86z. Retired March 4, 1869. Rutherford B. Hayes. James A. Garfield ^ Chester A. Arthur i" Do. Grovcr Cleveland. Benjamin Harrison. Da Do Elihu B. Washburnc, of Illinois Entered upon duties March 5, 1869. Retired March 16, 1869. Hamilton Fish, of New York Entered upon duties March 17, 1869. Recommissioned Retired March I-^, 1877. William M. Evarts, of New York Entered upon duties March 12, 1877. Retired March 7, 1881. James G. Blaine, of Maine Entered upon duties March 7, 1881. Retired December 19, 1881. Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey Entered upon duties December 19, 1881. Retired March 6, 1885. Thomas F. Bayard, of Delaware Entered upon duties March 7, 1885. Retired March 6, 1889. James G. Blaine, of Maine Entered ui>on duties March 7, 1889. Retired June 4, 1892. William F. Wharton, of Massachusetts (Assistant Secretary) Ad interim June 4. 180/. to June 29, 189.!. Do. Grover Cleveland. Do. Do. William McKinley. Do. Do. Do I Theodore Roosevelt ( John W. Foster, of Indiana Entered upon duties June 29, 1892. Retired February 2.?, 1893. William F. Wharton, of Massachusetts (Assistant Secretary) Ad interim February _'4, 1893, to March 6, 1893. Walter Q. Gresham, of Illinois Entered upon duties March 7, 1893. Died May 28, 1895. Edwin F. Uhl, of Michigan (Assistant Secretary) Ad interim May 28, 1895, to June 9, 1895. Richard Olney, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties June 10, 1895. Retired March 5, 1897. John Sherman, of Ohio Entered upon duties March 6, i8<>7* Retired April 27, 1898. William R. Day, of Ohio Entered upon duties April 28, iS'jS. Retired September 16, iS.;S. Alvey A, Adee, of the District of Columbia (Second Assistant Secretary;. Ad interim September 17, 1898, to September 29, 1898. December 17, i860. March 5, 1861. March 5, 1869. March 21, 1869. March 17, 1873. March 12, 2877. March 5, 1881. December 12, 1881. March 6, 1885. March 5, 1889. June 29, 1892. March 6, 1893. June 8, 1895. March 5, 1897. April 26, 2898. John Hay, of the District of Columbia Entered upon duties September 30, i8<jS. Recommissioned Died July i, k/is- September 20, 1898. March 5, 1901. ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE. Presidents. Secretaries of State. Theodore Roosevelt Francis B. Loomis, of Ohio (Assistant Secretary)... Ad interim July i, 1905, to July x8« X905. Date of commission. July 7, 1905. Do I Elihu Root, of New York I Entered upon duties July 19, 1905. Retired January 37, 1909. Do I Robert Bacon, of New Yorlc , January 27, 1909. Entered upon duties January 27, 1909. Retired March 5, 1909. William H. Taft ' Philander C. Knox, of Pennsylvania March 5, 1909. I Entered upon duties March 6, 1909. II. -ASSISTANT SBOBBTAKIBS OV STATB (186S-1911>. Assistant Secretaries of State. Date of commis- I sion. Ambrose Dudley Mann, of Ohio Retired May 8, 1855. William Hunter, of Rhode Island (Chief Clerk) Ad interim May 9, 1855, to October 31, 1855. John A. Thomas, of New York Entered upon duties November i, 1855. Retired April 3, 1857. John Appleton, of Maine Entered upon duties April 4, 1857. Retired June xo, i860. William H. Trescot, of South Carolina Entered upon duties June ix, x86o. Retired December ao, i860. William Hunter (Chief Clerk) Ad interim March r, 1861, to March 5, 1861. Frederick W. Seward, of New York Entered upon duties March 6, 1861. Retired March 4, 1869. J. C. Bancroft Davis, of New York. Entered upon duties April i, 1869. Retired November 13, 1871. Charles Hale, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties February 19, 1872. Retired January 34, 1873. J. C. Bancroft Davis, of New York Entered upon duties January 25, 1873. Retired June 30, 1874. John L. Cadwalader, of New York Entered upon duties July i, 1874. Retired March 20, 1877. Frederick W. Seward, of New York Entered upon duties March 21, 1877. Retired October 31, 1879. John Hay, of Ohio Entered upon duties November i, 1879. Retired May 3, 1881. Robert R. Hitt, of Illinois , Entered upon duties May 4, 1881. Retired December 19, 1881. J, C. Bancroft Davis, of New York. Entered upon duties December 20, 1881. Retired July 7, 1882. John Davis, of the District of Columbia Entered upon duties July 8, 1882. Retired February 23. 1885. James D. Porter, of Tennessee Entered uF>on duties March 21, 1885. Retired September to, 1887. George L. Rives, of New York. Entered upon duties November 21, 1887. Retired March 5, 1889. William F. Wharton, of Massachusetts. Entered upon duties April 11, 1889. Retired March 20, 1893. Josiah Quincy, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties March 21, 18^3. Retired September 22, 1893. Edwin F.Uhl, of Michioran Entered upon duties November 11, 1893. Retired February 11, 1896. William Woodville Rockhill, of Maryland Entered upon duties February 14, 1896. Retired May 10, 1897. William R. Day, of Ohio Entered upon duties May 11, 1897. Retired April 27, 1898. John B. Moore, of New York. Entered upon duties April 28, i&^8. Retired September 16, 1898. David J. Hill, of New York Entered upon duties October -15, i8g8. Retired January -18, 1903. March 23, 1853. May 8, 1855. November x, 1855. April 4, 1857. June 8, i860. March x, 1861. March 6, 1861. March 25, 1869. February 19, 1872. January 24, 1873. June X7, 1874. March 16, 1877. November r, 1879. May 4, 1881. December 19, 188 1. July 7, 1882. March 20, 1885. November 19, 1887. April 2, 1889. March 20, 1893. November i, 1893. February xi, 1896. May 3, 1897. April 27, 1898. October 25, 1898. REGISTER DEPARTMENT OF STATE SEPTEMBER 20. 1911 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE X2 OFFICERS AND CLERKS. Names, offices, and salaries. Where born. Cku/of the Bureau of Rolls and Library {$2^106). John A. Tonner Chit/ 0/ the Division 0/ Information (Ss^ooo). Ohio. Translators {^2^100). Whence appointed. Date of appointment. Ohio , November 30, 1Q09. John S. Martin, jr. Wilfred Stevens..... Assistant Solicitors {$J%ooo). Frederick Van Dyne Preston D. Richards. Edward Henry Hart Private Secretary to the Secretary 0/ State (S^^soo). Charles F. Wilson ".. Assistant Chiefs of the Division of Latin- A merican AffairsiJfjyOOcf). Henry L. Janes George T. WeitzcL Assistant Chief of the Division of Far Eastern Affairs {Jfj^oodS. Pcrcival Heintzleman Assistant Chief of the Division of Near Eastern Affairs {$2^00). Charles W. Fowle" Officers en/paged in important drafting and specialization (J$4^oo). Charles M. Pepper MackH. Davis: Law Clerks ($2^sod). Henry L. Bryan Lester H. Woolsey Clerk to the Secretary of State {Si^Sbo). Hugh S. Knox •. Assistant Law Clerk {^lySOO). Charles H. Miller Clerks of the fourth class (Sr.Sbo). Julian Taylor T. John Newton " Edward L. Whitehousc John T. Coughlin James H. Tibbitts- Ward A. Fitzsimmons. Charles H. Campbell David A. Salmon OtisT. Cartwright WallachA. McCaihran George L. Brist Charles Lee Cooke William Robert McDowell Pa Minn N. Y.. Utah N. Y.. Pa , June 25,1900. Minn February xi, 2904. N. Y. Utah N. Y. D. C I D. C June i, 1910 Juneas, 19Z0. September zo, 1910. September 22, 1910. Wis.. Ky.. I Wis. ; June 22, 1910. Mo Pa Pa. Turkey . Mass. Ohio. Ohio. D. C. N. Y. 111.... Ohio. June 27, 1911. June 27, 1911. June 37, 191 1. August 3z, 19C9. September 23, 1909. I D, C ; November z, 1909. N. Y. Pa. April z8, 19Z1. Pa November zs, 1910, DC. D. C. December 27, igog. Va Va October z, 1887. England... Me D. C May zz, Z893. November 4, Z895. Me Md Mich June 25, Z900. July Z9, Z902, Mich Mich Pa Pa... June z5, Z904. May 24, Z90S. D. C D. C Conn Conn March 4, Z907. Ind.. Nebr March 4, 1907. D. C D. C July z, X908. Wis • Iowa November 2, 1908. D. C D. C August 2, 1909. Ill S. Dak December i, Z909. OFFICERS AND CLERKS. 13 Names, offices, and salaries. Where born. CUrks 0/ the fourth c/Afi— Continued. Elisha J. Babcock :. Wallace J. Young Charles B. Welsh Cltrks o/the third class {S',600). Thomas Griffin". Edward C. Stewart Margaret M. Hanna George H. Schultzc"... Leonard A. Merritt Isabella L. Hagner John D.Johnson Joseph R. Baker Paul Webster Eaton. Wesley Frost Henry G. Crocker Worthington E. Stewart Mailland S. Wright Edward B. Russ. Fred K. Nielsen It Percy F. Allen John Van A. MacMurray Aloysius Wengern. Whence appointed. Date of appointment. N. Y. Pa.... Pa.... Ireland D. C Mich Germany.. Wis D. C Vt N. Y Me Ohio Wis Mich Minn Mo Denmark .. Md N. Y Switz N. Y. 111.... Pa..., CUrks o/the second class {$1^400). James L. Duncan ' Conn Andrew E. Marschalk Ga ..., Mary Greer D.C .. Wilbur Underwood I D. C I Otis G. Stanton Ind.... James S. Skinner Tex ., Maud M. Crane D. C. D. C... D.C. Kans.. R. I.... Minn., D. C. Vt Okla.. D.C Ky CaL... Ohio- Wash. Pa Ncbr . P. R.. N. J.... La Frank N. Bauskeit I S. C. Clarence E. Sis. D. C. Marianna Davis. ^. Ohio... George B. Stambaugh Pa Charles A. Sidman Mich .. Stephen H. Quigley Md Charles Jenklnson R. I ... Ethel L. Lawrence N. Y.... Rogers. Drissel Pa Charles L. Wade D. C... Clarence E. Gauss J. Hubbard Bean | W. Va | D. C Jacob A. Metzger , Ohio I Ohio Conn. D. C. Ohio.. D. C. Ind.... Tex .. D. C. S. C... D.C. Ohio- Pa N. Y.. Md.... R. I.. Kans. Pa D. C. D. C Conn June 32, Z910. December 16, 19 10. June 37, xgii. October xx, 190X. June 15, 1904. March 4, 1907. March 4, 1907. March 2, 1908. March i, 1909. June I, 1909. June X, Z909. June 23, Z909. September a, 1909. December i, 1909. January 3, 1910. October 21, X910. December 31, 19x0. April 25, X9X1. June 27, 191X. June 27, 191 X. June 27, X9X1. July 1, 1903. May 24, 1905. July a, X906. March 4, X907. March 4, X907. March 4, 1907. October 5, 1907. March 2, 1908. July X, X908. July X, 1908. July I, X908. November 3, 1908. June 23, 1909. June 23, X909. December x, X909. December x, 1909. January 3, X9X0. July X, 19x0. October ix, X910. October ax, 19x0. 14 OFFICERS AND CLERKS. Names, offices, and salaries. I Where born. Clerks of the seconti class — Continued. Bert L. Hunt Charles W. Williams /. Luther O. Keeton Howard R. Barnes Walter J. Goed eke Clerks of the first class (Jft^sod). Pa.... D. C. Miss. Ohio. Md... Mary W. Goss Lucy E. Abbot Mary D. Moore Gilbert F. Randolph Edna K. Hoyt David Stuart Waters Frank H. Peabody Bertha S. Davis. Nina G. Romeyn , Laura R. Cramer , Frances R. Houg^h Arthur J. Decker Jennie Cook Bopp. Herbert P. Middleton.... Owen F. Mullen William C. Ten Eyck Walter W. le Mat Frances M. Marsh Emily S. Morrison Homer C. Steves Harry A. Havens Sunley H. Udy Glenn A. Smith James A. O'Keefe Albert W. Willard Archibald S. Pinkett Adelaide M. Hughes.... David L. Pitcher, jr Scth E. Tracy Dora L Codding^ton Edwin Tarrlsse Donald A. de Lashmutt. Edfrar A. Shreve Orville B. Lamason William A. Newcome.... DwiRht W. Fisher Clinton R. Whitney Duane E. Washburn N. Y.. Ohio.. D. C. N.J... Mich D. C. Ohio.. Va Kans, Md.... Ohio.. D. C. N. Y.. Mo Pa N. J... Md.... Pa N. Y.. Ohio.. N. Y.. Pa Tenn N.J.... Me Va D. C. Va ... Tex .. Iowa , Pa Md .... Va N.J.... N. Y.. Ohio.. D. C. Ohio.. Whence appointed. Date of appointi N. Y 1 December aj, iqio December 31, 1910 May 26, 191 1. June 27, 191X. June 27, 1911. November 4, 1895. Pa Miss N. H Md N. Y Ohio January 6, 1896. Va October 1, 1901. D. C July 1, 1903. Mich July 1, 1904. D. C December 4, 1905. Ohio July 2, 1906. Va July 2, 1906. Ind March 4, 1907. D. C March 4, 1907. D. C May 13, 1907. D. C June X, 1908. Iowa July 1, 1908. N. Y July I, 1908. Pa., July I, 1908. Mass July X, 1908. Md November 2, 1908. Pa April 16, 1909. June I, 1909. June X, X909. N. Y N. Y N. Y June 23, 1909. N.Y December i, 1909. Tenn December x, 1909. D C December 7, 1909. December 30, 1909. Conn Pa January 3, X9X0. March 24, 1910. N. Mex D. C J*mc 22. 19x0. A CX •••• •• • July I, 1910. Iowa July I, 19x0. D. C September x, 1910. D. C October xi, 19x0. Va October 21, X910. N. J December 31, 1910. Cal April I, 1911. D. C April X, 1911. Conn April X, 191 X. N. C May I, 1911. OFFICERS AND CLERKS. •5 Names, offices, and salaries. Cltrks of the first class — Continued. William J. Kavanagh Thomas Griffin, jr Edward T. Hynes Henry P. Dugan Seth Low Picrrepont Clerks of the $ijooo class, Alfred Cammack". H. C. McAnhur. Ada Mixon ^ LillaL. Page James M. Durant Frances S. Osborne W. Ford Cramer Richard C. Tanis" Bessie C.Bell Margaret H. Wcntworth Humphrey D. Howell Joseph W. McMahon William H. Smith Edwin G. Balinger Roger B. Piatt Lucy S. Fitzhugh William F. Marshall Robert S. Clayton Clerks of the $qoo class. Norval J. Oster John F. Doyle Arthur A. Chenayn John L. Mitchell Frank X. Ward James E. McKenna Clinton E. MacEachran Bertin F. Toulotte Ethel G. Christenson John H. Prince Archibald E. Brown Harvey E. Fenstermacher Harry G. Reigner D>iisy J. Loomis Winifred Mallon Alton R. Hodgkins Stephen Latchford Chief messenger {$1,000). Edward A. Savoy 1 D. C Where born. Whence appointed. Date of appointm N. Y N. y May 26, 191 1. June 27, 191X. June 27, 191X. July X, 1911. July 25, X91X. March 6, X900. March 4, X907. July X, 1908. July 28, X909. September 24, 1909. November 9, 1309. December 22, 1909. March x, 19x0. D. C D. C D C Va Pa D. C N. Y Conn England... Ohio D. C Iowa Ark. Ark Ky Miss Md Md Pa Pa D. C ' N. Y Holland ... N. J Pa Pa March 24, X9X0. Ohio N. Y October xx, X9io. D. C 1 D. C 1 October 2x, 1910. Conn ' Conn November i, X910. R. I R. I April I, X91X. April X, 19XX. April X, X9XX. May I, X911. June 27, X91X. June 27, XQXX. July X, 1909. July 28, 1909. October 16, X909. D. C Va N. Y N. Y Ky R I Ky R. I Mo N. J Pa 1 Pa N. Y 1 111 Canada Tex Pa Pa January 25, 19x0. 1 June 30, 1910. Pa ; Pa 1 Mass Mass Octobers, 1910. Mass Mass October 21, X910. D. C D. C ' November X7, X910. Ind Ind February 28, 191 1. April 26, X91X. May 12, 19x1. June X7, X9X1. June 28, X911. July IX, 1911. N. C s. C D. C D. C Pa Pa Pa 1 Pa Conn ' Conn N. Y N. Y July 20, 191 1. July 24, X911. August 19, X9XX. Me Me Md 1 *"■ *• D. C D. C I November 30, 1901. i6 OFFICERS AND CLERKS. Names, oflBces, and salaries. Where Whence r»«*. «* «,x«^;«f«»-«» born. appointed. ^**« °^ appointment. Mtssengers {SS^o). WUlUm Freer. JohnS. Butler Richard H. Hawkins Lloyd Sharps Charles M. Pugh Assistant intssengtrs (Syjfo). Russell N. Boyd John Barry n Albln F. Fairall Edwin P. Walker Robert P. Leftridge Levi Austensen" Howard Sangston Alexander H. Clements .- Colbert S. Syphax Isaac Edwards Frank Johnson James O. Holmes Carothers Smith Thomas C. Malone Charles E. Dyson George Scott Samuel Cole". Irving Jackson Daniel L. Reed Charles Reeder A. Russell Wooding John L. Hargreaves. Guy V. Booth William D. Evans. Thomas Saycrs Packer {^720). I Md... Md... Md... Nebr Pa.... Md December 5, 1901. D. C July I, zgoa. D. C ; November X, 1906. i Nebr { July i, 1907. Pa July 13, 1909. Ga Ireland Md Ill Va Norway ... D. C D. C D. C Pa Va D. C Va N.J N. Y Md England... D. C Tex Colo Mo Tex Pa D. C Pa D. C. D. C. Md .... Ill Va Minn D. C. D. C. D. C. D. C Va...., D. C. Va N.J.., D. C. D. C. D. C. D. C. Tex... D. C. Mo ... Tex... Pa D. C. N. y. August z, 1893. July X, 1904. July I, 190a. July 21, 1902. July I, X903. November i, 1905. November x, 1905. October x6, 1907. July a, Z906. July 3, 1906. July 13, 1906. December i, X906. July I, 1907. July 8, 1907, October 15, 1907. March 2, 1908. December 14, 1908. July X3, X909. August II, 1909. February 10, 1910. May 7, X910. June 32, X910. June 23| X910. June 33, 19Z0. July 1, 1910. James S. Swann Teie^hoMt sivitihboard operator {^$f2d). Bella Hargreaves Assistant telephone sivitchboard operator (fOoo). Alice M. Covet Laborers. Md. Md ' October 16. 11/17. N. Y Tex August 13, k/*;. N. Y N. Y September 35, 1907. I Charles H. Clements (|6oo) William W. Hawley (|6oo) Frederick Remler (f6oo) George Webb ($600) Messenger hoy (S420). John S. McGraw D. C D. C, Va.... D. C. Va.... D. C January 12, 1907. D. C ' August ai, 1907. D. C April 17, xgo8. Va August 13, 1910. Va I April 30, 1908. ORGANIZATION. 1 7 VI.-OHUAIVIZATION OF TBB DEPAHTIIIEIVT OF STATB. CHIEF CLERK. General supervision of the clerks and employees and of departmental matters;, charge of the property of the Department. William McNeir, Chief Clerk, Howard R. Barnes. DIPLOMATIC BUREAU. Diplomatic correspondence and miscellaneous correspondence relating thereto. Sydney Y. Smith, Chief of Bureau, Julian Taylor, Assistant Chief of Bureau, Wallach A. McCathran. Frances M. Marsh. Edwin Tarrisse. Elisha J. Babcock. Adelaide M. Hughes. Ada Mixon. Paul Webster Eaton. David L. Pitcher, jr. Winifred Mallon. Worthington E. Stewart. Dora I. Coddington. Stephen Latchford. Edward B. Russ. DIVISION OF LATIN-AMERICAN AFFAIRS. Diplomatic and consular correspondence, on matters other than those of an administrative charac- ter, in relation to Mexico, Central America, Panama, South America, and the West Indies. William T. S. Doyle, Chief of Division, Henry L. Janes, Assistant Chief of Division, George T. Wkitzel, Assistant Chief of Division, John T. Coughlin. Selh Low Pierrepont. Richard C. Tanis. Charles Jenkinson. DIVISION OF FAR EASTERN AFFAIRS. Diplomatic and consular correspondence, on matters other than those of an administrative charac- ter, in relation to Japan, China and leased territories, Siberia, Hongkong, French Indo- China, Slam, Straits Settlements, Borneo, East Indies, India, and, in general, the Far East. Ransford S. Miller, Chief of Division. Percival Heintzleman, Assistant Chief of Division, Frank N. Bauskett. Jacob A. Metzger. DIVISION OF NEAR EASTERN AFFAIRS. Diplomatic and consular correspondence, on matters other than those of an administrative charac- ter, in relation to Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Rou mania, Servia, Bulgaria, Monte- negro, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Abyssinia, Persia, Egypt, and colonies belonging to countries of this series. Chakles W. Fowle. Assistant Chief of Division. John Van A. MacMurray. Roger B. Piatt. S 1564 2 i8 ORGANIZATION. DIVISION OF WESTERN EUROPEAN AFFAIRS. Diplomatic and consular correspondence, on matters other than those of an administrative charac- ter, in relation to Great Britain (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and British colonies not elsewhere enumerated), Portugal, Spain, France, Morocco, Begium, the Kongo, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, the Netherlands, Luxemburg, Denmark, and Liberia. Supervised by the Third Assistant Secretary of State. Charles Lee Cooke, Assistant Chief of Division. Charles W. Williams. Duane E. Washburn. CONSULAR BUREAU. Consular correspondence and miscellaneous correspondence relating thereto. Herbert C. Hen(;stler, Chief of Bureau. Edward L. Whitehouse, Assistant Chief of Bureau. Charles L. Wade. Glenn A. Smith. Albert W. Willard. Humphrey D. Howell. Norval J. Oster. - Charles H. Campbell. John D. Johnson. Clarence E. Sis. Maud M. Crane. Ethel L. Lawrence. ' Clarence E. Gauss. Mary D. Moore. Arthur J. Decker. Harry A. Havens. John L. Mitchell. BUREAU OF TRADE RELATIONS. Preparation of instructions to consular officers for reports to be printed by the Department of Commerce and Labor, revision and transmission of such reports to said Department and to other branches of the Government service, and compilation of commercial information for the use of the Department of State. John Ball Osborne, Chief of Bureau. Charles M. Pepper, Assistant Chief of Bureau. Mack H. Davis, Assistant Chief of Bureau. Marianna Davis. Orville B. Lamason. Edwin G. Balinger. Wesley Frost. James M. Durant. William F. Marshall. Isabella L. Hagner. Frances S. Osborne. Harry G. Reigher. Owen F. Mullen. Bessie C. Bell. BUREAU OF APPOINTMENTS. Custody of the Great Seal and applications for office, and the preparation of commissions, exequa- turs, warrants of extradition. Departmental Register, diplomatic and consular lists, and con- sular bonds: correspondence and other matters regarding entrance examinations for the foreign service. Miles M. Shand, Chief of Bureau. Percy F. Allen. Stephen H. Quigley. Wallace J. Younc, Assistant Chief of Bureau. Luther O. Keeton. Edward T. Hynes. William J. Kavanagh. ORGANIZATION. 19 BUREAU. OF CITIZENSHIP. Examination of applications for passports, issuance of passports and authentications; receiving and filing duplicates of evidence, registration, etc., under act of March 2, 1907, in reference to expatriation of citizens and their protection abroad; keeping of necessary records thereunder; conduct of correspondence in relation to the foregoing. Richard W. Flournoy, Jr., Chief of Bureau. Walter W. le Mat. Jennie Cook Bopp. James H. Tibbitts, Assistnnt Chief of Bureau. Bertha S. Davis. Alfred Cammack. Lilla L. Page. BUREAU OF INDEXES AND ARCHIVES. Recording and indexing the general correspondence of the Department; charge of the archives. John R. Buck, Chief of Bureau. T. John Newton, Assistant Chief of Bureau. David A. Salmon. George L. Brist. Edward C. Stewart. George H. Schultze. James L. Duncan. Wilbur Underwood. James S. Skinner. Roger S. Drissel. J. Hubbard Bean. Frank H. Peabody. Nina G. Romeyn. William C. Ten Eyck. Homer C. Steves. James A. O'Keefe. Seth E. Tracy. Edgar A. Shreve. Dwight W. Fisher. Henry P. Dugan. Margaret H. Wentworlh. Joseph W. McMahon. William H. Smith. John F. Doyle. Arthur A. Chenay. Frank X. Ward. James E. McKenna. Ethel G. Christenson. Archibald E. Brown. Harvey E. Fenstermacher. Daisy J. Loom is. BUREAU OF ACCOUNTS. Custody and disbursement of appropriations and indemnity funds, and correspondence relating thereto. Thomas Morrison, Chief of Bureau. Ward A. Fitzsimmons, Assistant Chief of Bureau. Leonard A. Merritt. Maitland S. Wright. Andrew E. Marschalk. George B. Stambaugh. Emily S. Morrison. Herbert P. Middleton. W. Ford Cramer. BUREAU OF ROLLS AND LIBRARY. Custody of the rolls, treaties, etc.; promulgation of the laws, treaties, Executive orders, and procla- mations; care and superintendence of the library and public documents; care of papers relating CO international commissions. John A. Tonner, Chief of Bureau. William Robert yLc\^Q\\'E.Li., Assistant Chief of Bureau. Otis G. Stanton. Thomas Griffin, jr. Lucy E. Abbot. Laura R. Cramer. Lucy S Fitzhugh. Alton R. Hodgkins. 20 ORGANIZATION. DIVISION OF INFORMATION. The preparation and distribution to the foreign service of diplomatic, commercial, and other cor- respondence and documents important to their information upon foreign relations; editing ••Foreign Relations" of the United States. , Chief of Division. Charles B. Welsh, Assistant Chiff of Division, Aloysius Wenger. David Stuart Waters. Frances R. Hough. Mary Greer. OFFICE OF THE TRANSLATOR. John S. Martin, Jr.,/ _ , ^ „, ^ > Translators, Wilfred Stevens, \ Edna K. Hoyt. Private Secretary to the Secretary of State, — Charles F. Wilson. Clerk to the Secretary of State. — Hugh S. Knox. Confidential Clerk to the Assistant Secretary. — Stenographer to the Assistant Secretary. — Clinton E. Mac Each ran. Clerk to the Second Assistant Secretary. — Margaret M. Hanna. Clerk to the Third Assistant Secretary. — Bert L. Hunt. Clerk to the Director of the Consular Service. — Walter j. Goedeke. Stationery Room. — Thomas Griffin, Gilbert F. Randolph. Mail Clerk. — Charles A. Sidman. Lithographer, — Walter Scott. OFFICE OF THE SOLICITOR. Determination of questions of municipal and international law, claims of citizens of the United States against foreign governments, claims of subjects or citizens of foreign governments against the United States, applications for the extradition of criminals, and matters relating to international arbitrations. Joshua Reuben Clark, Jr., Solicitor, Frederick Van Dyne, j Preston D. Richards, >• Assistant Solicitors, Edward Henry Hart, ) Lester H. Woolsey, Law Clerk, Otis T. Cartwright. Fred K. Nielsen. Clinton R. Whitney. Joseph R. Baker. Stanley H. Udy. Bertin F. Toulotic. Henry G. Crocker. Donald A. de Lashmuit. John H. Prince. OFFICE OF THE LAW CLERK. Editing and indexing the laws, resoluiions, public treaties, anil proclamations for publication in the Statutes at Large. Henry L. Bryan. Law Clerk. Charles H. Miller, Assistant Law Clerk. UNITED STATES DIPLOMATIC SERVICE. 21 VI1.-PBBSENT DlPIiOMATIO 8BBV10B OF TBB VNITBD STATES. To what country ac- credited. Arfefltiae Repak- Hc. AHftria-Hngsry. Name and rank. Belfiva Bolivia Braxll . Bilgafta Chile CiiiM ColoHbta C«cU KIca. Cato Deaaaric DoBialcaa Re- pabilc. Ecaa4or Praacc Jaka R. Carter, E. E. ft M. P Robert Woods Bliss, Sec. of Leg Capt. Albert P. Niblack. Nav. Att ist Lieut. John S. Hammond, Mil. Att..... Richard C. iCef«ai,>* Aab. E. ft P Joseph <p. Grew,c Sec. of Emb Arthur Hugh Frazier,a<' 2d Sec. of Emb— Com. Andrew T. Long, Nav. Att Maj. William H. Allaire, Mil. Att Lux Aadersoa.a E. E. ft M. P U. Grant -Smith, Sec. of Leg Lt. Col. John S. Parke, Mil. Att Horace G. iCaewlci, E. E. ft M. P , Sec. of Leg... IrvlagB. Dndlcy. Aab. E. ft P George B. Rives. Sec. of Emb I 2d Sec. of Emb...! Capt. Albert P. Niblack, Nav. Att 1 Joha B. Jaclnoa, E. E. ft M. P.9 Roland B Harvey, «• Sec. of Leg. & C. G.J Heary P. Flclcher, E. E. ft M.P | Sec. of Leg... I Capt. Albert P. Niblack, Nav. Att 1 Lt. Com. Robert W. McNeely, Nav. Att-.. I Asst. Nav. Const. James Reed, jr., Nav. Att. I Wiiilaa Jaaea Calfeoaa. E. E. ft M. P Edward T. Williams, Sec. of Leg > Charles D. Tenney, Chinese Sec I George T. Summerlin, 2d Sec. of Leg 1 Willys R. Peck,a/ Asst. Chinese Sec ' Harold O. Henry,aStud. InL | Horace Remillard, Stud. Int , Crawford M. Bishop, Stiid. InL > ' John A. Bristow, Stud. Int. 1 Paul R. Josselyn. Stud. Inu ' George F. Bickford, Stud. Int Charles P. McKiernan, Stud. Int Capt. John H. Shipley, Nav. Att Lt. Com. Frank B. Upham, Nav. Att I Lt. Com. Irving V. Gtllis, Nav. Att I Capt. James H. Reeves, Mil. Att ist Lt. Epaminondas L. Bigier, Att | Jaaci T. OaBoli. E. E. ft JH. P j Sec. of Leg...' Uwta Eiasteia, E. E. ft M. P , Gustavus L. Monroe, jr.,cSec. of Leg Arthar M. Beaaprft, E. E. ft M. P I Hugh S. Gibson,** Sec. of Leg 1 William K. Wallace,*? 2d Sec, of Leg Maj. Henry A. Barber, Mil, Att j Maarlce Fraacii Efaa, E. E. ft M. P Norval Richardson, c Sec. of Leg 1 ist Lt. William M. Colvin, Mil. Att WilHaa W. Rufiell, E. E. ft M. P Francis Munroe Endicott,*? Sec. of Leg. , & C. G. ; Evaa E. Yoaaf. E. E. ft M. P ' Rutherfurd Bingham, < Sec. of Leg I Robert Bacoa, Amb. E. ft P Arthur Bailly-Blanchard. Sec. of Emb , Sheldon Whitehouse,o ad Sec. of Emb Warren D. Robbins, * 3d Sec. of Emb I Com. Henry H. Hough, Nav. Att Maj. T. Bentley Mott, Mil. Att ■ Residence. Baeaoi Aires Buenos Aires... Buenos Aires... Buenos Aires... Vlcaaa Vienna Vienna Vienna BrasieU Brussels Brussels La Paz La Paz Riodc Jaaeiro , Riode Janeiro... I Riode Janeiro...] Buenos Aires... Bucharest Bucharest Saatlafs Santiago Buenos Aires... Santiago Santiago PckiBf Peking Where born. Md Mo Ind N. Y Ireland.. Mass Ger. N. C Ark France .. Pa Tenn Del Whence ap- pointed. Date of commission. Com- pensa- tion. Md N. v.. Navy. Army. Mo .... Mass . Pa Navy. Army. D. C. Pa Army. Del...., Ohio. N. Y. Cal Va.. Ind.. N.J. Md.. Pa... Navy.. N. J.... Md Pa Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Tokyo , Peking Peking Peking Peking Bofoti Bogoti SaaJos£ San ]osi Habaaa Habana Habana Habana Copeabagea Copenhagen Stockholm Saato Doaiago Santo Domingo.. Ind N. C Ohio Pa Ohio Mass La China ... France.. Mass Md Iowa Iowa Wash Conn Iowa Ariz Pa Ala Ohio Pa Navy... Navy... Navy... Ill Ohio.... Mass ... La Cal R. I Mass ... Md Iowa ... Iowa ... Wash... N. Y.... Navy... Navy... Navy... Army... Navy... Pa Aug. Aug. June May Dec. Jan. Aug. May Sept. Aug. Aug. May June 12,1911 4 11909 18,1910 i3.i9»o 2Z,X909 27,1911 19,1911 26,1909 16,1907 12,19x1 4,1909 13,19" 24,1910 $13,000 «,6j5 '7.500 3,000 a, 000 Dec. 19,1906 Jan. 31,19x1 June 18,1910 Aug. 12, 19x1 June 24,1910 Dec. 21,1909 June May May Dec. July Mar. July Nov. June June Apr. Apr. Apr. Mar. Mar. Apr. i May May Feb. May Aug. i8,X9xo 5.19»» 5,1911 21,1909 6,1911 11,1906 6,1911 9.1908 I 4.19081 2.1909 I 1,1910 1,1910 20,1910 10,1911 10,1911 22,1910 5,1911 5,i9»i 16,1907 26,1910 21,1911 N. Y. Miss. Ill .... Cal... N. Y. Md... Pa.... Miss. Mo... D. C. N. Y. N. Y,. Miss.. Ill Cal.... Colo.., Array. D. C. Miss.. Army. D. C. Mass . Quito I Ohio.. Quito j Mo.... Paris I Mass Paris. Paris. La.... N. Y. Paris N. Y. Paris Paris Miquel'n' Va 1 S. Dak. D. C... N. Y.... La N. Y.... Mass ... Navy... Army... July May I Aug. July I July I Mar. I June 1 June I May July I July I July 1 Mar. I Dec. Aug. Mar. Mar. Nov. Apr. 6, 1911 i5,igo9 12,1911 6,1911 6,1911 8,1909 10,1907 29,1911 22,1911 6,1911 6,1911 6,1911 2,1911 21,1909 4.1909 2,1911 2,1911 8,1910 10,1909 12,000 2,625 10,000 2,000 17,500 3.000 3,OCO tO,QOO 3,000 12,000 2,625 12,000 2,625 3,600 1,800 2,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 10,000 2,000 10,000 2,000 12,000 2,625 1,800 2,000 10,000 a, 000 10,000 2,000 17,50c 3,000 2,000 1,300 22 UNITED STATES DIPLOMATIC SERVICE. DIPLOMATIC service—Continued. To whai country ac- credited. QenMi Eaylre. Naioe and rank. K evidence. Where born. Whence ap- pointed. Date of commission. Qrait BHUia. Orcecc Oaateaala Haiti Hoadarai. lUly Japta Ubcria Laztaibnrg Mcilca MoateaefTo . Morocco Nethcrlaadi. Nlcarafoa.. Joha G. A. UlshBaa, Aab. E. ft P Irwin B. Laughlin, Sec. of Emb Wniinu Spencer,' ad Sec. of Emb Perry Belden,* 3d Sec. of Emb Com. Arthur Bainbridge Hoflf, Nav. Att.. Capt. Samuel G. Shartle, Mil. Att Wiiiteiaw RcM, Aaib. E. ft P William Phillips, Sec. of Emb Leland Harrison, c 2d Sec. of Emb. Sheldon L. Crosby, < 3d Sec. of Emb Capt Edward Simpson, Nav. Att Maj. Stephen I/H. Slocum, Mil. Att Qcof|0 11. MOMS| E. E« ft M. P.***. Frederic Ogden de Billicr,oSec. of Leg... R. S. RcyaoMs HItt.a E. E. ft M. P Jordan Herbert Stabler,*? Sec. of Leg Maj. Wallis O. Clark, Mil. Alt Heary W. Paraiss, E. E. ft JH. P Charki Daaaiaf White. E. E. ft JH. P J. Butler Wright.oSec. of Leg Thomai J. O'Brica, Aaib. E. ft P Charles S. Wilson, Sec. of Emb Alexander R.Magruder,a0 2dScc.of Emb.. Com. Andrew T. Long, Nav. Att Maj. J. F. Reynolds Landis, Mil. Att Charles Pafe Bryaa. Aab. E. ft P Montgomery Schuyler, jr., Sec. of Emb... Charles Campbell, jr.,c 2d Sec. of Emb.... Charles Jonathan Arnell/ Japanese Sec. and Int. 3d Sec. of Emb... John K. Caldwell*/ Asst. Japanese Sec Raymond S. Curtice, Stud. Int Harold C. Huggins, Stud. Int Max D. Kirjassoff," Stud. Int Lewis V. Boyle. Stud. Int Capt. John H. Shipley, Nav. AtL Lt. Col. Harry L. Hawthorne, Mil. Alt... Maj. George H. R. Gosman, Att ist Lt. William T. Hoadley, Att xst Lt. Orlando C. Troxel, Att.~ ist Lt. Charles Burnett, .Att Lt. (junior grade) George E. Lake, Att... Lt. (junior grade) Fred K. Rogers, Ati Willlaa D. Craa, Mialster Reiidcat ft CO Richard C. Bundy, ' Sec. of Leg xst Lt. Benjamin O. Davis, Mil. .\tt I Lloyd BrycCf E. E. ft M. P. o Paxton Hibben, Sec. of Leg , Heary Uae Wllsoa. Amb. E. ft P Fred Morris Hearing. Sec. of Emb Nelson O'Shaughnessy. ad Sec. of Emb. Frank D. Arnold, c 3d Sec. of Emb. Capt. Girard Sturtcvant. Mil. Att Qeorfc H. Motes, E. E. ft M. P.*" Frederic Ogden dc Billier,^ Sec. of Leg. Fred W. Carpeatcr« E. E. ft M. P Cyrus F. Wicker,c Sec. of Leg Lloyd Bryce, E. E. ft JH. P.o l*axion Hibben, Sec. of Leg Com. Arthur B;iinbridgc Hoff, Nuv. Alt.. Elliott Northcott, E. E. ft M. P Franklin Molt Gunther.« Sec. of Leg.... Berlla .. Berlin Berlin Berlin Berlin Berlin Pa.... Pa.... Pa.... N. Y. London. London London London. London AthCBi Athens Qaateaiala Guatemala... Guatemala... Port aa Priacc. Tegaclfalpa.... Tegucigalpa. Roaic Rome Rome Rome Rome Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo I»a Ohio... Mass .. N. Y... N. Y... Ohio N. Y France .. Md Mass N. Y N. Y N. Y Mich Me France.. N.C Pa Ill Conn Mo Tokyo , Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Moarovia Monrovia.... Monrovia .. The Hafae.... The Hague. Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Atbcas Alhens Taafler Tangier The Hafoc.... The Hague. Berlin Maaataa Managua.... Pa Pa Pa N. Y.. Navy. Army. N. Y.. Mass . Ill N. Y.. Navy. Army. N.H.. D. C. Ill Md.... Army. Ind.... N. J.. Wyo.. Mich . Me.... Md .... Navy. Army. Ill N. Y.. Va .... Wash. Aug. 12 Dec. 21 Aug. IQ Mar 31 Aug. 31 Apr. 5 Mar. 8 Sept. as Aug. 16 Mar. 31 June X Oct. 8 Apr. 5 July 28 Sept. 17 July 6 Apr. a<) Nov. 23 July 6 Aug. 4 Aug. xa Dec. 15 Mar. a May a6 Mar. 3 Aug. la Dec. 21 July 6 Sept. 7 Ohio Conn Oreg Russia... Tenn Iowa Minn N. V N. S Ill Tenn Ill Ill S.C Ohio ' D. C i N. Y Ind Ind Mo N. Y Pa N. Y N. Y Minn Mich N Y Ind W. V'a. N. Y.... Ky Pa Oreg ... Conn... Cal Navy... Army- Army... Navy.. Army- Army... Navy .. Navy.. S. C Ohio.... Army... N. Y.... Ind Wash.. Mo N. Y..., Pa Army... N. H.... D. C... Cal .... N. Y.... N. Y,... Ind Navy... W. Va. Va Dec. 4 Apr. I Apr. I Mar. 10 June a6 Apr. 22 Nov. 16 Mar. 25 May 26 Mar. 25 Mar. as Apr. 13 Feb. 8 June 13 Mar. 31 Dec. 6 Aug. 12 Dec. 21 Dec. 21 Aug. 12 Jan. 27 Aug. 12 Aug. 21 Apr. 5 July 28 June a June 24 Aug. 12 Dec. 21 Sept. 6 Jan. g Jan. 27 Com- pensa- tion. on 909 9x1 I 9x0 9x1 909 90s 909 910^ 9x0 909 9x0 909 9x0 910 911 910 905 911 909 911 910 911 909 908 911 909 9x1 909 $f7.5c.o 3.000 a, 000 x.aoo 909 910 9x0 , 911 911 910 909 9x1 910 9X1 9x1 910 910 9x0 9x0 909 911 909 909 910 911 910 908 909 910 910 910 911 909 911 9X1 9" 17.500 3.000 a, 000 x.aoo 2,UOO IO.CXMj 2,000 xo,ooo xo,ooo a, 000 17.500 .3.000 a, 000 17,500 3.000 a,oco 3.600 X,200 a, 000 1,000 r.ooo 5.000 a, 000 la ,000 a ,625 17 ,500 3 noo 2 ,000 X ,200 10,000 2,000 xo.ooo 2,000 ia,ooo a. 625 10,000, a, 000 UNITED STATES DIPLOMATIC SERVICE. 2^ DIPLOMATIC service-Continued. To what country ac- credited. Norway.... PaM«a .. Paraguy . PcnU Pen Poilagit.. RMiaaaU. Rania .... Name and rank. Salva^r.... Scrria Slaai Spala. SweJea Switierlaad Tarkey Egypt Uragaay.. Veaexada. Laaiita S. Swcaiea, E. E. ft M. P Charles B. Curtis^ Sec. of Lejj isi Lt. William M. Colvm, Mil. An H. Penlval Dodge. E. E. ft M. P William W. Andrews,' Sec. of Leg Nicaiay A. Orevstad.nE. E. ft M. P.P G.Cornell Tarler,o Sec. of Leg i ist Lt. John S. Hammond, Mil. Att Ckarlet W. RbsmU, E. E. ft M. P , Edward Bell,' Sec. of Leg- John Tyler, Int H. Clay HawaN. E. E. ft M. P William P. Cresson.o Sec. of Leg ' Edwla V. Margaa. E. E. ft M. P George L. Lorillard, Sec. of Leg i Joaa B. Jackfaa, E. E. ft M« P.i ' Roland B. Harvey, <? Sec. of Leg. & C. G.. Cartls Oalld. Aaib. E. ft P George Post Wheeler, <* Sec. of Emb Alexander Benson, e 2d Sec. of Emb 1 Frederick A. Sterling,' 3d Sec. of Emb Com. Henry H. Hough, Nav. Att , Capt. Nathan K. Averill, Mil. Att WllOaai Hdaike,*! E. E. ft M. P Thos,EwingDabney,cSec.of Leg.&C.G . «aVDB O* wBCKBODf C« C* 9L lffi» ■ • !••>•••••• •■>■«•«■■■>•■ 1 Roland B. Harvey. c Sec. of Leg. & C. G.. Haalltoa Ktag," E. E. ft M. P 1 Sec. of Leg.&C. G...| Leng Hui, Int ' Hcary Clay Idc, E. E. ft M. P Gustave SchoUe," Sec. of Leg Capt. Cleveland C. Lansing, Mil. Att Ckarlet H. Gravei, E. E. ft M. P Henry Coleman May.e Sec. of Leg ist Lt. William M. Colvin, Mil. Att Heary S. BMtell, E. E. ft M. P James G Bailey, Sec. of Leg Willlaa Woodvllk Rockkill. Aaib. E. ft P Hoffman Philip, Sec. of F2mb John H. Gregory, jr.,c jd Sec. of Emb \ William Walker Smith,' 3d Sec. of Emb.. A. A. Gargiulo, Int Ralph F. Chcsbrough, Stud. Int Ralph H. Bader, Stud. Int. 1 Leland B. Morris, Stud. Int Frank B. Rairden,a Stud. Int • George W. Young, Stud. Int 1 Donald Nicolson.n Stud. Int .Maj. John R. M. Taylor, Mil. Att Peter Aagattas Jay, Agt. ft C. Q ' Nicaiay A. Orevstad," E. E. ft M. P.i> G. Cornell Tarler,c Sec. of Leg ist Lt. John S. Hammond, Mil. Att Joka W. Garrett, E. E. ft M. P Jefferson Caffery, ' Sec. of Leg Residence. Ckristlaala Christiania Stockholm Paaaaia Panama Maatevldeo Montevideo Montevideo Tckeraa Teheran Teheran 1 Liau Lima ' LIftboa Lisbon Backamt Bucharest St. Peterskarg St. Petersburg.... St. Petersburg... St. Petersburg... Paris St. Petersburg... Saa Salvador San Salvador Backarett ~.' Bucharest ' Baagkok Bangkok Bangkok Madrid Madrid Madrid Stockbolai Stockholm Stockholm Berae Berne Coaataatiaopb Constantinople.. Constantinople..! Constantinople- Constantinople.. Constantinople.. Constantinople..! Constantinople..! Constantinople..' Constantinople.. Constantinople.. Constantinople..' Cairo Moatevidco Montevideo Montevideo Caracal Caracas ' Where born. Minn.... N, V Mo Ohio Norway N. y N. Y W. Va...i N. Y ' England' Ky I Del N. Y R. I Md *«1. A &7I • • • • > N. Y Pa Minn Miquel'n Mich France .. La 1 N.J ' Md I Canada..' Whence ap- pointed. Minn.... N. Y .Army.... Mas.s ... Ohio Ill N Y Army.... D. C N. Y Persia .. Ky Nev N. Y R, I iS . J . ..... Md Mass.... Wash.... Pa Tex Navy.... Army.... Kans.... La N.J Md Mich Date of i commission. ; Apr. a7,roix , Mar. 31,1910 I Mar. 17, iQio I July 6,1911 ' Mar. 2,iQii June 3'>,r9ii Aug. iq, iqii Nov. 3,1910 Dec. 21 , 1909 Mar. 2,1911 Com- pensa- tion. Jan. 18.1911 I Aug. .«.ic,o9 May 24,1911 ! June 10,1908 I Aug. 1^,1911 June 24,1910 Apr. 24,1911 Dec. 21.1909 ' Mar. 2,1911 Mar. 2,1911 Nov. 8,1910 . Oct. 27,1910 . Aug. 5,1909 ' Apr. 4,1910 I Aug. 12,1911 June 24,1910 , Apr. 27,1903 I Siaro Vt ' Cal N. Y Mass ChI Mo I Mass Ky Pa Fla Ky Turkey.., R.I Va Tex I Java Iowa Scotland, D. C R. I Norway N. Y ' N. Y Md La Siam . Vt Minn. Army. Minn. D. C .Army. Ill Ky N. V La Ohio Turkey.. Wis Va Pa N. Y Md Mass Army R. I Ill N. Y Army Md La Aug. 27,1901 Apr. 1,19091 Mar. 3,1911 I Sept. 6,1911 . Mar. 8,1905 ' Aug. 4, 1009 I Mar. 17, 1910 . Apr. 24,19*1 Mar. 2,19x1 Apr. 24,1911 June 24,1910 Aug. 4,1909 Mar. 31, 1910 July 1,1873 Apr. 1,1910 ' Apr. 1,1910 '1 Apr. X, 1910 , Mar. xo,i9ii Mar. 10,1911 ' Mar. 10, 1911 Apr. 20, 1911 . Dec. 21, 1909 ; June 30,19x1 Aug. 19,1911 Nov. 3,1910 . Dec. is,'igio Mar. 2,19x1 $io,noo 2,000 io,oco 2, 000 xo,ooo 2,000 xo,ooo 2,000 1,060 xo,ooo a, 000 10,000 a, 000 10,000 2,000 x7,soo 3.000 2,000 i,aoo zo,ooo 2,000 10,000 a, 000 10,000 2,000 500 xa,ooo a, 625 xo,ooo 2,000 10,000 2,000 "7.500 3.000 2, 000 1,200 3.000 1,000 1,000 x,noo x,ooo x,ono 1,000 6,500 io,oco 2,000 zo,ooo a, 000 24 CLASSIFICATION OF CONSULATES-GENERAL AND CONSULATES. irilL^CUkSSIFICATION OF CONSIJI<ATBS-OBNlBBAI< AND CONSVIiATBS. The act of May ii, 1908, amending the act for the reorganization of the consular service of the United States, approved April 5, 1906, provides: That the classification of consuls-general and consuls in section two of an Act entitled "An Act to provide for the reorganization of the consular service of the United States," approved April fifth, nineteen hundred and six, be, and the same is hereby, amended so as to r^ad as follows: CONSULS-GENERAL. Class I. — Salary^ $12^000 {s in al/}, London, Paris. Berlin, Habana, Hamburg, Hongkong, C/ass //.—Salary, SS^ooo (6 in all). Riode Janeiro, Shanghai. Calcutu, Cape Town, Cl€us ///.—Salary, 46,000 (S in al/). Constantinople, Mexico City, Montreal, Otuwa, Vienna, Yokohama. Antwerp, Barcelona, Brussels, Auckland, Beirut, Boma, Buenos Aires, Callao, Adis Ababa, Bogoti. Budapest, Athens, Canton, Frankfort, Marseille, Coburg, Dresden, Genoa, Guayaquil, Halifax, Class /v. — Salary, ^J^oo (j2 in all). Moscow, Panama, Rotterdam, Class y.— Salary, $4,500 (77 in all). Hankow, Mukden, Munich, Singapore. Vancouver, Class V/.— Salary, $3,500 {g in all). Guatemala, Lisbon, Monterey, Smyrna, Class V//. — Salary, $3,000 (3 in all). Christianla, Copenhagen. Seoul, Sydney (Australia), Tientsin. Winnipeg, Zurich. Stockholm, Tangier. CONSULS. Class /. — Salary, $S,ooo. Liverpool. Amsterdam, Bremen, Belfast, Amoy, Birmingham, Chefoo. Cienfuegos, Bahia, Bombay, Bordeaux, Colon, Dublin, Dundee, Class //.—Salary, $6,ooo. Manchester. Class ///.Salary, $5,000 (9 in all). Dawson, Johannesburg, Louren90 Marques, Havre, Kobe, Lyon. Class /K- -Salary, $4,500 {14 in all). Foochow, Nottingham, Valparaiso, Glasgow, St. Gall, Veracrur. Kingston G^inA^ca), Santiago ^Cuba), Newchwang, Southampton, Class K- -Salary, $4,000 {2a in iUl). Harbin, Para, Toronto, Leipzig, Pernambuco, Tsingtau, Milan, Plauen, Victoria, Nanking, Relchenberg, Warsaw. Naples, Santos, Nuremberg. Stuttgart, CLASSIFICATION OF CONSULATES-GENERAL AND CONSULATES. 25 Class Vl.—Salarys Ss^goo {34 in all). Alexandria, Apia, Barmen, Barranquilla. Basel, Berne, Bluefields, Bradford, Chemnitz, Chungking, Cologne, Dalny, Durban, Edinburgh, Fiume, Geneva, Georgetown, Guadalajara, Mannheim. Montevideo. Nagasaki, Odessa, Palermo, Port Elizabeth, Prague, Quebec, Rangoon, Rheims, Rimouski, Rome, St. Petersburg, Saloniki, Sherbrooke, Vladivostok. Class VIL— Salary^ ^S^ooo (ss in all). fiix la Chapelle, Aleppo, Barbados, Batavia. Belgrade, Burslem, Calais, Calgary, Carlsbad, Catania,* Colombo, Corinto, Dunfermline, Florence, Frontera, Ghent, Hamilton (Onurio), Hanover, Harput, Huddersfield, Iqulque, Iqultos, Jerusalem, Karachi, Kehl, La Guaira, Leghorn, Liege, Madras. Malaga, Managua, Melbourne, Nantes, Nassau, Newcastle (England), Newcastle (N. S. W.), Port Antonio, Port au Prince, Progreso, Punta Arenas. Riga, St. John (N. B.), St. Michael's, St. Thomas (West Indies), Sandakan, San Jos^ (CosU Rica), Seville, Sheffield, Swansea, Sydney (Nova Scotia), Tabriz, Tampico, Tamsul, Trieste, Trinidad. Class yill.—Salarf, S^^oo (do in all). Acapuico, Aden, Algiers, Antung, Batum, Belize. Bergen, Breslau, Brunswick, Cardiff, Chihuahua, Ciudad Juarez, Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, Cognac, Cork, Curafao, Erfurt, Gibraltar, Gothenburg, Hamilton (Bermuda), Hull, Jerez de la Frontera, Kingston (Ontario), Leeds, Limoges, Madrid, Magdeburg. Malu. Maracalbo, Martinique Matamoros, Mazatlan, Merslne, Nice, Nogales, Nuevo Laredo, Orillia, Owen Sound, Plymouth, Port Limon, Prcscott, Puerto Cortes, Rosario, Roubaix, St. John's (N. F.), St. Etienne, San Luis Potosl, Sarnia, Sault Ste. Marie, Stettin, Swatow, Tamatave, Tegucigalpa, Tcneriffe, Treblzond, Tripoli (North Africa), Valencia, Windsor (Ontario), Yarmouth, * Zanzibar. Class IX,— Salary^ $2^ooo {4s in all). Aguascalientes, Asuncion, Bagdad, Bristol. Campbellton, Cape Gracias A Dios, Cape Haitien, Cartagena, Ceiba, Charlottetown, Cornwall, Durango, Ensenada, Femie, Fort Erie, Gor^e- Dakar, Grenoble, Guadeloupe, Hermosillo. Hobart, La Paz, Manzanillo, MaskaL, Moncton, Niagara Falls, Patras, Port Louis, Puerto Cabello, Puerto Plata, Rouen, Saigon, St. John's (Quebec), St. Pierre. St. Stephen. Sallna Cruz, Saltillo, Sierra Leone, Sivas, Stavanger, Suva, Tahiti, Tapachula, Turin, Turks Island, Venice. * By the Act of Congress approved February 3, 1909, the Consulate at Messina was transferred to Catania. 26 CONSULAR DISTRICTS. BRAZIL. Biriite. The Stales of Piauhi, Sergipc, and Bahia. Para. The States of Amazonas, Para, and Maranhflo. Penuuikac*. The Sutes of Ceara, Rio Grande do Norte, Parahyba, Pernambuco, and Alagoas. Kto 4c Jucirt. The States of Rio de Janeiro, Espirito Santo, Minas Geraes, Goyaz, and Matto Grosso. S«|«M. The States of S&o Paulo, Parana, Sanu Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul. CHINA AND AIMACENT TERRITOKY. That portion of the Province of Fulcien comprised in the prefectures of Ting-chou-fu, Chang-chou-fu, and Ch'uan-chou-fu, and the independent subprefecture of Lung-yen-chou. Astaag. This district corresponds lothe intendency of the three Eartern Marches, and consists of that portion of the Prov- ince of Shenglcing south and east of a line starting from the sea west of Chuanghoting, thence north about lo miles, thence northeast, crossing the Antung-Mulcden Railway a little north of Feng-huan-cheng and continuing in the same direction to the boundary of Shengking and Kirin, thence following this boundary southeast to the Korean frontier. This will give to the consular district of Antung the following places opened to trade, viz: Feng-huan-cheng, Antung, and Tatungkou. CmIm. The Provinces of Kuangsi and Yunnan and that por- tion of the Province of Kuangtung west of longitude 115*. CMm. The Province of Shantung south of the Yellow River, exclusive of the German leased territory of Kiaochow. CkaafkUf. The Provinces of Szechuen and Kueichou and all of Tibet south of the Kokonor region. Dalay. The Japanese leased territory of Kuantung. PMchow. The whole of the Province of Fukien except the four prefectures forming ihe consular district of Amoy. Haflkow. The Province of Honan south of the Yellow River and the whole of the Provinces of Hupeh, Hunan, Ki- angsi, Shensi, Kansuh, the Kokonor region, Hsinchiang (Turkestan), and that portion of Mongolia not included in the Tientsin district. Harbla. The Province of Hci-lung-ch'iang and that part of the Province of Kirin lying north of theChinese Eastern Rail- way from Harbin to the Russian boundary on the cast. It will include the following places opened to trade: Manchuria, Khailar, Tsitsihar, Aigun, Sansing, and Har- bin. Haagkoag. The British colony of Hongkong. Makica. All the remainder of the Province of Kirin and a por- tion of Shengking Province, bounded as follows: Hr(;inning at the junction of the Chihli boundary with the Sira Muren and following that river to its junction with the Liao, but leaving the newly opened town of Tunp- Chiang-tzu within the Newchwanj; di'^trict; following the Liao until near the old town of Ncwchwanjj, thence south to the west of Hai-ch'enp, wlicnce the line will tollow tlie western border of the Japanese railway zone until north of Ta-Shlh-Chiao, when it will cross to the eastern border of the railway zone, and follow this to the boundary of '.he neutral zone, thence east to the sea. DI0TMIOTS. CHINA AND ADJACENT TERKITOKY-Caatlaaad. MakJea —Continued . Less that portion of the Province forming the Antung consular district. This will give to the consular district of Mukden the following places opened to trade: Kuanchengtzu (Chang- chun), Kirin, Hunchun, Tiehling, Mukden, Liaoyang, Suifenho, and the four towns in the Chientao district, namely, Lung-Ching-T'sun, ChU-Tzu-Chieh, Tou-tao- kou, and Pai-Ts'ao-kou. Naaklag. The whole of the Province of Anhui and all of the Province of Kiangsu north of the Yangtze River, and two prefectures south of the same (Chiangning and Chui Kiang). Ncwchwaag. All the remainder of the Province of Shenking includ- ing the following places open to trade: Tung-chiang-tzu, F*akumen, Hsinmintun, Yin-kow. Newchwang will also have jurisdiction over Shanhaikuan. Salgaa. All of French Indo-China. Shaagkal. The whole of the Province of Kiangsu with the excep- tion of that part which is included in the Nanking district, the Island of Tsungming, and the whole of the Province of Chekiang. Swalow. That portion of the Province of Kuangtung east of longitude 115". TIcalala. The whole of the Provinces of Chihli and Shansi, and that portion of the Provinces of Honan and Shantung north of the Yellow River, together with all of Eastern Mongo- lia, including the Ordos countrv and the territory inhabited by the eastern and southern Kbalkhas. Tflagtaa. The German leased territory of Kiaochow. GERMANY. All la ChapcUe. X. Regierungsbezirk of Aix la Chapelle (Rhine Prov- ince, Prussia). a. Kreise of Cleve, Geldern, Mlirs, Kempen, Crefeld city and township, MUnchen-Gladbach city and township (Regierungsbezirk of Diisseldorf, Rhine Province, Prus- sia). Baraiea. I. Kreise of Rees, Dinslaken, Duisburg, Milhlheim, Essen city and township, Diisseldorf city and township, Mcttmann, Solingen city and township, Grevenbroicn, Neuss, Barmen, Elberfeld, Lennep, Remscheid, Ober- Hausen, and Rheydt (Regierungsbezirk of Diisseldorf, Rhine Province, Prussia). a. Regierungsbezirke of MUnster and Arnsberg (Prov- ince of Westphalia, Prussia). Bcrlla. I. Province of Brandenburg. a. Kreise of (irUnberg, Freystadt, Sacran, Sprottau, Rothenburg, Hoyerswerda, and GOrlitz city and town- ship (Province of Silesia). Sorau (Consular Agency). 1. Kreise of Zllllichau, Krossen, West Sternberg, Guben city and township, Sorau, Kottbus city and township, Spremberg, Calau, LUbben, and Luckau. Kreis of the city of Frankfort a / O. (Regierungsbezirk of Frankfort, Province of Brandenburg). 2. Kreise of Grlinberg, Freystadt, Sagan, Sprottau, Rothenburg, Hoyerswerda, and Gtirlitz city and town- ship (Province of Silesia). Brcaiea. 1. Free city of Bremen. 2. Grand Duchy of Oldenburg, excepting principalities of Hirkenfeld and Liibcck. 3. RcLMeruiif^'sbei^irk of Aurich and OsnabrUck (Prov- ince of Hanover). 4. Kreise of Sykc. Diephol/,, Sulingen, Hoya, Nienburg, Stolzcnau (Regierungsbezirk of Hanover, Province of Hanover). CONSULAR DISTRICTS. 27 GERMANY- CMtlawd. BreHea-Condnued. 5. Kreise of BremervUrde, Blumenthal, Osierholr, Zeven, Achim, Lehe, GeestemUnde, Roienburcr, and Ver- deii ( Refrierungsbezirk of Stade, Province of Hanover). 6. Helgroland. Brake (Consular Agency). Amter of Brake, Elsfleth, and Butjadingen (Grand Duchy of Oldenburg). Bremerkavtn (Consular Agency). i. Amtof Bremerhaven (State of Bremen), a. Kreise of Lehe and GeestemUnde (Regierungs- bezirk of Stade, Province of Hanover). Brettaa. X. Regterungsbezirk of Posen. 2. Province of Silesia, with the exception of the Kreise of GrUnberg, Freystadt, Sagan, Sprottau, Rothenburg, Hoyerswerda, and GOrlitz city and township. Braoswick. X. Kreise of Olzen, Isenhagen, Gifhorn, and LQchow (Regterungsbezirk of LUneburg, Province of Hanover). 2. Kreise of Peine, Marienburg, Duderstadt. Zeller- feld. Goslar, Osterode, and I If eld (Regierungsbezirk of Hildesheim, Province of Hanover). 3. Duchy of Brunswick (Kreise of Brunswick, Wolf- enbUttel, Helmstedt, Blankenburg, Gandersheim, and Holzminden). 4. Kreise of Grafschaft Hohenstein. Worbis, Heiligen- stadt, MUhlhausen city and township (Regierungsbezirk of Erfurt, Province of Saxony). 5. Exclave of Volkenroda (Duchy of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha). 6. Kreise of Ebeleben and Sondershausen (Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen). CbcHfllti. X. Kreishauptmannschaft of Chemnitz. 2. Amtshauptmanschaft of Rochlitz (Regierungsbezirk of Leipzig, Kingdom of Saxony). Cobvrf. X. Bezirksilmter of Ebern, Gerolzhofen, Hassfurt, Hof- heim, Kissingen, K8nigshofen, Mellrichstadt, Neustadt a/S., Schweinfurt, with the chartered cities of Schwein- furt and Kissingen (Regierungsbezirk of Lower Fran- conia, Bavaria). 2. Bezirk.samter z and 2 of Bamberg, Berneck, Eber- mannstadt, Hof, Kronach, Kulmbach, Lichtenfels, MUnch- berg, Naila, Rebau, Stadtsteinach, StafTelstein, Teusch- nitz, with the chartered cities of Hof, Bamberg,and Kulm- bach (Regierungsbezirk of Upper Franconia, Bavaria). 3. Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, excepting Exclave of Camburg. 4. Exclave of Kranichfeld (Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach). 5. Kreise of Ktinigsee and Rudolstadt (Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt). 6. Kreis of Gehren (Principality of Schwarzburg-Son- dershausen). 7. Verwaltungsbezirk of Dermbach (Grand Duchy of Saxe- Wei mar- Eisenach ). 8. Kreise of Scbleusingen, Ziegcnrlick (Regierungsbe- zirk of Erfurt, Province of Saxony, Prussia). Q. Duchy of Saxe-Coburg. xo. Kreis of Schmalkalden (Regierungsbezirk of Cas- sel. Province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia). Sonneberg{Qovi%M\Kr Agency). Sonneberg (Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen). CotofM. X. Regierungsbezirk of Cologne (Rhine Province, Prussia). a Regierungsbezirk of Coblenz (Rhine Province, Prus- sia), with exception of the Kreise of Wetzlar, Kreuznach, Zell, and Simmern. 3. Regierungsbezirk of Treves (Rhine Province, Prus- sia). Drct4ca. Kreishauptmannschaften of Dresden and Bautzen (Kingdom of Saxony). Erfsii. X. Duchy of Saxe-Gulha, with the exception of the Ex- clave of Volkenroda. a. Verwaltungsbezirke of Eisenach, Apolda, and Wei- mar, with the exception of the Exclave of Kranichfeld (Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach). OeiUUNY-CMtlawd. Erfart— Continued. 3. Kreise of Erfurt city and township, Langensalza, Weissensee (Regierungsbezirk of Erfurt, Province of Saxony, Prussia). 4. Kreis of Arnstadt (Principality of Schwarzburg- Sondershausen). 5. Kreis of Frankenhausen (Principality of Schwarz- burg-Rudolstadt). Praakfort-oi-JIUIi. 1. Regierungsbezirk of Cassel, excepting the Kreise of Rinteln and Schmalkalden (Province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia). 2. Kreise of Wetzlar, Kreuznach, Zell, and Simmern (Regierungsbezirk of Coblenz, Rhine Province, Prussia). 3. Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, with the excep- tion of the Kreise of Worms, Bensheim, Heppenbeim, and Erbach. 4. Bezirksilmter of BrUckenau, Miltenberg, GemQnden, Hammelburg, Alzenau, Aschaffenburg, Lohr, Markthei- denfeld, Karlstadt, Obernburg, and the chartered city of Aschaffenburg (Regierungsbezirk of Lower Franconia, Bavaria). 5. Regierungsbezirk of Wiesbaden (Province of Hesse- Nassau, Prussia). 6. Kreise of Paderborn, Btiren, Warburg, Hoxtcr, and WiedenbrQck (Regierungsbezirk of Minden, Province of Westphalia, Prussia). 7. Principality of Waldeck. 8. Principality of Birkenfeld (Grand Duchy of Olden- burg). Cassel (Consular Agency). X. Regierungsbezirk of Cassel, ezceptin|r the Kreise of Hanau city and township, Gelnbausen, SchlUchtern, -Schmalkalden, and Rinteln. a. Kreis of Biedenkopf (Regierungsbezirk of Wies- baden, Province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia). \. Kreise of Paderborn, BUren, Warburg, HKxter, and WiedenbrUck (Regierungsbezirk of Minden, Prov- ince of Westphalia, Prussia). 4. PrincipMility of Waldeck. Wiesbaden (Consular Agency). Kreise of Wiesbaden city and township, Oberwester- wald, Unterwesierwald, Unterlahn, Limburg, Oberlahn, St. Goarshausen, Rheingau, Untertaunus, and Wester- burg (Regierungsbezirk of Wiesbaden, Province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia). HftBlwrg. 1. Province of Schleswig-Holstein. 2. Grand Duchy of Mecklenbur^-Schwerin. 3. Principality of Ratzeburg (Grand Duchy of Meck- lenburg-Strelitz). 4. Free cities of Hamburg and LUbeck. 5. Principality of LUbeck (Grand Duchy of Oldenburg). 6. Kreise of Hadeln, Ncuhaus, Kehdingen, Slade, and Jorck (Regierungsbezirk of Stade, Province of Hanover). 7. Harburg city and township, Kreise of Winsen, Sol- tau, LUneburg city and township, Kreise of Bleckede and Dannenberg (Regierungsbezirk of LUneburg, Province of Hanover). CHxhax'en (Consular Agency). Amt of RitzebUttel (Hamburg), Kreise of Hadeln, Neuhaus, and Kehdingen (Regierungsbezirk of Stade, Province of Hanover). Kiel (Consular Agency). Kreise of Apcnrade, Haderslebcn, Sonderburg, Flensburg city and township, Kreise of Tondern, Hu- sura, Eidersledt, Schleswig, Eckernfiirde, Rendsburg, Kiel, city district of NeumUnster, Kreise of Plon and Oldenburg ^Province of Schleswig-Holstein). Lubeck (Consular Agency). City of LUbeck and Principality of LUbeck (Grand Duchy of Oldenburg), Principality of Ratzeburg. Haoover. 1. Kreis of Neustadt a / R., Hanover city and township. Linden city and township, Kreise of Springe and Hamefn (Rejjrierungsbezirk of Hanover, Province of Hanover, Prussia). 2. Hildesheim city and township. Gronau, Alfeld, Ein- beck, Uslar, Northeim, MUnden. (iotiingen city and town- ship (Regierungsbezirk of Hildesheim, Province of Han- over, Prussia). 3. Kreise of Fallinjfbostel, Celle city and township, Kreis of Burgdorf (Re^jierungsbezirk of L&neburg, Prov- ince of Hanover, Prussia). 28 CONSULAR DISTRICTS. GERMANY-Xoatlflwd. HuMver— Continued. A. Kreise of Minden, Ltibbecke, Herford, Halle, and Bielefeld city and township (Regierungsbezirk of Minden, Province of Westphalia, Prussia). 5. Principality of Lippe. 6. Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe. 7. Principality of Pyrmoni. 8. Krels of Rinteln (Regierungsbezirk of Cassel, Prov- ince of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia). Kekl. 1. Amt of Rastatt and the Grand Duchy of Baden south of the Amt of Rastatt. 2. Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Alsace-Lorraine). Leipxit. X. Kreishauptmannschaflft of Leipzig, excepting the Amtshauptmannschaft of Rochlitz (Kingdom of Saxony). 3. Regierungsbezirk of Merseburg (Province of Sax- ony). 3. Duchy of Saxe-Altenbur^. 4. Landratsamtsbezirk of C^era (Principality of Reuss, younger line). 5. Verwaltungsbezirk of Neustadt (Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach). 6. Exclave of Camburg of the Duchy of Saxe-Mcin- ingen. Gfra (Consular Agency). X. Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg. a. Landratsamtsbezirk of Gera (Principality of Reuss, younser line). 3. Verwaltungsbezirk of Neustadt (Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach ). 4. Exclave of Camburg of the Duchy of Saxe-Min- ingen. X. Duchy of Anhalt. a. Regierungsbezirk of Magdeburg (Province of Sax- ony). JKaMhelB. z. Amt of Ettlinffen and the Grand Duchy of Baden north of the Amt of Ettlingen. a. Kreise of Worms, Benshelm, Heppenheim, Erbach (Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt). 3. The Bavarian Palatinate. Neustadt-an-der-Hardt (Consular Agency). The Bavarian Palatinate, excepting the Bezirks- Smter of Frankenthal, Ludwigshafen, Speyer, and Germersheim. MMlch. r. Regierungsbezirke of Schwaben and Neuburg (Ba- varia). 2. Regierungsbezirk of Upper Bavaria (Bavaria). 3. Regierungsbezirk of Lower Bavaria (Bavaria). Nareaibcrg. z. Regierungsbezirk of Middle Franconia (Bavaria). 2. Regierungsbezirk of Upper Palatinate (Bavaria). ■X. BezirksSmter of WUrzburf , Kitzingen, Ochsenfurt, and the chartered cities of WUrzburg and Kitzingen (Regierungsbezirk of Lower Franconia, Bavaria). 4. BezirksUraier of HBchstadt, Forchhcim, Pc|rnitz, Bayreuth, Wunsiedel, and the chartered cities of Forch- hcim and Bayreuth (Regierungsbezirk of Upper Fran- conia, Bavaria). PlSMI. X. Kreishauptmannschaft of Zwickau (Kingdom of Saxon v). 2. Principality of Reuss, older line. 3. Landraisamtbezirkof Schleiz (Principality of Reuss, younger line). Markmukirchen (Consular Agency). .. Southern half of the Amtshauplmannschafi of Olsnitz and southern third of the Amtshauptmann- schaft of Auerbach (Kingdom of Saxony). Stettii. 1. Province of Pomerania. 2. Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Streliiz, excepting the Principality of Ratzeburg. 3. Regieruntfsbezirk of Broraberg (Province of Posen). 4. Province of West Prussia. 5. Province of East Prussia. OERMANY-XMtlflwd. Stettia— Continued. Danzig (Consular Agency). Province of West Prussia. Ajc»>ir>T^/r^ (Consular Agency). Province of East Prussia. Swinemunde (Consular Agency). Kreise of Usedom, Wollin, and RUgen (Province of Pomerania). Stnttfart. I. The Kingdom of Wlirttemberg. 3. Hohenzollern Land. HUNGARY. Ba4«pcst. The Kingdom of Hungary, except Croatia and Slavonia. PillHC. The whole of Croatia and Slavonia. Cttaila. ITALY. The Provinces of Messina, Catania, Siracusa, in the island of Sicily, and the Department of Calabria. Plomcc. Department of Emilia and the Provinces of Florence and Arczzo in the Department of Tuscany. Qenoa. Department of Liguria. LeglMni. Department of Tuscany, except the Provinces of Flor- ence and Arezzo. jmiu. Department of Lombardy. Naples. The Departments of Campania, Apulia, and Potenza (Basilicata). Paleraio. The island of Sicily, with the exception of the Prov- inces of Messina, Catania, and Siracusa. Rone. The Departments of Rome , Perugia (Umbria), Marches, Abruzzi e Molise, and the island of Sardinia. Tarla. Department of Piedmont. Yeaice. Department of Venetia. RUSSIA. Bataai. The Caucasus. Moscow. Governments of Moscow, Tver, Varoslav, Smolensk, Vladimir. Nizhni Novgorod, Kazan. Ufa, Orenburg, Mo- hilev, Kaluga, Tula, Ria/.an, Tambov, Penza, Simbirsk, Samara. Tchernigov, Orel, Kursk, Voronesh, and Saratov. Odessa. Governments of Kherson, Bessarabia, Podolia, Kief, Poltava, Kharkov. Ekaterinoslav, Taurida, Don Cossacks district, and Astrakhan. Rica. Governments of Livonia, Couronia, Kovno, Vitebsk, and Vilna. St. Petersbart. Governments of St. Petersburg, Finland, Esthonia, Novgorod, Pskov, Olonetz, Archangel, Volgoda, Kos- troma, Viatka, and Perm. Warsaw. Governments of Poland, Grodno, Minsk, and Volhynia. TARIFF OF UNITED STATES CONSULAR FEES. 29 X.-TARIFF OF I7NITBD STATUS CONSUI«AB FBB8. [Revised to take effect November i, 1906; amended by Executive order of June 7, 1909.] Tariff of fees prescribed by order of the President to be charged by consular officers of the United States. All consular charges must be in strict accordance with this tariff, and be collected in gold or its equivalent. No fee or compensation will be collected for any service not covered by this tariff. (The fees in this tariff are not prescribed for American vessels and seamen, because they are exempted by law from the payment of consular fees. Consular agents will make the fees in this tariff the basis of collection from the Treasury for services to such vessels. Foreign-built vessels, unregistered, owned by American citizens, are not exempt from the payment of the fees prescribed herein.) Nature of service. Fee. Nature of service. Fee. M iscellaneous strvices, 1. Certificate to invoice, including declaration, in triplicate or quadruplicute, covering either importations or transit shipments. including any additional declaration or certificate not otherwise provided for which is required by law or regulations for use in connection with the entry of the wares or the forwarding of the same in bond 2. Invoice of returned American ^oods. 3. Extra certificates and declarations as above described, including immigrant's oath (Form No. 128) or declaration for books and household effects under |ioo in value (Form No. 215), when issued without an invoice certificate, each 4. Certificate to extra copies of invoices, each 5. Certificate of disinfection, in triplicate or quadruplicate 6. Landing certificate, including oaths of mas- ter and mate, and the complete execution of the certificate 7. Sealing cars coming from Canada or Mex- ico, for each manifest in quintuplicate with the consul's certificate, including sealing of each car, vessel, bale, barrel, box, or package 8. Issuing a passport — Form No. 9 — or extend- ing a passport q. Visaing a passport— Form No. 10 to. Visaing a Chinese passport or certificate II. Marriage certificate, in duplicate. Form No. 87 X 2. For taking into possession the personal es- tate of any citizen who shall die within the limits of a consulate, inventorying, selling, and finally settling and preparing or transmitting, according to law, the bal- ance due thereon, %i for each $100 of value or fraction thereof. If part of such estate shall be delivered over before final settle- ment, $1 for each $no of value or fraction thereof to be charged on the part so deliv- ered over as is not in money, :<nd $2 for each |ioo of value or fraction thereof on the gross amount of the resid ue. If among the effects of the deceased are found cer- tificates of foreijjn Rlock, loans, or other property. Si for each $iooof value or frac- tion thereof on the amount thereof. No charge will be made for placing the official seal upon the personal property or effects of such deceased citizen, or for breaking or removing the seals 13. For each certificate of protection, semsar, or certificate of employment issued at Tan- gier Services to vessels and seamen. 14. Bill of health. In duplicate* 15. Supplemental bill of health, in dupli- cate* Services to vessels and seanteH—QonxXnu^d. 16. For receiving and delivering ship's register and papers, including consular certificates, |. as prescribed in Forms Nos. 13 and 14, |i ' I for each xoo tons or fraction thereof, regis- tered measurement (net), of the vessel for which the service is performed, if under 1,000 tons: but for American vessels run- $2 . 50 ning regularly by weekly or monthly trips, 1. 00 or otherwise, to or between foreign ports, this tonnage fee will not be charged fpr more than four trips in a year; and ton- I nage fees shall not be exacted for any vessel touching at or near ports in Canada on her regular voyage from one port to 1. 00 another within the United States, unless some official service required by law shall 1. 00 II be performed. 17. And for every additional ico tons net or 2.50 fraction thereof 18. Shipping or discharging seamen, including the certificates thereof attached to crew 2.50 list and shipping articles and given to sea- men I iQ. Authentication of copies of protests or other ' neces.sary documents for vessels or sea- men not otherwise provided for 1. 00 20. Preparation and acknowledgment for ves- I sels or seamen of any oath or declaration 1. 00 for which a form is given in the Consular 1. 00 I Regulations, or a similar necessary serv- x.oo ice not otherwise provided for 21. Preparation and execution for vessels or 1 .00 seamen of any certificate for which a form is given in the Consular Regulations, or similar necessary service not otherwise provided for 22. Orders or letters for vessels or seamen for which forms are given in the Consular Regulations, or other similar necessary service not otherwise provided for* , 23. Recording, when necessary.' for vessels or seamen any document covered by the pro- visions of the Consular Regulations, for every hundred words or fraction thereof... 24. Noting marine protest— Form No, -^7 25. Extending marine protest — Form No. 38 , If it exceed two hundred words, for every additional one hundred words , I 26. Protest of master against charterers or freighters— Form No. ^q 27. Clearance when issued by the consul, as at free ports , 28. Atlendingan appraisement of vessel's goods or effects, for each day's attendance , 29. Attending sale of vessel's goods, for each 1 day's attendance during which the sale 2.00 continues.... , i' 30. Attendance at a shipwreck, or for the pur- pose of assisting a ship in distress, or of saving wrecked goods or property, over 5.00 , and above traveling expenses, whenever the consul's interposition is required by 2.50 the parties interested, for each dav I0.50 2. 00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 •50 2.00 3.00 .50 2.00 2.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 * Foreign war vessels are exempt from the payment of fees for bills of health. jO COMPENSATION OF CONSULAR AGENTS. TARIFF OF UNITED STATES CONSULAR FEES— Contihukd. Nature of service. Notarial and otktr services, 31. Administering an oath and certificate there- of* 39. Administering oath and preparing passport application 33. Acknowledgment of a deed or power of at- torney, or similar service, including one or more signatures, with certificate thereof, for each copy 34. Administering an^^and all oaths required to be made by pensioners and their witnesses in the execution of their pension vouchers, or by persons presenting claims for pen- sions or increase of pensions and their witnesses, or certifying to the competency of a local official before whom the same were executed 35. Acknowledgments connected with the trans- fer of United States bonds. 36. Administering oaths to or taking acknowl- edgments of officials or employees of the United States Government, in connection with their official business or accounts. 37. For rendering notarial services to officials of foreign governments who render gra- tuitously reciprocal courtesies to American diplomatic and consular officers. 38. Certifying to official character of a foreign notary or other official 39. For takinit depositions, executing commis- sions or letters rogatory, where the record of testimony, including caption and cer- tificate, does not exceed 500 words For each additional zoo words or fraction thereof The foregoing fee shall cover the adminis- tration of the oath and all services of the consul as commissioner, but shall not in- clude services of clerk, stenographer or typewriter, which shall be additional at the rate prescribed herein for copying. Fee. I^.oo 1. 00 a. 00 40. 41- 4a. No fee. No fee. No fee. No fee. ' a. 00 zo.oo .50 ^3• 44. Nature of service. Notarial and other services — Continued. Copies (carbon copies to be charged for at tlie same rate as originals): For the first hundred words or fraction... For every additional hundred words or less Translations; for every one hundred words or fraction Additional fee for all services contemplated by fees numbered 31, 32, 33, 38, 39 when rendered elsewhere than at the consular office at the request of the interested par- ties, for each hour or fraction thereof ■| Fee. I0.50 z.oo 1. 00 In connection with any service rendered out- side of the consular office at the request of private individuals, the exact amount of the expenses actually and necessarily in- curred by the person rendering the service shall be collected from the persons for whom the service is performed in addition to the fee or fees prescribed therefor and a note of the amount shall be made on the margin of the fee book and fee return opposite the entry of . the service and fee; but no amount in excess of the fee' or fees prescribed and such actual and necessary expenses shall be charged or accepted. Recording unofficial documents in consul.tte upon request: For the first hundred words or fraction... For every additional hundred words or less Any and all services indicated in the above tariff and performed upon written orders ' of the Department of State for the official use of the Government of the United ' States No fee. 50 »5 * Executive order of December 21, 1906. prescribes that no fee shall be charged for the affidavit of temporary stay of owner of sealskin garment entering the United States from Canada. XI.-COIUPBNSATION OF OOIVSIJI4AR AGENTS. The act for the reoganization of the consular service of the United States, approved April 5. 1906, provides: **Sec. 8. That all fees, official or unofficial, received by any officer in the consular service for services rendered in connection with the duties of his office or as a consular officer, including fees for notarial services. <ind fees for taking depositions, executing commissions or letters rogatory, settling estates, receiving or paying out moneys, caring for or disposing of property, shall be accounted for and paid into the Treasury of the United States, and the sole and only compensation of such officers shall be by salaries fixed by law; but this shall not apply to consular agents, who shall be paid by one half of the fees received in their offices, up to a maximum sum of one thou- sand dollars in any one year, the other half being accounted for and paid into the Treasury of the United States. And vice-consuls-general, deputy consuls-general, vice-consuls, and deputy consuls, in addition to such compensation as they may be entitled to receive as consuls or clerks, may receive such portions of the salaries of the consul-general or consuls for whom they act as shall be provided by regulation." UNITED STATES CONSULAR SERVICE. 31 .-PRBSBNT CONSIJI4AB 9KB¥IOB OF THB VNITBD 8TATBS. CONSULS-OBNBRAL AT LAROE. Name. I Where bom. Ocorfe H. Marpkj ! N. C. For North America, including Mexico, and the Bermudas. ' PleHlsfD* Cheshire N. Y. For eastern Asia, including? the Straits Settlements, Australia, Oceanica, and the islands of the Pacific, Charles C. Eberhsrdt Kans For South America, Central America, the West Indies, and Cura9ao. Alfred L. M.<i«tlschilk&. I N. Y. For European Russia, the Balkan States, Greece. Asia Minor, Persia, India (as far as the western frontier of the Straits Settle- ments), and Africa. HcfllMi W. Harris b For Europe, excepting European Russia, the Balkan States, and Greece. Ohio.. Whence appointed. Date of commission. N. C May 23,1906 N. Y I May 24,1906 Kans N. Y. Jan. 19,19x0 Mar. 16,1908 Ohio. ' Jan. 35,1909 Salary. $5,000 5. 000 Siooo Siooo 5,000 32 UNITED STATES CONSULAR SERVICE. ABYSSINIA— BRAZIL. Place. Name and title. Where born. Whence ap- pointed. Fees, year Date of saiarv ending commission. •^•'"•/•' June 30, 19Z0. ABYSSINIA. AdIsAtata. iC.a Do Guy R. Love V. & D. C. G.. Ohio Ohio. AROENTINE REPUBLIC. Bmoos AiKt. ' Kichard M.Bartlcaaa C. 0.. Do I Ross J.Hazeltine,9..V.& D. C. G Do Do Rosarlo Eli Taylor D. C. G.. Ross J. Hazeltlneff. C. A.. Roiwrt T. Craae C. Do 7 Thomas B. Van Home, V. & D. C. Santa Fi. ' George C. Norman Agt.. Mass Ind.... N. Y.. Ind... Md.... Ohio.. AUSTRIA-HUNOARY. Ba4apcfl,llMgary.... Do Do Carlsbad, Aastria Do PlaaM, Hnogary Do Pragae, Aastria Do Relchcabcri, Aastria. Do Trieste, Aastria Do Do Vleaaa, Austria. Do Paal Nask C. 0..' Franlc E. Malleit...V. A D. C. G.. Hugh Kcmeny D. C. G.. Will L. Uwriec Cj Robert C. Bocscl V. & D. C Ciareace Rice Slocnai C. Attilio J. Clcmcnti V. & D. C. Joseph L Brittalah C. Arnold WciRsbergcrn V. A D.C.. Wiiilaai J. Plkeb C. Joseph P. Burg V. A D. C. Ralph J. Tottea^f .C. Orestes De Martini V. C. Vincent Bures D. C. Charles Deoby « C. 0. Robt.W.Hcingartner.V.AD.C.G. N. Y Mass Hung ... Mich Ohio N. Y Hung Pa Austria.. Pa Pa Tenn N. V Austria.. Ind Ohio Mass Ind N. Y Ind Md Ohio Argen... N. Y Me Hung ... Ill Ohio N. Y Hung Ohio N. Y Pa N. Y Tenn N. Y Austria.. Ind Ohio Dec. ai,rgo8 Jan. 11,1909 Aug. 15,1911 Oct. 4 , 1910 Mar. 3,1909 Aug. 19,1911 Oct. x5,i9zo Dec. 34,1910 June X, Aug. id, July 25, May 31, Oct. II, June 10, Sept. 2, Mar. 30, Jan. 17, June 24, Jan 12, Aug. 23, May 23, May 23, May 17. Feb. 27, 1908 1906 1910 1909 1910 1908 1909 1907 1903 1910 191 1 1911 »907 1907 1909 1907 BELOIUM. Aatwerp Hcary W. DIederlch CO.. Do Harry Tuck Shcrman-.V.AD.C.G.. Bruaacis Ethelbert Watta 6 C. 0.. Do Charles R(ty Nasmith..V.A D.C.G.. aheat Heary Abert Johasoa C. Do Julius A. Van Hce V. A D. C. Liege Aicxaadcr Heiafartacr^ C. Do Alexander P. Cruger..V. A. D. C. BRAZIL. Bahla Soathard P. Waraer C. Do Omar E. Mueller V. A D. C. Para Oeorfe H. Pkkerellb C. Do Julius Weinberger" V. A D. C. Do William R. Cox D. C. t\fanaos /ohn //. ifamilton Agt.. Marankao Joaguim M. A . tics Santos Agt.. Peraaaibaca P. Merrill Orlfffth b c.. Do Enrique Bachilleres V. A D. C Ceara Antonio E.eia Frota Agt.. Maceio George Sitti/>son Apt.. Natal Henry J. Green.. Agt.. RIo dc Jaaeirs Jallas Q. Lay C. Q.. Do Joseph J. Slechia....V. A D. C. G.. Do Frank G. Lewis D. C. G.. Victoria /ean Zimen Agt.. Saatos Jay White C. Do William H. Lawrence V. C. Do James W. Reeves V. A D. C. Pa.... Me... Pa.... N. Y. J>. C. Ind... N. Y. Tex.. D. C. Me .... Pa N. Y.. D. C. Iowa.. Ohio.. N. Y. D. C Ohio Ohio Hun England, Brazil ... Ohio Argen ... Rra7.ii ... Scoiland N. V D. C Wis. Mass Belf^ium Mich Ill Pa Md Ohio I Ohio N. Y Brazil ... N. Y Brazil ... Ohio Brazil ... Brazil ... Brazil ... N. Y D. C S. Dak... R. I Brazil ... Mich Ill Pa June May Apr. May Aug. Feb. Aug. Sept. Aug. Sept. May Dec. May Oct. Oct. Jan. May June Feb. Apr. May July Feb. Mar. Aug. Mar. Jan. 22,1906 10,1907 2 .S. 1907 29,1911 19,19" 1,1900 19,1911 a3.»907 27,1909 14,1909 29,1906 18,1908 5.1906 17,1908 10,19x0 24,1902 17,1897 .. 2x,i9o8 .. 4,I9«4 ,.. 2, igio ' 31,1908 ' , 24,IQII .. 29,1890 27,1909 II, 190T 2I,Z(^IO I3.500 4»Sa> x.ooo ■" " " "• a.S«> 3.S00 1 i.ooo ,^.Soo - 3.500 4,000 3,«» ,, 6,000 5.500 5. 500 3.000 3.000 4.000 4.000 1 |i.3S5-oo X91.50 4,000 8,000 285.50 324.00 52.50 877.00 4,000 UNITED STATES CONSULAR SERVICE. 33 BRAZIL— CHINA. Place. Name and litle. Where born. Whence ap- pointed. Date of commission. Rio Grande do Sul, Sao Paulo Jorge Vereker Afirt.. Williant E. Lee Agft.. CHILE. Iqulquc Do A nio/agasia.^..,. Arica PuaU Arenas Do Val^raiio Brazil ..J Brazil ...I Aug. 28.1897 P. R Brazil ... I June 18,1908 Rea Hanaa d C Edward E. Muecke V. & D. CJ Peter H. Speedie Agt-.j Tomas Bradley Agt..J Charles L. Uthand .C.j Harold Edward Stubba, V. & D. C Alfred A. Wlnsiow^ C' Do I Charles F. Baker V. & D. C.| Caldera John Thomas Morong. Agt.. Ill Cal England England N. C Cal... Orcg Chile Chile N. C. Chile Coguivtbo. Andre^v Kerr Agt.. Talcahuano I Joseph O. Smith. Agt.. I Ind Ky Cal Scotland R. I CHINA. A"«y Do Do Aataaf Caatoa Do Do Do Do Chcfoo Do Do Do Tsinan/u Chanf kla( .... Do Foochow Do Do Hankow Do Do Do Harbin Mnkdcn Do Do Do Nanking Do Newchwang... Do Do , Shanghai Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Jnlean H. Arnold C. Charles F. Brissel V. & D. C Charles F. Brissel Mar.. Adolph A. Williamson i7 C. Leo Allen Berghoix C. Q.. Hamilton Butler flF...V. & D. C. G.. Joseph X. Strand. ...V. & D. C. G.. Horace J. Dickinson Mar- Hamilton Butler Q Int.. John Fowler C. Mahlon Fay Perkinsa..V. & D. C Frederic A. Boardman Mar.. Mahlon Fay Perkins^ Int.. Agt.. E. Carlcton Baker r<. C. V. & D. C. Cal... N. Y.. N. Y.. D. C. Vt Me.... Cal... Ark... Me N. Y. Mass Ohio. Mass. Aug. 15,1907 Mar. 13,1909 Sept. 7,zQiz June 30,1906 Aug. 19,1911 Feb. 24,19x1 Ind I June 22,1906 Okla , Nov. 21,1908 Chile I July 27,1908 Chile I Sept. 26, 1898 Chile ' Sept. 27,1895 Cal May 1,1908 N.J I Apr. 29,1910 N.J Apr. 29,1910 D. C ( Aug. 19, »9" N. Y May 25,1906 N. Y Dec. 30,1910 Cal I Aug. 23,19x1 Ark July 6,1909 X. Y I Dec. 30,1910 Mass , June 10,1908 Cal I May 25,1911 Conn July 6,1911 Cal July 25,1911 Salary. Fees, year ending June 30, 1910. I3.000 3,000 4.500 4.500 1,000 2,500 5. 500 z,ooo 1,500 4,500 1,000 1,500 Cal Cal I Aug. 19,1911 Thomas P. Thompson. .V. & D. C. Thomas P. Thompson Mar.. Roger S. Greene .C. Q.. Nelson T. Johnson 0..V. & D. C. G.. Mar.. Nelson T. Johnson 9 Int.. Lester Maynard (7 C. Fred D. Fisher .C. 0.. Myrl S. Myers a V. & D. C. G.. M. G. Faulkner Mar.. Myrl S. Myersi/... Int.. Wllbnr T. Gracey C. Alvin W. Gilbert V. & D. C. William P. Kent c C. Clarence E. Sargent a..V. &D. C. Clarence E. Sargent a Mar.. Amos P. Wilder c. G.. W. Roderick Dorsey..V.& D.C.G.. J. Paul Jameson a.. .V. & D. C. G.. Frank W. Hadleyt; V. C. G.. Thaddeus C. White D. C. G.. John K. Davis" D. C. G.. Esson M. Galeff D. C. G.. George C. Hanson D. C. G.. Thaddeus C. White Mar.. Frank W. Hadleyff Int.. J. Paul Jamesonfl' Int.. Esson M. Gale7 Int.. George C. Hanson Stud. Int.. Mass D. C. N. Y.... ..' Jan. 21,19x1 N. Y.... .. Jan. 21,1911 Mass ... .. Aug. 19,1911 Okla ... .. July 30,1910 3.500 4.500 . z,ooo 4.500 D. C Cal Oreg Pa Mo Pa.~ Mass la Va Japan ... Japan ... Me Md D. C Kans .... N. Y China ... Mich Conn N. Y Kans.... D. C Mich.... Conn .... Okla .., Cal Oreg.. Pa Mo Pa Mass ... Nebr... Va Cal Cal Wis Md Pa Cal N. Y... Ohio.... Mich ... Conn .. N. Y... Cal Pa Mich... Conn .. July Aug. Aug. July Mar. July Apr. July M.iy Oct. Apr. May June Apr. Apr. Ai-r. Apr. Feb. Sept July Apr. Nov. Mar. June 30,19x0 19,1911 27,1909 25,X9ix 27,1908 25.19" 15,19x0 7,1910 2,19x0 17,1910 29,1909 X7,i909 25,X9o8 25,X9XO 9,1909 22,1909 14,1910 io,x9zi 7,x9ii 30,Wo8 9,1909 1,1909 x,i9Xi 12,1909 750 ii50o 4.000 4.500 x,ooo 1,650 4,000 4.500 z,ooo 8,000 1,000 2,500 1,650 1,500 1,000 II6X.50 100.46 846.50 99-50 35.00 a6o.oo Z95.00 s 1564- 34 UNITED STATES CONSULAR SERVICE. CHINA-DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. Place. 1 Name and title. Where born. Whence ap- pointed. Date of commission. Swfltow Charles L. L Wllllaaisff. C..^ Ohio | Ohio i June 24,1910 Tientsia Sannei S. Kaabeuhm CO.. Ohio Ohio ' Aug.27,iQOQ Do I Raymond P.Tennejr,«V.& D.C.G..I China Mass Sept. 6,1911 Do Charles Henry WiIliams..D.C.G.. Do Charles Henry Williams Mar.. Do ! Raymond P.Tenney,a..Stud. Int.. COLOMBIA. China.... China.... N. Y. N. Y. China Mass Aug. 24,1910 Dec. 21,1908 June 2,1909 Bamfl^illla ImacA. Maflaing^ C. Do I AlbroL. Burnell V. & D. C Call Edward H. Mason Agt.. Honda John Oiven Agt.. Medellin Silas H. Wright Agt..; Santa Maria I William A. Trout Agt. Bofot* ' CO. Cflflaten* I Grakan H. Kenperd. C. Ind Me Ill Wales .. N. Y Ill Ore ' Aug. 19,19x1 Me ; Dec. 18,1907 Nov. 18,1910 July 28, 1903 Apr. 16,1908 111 Colom ... Mich Ind Aug. 10,1900 W. Va.. Do William B.MacMastcr,«V.&D.C.. Colom.. COSTA RICA. Ky Aug. 19,1911 N. Y ' July 18,1908 Punta Arenas Leon A. Marguez Agt..' Trinidad CUBA. Ciealnegot.. Do Caibarien Nurt'itas > Sagua la Grande — HflbflM Do Do ! Cardenas.^ Matanzas Nueva Gerona^ Isle oj" Pines. SaiHago de Ciba. Do , . A ntilla Baracoa ..., Mamanillo.^ DENMARK AND DOMINIONS. C. R. Apr. 7,1904 Max J. Baehrift C. Buenaventura Carbo....V.& D.C..| P. IL AndersoH{n) Agt.. Dean A'. Wood Agt..| John F. yo7'a(f) Agt.. Janes Una Ro4|ers C. Q..j Joseph A. Springer.V. & P. C. G.. Henry P. Starrett D. C. G..' Pedro M. Mrderos{n) Agt.. Alfred Heydrich («) Agt..l \'er7'ie P. Sutherland.... Agt.. Ross E. Hoiaday c' Henry M. Wolcott. V. & D. C. George Rayliss(n) Agt..| A rt h u r Field I. in dley Agt.. Francis B. Bertot{n) Agt.. Ger. Cuba Sweden.. N. Y Cuba Ohio Me Mass Cuba Cuba Mich Ohio Vt England N. Y Cuba Nebr. N. Y.. Pa N. Y.. N. Y.. Ohio.. Me .... Me .... Conn< N. Y.. Minn Ohio., N. Y.. Cal.... N. Y.. N. Y.. June 6,1902 Apr. 2,1907 June 9,1903 June 25,1908 May 9,1903 Apr. 15,1907 June 23,1902 Oct. 3,1907 Sept. 3.1907 July 22,1905 July 6,1910 June 6,1902 June 9,1906 Jan. 29,1907 Dec. 3.1904 Mar. 16,1905 Copeahaiea . Do Do Salary. Fees, year ending June 30, 1910. |a,5oo 5.500 PortLlBoa , Chester DooatdMab C. N. Y N. Y Nov. 25,1905 Do I Henry O. Easton V.& D. C..| Pa | Pa | Sept. 30, 1905 Saa Jmi Saainel T. Lee " << C. England Mich May 31,1909 Do Edgar J. Hitchcock V. & D. C.j III Cal Oct, 8,1909 Edward D. Wiaslowd C. 0.. Ill Ill 1 Aug. 19.1911 Victor Juhler V. & D. C. G.. Ohio Ohio ' Dec. 3,1909 Axel Permin D.C. G.. Den Den St. Thonas. West ladlei , Christopher H. Payae & C. Va W. Va... Do ' De Witt W. Perdue V. & D Christianstedy St. Croix Island. Frederickstedy St. Croix Island. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. C' Va.... Andreiv J. Blai^Invood Agt.. Me.... Robert L. Merivin..... Agt.- N. Y. W. Va W.I... ..'Jan. 31.1893 Conn Apr. 12,1901 Paerto Plata Charles M. Hathaway^ C. N. Y. Pa, Do ' Josd MariH Ksicva V. & D. C D. R Dec. 21,1909 Monte Christi Isaac T. Petit Agt. Samana Federico Lamf>le Agt. St. Tho.. D. R May 27,1895 Cuba D. R i Oct. 26,1904 1,000 1,000 3.500 3.500 a, 000 2,500 3.000 ,. 4.500 8,000 4.500 3,000 Dec. 3,1909 May 1,1903 I 3,000 July 7,1911 .\ug. 19,1911 I 9,000 $28.00 12.00 30.00 618.00 651 . 50 753 00 790- SO 760.00 1,230.00 1,217.50 2,069.00 453 SO 822. so 41.00 201 . 50 200. J5 179.00 UNITED STATES CONSULAR SERVICE. 35 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC-FRANCE AND DOMINIONS. Place. Name and title. Where born. Whence ap- pointed. Date of commission. Fees, year Salarv I C"***"^ :>aiary. juq^ 3^^ ' Z910. SaatoDtaUif* | Praacis MMroc EndicotU ^C.O.. N. Y Mass July 6,19111 Do FriinkBohr V. A D. C. G.. Do Frank Bohr C. A..' A»ua,^^ /oAn Hardyi^) Agt.., Macoris Rudolf Schumacktr Agt.., Sanchez 1 J. Enriqu* Leromx Agu.' ECUAOOK. I Qnnyaqaii 1 Her^M R. Wetrich CO.. Pq Robert B. Jones" V. C. G.. Bakia di Caraquez : Alberto SanUs, Agt.. Esmeraldas I ^'^''^ ^- ^/"^'tf* Agt.. Mania I ^*^^ Voelcker Agt.. Kans Kans England Gcr D. R Kans I Aug. 28,igii | Kans I June 24,1908 l $1,200.00 Mass ! Aug. 11,1885 1 693.00 D. R {May 2,1910! , Zi433'5o D. R Aug. 29,1908 Salango. John A. Hanley^ Jr Agt.. Mo Canada.. Ecuador Pa France.. Ill Mo Apr. 2,1903 N. J June 2,1902 Ecuador Sept. 10,1900 N. Y I Feb. 19,1908 Ecuador! Sept. 19,1907 111 ' Apr. 15, 1911 I4.500 PRANCE AND DOMINIONS. Algien, AlferU Do Oran B«rdeaaz Do Biarritz Calais Do Boulogne~sur-mer .-. Cagaac Do Oarfe-Dakar, Seacfal . — Oreaabb Do Qaadelaapc. West ladlei. Do Ham Do Cherbourg UaM»ges Do Lyaa Do DijoH MarMlila Do Do Bastia , Corsica Ceite Toulon Tunis^ Tunis MartlBl^He, West ladici.. Do Naates Do Angers Brest Nice Do Parii Do Do Do Do Do Rhclais Do Albert W. Rabertd C Ren^ L. J. Boisson V. & D. C..I Albert H, El/ord. Agt.i AllRd K. MoeO C' John Douglas Wise V. & D. C..I Frederic E. Gibert Agt.. Jaaei B. Mllaerb c' Wm. McKone Milner..V. & D. Ci iniliam Whitman Agt.. Qcarfe H. Jackiaab c' Elisrfc Jouardn V. & D. C..L N. Y France .. England N. Y Pa N. Y Ind Ind ! England j Mass France..! Fla Algeria.. Algeria..) N. J : V* I N. Y Ind ' Ind I France.., Conn , N. Y May 31, Mar. 21, Nov. 7, Mar. 3, Apr. s. May I, Mar. z, Dec. 8, Oct. 21, June zo, June Z7, Cbarkf P. H. NaiaaO. C. Thomas W. Munon V. & D. C Frederick T.P. Dnaioattf C. Joseph O. Florandin...V. & D. C. Jaaics E. Daaalaf <» C. John Preston Beecher..V. & D. C. A uguste Lanikfe Agt.. Eaieae L. Bellilenc c.. .V.C. Cari Bailey Hartta C.. Thomas Nicoll Browne,V. & D. C. Nicolas Chapuis Agt.. Aiphaaac Oaulia C. Q.. Paul H. Cram V. & D. C. G.. Allan Macfarlane D. C. G.. Simon Davtianii^ Agt. Carl D. Hagelin, Agt.. Francis M. Afansfield, Agt.. A uguste J. Proux. Agt.. TboBiai R. Wallace & .....C. Jacques D. Schnegg V. & D. C Loals QoMschaildtn b C. Hiram D. Bennett V. C Paul Ri^irnult Agt.. Alfred Pitel Agt.. Wllllaai Dolaay Haater C. Harry A. Lyons V. & D. C. Fraak H. Maaaa C.G.. Dean B. Mason V. & D. C. G.. Hanson C. Coxe D. C. G.. Bartley F. Yost" D. C. G.. Dean B. Mason C. A.. Bartley F. Yost" C. A.. Wllllaai Bardel nh C. Walter Stanford V. & D. C. Mass England' N.J I St. Bart..' Me I N. Y France..! Canada..! Pa I July 5. France.., Jan. 34, Pa t Aug.z9, Guad i Oct. zz. Me I May 31, N. Y I Sept. 22, France..' Jan. 6, Mass Apr. 2, Ger I Conn I France.., R.I I Me I England I Corsica- Sweden.. I Mass \ France ..! Pa i France..; France..' N. Y I France .. France.. I D. C ' D. C I N. Y N. Y I R.I I Me France..! U. S I France.. N. Y I Tunis Iowa Mart I N. H France./ France.. France.. Minn I Ohio Ohio ' Md I Switz Ohio I Switz I Gcr England' Ohio Ohio N. Y Kans... Ohio Kans ... N. Y France Dec. Z4, Sept. 6, July zo. May 3z, Apr. 15, Feb. 6, Dec. 30, Dec. 20, July 2, Dec, 6, June 24, June Z2, Oct. Z3, Dec. 23, Aup. 7, Apr. 25, Mar. 30, June 8, M.ir. 8, July 7, July z8, Apr. 20, ''June 8, Ji:ne 24. Ji:iie xo, July 29, 2,000 a^Soo 9x0 893 906 909 909 903 886 90Z Qog 906 910 903 904 885 9ZI 910 907 908 90s 906 904 909 899 Q08 9i>8 910 5,000 5. 500 2,500 3,000 z,8oo X,200 3.500 z, 009. 00 4Z6.00 383.80 350.50 656.00 1,535.32 852.99 z, 166. 47 2,500 ■••••«••••••••••* Z2,000 1 36 UNITED STATES CONSULAR SERVICE. FRANCE AND DOMINIONS— GERMAN EMPIRE. Place. Name and title. RohMz Do Do Cart dry,., Dunkirk Lille Roaca Do A miens.,. Diif^pe.,.. SalfMt Cochii ChiM Do St. EtIciM Do St. Pierre, St. Pierre liUad Do Ttliltl, Society IftlaadB Do Taaatave, Maiagtscar Do aERMAN EMPIRE. Joiepk E. Haveab C. Richard Barnard Havcn,V.& D.C.. Alfred C. Harrison D. C. Hans Dietiker Ajft.. Btnjatnin Morel. Agt.. Christopher J, King. Agt-. Charkf A. HeMerd. C. Judd B. Hastings. V. & D. C. Charles Tassencourt, AgC. Walter P. S, Palmer-Samborney Agt. Habert G. Baafh Q » C. Miller Joblin V. & D, C. Willlaai H. Haat C. Edmond A. Burrill V. & D. C. Doaglai Jeaklai d C.. George H. Frecker V. & D. C North Wlashlptf. X.. Walter J. Williams V. & D.C Jaaea Q. Carter & C. Oscar d'E. dc Charmoy V. C. Where born. Ill ; 111 ! England Switz France .. R
|
|||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 8
|
https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/tag/mining/
|
en
|
mining – The Bridgehunter's Chronicles
|
[
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/aebf46b7fc5a96a9d76263bc70c1922f?s=100&d=identicon&r=g",
"https://www.clustrmaps.com/map_v2.png?d=vZZFuP7NTWi-eJ_tkPoliH56YXs_VdY9gLEoAb2nHyk&cl=ffffff",
"https://live.staticflickr.com/3885/14584186910_f60eec4007_m.jpg",
"https://live.staticflickr.com/3866/14584255948_346c8e8b2c_m.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/52854047_2299272173436752_5939636859209515008_o.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/i/rss/red-large.png?m=1391188133i",
"https://s-ssl.wordpress.com/wp-includes/images/rss.png?m=1354137473i",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/imgp8704.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/imgp0280.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/imgp9767.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=158&h=51",
"https://assets.pinterest.com/images/pidgets/pinit_fg_en_rect_gray_20.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/imgp99111.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=155&h=50",
"https://assets.pinterest.com/images/pidgets/pinit_fg_en_rect_gray_20.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/imgp1776.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/33784867_1900127596684547_7083423144471429120_o.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/screenshot_2021-04-17-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos2.png?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/screenshot_2021-04-17-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos1.png?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/screenshot_2021-04-17-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/zwickau_cainsdorf_-_cainsdorf_bridge_2009_28aka29.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/29354674_1836567069707267_126426246155155491_o.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/m72v.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/bhc-logo-newest1.jpg",
"https://assets.pinterest.com/images/pidgets/pinit_fg_en_rect_gray_20.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/cropped-bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=50",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/cropped-bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=50",
"https://pixel.wp.com/b.gif?v=noscript"
] |
[
"https://www.youtube.com/embed/vr2mLBIqtPI?version=3&rel=1&showsearch=0&showinfo=1&iv_load_policy=1&fs=1&hl=en&autohide=2&wmode=transparent",
"https://www.youtube.com/embed/vr2mLBIqtPI?version=3&rel=1&showsearch=0&showinfo=1&iv_load_policy=1&fs=1&hl=en&autohide=2&wmode=transparent",
"https://www.youtube.com/embed/x1ojl7IYBNQ?version=3&rel=1&showsearch=0&showinfo=1&iv_load_policy=1&fs=1&hl=en&autohide=2&wmode=transparent",
"https://www.youtube.com/embed/Z5dJSgF9u4Q?version=3&rel=1&showsearch=0&showinfo=1&iv_load_policy=1&fs=1&hl=en&autohide=2&wmode=transparent",
"https://www.youtube.com/embed/Z5dJSgF9u4Q?version=3&rel=1&showsearch=0&showinfo=1&iv_load_policy=1&fs=1&hl=en&autohide=2&wmode=transparent",
"https://www.youtube.com/embed/sQUgPZ6OgI8?version=3&rel=1&showsearch=0&showinfo=1&iv_load_policy=1&fs=1&hl=en&autohide=2&wmode=transparent",
"https://www.youtube.com/embed/sQUgPZ6OgI8?version=3&rel=1&showsearch=0&showinfo=1&iv_load_policy=1&fs=1&hl=en&autohide=2&wmode=transparent",
"https://www.youtube.com/embed/fse5dRs3Z2E?version=3&rel=1&showsearch=0&showinfo=1&iv_load_policy=1&fs=1&hl=en&autohide=2&wmode=transparent",
"https://www.youtube.com/embed/fse5dRs3Z2E?version=3&rel=1&showsearch=0&showinfo=1&iv_load_policy=1&fs=1&hl=en&autohide=2&wmode=transparent",
"https://www.google.com/maps/d/embed?mid=1OTvl5RQxtzxewI5E9gk6SUJOCM4&hl=en"
] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2017-11-07T16:57:16+02:00
|
Posts about mining written by Bridgehunter's Chronicles
|
en
|
The Bridgehunter's Chronicles
|
https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/tag/mining/
|
Under a pile of rubble, there is always a jewel, no matter who or what it is or where it came from. Located 16 kilometers south of Glauchau, along the Mulde River, the city of Zwickau may look like an ordinary community, whose architecture mostly comes from the Cold War. This includes high-rise buildings, mining facilities, old factories and even bridges built using scarce materials possible but only lasting 40 years. In fact, a newspaper report from a local newspaper in Chemnitz revealed as many as 37 bridges in the district of 480,000 inhabitants (of which the city itself has 104,000 residents) that are in dire need of repair or replacement. Most of them had exceeded their expected lifespan by 20 years and are hanging by a thread because of imposed weight limits designed to keep trucks, tractors and busses off of them.
But underneath the doom and gloom of a bygone era, there are some jewels to find. Zwickau prides itself on the automobile industry, where the beloved Trabant automobile was built- now the company belongs to Volkswagen. Audi was founded in this community in 1904. The world’s first known and popular automobile racing union was created five years later. It also has an international school (Saxony International in Reinsdorf) and a college of science and technology (Westsächsisch Hochschule), making the city a multicultural university town. It has a bridge building firm that has existed since 1854 and still has its base in the city.
And when there is a bridge builder in the community, there will always be bridges, especially given its proximity to the river!
The town was first mentioned in 1118 when the Slavs settled there, yet a half dozen bridges, mostly covered wooden ones were built to connect it with other villages by the 1500s. By the late 1800s, more than 40 bridges crossed the Mulde or surrounded the old town center. Today, if one subtracts the crossings carrying pipelines, only a quarter of the bridges exist in Zwickau, all are along the Mulde. And of these 10 known crossings, counting the Zellstoff Bridge, four of them are over 70 years old. Two of them however have received national accolades because of their unusual designs. They include the Paradiesbrücke- the only known bridge in Germany and the western hemisphere that has the cantilever pony truss design- and the 500-year old Röhrensteg- the only known covered bridge with multiple designs and functions, plus the oldest in Saxony. Both of these centerpieces will be profiled together with nine other structures that will include a couple near Wilkau-Hasslau(to the south) and a couple near Schlunzig (to the north). All of them were built before 1990, but they will present not only the historical aspects of the bridges, but also address the issues involving their ability to carry traffic. A gallery of pictures are enclosed for each bridge I stopped at during the tour in September.
Picking up where I left off in Glauchau, we’ll start the tour going upriver and through the prized automobile and infrastructural community, starting off with our first bridge:
Schlunzig Bridge:
Built in 1954 replacing a wooden bridge destroyed in a flood, the Schlunzig Bridge may be a typical bland concrete beam bridge with little or no value, even if the structure is equipped with the ever so quickly disappearing set of street lighting from the bygone era. Yet its significance resembles two sides of a coin. On the one side, it is a typical East German Bridge, constructed using scarce materials that were prescribed by the Communist government- similar to the Wave at Wernersdorf (for more, see the tour guide on Glauchau’s bridges). Even the lighting originated from that era, which was considered too industrial for the region that is mostly oriented towards agriculture and nature. On the flip side, the bridge is a poster boy for the structural woes the region (and much of Germany) has been dealing with: a run-down structure that is unable to withstand increasing traffic or even weather extremities. As a result, a new bridge was approved by the District of Zwickau in 2016 and it took three years until this product was completed in 2020:
But the replacement plan came with strings attached as issues with the shipment of cables combined with weather extremities delayed the project by up to 12 months. Nevertheless, the cable stayed bridge was opened to traffic in June 2020, while the old span was removed, its remains used for riprap. For the town of Schlunzig, a win-win situation for it has an iconic cable-stayed bridge and it provides better service to the Volkswagen Company, located just west of town.
Fast Fact: The bridge was in fact built in 1959 replacing an earlier span that had been built 21 years earlier but was destroyed in the war. Ironically, the 1938 span replaced an iron truss span that was built in 1878, replacing a wooden covered bridge from 1547. No pictures, postcards and drawings exist at this time, but if you have any that you wish to add please contact the Chronicles.
This slideshow requires JavaScript.
Zellstoff Bridge:
Entering Zwickau’s city limits, we have the Zellstoff Bridge on the left. Spanning the Mulde River, this bridge features one of the most unusual through truss spans in the region. It’s span consists of a Warren through truss with riveted connections. The portal bracings are skewed at a 45° angle and feature a V-laced form (outer portal) and an I-beam form with heel bracings (inner portal). The struts and vertical beams are both V-laced, as well with the diagonal beams being H-framed. The approach spans feature five spans of a concrete cantilever design. A gallery above will give you a description of what the bridge looks like. Also interesting is a narrow chimney at the left side of the west portal. This may be part of a mechanism that harnessed or even supported electricity, especially as many electrical lines went over this bridge. The bridge served a rail line connecting an automobile factory and possibly an area where mining had existed and therefore, played a key role in Zwickau’s industrial history. But more research on the mining area in Zwickau and in particular, the mini-chimney is needed to help uncover the secrets to the bridge and its surrounding area. The bridge was abandoned after 1990 and there was a plan to remove the structure shortly afterwards. However, thanks to opposition to the plan by residents and preservationists, the decision was scrapped in 2007, and today, the bridge serves as a bike trail between the city and the area where mining had existed. The overgrowth has dominated the bridge and the trail going east, but people can still use them to see what the mining area had looked like before the Fall of the Wall. Despite its age, many people still love this bridge, especially as I met some people while filming it, who all said this one word: “Historique.” That I’m not in a position to disagree with you on. The interest in the Zellstoff Bridge contributed to the City of Zwickau’s successful project in renewing the bridge flooring in early 2018. Since that time, more and more people are using the bridge and even getting some good shots with the camera. A blessing for bridge preservationists, historians and locals alike. 🙂
Here’s a Youtube video on this bridge:
Note: If you know more about this bridge in terms of its history and historic significance to the region, please contact Jason Smith at the Chronicles. The information will be added to the tour guide.
This slideshow requires JavaScript.
Pölbitz Bridge:
The first vehicular crossing over the Zwickau Mulde when entering Zwickau is located in the northernmost suburb, Pölbitz. Located at Pölbitzer Strasse, west of B-93, this bridge connects Pölbitz with Eckersbach and provides direct access to the nearest town of Crimmitschau. While records indicated the first wooden bridge having been built 1511, the bridge was replaced with a four-span concrete Luten arch bridge in 1914, all with closed spandrels. The bridge withstood years of abuse as a result of flooding, war and lastly, neglect because of the lack of resources and know-how during the Communist era. The straw that broke the camel’s back came with the Great Flood of 2002, which caused extensive damage to the bridge, especially the arches. The city council reacted with a plan to replace the entire structure with a concrete cantilever span, similar to the picture above. The bridge was replaced in 2005-06 with the current structure, which includes some finials and a memorial on the east end of the bridge. A video showing the events involving the Pölbitz Bridge before and after the replacement can be seen below. It includes interviews with those involved in the replacement project and commentary from the anchor, a local who obviously forgot about the arch bridge except for its destitute state.
*********
This slideshow requires JavaScript.
Eckersbach Bridge:
Spanning the Zwickau Mulde at Kolpingstrasse and highway B-175 , this three-span structure features a concrete deck cantilever design. The bridge is one of the heavily travelled bridges in Zwickau for the crossing provides traffic in and around Zwickau as well as points to the west and north. The current structure was built in 1955 replacing a wooden combination trestle and Queenpost through truss structure that was built in 1898 under the name Socialist Bridge. The bridge was replaced with the current structure in 1955 but not before the floods a year earlier caused significant damage to the new bridge under construction as well as the truss bridge itself. Between 1898 and 1990, when the name was changed to Echersbach Bridge, the bridge was named with a socialist flair which started with that before changing to the Julius and Ethel Rosenberg Bridge. Given its age and its wear and tear because of weather extremities and congestion, the bridge has seen better days, and it appears that in the coming years with the increase in traffic, replacement may have to be considered.
Only 150 meters north of the bridge is a pipeline bridge, built using steel plate girders. Built in the 1980s, the bridge carried hot water to Zwickau from sources to the east of the city. Abandoned for a decade, the bridge was removed in 2017 not only for liability reasons, but the residents nearby did not want to see an eyesore obstructing the view of the Mulde River valley.
This slideshow requires JavaScript.
Maritius Bridge:
The Maritius Bridge is the first of two Mulde River bridges in Zwickau that carry the major highway B93 going south. The steel structure features two bridges: One built in 1992 to accomodate street car service going south and a parallel one built in 1994 to accomodate vehicular traffic. Both structures replaced the Bierbrücke that was built where the present-day Maritius Brewery is located. The structure was first mentioned in 1859 and was built of wood, even though it is unclear whether it was a covered bridge or another truss structure. Furthermore, we don’t know how long the bridge had existed at that time. After having been destroyed by ice and flooding multiple times, an iron structure was built in 1861. According to some of the postcards, the bridge featured a Town Lattice truss bridge and had three spans. Due to structural concerns, the bridge was closed in the 1970s. It was rehabilitated in 1975 to accomodate pedestrians and cyclists by replacing the truss spans with steel beam and was raised a meter to allow for free flowing waters of the Zwickau Mulde. Inspite of this, the partial permanent closure of the Bierbrücke resulted in a complicated detour through other parts of Zwickau where massive traffic had not been seen on residential streets.
Because of lack of funding due to the economic conditions in East Germany during that time, reconstruction was only possible after the two Germanys were reunited. Come 1992, the first of two bridges were built to provide street car service to Eckersbach from the city center. By that time, the old Bierbrücke had vanished into history. Two lears later, as part of the B-93 expressway project, the second bridge was built for traffic. Today’s Maritius Bridge is the gateway to Zwickau from neighboring Glauchau and points to the north along the expressway connecting the city with Leipzig.
This slideshow requires JavaScript.
Paradise Bridge (Paradiesbrücke):
Germany was once known as a place filled with ornamental bridges built using unusual designs. Despite 90% of them being destroyed during the Third Reich and through the bombings in World War II, there are still some diamonds in the field that if found are worth researching and given its rightful honor. The Paradise Bridge, located at Nicolai and Reinsdorfer Strassen near the Nicolaischule and Eberts Palace is one of those bridges that deserves international accolades, as well as its neighbor upstream, the Röhrensteg. Having been considered a cultural heritage site (Kultutdenkmal) by both the East German government and later by the State of Saxony since 1980, here are some interesting facts worth noting about this bridge:
1. The bridge was the first one of its kind that features a cantilever pony truss design. Furthermore, it was the only known cantilever truss bridge whose trusses are supported by only one tower. Before the completion of the new Küblers Bridge in Lunzenau, located 45 kilometers downstream, in 2017, none of the bridges known in the western hemisphere had had that unique design.
2. The bridge was built in 1900 by a bridge-building firm Beuchelt & Company in Grünberg in Schlesia (now part of Poland), replacing a covered bridge, which was one of over 30 that were built in Zwickau. The predecessor was built in 1694 by Johann Georg Findeisen from Schellenberg at a cost of 200 Taler. The covered bridge was one of the fanciest of the dozen built in Zwickau and it had come in response to multiple previous crossings that had been built but had survived briefly as they had been destroyed by ice jams, flooding and war. The Findeisen span had been in service for 306 years before it was decomissioned and dismantled in favor of the cantilever truss bridge.
3. The structure itself is 120 meters long, its tower is in the middle of the Mulde River. The width is 15 meters, counting the trusses. Since 1979 and inspite the restoration work in 2003, the bridge has been serving cyclist and pedestrian traffic, carrying a bike trail connecting Zwickau’s City Centre with Reinsdorf, located four kilometers to the east.
Its replacement structure is found 200 meters west of the bridge at Dr. Friedrichs Ring (Hwy. 173). That bridge, known as the Adolf Hennecke Bridge and later from 1990 onwards as the Glück-Auf-Brücke, was built in 1979 and connects Zwickau with Chemnitz to the southeast. That bridge is three times as long and twice as wide as the Paradiesbrücke, spanning the river, Highway B-93, the Mulde Bike Trail and Reinsdorfer Strasse.
4. When the bridge was renovated in 2003, the towers were crowned with finials resembling the Matthäus Kirche (St. Matthew’s Church) which was located 400 meters east of the entrance. Additional decorations on the trusses and ornamental lamps were also added making the bridge more attractive to tourists and passers-by.
5. The bridge is located near the site where a former mine and bridge building company used to be located. A memorial site with a miner resting with a beer in the hand can be seen 100 meters northeast of the city side of the entrance. It is also located near the Ebert Palace, whose finial towers can be seen above the trees at the bridge’s east entrance.
6. The bridge was the platform for several historical events affecting Zwickau and beyond. For instance, the name Paradies stammed from Martin Luther’s visit in Zwickau, where he crossed the bridge in rage after a row with the priests before entering a nearby house and declared: “Thank God I found this house. Here is my paradise.” The first was an open-air festival in 1847, featuring a concert by musicians Robert Schumann and his wife, Clara. For two weeks after the end of World War II, the bridge served as a temporary border crossing for American and Soviet troops. That ended in July 1945. And in 1956, a film production in Zwickau included a couple scenes on the bridge. The restoration of the bridge in 2002/03 came after floodwaters almost knocked the bridge off its piers. And most recently, an open-air cafe used to be on the bridge, which happened in 2017.
Any more reasons for listing this bridge on the UNESCO site in comparison with the nays? Check out this youtube video on this bridge:
***********
This slideshow requires JavaScript.
Pöhlau Railroad Bridge:
Located near the site of the International Trabant Museum, this bridge appears to be one of the newer truss bridges built no earlier than 25 years ago. While its light brown color makes it look rusty in appearance, its “molded” connections is typical for today’s truss bridges. The Warren through truss bridge with beam portals and Lattice truss overhead bracings used to serve a rail line connecting Pöhlau and Zwickau Central Station. The bridge and the line are now abandoned. Given its age and modern appearance, chances are this bridge will be reused at some point- either as a crossing for cyclists in its place, a street car crossing going south or a railroad crossing at a new location. Time will tell what the City of Zwickau will do with this structure.
This slideshow requires JavaScript.
Röhrensteg:
Like the Paradiesbrücke, the Röhrensteg (translated as the Bridge of Pipes) is another key attraction for Zwickau which should receive international recognition for its design and function. The bridge’s history dates back over 500 years to 1535, when the bridge was first built. At that time, the people in Zwickau needed water for their personal and commercial use. Because the water of the Mulde was dirty and not drinkable, the only source of clean drinking water to be found was at a pond near Reinsdorf- three kilometers away from the bridge. Henceforth, workers created man-powered pumping stations and pipelines made of hard wood from oak trees. The trees were cut down, and after stripping the bark and outer layers, a hole with a diameter of 30 centemeters was dug out by hand, but not before having cut the wood into sections and then connecting them once the hole was “drilled.” The wooden pipeline then transported water down the hill and across this bridge before being distributed throughout the city. A section of this wooden pipeline can still be seen on the bridge, where the overhead beams are still supporting it, providing proof that this practice once existed. A total of at least 17 wooden pipelines had been built for the city of Zwickau to provide drinking water for the community, four fountains where the wooden pipes were connected dating back to the 1700s have been preserved as exhibits at the city center to show this unique engineering feat. This pipeline system was later replaced with more modern systems in the early 20th century, but the bridge itself has withstood the test of time and mother nature. Despite having had substantial damage during the flood of 1790, the Röhrensteg was rebuilt and has retained its original form ever since. The bridge has survived numerous floods and other natural disasters, even after new pier casings were installed in 1940 as part of the project to dredge the Mulde River.
In terms of its structure, the Röhrensteg is the only truss bridge (wooden or metal) to have two different designs and two different portals. The bridge features a three-span Queenpost truss design on the western side and a subdivided Warren truss on the eastern side. A-frame portal bracing is found on the city side, X-frame lattice with heel bracings on the Reinsdorf side. Endposts with 45° angles can be found at each portal; together with the wooden siding lining up between the bridge and the abutment, this makes the Röhrensteg one of the most unusual covered bridges to have ever been built. Roofing is of hip style with an angle of 45°, which is similar to the covered bridges found in Switzerland. The bridge serves a bike trail connecting Zwickau’s southern part and Reinsdorf via Oberhohnsdorf, serving as a spur to the Mulde Bike trail that careens along the river.
Despite its unusual design and multi-functionality, the bridge is showing its age, and therefore needed to be rehabilitated. This work was completed during three quarters of 2018, having been reopened to traffic in January 2019. Details can be found here. Prior to the rehabilitation, new approach spans on the Reinsdorf side and the pier casing had been built, no extensive work has been done on the bridge prior to its extensive work. More on the work can be found here.
A youtube video on the Röhrensteg takes you across the bridge and to the pipes found in the superstructure itself. Check it out:
Röhrensteg after its reopening in 2019:
Schedewitz Bridges (New Schedewitz Bridge and Bockwaer Brücke):
Located in the suburb bearing the bridge’s name, the next two bridges are located only 200 meters from each other, each spanning the Mulde. The older bridge is a two-span Warren deck truss without verticals but with stone arch approach spans. Built in 1890, this bridge used to connect the suburbs of Schedewitz and Bockwa, hence it was known by locals as the Bockwaer Brücke. Its predecessors consisted of a multiple-span stone arch bridge that was built in 1842. The northern two spans of this bridge were preserved and used as approach spans for the Warren truss spans. Yet the first crossing was a covered bridge, which was built in 1661. The bridge used to serve a key route along the Silver Road, connecting Zwickau with Schneeberg via Wiesenburg. Much of that route has been taken over by the federal highway B-93. Furthermore, the bridge used to have a streetcar route and a two-lane vehicular crossing.
Because of flood damage in 1954, contract was let to the local bridge building firm VEB Brückenbauwerk Zwickau in 1956 to build its replacement span, located 200 meters downstream at the site where the crossing exists today. The new span features a three-span concrete cantilever span, with a length of 70 meters, accommodating four-lanes of traffic plus sidewalks. Construction lasted two years due to difficulties digging through the steep cliffs, requiring the use of explosives before the cliffs were dug out. The road was then laid out, which included a side road that would connect with the main route from the old Bockwaer Brücke before continuing onto Schneeberg. . This was useful for the highway was later extended to the south enroute to Reinsdorf, the motorway exit Zwickau-Ost and later Hartenstein. The new bridge has been serving traffic for over 60 years but age and wear and tear may warrant a much-needed rehabilitation in the future.
As for the Bockwaer Brücke, once the new Schedewitz Bridge was opened to traffic in 1958, work commenced to remove the street car tracks, plus halve the roadway to a point where only bikes and pedestrians could use the old bridge. The bridge was then raised 2 meters to avoid damming the river in the event of flooding. Today, the bridge still serves cyclists and pedestrians but work may be needed to make the structure more functionable. Already the Zwickau City Council rejected a proposal to rehabilitate the bridge in 2017, which raises questions on the bridge’s future. Will there be enough locals willing to convince the city council to reconsider, or will indifference and a strive for modernization doom the old structure, whose history is worth preserving, especially as it is part of the history of Zwickau and the Silver Road?
Cainsdorf Bridge:
Another important crossing to mention is the Cainsdorf Bridge. While little has been written about its history, the 1929 two-span steel deck plate girder span crosses the Zwickau Mulde at the railroad station along the Zwickau-Aue-Johanngeorgenstadt line. The bridge connects Cainsdorf and areas to the west and the eastern edge of Zwickau between Oberhohndorf and the city of Wilkau-Hasslau and provides the lone access to the Planitz district, which includes a restored castle and church, where the present-day Clara Wieck Gymnasium is located. Sadly, the bridge’s condition has deteriorated to a point where only a three-ton limit has been enforced for all vehicles except the city’s bus line. The good news is the bridge is expecting a replacement bridge, to be built on a new alignment connecting both areas, but towards the Oberhohndorf district, thus cutting down the time needed to get to one’s destination in either way. Construction is expected to start in 2019 and finish by 2021. Afterwards, the historic bridge will undergo a thorough rehabilitation that will prolong its life but also allow for only cyclists and pedestrians to cross. This will be a big advantage especially those wishing to catch the train from the train station next to the bridge. A win-win situation that many locals with ties to the bridge will benefit from.
This slideshow requires JavaScript.
Wilkau-Hasslau Pedestrian Bridge:
Five kilometers further upstream and biking past the Cainsdorf Bridge is the pedestrian bridge at Wiklau-Hasslau, the southernmost suburb of Zwickau. There, one will find a rather unique pedestrian bridge. Built in 2004, the bridge features a pen-like tower, with cables supporting the roadway and the tower itself. The roadway has a curve, allowing cyclist from the east side and Schneeberg to enter as a ramp, as it curves to the right towards the west end. The 145 meter long pedestrian bridge crosses the Mulde River and a pair of railroad tracks that provide train service between Zwickau and Aue to the south. The valley’s hilly and wooded scenery is what the Wilkau-Hasslau Pedestrian Bridge has to offer- along with a short break at a modernized city center, which has a weekly market- before biking on to some more bridges. The tower has a height of 32.2 meters, making it the tallest bridge in Zwickau. Yet to the south of the bridge is an even taller bridge carrying the Motorway A 72. Built in 1995, that bridge spans the deepest of the Mulde River valley in Zwickau, but is the second longest bridges along the stretch between Hof (Bavaria) and Chemnitz.
Kirchberg (Mulde) Bridge:
To the north of the pedestrian bridge is the Kirchberg Bridge, perhaps the longest of the “at-level” river crossings over the Zwickau Mulde in the greater Zwickau area. When looking at the bridge from the pedestrian bridge, one could guess that the stone arch bridge, built using sandstone, had three arches. Yet when walking along the streets of Wilkau-Hasslau to get a better, closer look at the bridge, one can see the number of spans being more than double. In fact, eight spans glide over the river and the flood bed with a total length of between 300 and 400 meters. Records reveal that the Luten arch structure was built in 1867 but it appears to have been widened in the early 1990s to better accomodate traffic between the joint community (which was established in 1934) and Kirchberg, located five kilometers to the southwest. This bridge has shown its age as cracks are appearing in the stone arches. Despite emergency repairs in 2018, a full-blown rehabilitation project to prolong the crossing will most likely occur sometime in 2020. When this happens, most likely the West German style flourescent lighting will disappear in favor of fancier, ornamental lanterns with LED-lighting, which will present a more appropriate flavor for Wilkau-Hasslau.
Motorway 72 Viaduct
The tallest and longest of Zwickau’s bridges is not located in Zwickau directly, but in neighboring city Wilkau-Hasslau on the south end. The motorway viaduct was originally built in 1937-39 as part of the construction of the motorway connecting Hof with Chemnitz. Ironically, the entire stretch of the highway was not finished until 1993 due to delays caused by World War II and the division of Germany that followed. This stretch was the last built prior to the start of the war and would be used heavily after the war ended. The motorway viaduct continued service until 1995, when it was replaced with a new steel girder viaduct span, built on the piers of the original bridge. The total length is 670 meters with a height of 50 meters, making it one of the longest along the original stretch. It can be seen when entering Wilkau-Hasslau from the northern side.
This slideshow requires JavaScript.
Marienthal Viaduct
Approximately 350 meters north of the Central Railway Station is the Marienthal Viaduct- the only bridge in this tour guide that does not span the Zwickau Mulde. Spanning a small but deep creek as well as Werdauer Strasse, the eight-span stone arch bridge is the longest in Zwickau, with a total length of 94 meters. With a height of 14 meters above the ground, it is also the highest. If counting the Motorway 72 Viaduct in Wilkau-Hasslau, it is the second longest in this tour guide. The viaduct is the shortest of the noted viaducts along the Nuremberg-Hof-Dresden Magistrate with the next ones in both directions being at least twice as long. The bridge was built in 1869 as the railroad was being built for Zwickau from the east. It was built using red brick, sandstone and porphyr. The bridge still sees use on a daily basis for as many as 10 trains cross this bridge per hour; most of them passenger train services connecting Zwickau with Glauchau, Chemnitz and Dresden. Albeit a regional service route, it is expected that this route will be connected to the long-distance train in the future, for the Bahn plans to electrify the line south of Hof and in the end have InterCity trains going from Dresden to Munich.
A map of the bridges in Zwickau is enclosed in case you would like to visit the bridges yourself. Some of the bridges are mystery bridges where an article has been written on each one and can be found in the Chronicles. Others feature just a pic of the bridge indicating its existence but has no information on it to date.
If you have any more information on Zwickau’s bridges that need to be added, please contact Jason Smith at the Chronicles, using the contact form below. All information will be added to this guide.
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 3
|
https://cityseeker.com/eibenstock/866617-eibenstock-dam
|
en
|
Eibenstock Dam, Eibenstock
|
[
"https://cityseeker.com/assets/images/generic_user.png",
"https://d2dzi65yjecjnt.cloudfront.net/866617-1.jpg",
"https://cityseeker.com/assets/images/Camera-36.png",
"https://cityseeker.com/assets/images/hotelplanner/hotelplanner_PB.png",
"https://cityseeker.com/assets/images/location_A.png",
"https://cityseeker.com/assets/images/location_B.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
The Eibenstock Dam lies in the state of Saxony in Germany. It is the largest dam in this region and was built around 1984. It serves the purpose of supplying water to the regions of Chemnitz, Zwickau and also protects from floods. It impounds waters of the Zwickauer Mulde and provides extra water during times of drought. It also helps generate electricity from hydropower.
|
en
|
cityseeker
|
https://cityseeker.com/eibenstock/866617-eibenstock-dam
| ||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 44
|
https://github.com/ieg-dhr/bombers_baedeker/blob/main/bomber_ocr_final.txt
|
en
|
bombers_baedeker/bomber_ocr_final.txt at main · ieg-dhr/bombers_baedeker
|
https://opengraph.githubassets.com/c86281ffd513f4765a8694cb421adc986e2ea922cdbd6c95d49b091ba6c8670b/ieg-dhr/bombers_baedeker
|
https://opengraph.githubassets.com/c86281ffd513f4765a8694cb421adc986e2ea922cdbd6c95d49b091ba6c8670b/ieg-dhr/bombers_baedeker
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"ieg-dhr"
] | null |
Weiterführung der ersten, prototypischen Vorgehensweise bei der XMLisierung und Extraktion von Entitäten aus dem zweibändigen Werk „Bomber's Baedeker“ - bombers_baedeker/bomber_ocr_final.txt at main · ieg-dhr/bombers_baedeker
|
en
|
GitHub
|
https://github.com/ieg-dhr/bombers_baedeker/blob/main/bomber_ocr_final.txt
|
Skip to content
Navigation Menu
|
|||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 49
|
https://structurae.net/en/structures/sosa-dam
|
en
|
Sosa Dam (Eibenstock, 1952)
|
[
"https://files.structurae.net/images/structurae.png",
"https://files.structurae.net/images/small-structurae-white.png",
"https://structurae.net/images/magnifying_glass_icon2.png",
"https://structurae.net/images/magnifying_glass_icon2.png",
"https://files.structurae.net/files/96x64/1/amusement-rides.png",
"https://files.structurae.net/files/96x64/1/20100625/dsc05930.jpg",
"https://files.structurae.net/files/96x64/1/20100605/dsc04245_shift.jpg",
"https://files.structurae.net/files/96x64/wikipedia/Shinsui-614-r1.JPG",
"https://files.structurae.net/files/96x64/2510/einhausung_a3_goldbach_hosbach.jpg",
"https://files.structurae.net/files/96x64/statoil/gullfaksc01.jpg",
"https://files.structurae.net/files/96x64/2445/dsc_0171.jpg",
"https://files.structurae.net/files/96x64/1/20130606/DSC08343.JPG",
"https://files.structurae.net/files/96x64/5256/dsc01079.jpg",
"https://files.structurae.net/files/96x64/1/events.png",
"https://files.structurae.net/files/96x64/1/structure-awards.png",
"https://files.structurae.net/files/96x64/1/historic-structures.jpg",
"https://structurae.net/images/magnifying_glass_icon2.png",
"https://structurae.net/images/a-z.png",
"https://structurae.net/images/newspaper.png",
"https://structurae.net/layouts/images/books.jpeg",
"https://structurae.net/layouts/images/proceedings.jpeg",
"https://structurae.net/layouts/images/papers.png",
"https://structurae.net/favicon-32x32.png",
"https://files.structurae.net/images/flags/en.gif",
"https://files.structurae.net/images/my-structurae-white.png",
"https://files.structurae.net/images/IABSE_300x200.jpg",
"https://files.structurae.net/images/e-mosty_300x200.jpg",
"https://files.structurae.net/images/e-BrIM_300x200.jpg",
"https://structurae.net/images/small-my-structurae.png",
"https://files.structurae.net/images/structurae-plus.png",
"https://files.structurae.net/images/structurae-pro.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Structurae"
] | null |
Sosa Dam is a fresh water dam, masonry dam and curved gravity dam that was built from 1949 until 1952. The project is located in Eibenstock, Erzgebirgskreis, Saxony, Sachsen, Germany, .
|
en
|
/apple-icon-57x57.png
|
Structurae
|
https://structurae.net/en/structures/sosa-dam
|
The Sosa Dam (German:Talsperre Sosa) is a dam in the Free State of Saxony in East Germany. It supplies drinking water to the Western Ore Mountains as well as acting as flood protection.
History
The dam was built between 1949 and 1952 in the Höllengrund near Eibenstock in the Ore Mountains and taken into service in 1952. The dam itself is a crooked gravity dam made of quarrystone. It is the last dam of this type that was built in Germany. The impounded stream is the Kleine Bockau.
Hillside channel at Wildenthal
In addition the waters of the Große Bockau are diverted along a hillside channel west of the Auersberg from Oberwildenthal via Wildenthal to the reservoir.
Following the foundation of the state of East Germany, the construction of the dam was turned over to the Free German Youth as the first central youth objective within the first two-year plan. In view of the simple materials used for ist construction it remains even today as technically impressive. Ist realisation as a youth objective took on a strong ideological slant in the years that followed. The facility was given the sobriquet "Dam of Peace" (Talsperre des Friedens) and was mentioned in the Song of the Youth Brigades (Lied der Jugendbrigaden: "We provided water in Sosa…).
Leisure use
No public ways run over the dam. Bathing, angling and leisure sports are not permitted, but there is a public footpath around the reservoir. There is a car park near the dam that can be accessed by road from Sosa.
|
||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 30
|
https://www.academia.edu/25949622/Granites_of_the_Erzgebirge_Relation_of_magmatism_to_the_metamorphic_and_tectonic_evolution_of_the_Variscan_Orogen_Guidebook_to_Eurogranites_2012_fieldtrip_October_7_to_October_13_2012
|
en
|
Granites of the Erzgebirge: Relation of magmatism to the metamorphic and tectonic evolution of the Variscan Orogen: Guidebook to Eurogranites 2012 fieldtrip October 7 to October 13, 2012
|
http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif
|
http://a.academia-assets.com/images/open-graph-icons/fb-paper.gif
|
[
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-redesign-2015-A.svg",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/academia-logo-redesign-2015.svg",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/single_work_splash/adobe.icon.svg",
"https://0.academia-photos.com/attachment_thumbnails/46304447/mini_magick20190210-22709-hvi8hr.png?1549796935",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/s65_no_pic.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loaders/paper-load.gif",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png",
"https://a.academia-assets.com/images/loswp/related-pdf-icon.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Uwe Kroner",
"independent.academia.edu"
] |
2016-06-07T00:00:00
|
The guidebook contains a thematic description an background information for each field day. The overall setting and development of the Saxo-Thuringian zone within the Variscan orogen is presented in Kroner and Romer (2010). This material is not
|
https://www.academia.edu/25949622/Granites_of_the_Erzgebirge_Relation_of_magmatism_to_the_metamorphic_and_tectonic_evolution_of_the_Variscan_Orogen_Guidebook_to_Eurogranites_2012_fieldtrip_October_7_to_October_13_2012
|
This study is an attempt to unravel the tectono-metamorphic history of high-grade metamorphic rocks in the Eastern Erzgebirge region. Metamorphism has strongly disturbed the primary petrological genetic characteristics of the rocks. We compare geological, geochemical, and petrological data, and zircon populations as well as isotope and geochronological data for the major gneiss units of the Eastern Erzgebirge; Ž1. coarse- to medium-grained AInner Grey GneissB, Ž2. fine-grained AOuter Grey GneissB, and Ž3. ARed GneissB. The Inner and Outer Grey Gneiss units ŽMP–MT overprinted. have very similar geochemical and mineralogical compositions, but they contain different zircon populations. The Inner Grey Gneiss is found to be of primary igneous origin as documented by the presence of long-prismatic, oscillatory zoned zircons Ž540 Ma. and relics of granitic textures. Geochemical and isotope data classify the igneous precursor as a S-type granite. In contrast, Outer Grey Gneiss samples are free of long-prismatic zircons and contain zircons with signs of mechanical rounding through sedimentary transport. Geochemical data indicate greywackes as main previous precursor. The most euhedral zircons are zoned and document Neoproterozoic Žca. 575 Ma. source rocks eroded to form these greywackes. U–Pb-SHRIMP measurements revealed three further ancient sources, which zircons survived in both the Inner and Outer Grey Gneiss: Neoproterozoic Ž600–700 Ma., Paleoproterozoic Ž2100–2200 Ma., and Archaean Ž2700–2800 Ma.. These results point to absence of Grenvillian type sources and derivation of the crust from the West African Craton. The granite magma of the Inner Grey Gneiss was probably derived through in situ melting of the Outer Grey Gneiss sedimentary protolith as indicated by geological relationships, similar geochemical composition, similar Nd model ages, and inherited zircon ages. Red Gneiss occurs as separate bodies within fine- and medium-grained grey gneisses of the gneiss–eclogite zone ŽHP–HT overprinted.. In comparison to Grey Gneisses, the Red Gneiss clearly differs in geochemical composition by lower contents of refractory elements. Rocks contain long-prismatic zircons Ž480–500 Ma. with oscillatory zonation indicating an igneous precursor for Red Gneiss protoliths. Geochemical data display obvious characteristics of S-type granites derived through partial melting from deeper crustal source rocks. The obtained time marks of magmatic activity Žca. 575 Ma, ca. 540 Ma, ca. 500–480 Ma. of the Eastern Erzgebirge are compared with adjacent units of the Saxothuringian zone. In all these units, similar time marks and geochemical pattern of igneous rocks prove a similar tectono-metamorphic evolution during Neoproterozoic–Ordovician time.
The Eichigt granite is one of two apical intrusions forming the concealed massif of Eichigt−Schönbrunn in the Erzgebirge−Vogtland metallogenic province of Germany. It represents a peraluminuous, medium-grained, Si-rich biotite monzoto syenogranite of aluminuous A-type affinity and post-collisional (-orogenic) tectonic setting, which belongs to the group of medium-F, low-P Variscan granites of the Erzgebirge. Mineralogically and geochemically, the Eichigt granite shows the closest affinity to the Gottesberg subvolcanic microgranite/rhyolite complex some 25 km north-east of the massif. The granites contain phenocrysts of quartz and K-feldspar and sporadically accessory topaz and andalusite. A special feature is the presence of accessory primary fergusonite-(Y) and secondary synchysite-(Ce). Minor amounts of quartz, K-feldspar, and siderophyllite likely represent antecrysts, i.e., crystallized from a lesser silicic forerunner magma. These observations attest to the operation of magma m...
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 0
|
https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/2024/03/01/postcard-friday-nr-21/
|
en
|
Postcard Friday Nr. 21
|
[
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/aebf46b7fc5a96a9d76263bc70c1922f?s=100&d=identicon&r=g",
"https://www.clustrmaps.com/map_v2.png?d=vZZFuP7NTWi-eJ_tkPoliH56YXs_VdY9gLEoAb2nHyk&cl=ffffff",
"https://live.staticflickr.com/3885/14584186910_f60eec4007_m.jpg",
"https://live.staticflickr.com/3866/14584255948_346c8e8b2c_m.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/52854047_2299272173436752_5939636859209515008_o.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/i/rss/red-large.png?m=1391188133i",
"https://s-ssl.wordpress.com/wp-includes/images/rss.png?m=1354137473i",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/schonheide.jpg?w=1024",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/bhc-rendsburg-new.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/flefi-deutschland-logo.jpg?w=700",
"https://assets.pinterest.com/images/pidgets/pinit_fg_en_rect_gray_20.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/cropped-bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=50",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/cropped-bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=50",
"https://pixel.wp.com/b.gif?v=noscript"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Bridgehunter's Chronicles"
] |
2024-03-01T00:00:00
|
This week's Postcard Friday, a first in two weeks due to vacation, takes us to Saxony and to a viaduct that once existed. When traveling on the Highway B 283 from Aue to Markneukirchen and Klingenthal in the western part of the state, one will find remnants of a railroad bridge spanning the Zwickau Mulde…
|
en
|
The Bridgehunter's Chronicles
|
https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/2024/03/01/postcard-friday-nr-21/
|
This week’s Postcard Friday, a first in two weeks due to vacation, takes us to Saxony and to a viaduct that once existed. When traveling on the Highway B 283 from Aue to Markneukirchen and Klingenthal in the western part of the state, one will find remnants of a railroad bridge spanning the Zwickau Mulde as you travel around the curve. That is in connection with this railroad viaduct. The viaduct features a steel trestle with Howe lattice truss spans that spanned both the river and a parellel railroad line that once connected Klingenthal with Aue. The bridge was built around 1890 and used to serve a 12-gauge railroad line that had connected Zwickau with Carlsfeld, located at the border with Czechia. The line was abandoned in the 1960s and as East Germany needed the steel for its industry, in order to continue its operating economy- termed Marktwirtschaft (economy based on planned need for employees in certain sectors), the steel structure was removed in the early 1980s. Since then are the stone piers visible from the highway.
In fact, a total of three bridges of its kind spanning the Zwickau Mulde between Bockau and Schönheide were removed during the late 1970s and early 1980s for two reasons: the aforementioned reason and because of the construction of the Eibenstock reservoir, which was completed in 1984 with the purpose of flood control and providing recreation for the area. This spelled doom to both the Zwickau-Carlsfeld line as well as the line between Klingenthal and Aue via Schönheide and Bockau. Especially for the latter as the line originally travelled through the area where the reservoir is now located, thus effectively cutting the line in half. The line between Aue and Eibenstock continued service until 2008; the other from Schönheide to Klingenthal ceased operations by 2019. This railroad viaduct, as shown in the postcard, represents the prosperous rail line that once was but was cut up by the Politbüro in Berlin and the Communist party that dominated East Germany, its economy and the way of life until the Fall of the Wall in 1989.
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 65
|
https://www.facebook.com/groups/stackthis/posts/any-idea-how-this-was-createdor-how-to-make-somting-like-this-in-maxhttpswwwinst/2196637334016084/
|
en
|
Facebook
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
de
|
https://static.xx.fbcdn.net/rsrc.php/yT/r/aGT3gskzWBf.ico
| null | |||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 32
|
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Talsperre_Eibenstock
|
en
|
Category:Talsperre Eibenstock
|
[
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg/230px-Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/16px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png",
"https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,15,a,a,250x250.png?lang=en&domain=commons.wikimedia.org&title=Category%3ATalsperre_Eibenstock&revid=878596472&groups=_5ed6edec2db33796af19418d2b8c1a2bdcdc7662",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/15px-Blue_pencil.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1982-0804-014%2C_Karl-Marx-Stadt%2C_Trinkwassertalsperre_Eibenstock%2C_Zimmermann.jpg/86px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1982-0804-014%2C_Karl-Marx-Stadt%2C_Trinkwassertalsperre_Eibenstock%2C_Zimmermann.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0412-0002%2C_Eibenstock%2C_polnische_Gastarbeiter.jpg/120px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R0412-0002%2C_Eibenstock%2C_polnische_Gastarbeiter.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R1108-0003%2C_Eibenstock%2C_polnische_Gastarbeiter.jpg/120px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R1108-0003%2C_Eibenstock%2C_polnische_Gastarbeiter.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R1108-0004%2C_Eibenstock%2C_polnische_Gastarbeiter.jpg/120px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R1108-0004%2C_Eibenstock%2C_polnische_Gastarbeiter.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg/120px-Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Eibenstock.JPG/120px-Eibenstock.JPG",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Herbstlicher_Sonnenuntergang.jpg/120px-Herbstlicher_Sonnenuntergang.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Karte_westliches_Erzgebirge_Vogtland.jpg/77px-Karte_westliches_Erzgebirge_Vogtland.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Sch%C3%B6nheide_im_Erzgebirge_Bau_der_Talsperre.JPG/120px-Sch%C3%B6nheide_im_Erzgebirge_Bau_der_Talsperre.JPG",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Sch%C3%B6nheide_im_Erzgebirge_Blick_vomAussichtsturm_Eibenstock_%C3%BCber_die_Talsperre_in_Richtung_Sch%C3%B6nheide.JPG/120px-Sch%C3%B6nheide_im_Erzgebirge_Blick_vomAussichtsturm_Eibenstock_%C3%BCber_die_Talsperre_in_Richtung_Sch%C3%B6nheide.JPG",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05076%29.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05076%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05077%29.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05077%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05082%29.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05082%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05083%29.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05083%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05084%29.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05084%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05087%29.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05087%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05088%29.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05088%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05089%29.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_%28MGK05089%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen._2H1A0078WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen._2H1A0078WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0081WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0081WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0086WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0086WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0087WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0087WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0093WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0093WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0097WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0097WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0101WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0101WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0107WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0107WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0112WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0112WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0114WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0114WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0117WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0117WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0119WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0119WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0121WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0121WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0123WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0123WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0132WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0132WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0134WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0134WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0138WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0138WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0142WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0142WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0147WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0147WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0151WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0151WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0154WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0154WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0164WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0164WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0183WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0183WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0185WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0185WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0187WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0187WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0190WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0190WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0191WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0191WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0207WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_in_Sachsen.2H1A0207WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Talsperre_Eibenstock_Luftaufnahme.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock_Luftaufnahme.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Talsperre_Eibenstock...IMG_6583WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock...IMG_6583WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Talsperre_Eibenstock...IMG_6614WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock...IMG_6614WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Talsperre_Eibenstock..IMG_6623WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock..IMG_6623WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Talsperre_Eibenstock..IMG_6642WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock..IMG_6642WI.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Talsperre_Eibenstock..IMG_6643WI.jpg/120px-Talsperre_Eibenstock..IMG_6643WI.jpg",
"https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1",
"https://commons.wikimedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg",
"https://commons.wikimedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
|
/static/apple-touch/commons.png
|
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Talsperre_Eibenstock
|
Subcategories
This category has the following 13 subcategories, out of 13 total.
I
Talsperre Eibenstock, Infotafeln (5 F)
M
Muldenhammer (Eibenstock) (12 F)
S
Talsperre Eibenstock, Staumauer (16 F)
V
Vorbecken Geidenbach (6 F)
Vorbecken Rohrbach (8 F)
Vorbecken Rähmerbach (4 F)
Vorbecken Weißbach (5 F)
Vorsperre Schönheiderhammer (1 C, 10 F)
Media in category "Talsperre Eibenstock"
The following 52 files are in this category, out of 52 total.
Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1982-0804-014, Karl-Marx-Stadt, Trinkwassertalsperre Eibenstock, Zimmermann.jpg 574 × 800; 68 KB
Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R0412-0002, Eibenstock, polnische Gastarbeiter.jpg 800 × 600; 63 KB
Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R1108-0003, Eibenstock, polnische Gastarbeiter.jpg 800 × 593; 65 KB
Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R1108-0004, Eibenstock, polnische Gastarbeiter.jpg 800 × 592; 53 KB
Eibenstock reservoir (aka).jpg 2,000 × 1,043; 1.11 MB
Eibenstock.JPG 4,708 × 3,014; 5.91 MB
Herbstlicher Sonnenuntergang.jpg 2,592 × 1,944; 780 KB
Karte westliches Erzgebirge Vogtland.jpg 3,416 × 5,313; 8.5 MB
Schönheide im Erzgebirge Bau der Talsperre.JPG 1,776 × 1,505; 543 KB
Schönheide im Erzgebirge Blick vomAussichtsturm Eibenstock über die Talsperre in Richtung Schönheide.JPG 6,891 × 1,635; 2.37 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock (MGK05076).jpg 5,184 × 3,456; 7.81 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock (MGK05077).jpg 5,184 × 3,456; 9.61 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock (MGK05082).jpg 5,184 × 3,456; 13.59 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock (MGK05083).jpg 5,184 × 3,456; 11.6 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock (MGK05084).jpg 5,184 × 3,456; 11.55 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock (MGK05087).jpg 5,184 × 3,456; 11.7 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock (MGK05088).jpg 5,184 × 3,456; 9.84 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock (MGK05089).jpg 5,184 × 3,456; 9.45 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen. 2H1A0078WI.jpg 5,242 × 3,469; 4.84 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0081WI.jpg 5,294 × 3,519; 5.02 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0086WI.jpg 5,324 × 3,385; 3.39 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0087WI.jpg 5,472 × 3,648; 4.78 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0093WI.jpg 5,290 × 3,498; 8.11 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0097WI.jpg 5,472 × 3,648; 9.19 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0101WI.jpg 5,472 × 3,648; 5.91 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0107WI.jpg 5,302 × 3,494; 5.47 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0112WI.jpg 5,399 × 3,566; 6.22 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0114WI.jpg 5,472 × 3,648; 6.27 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0117WI.jpg 5,406 × 3,539; 4.37 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0119WI.jpg 5,472 × 3,648; 10.06 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0121WI.jpg 5,472 × 3,648; 5.67 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0123WI.jpg 5,329 × 3,356; 4.88 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0132WI.jpg 5,315 × 3,483; 5.98 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0134WI.jpg 5,472 × 3,648; 7.18 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0138WI.jpg 5,472 × 3,648; 6.42 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0142WI.jpg 5,472 × 3,648; 5.47 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0147WI.jpg 5,468 × 3,059; 5.55 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0151WI.jpg 5,429 × 3,585; 6.18 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0154WI.jpg 5,342 × 3,560; 7.33 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0164WI.jpg 5,250 × 3,498; 7.12 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0183WI.jpg 5,318 × 3,544; 8.65 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0185WI.jpg 5,472 × 3,648; 5.03 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0187WI.jpg 5,472 × 3,648; 7.35 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0190WI.jpg 5,426 × 3,616; 6.36 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0191WI.jpg 5,294 × 3,361; 5.7 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock in Sachsen.2H1A0207WI.jpg 5,326 × 3,507; 4.6 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock Luftaufnahme.jpg 4,032 × 2,268; 2.75 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock...IMG 6583WI.jpg 3,888 × 2,592; 9.36 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock...IMG 6614WI.jpg 3,888 × 2,592; 6.69 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock..IMG 6623WI.jpg 3,888 × 2,592; 8.31 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock..IMG 6642WI.jpg 3,888 × 2,592; 7.33 MB
Talsperre Eibenstock..IMG 6643WI.jpg 3,888 × 2,592; 9.19 MB
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 73
|
https://m.facebook.com/groups/sirayatech/posts/949706249274090/
|
en
|
Facebook
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
de
|
https://static.xx.fbcdn.net/rsrc.php/yT/r/aGT3gskzWBf.ico
| null | |||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 53
|
http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/
|
en
|
Mulderadweg - bicycle route in the Ore Mountains district
|
http://www.mulderadweg.info/fileadmin/tmpl_mulde/images/favicon.ico
|
http://www.mulderadweg.info/fileadmin/tmpl_mulde/images/favicon.ico
|
[
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/tmpl_mulde/images/logo.png",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/tmpl/images/flags/de.png",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/tmpl/images/flags/cs.png",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/tmpl/images/flags/en.png",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/_banner_/erzgebirge/Erzgebirge_03.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/_banner_/erzgebirge/Erzgebirge_01.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/_banner_/erzgebirge/Erzgebirge_02.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/_banner_/erzgebirge/Erzgebirge_03.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/_banner_/erzgebirge/Erzgebirge_04.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/_banner_/erzgebirge/Erzgebirge_05.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/_migrated/pics/iconEibenstock_01e.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/_processed_/csm_Eibenstock_02_37173761df.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/_processed_/csm_Eibenstock_03_a504764430.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/_migrated/pics/eu_flagge_150d488133.gif",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/_migrated/pics/eplr_logo_b3882e0dea.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/_migrated/pics/sachsen01_39aa569f99.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/background/standard.jpg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2018-05-24T15:57:38+02:00
|
en
|
/fileadmin/tmpl_mulde/images/favicon.ico
|
http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/in-the-ore-mountains/places/eibenstock/
|
Idyllically situated on a plateau in the middle of the Nature Park Erzgebirge / Vogtland is the mining- and embroidery-town Eibenstock. Framed by the 1,018 m high Auersberg Mountain and the Eibenstock dam, this town with approx. 5,000 inhabitants has developed in recent years into a tourist center in the Erzgebirge. This is proven by its certification as a state-recognized resort and family-friendly place.
In the Middle Ages the town had already acquired the right to be called a “Bergstadt” (mining town with special privileges defined by means of a charter from the ruling monarch) and thus played a central role in the Auersberg area. In addition to the mining of iron ores, Eibenstock was mostly known for its tin mining. The tin was reported to have a very fine gloss and was even used by Venetian glassmakers for the manufacture of their mirror glass products.
Centuries of mining had formed the history of Eibenstock, where even today, an attentive guest can encounter numerous historical witnesses of the mining industry. After its shutdown, at the end of the 18th century, a new skill found its way to the Auersberg region: “Tambourieren” (a kind of artistic embroidery). The intricate embroidery that evolved gave the tranquil mining town worldwide fame, a U.S. consulate and an attractive urban development. Impressive buildings, such as the town hall, built in the Art Nouveau style, are evidence of that flourishing time, and are now interesting tourist attractions.
Especially families and those who want an active holiday get their money’s worth, besides the many nature lovers seeking tranquility. The many leisure facilities in the town offer a great deal of holiday activities, such as the “Badegärten” spa with pools and sauna landscape, Wurzelrudi’s Adventure World with an all-weather bob sled run, maze, tubing and children’s playground, equestrian with large indoor riding arena, mini golf hall with pit-pat, embroidery-show workshop, playgrounds and climbing courses, mining heritage trail, an observation tower at the Bühl hill and in the winter season a ski arena, cross-country ski runs, sledding and horse-drawn sleigh rides.
With its hotels, pensions, hostels and many private rentals, the town offers a wide range of accommodations in various categories. Due to its central location, Eibenstock is an ideal base for reaching all the attractions and things to do in the Auersberg region. Thanks to an extensive network of hiking trails, this can also be done on foot or by bicycle. A constant companion is the healthy fresh mountain air in the woods and meadows.
|
||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 45
|
https://www.alamy.com/carlsfeld-dam-wilzsch-dam-weiterswiese-city-of-eibenstock-ore-mountains-saxony-germany-image560093329.html
|
en
|
Carlsfeld Dam, Wilzsch Dam, Weiterswiese, City of Eibenstock, Ore Mountains, Saxony, Germany Stock Photo
|
[
"https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/mastercard.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/visa.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/amex.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/paypal.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/apple-pay.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/google-pay.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
"artificial lake",
"central europe",
"city",
"dam",
"deserted",
"east",
"east germany",
"europe",
"forest",
"forest lake"
] | null |
[
"Alamy Limited"
] | null |
Download this stock image: Carlsfeld Dam, Wilzsch Dam, Weiterswiese, City of Eibenstock, Ore Mountains, Saxony, Germany - 2RF6CN5 from Alamy's library of millions of high resolution stock photos, illustrations and vectors.
|
en
|
https://www.alamy.com/carlsfeld-dam-wilzsch-dam-weiterswiese-city-of-eibenstock-ore-mountains-saxony-germany-image560093329.html
|
Carlsfeld Dam, Wilzsch Dam, Weiterswiese, City of Eibenstock, Ore Mountains, Saxony, Germany
Captions are provided by our contributors.
RFID:Image ID :2RF6CN5
Image details
Contributor :
imageBROKER.com GmbH & Co. KG / Alamy Stock Photo
Image ID :
2RF6CN5
File size :
54.6 MB (1.9 MB Compressed download)
Open your image file to the full size using image processing software.
Releases :
Model - no | Property - noDo I need a release?
Dimensions :
5133 x 3718 px | 43.5 x 31.5 cm | 17.1 x 12.4 inches | 300dpi
Date taken :
17 January 2007
Location :
Germany
Taxes may apply to prices shown.
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 86
|
https://twitter.com/apw_dist/status/847182860318642177
|
en
|
x.com
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
X (formerly Twitter)
| null | ||||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 69
|
https://www.instagram.com/explore/locations/1011699132/eibenstock-dam/
|
en
|
Instagram
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
| null | ||||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 27
|
https://www.scribd.com/doc/3341677/germany-hnd
|
en
|
Germany HND
|
https://imgv2-1-f.scribdassets.com/img/document/3341677/original/2df9e9cfce/1723885150?v=1
|
https://imgv2-1-f.scribdassets.com/img/document/3341677/original/2df9e9cfce/1723885150?v=1
|
[
"https://s-f.scribdassets.com/webpack/assets/images/shared/gr_table_reading.9f6101a1.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"aptureinc"
] | null |
germany hnd - Free download as Text File (.txt), PDF File (.pdf) or read online for free. This document provides a list of waypoints for GPS abbreviations used in Germany. It includes over 100 entries with the waypoint name written out in German, an abbreviation for each entry, and the latitude and longitude coordinates for each location. The document notes that it provides this information as an unofficial service for reference purposes only.
|
en
|
https://s-f.scribdassets.com/scribd.ico?19d484716?v=5
|
Scribd
|
https://www.scribd.com/doc/3341677/germany-hnd
| |||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 74
|
https://www.tiktok.com/%40thepeakyplumber/video/7142933011053448453
|
en
|
Make Your Day
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
| null | ||||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 21
|
https://dokumen.pub/the-geology-of-germany-a-process-oriented-approach-1st-ed-978-3-319-76101-5-978-3-319-76102-2.html
|
en
|
The Geology of Germany: A Process
|
[
"https://dokumen.pub/dokumenpub/assets/img/dokumenpub_logo.png",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-geology-of-iberia-a-geodynamic-approach-volume-3-the-alpine-cycle-1st-ed-978-3-030-11294-3978-3-030-11295-0.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-geology-of-iberia-a-geodynamic-approach-volume-2-the-variscan-cycle-1st-ed-2019-978-3-030-10518-1-978-3-030-10519-8.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-beauty-of-geology-art-of-geology-mapping-in-china-over-a-century-1st-ed-978-981-13-3785-7-978-981-13-3786-4.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-geology-of-iberia-a-geodynamic-approach-volume-4-cenozoic-basins-1st-ed-978-3-030-11189-2978-3-030-11190-8.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-geology-of-the-egyptian-nubian-shield-1st-ed-9783030497705-9783030497712.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/discovering-the-unique-geology-of-the-bergell-alps-geoguide-1st-ed-2023-3031307372-9783031307379.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/petroleum-geology-and-exploration-of-the-bongor-basin-1st-ed-2023-9811926727-9789811926723.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/a-text-book-of-geology-1999nbsped.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-structure-of-geology-0870741624.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/geology-of-the-moon-a-stratigraphic-view-9781400870479.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-geology-of-germany-a-process-oriented-approach-1st-ed-978-3-319-76101-5-978-3-319-76102-2.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/dokumenpub/assets/img/dokumenpub_logo.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
This richly illustrated book presents Germany’s geological evolution in the context of the Earth’s dynamic history. It s...
|
en
|
dokumen.pub
|
https://dokumen.pub/the-geology-of-germany-a-process-oriented-approach-1st-ed-978-3-319-76101-5-978-3-319-76102-2.html
|
Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-xxxvii
Introduction (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 1-1
Time and Geological Periods (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 3-7
Rocks and the Geological Record (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 9-18
The Age of the Rocks (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 19-24
Plate Tectonics, the Unifying Theory (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 25-31
Tectonics Units of Europe (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 33-35
Overview of the Plate Tectonic History of Europe (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 37-40
The Dynamic Earth, Earthquakes in Germany (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 41-52
Early Geological Evolution of Germany (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 53-62
Late Paleozoic of Germany (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 63-114
Permian and Mesozoic Geology of Germany (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 115-190
The Evolution of the Alps (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 191-208
Tertiary Basins (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 209-231
Tertiary and Quaternary Volcanism (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 233-249
Asteroid Craters (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 251-257
Germany During the Glacial Periods (Martin Meschede, Laurence N. Warr)....Pages 259-282
Back Matter ....Pages 283-304
Citation preview
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 23
|
https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/2017/09/05/mystery-bridge-nr-87-a-bridge-with-an-unusual-railing-and-plaque/
|
en
|
Mystery Bridge Nr. 87: A Bridge with an Unusual Railing and Plaque
|
[
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/aebf46b7fc5a96a9d76263bc70c1922f?s=100&d=identicon&r=g",
"https://www.clustrmaps.com/map_v2.png?d=vZZFuP7NTWi-eJ_tkPoliH56YXs_VdY9gLEoAb2nHyk&cl=ffffff",
"https://live.staticflickr.com/3885/14584186910_f60eec4007_m.jpg",
"https://live.staticflickr.com/3866/14584255948_346c8e8b2c_m.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/52854047_2299272173436752_5939636859209515008_o.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/i/rss/red-large.png?m=1391188133i",
"https://s-ssl.wordpress.com/wp-includes/images/rss.png?m=1354137473i",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/21199489_1615769091787067_2287244526147575239_o.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/imgp9135.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/imgp9148.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/imgp9150.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/imgp9151.jpg?w=647&h=485",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=205&h=66",
"https://assets.pinterest.com/images/pidgets/pinit_fg_en_rect_gray_20.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/cropped-bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=50",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/cropped-bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=50",
"https://pixel.wp.com/b.gif?v=noscript"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Bridgehunter's Chronicles"
] |
2017-09-05T00:00:00
|
Our 87th mystery bridge takes us down to Saxony again and to the town of Eibenstock. Located 13 kilometers southwest of Schneeberg and 22 kilometers west of Aue, this community of 7,000 inhabitants feature not only one but thirteen different sections that had once been villages, all located within a 122.2 squared kilometers from…
|
en
|
The Bridgehunter's Chronicles
|
https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/2017/09/05/mystery-bridge-nr-87-a-bridge-with-an-unusual-railing-and-plaque/
|
Our 87th mystery bridge takes us down to Saxony again and to the town of Eibenstock. Located 13 kilometers southwest of Schneeberg and 22 kilometers west of Aue, this community of 7,000 inhabitants feature not only one but thirteen different sections that had once been villages, all located within a 122.2 squared kilometers from each other, meaning approximately 68 people per square km. At at a height of 650 meters above sea level, Eibenstock is one of the highest communities in the Erzgebirge (Ore Mountain region). Founded 862 years ago, the community was one of the main centers for nickel and copper mining in the region. Much of the architecture from the 17th and 18th Centuries have remained in tact, including the churches, the Post Mile and the historic town center. There, one can find mini fairy tale huts with scenes from over a dozen stories. The town is located south of the Eibenstock Reservoir, an artificial lake that was created with the Dam, built in 1984 to control the flow of water from the Zwickauer Mulde River. Prior to that, the river valley was one of the deepest in Saxony and one that required both a railway line from Chemnitz and Aue but also a steep cable-line car to Eibenstock, once the steepest in eastern Germany. Both gave way to progress with the dam and reservoir. But even the lake provides some boating, fishing and hiking opportunities in the summer time, a complement to its traditional skiing and winter amusement area between the lake and the community.
And while the Zwickauer Mulde flows past the town of Eibenstock through the lake bearing its name, two creeks flow through the town, merging at the town square at the corner of the town’s elementary school: the Dönitzbach and the Rähmerbach. From there, the newly merged Rähmerbach flows quickly down the steep valley and empties into the Reservoir, only two kilometers away. Several arch bridges cross the two creeks in Eibenstock- the classical stone arch bridge as well as modern arch bridges whose decking and railings curve upwards. With each span having a length of 5-10 meters, it is easy to overlook them because they are typical structures a person could even jump over. However, one cannot overlook this structure:
It is a short beam bridge with a length of 9-10 meters and 8 meters wide. It spans the Dönitzbach carrying Bürgermeister Hesse Strasse at the market square on the opposite end of the elementary school, where Winklerstrasse meets. While one may look at it as just a short bridge, the uniqueness comes with the railing on the side facing the market square. There, we have a curved railing with vertical ends, all made using sandstone brick. At the center of the span, the top portion makes a U-shaped dip deep enough to include an iron shield. Curved and ornamental, the shield represents the symbol of luck, featuring a long rake in the middle, a three-leaf clover on the left and a miner’s chisel on the right. One can assume that given Eibenstock’s location in the Erzgebirge, the shield goes by the slogan “Glück Auf!” which means either “Good luck!” or even “Hello!” in German. In fact, the Erzgebirge Region has three characteristics that make it special: woodwork, mining and farming. When visiting the Christmas market in Germany and visiting the booth selling products from the Region, be it a lighted Christmas arch (Lichterbogen), Christmas Pyramid or any wooden products as well as metal bracelets and figures, one will see how they are handmade, going from forest or mines through the whole process into the fine product to be given to your loved one for the Holidays.
But going back to the mystery bridge, the structure appears to have been built most recently, going back no more than 10 years, and the railing and iron shield stemmed from the structure the present bridge replaced. This can be seen, especially with the shield, as it has shown some wear and tear over the years with rust and corrosion appearing especially on the back side. The question is what did the previous bridge look like? Did it look like the stone arches that still exist in Eibenstock? When was it built and if the shield was part of the original structure, since when, and who designed it?
If you have any answers, then we’ll be happy to take them. Just drop a line and we’ll update this bridge until the mystery bridge is solved.
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 35
|
https://dbpedia.org/page/Muldenhammer_(Eibenstock)
|
en
|
About: Muldenhammer (Eibenstock)
|
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Muldenhammer_(Eibenstock)_Eibenstock_unterer_Bahnhof_Kartenausschnitt.jpg?width=300
|
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Muldenhammer_(Eibenstock)_Eibenstock_unterer_Bahnhof_Kartenausschnitt.jpg?width=300
|
[
"https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/dbpedia_logo_land_120.png",
"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/Muldenhammer_(Eibenstock)_Eibenstock_unterer_Bahnhof_Kartenausschnitt.jpg?width=300",
"https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/virt_power_no_border.png",
"https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/LoDLogo.gif",
"https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/sw-sparql-blue.png",
"https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/od_80x15_red_green.png",
"https://www.w3.org/Icons/valid-xhtml-rdfa"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
Muldenhammer is a former subdivision of the town of Eibenstock in the Ore Mountains. It originated from an iron hammer forge, first mentioned in the 16th century and was abandoned in 1974 due to the construction of Eibenstock Dam.
|
DBpedia
|
http://dbpedia.org/resource/Muldenhammer_(Eibenstock)
|
dbo:abstract
Muldenhammer (auch Windischhammer, Windischthal, Kleinhempel und Georgenhammer genannt) ist ein durch die Talsperre Eibenstock untergegangener ehemaliger Ortsteil der erzgebirgischen Stadt Eibenstock und ging aus einem erstmals im 16. Jahrhundert erwähnten Hammerwerk hervor. (de)
Muldenhammer is a former subdivision of the town of Eibenstock in the Ore Mountains. It originated from an iron hammer forge, first mentioned in the 16th century and was abandoned in 1974 due to the construction of Eibenstock Dam. (en)
rdfs:comment
Muldenhammer (auch Windischhammer, Windischthal, Kleinhempel und Georgenhammer genannt) ist ein durch die Talsperre Eibenstock untergegangener ehemaliger Ortsteil der erzgebirgischen Stadt Eibenstock und ging aus einem erstmals im 16. Jahrhundert erwähnten Hammerwerk hervor. (de)
Muldenhammer is a former subdivision of the town of Eibenstock in the Ore Mountains. It originated from an iron hammer forge, first mentioned in the 16th century and was abandoned in 1974 due to the construction of Eibenstock Dam. (en)
|
||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 79
|
https://issuu.com/europan/docs/e14-results-catalogue
|
en
|
Europan 14 Results Catalogue - Productive Cities /1
|
[
"https://static.isu.pub/fe/product-header-frontend/781e53c/31d186ba39f38e8c4fac.png",
"https://static.issuu.com/fe/silkscreen/0.0.3042/icons/gradient/icon-canva-gradient.svg",
"https://static.isu.pub/fe/product-header-frontend/781e53c/1e794a8c4ec65e549678.png",
"https://photo.isu.pub/europan/photo_large.jpg",
"https://assets.isu.pub/document-structure/210409141225-76e96b0c0974c7539e56b1bf5d3aeae3/v1/7310d4b84c73ee468203bb1fd2ddcbb9.jpg",
"https://assets.isu.pub/document-structure/210409141225-76e96b0c0974c7539e56b1bf5d3aeae3/v1/ecd52e33703b7f2e50584755798f3ee5.jpg",
"https://assets.isu.pub/document-structure/210409141225-76e96b0c0974c7539e56b1bf5d3aeae3/v1/58df575c100894c8ec45b7e729dfb559.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/220523131056-e2ed9cc1d7c49e5496d3702fd3ef412e/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/210106114025-c56f5300558e65d438ab9d2e51ff0e69/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/210106121358-5ef590c47b9f674b4d8775cad1c40502/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/200918104353-a5400cd557c197c2151f16c536708108/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/210415072813-0bc67c56dc261a22d07177a6f75553b8/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/210405091849-4b336b36993519845b2bdaffd19b3c58/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://image.isu.pub/210415074910-5ec3c8fa09a05278fe1a0198953e21c2/jpg/page_1_thumb_large.jpg",
"https://static.issuu.com/fe/silkscreen/0.0.2541/icons/gradient/icon-instagram-gradient.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Europan Follow this publisher"
] |
2021-04-09T00:00:00+00:00
|
The Europan 14 results catalogue presents at the European scale the 136 prize-winning projects in 44 cities from 13 participating countries, taking...
|
en
|
/favicon.ico
|
Issuu
|
https://issuu.com/europan/docs/e14-results-catalogue
|
The Europan 14 results catalogue presents at the European scale the 136 prize-winning projects in 44 cities from 13 participating countries, taking into account the theme of the session "Productive Cities". The projects of 41 winners, 47 runner-up and 48 special mentions are classified into 4 thematic families: From productive area to productive city From city to productive city From functionalist infrastructures to productive city And productive again!
|
||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 62
|
https://www.bing.com/travel/place-information%3Fq%3DBad%2BSchlema%26SID%3D3fe09df0-4d08-52e4-9dc9-6d1d557dca58%26scenario%3DSeeAndDo%26itemId%3DYN6740x2589130535197522076%26form%3DMSTA01%26ocid%3Dsponsorednav
|
en
|
Microsoft Bing Travel
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
de
| null | ||||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 14
|
https://www.volcanocafe.org/sleeping-in-our-back-garden-the-past-present-and-future-of-the-eifel-volcanism-part-i/comment-page-1/
|
en
|
Sleeping in our back garden: the past, present and future of the Eifel volcanic fields (part I)
|
[
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/12932837_1073760486024552_8432529936007761933_n.jpeg?resize=700%2C525&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/word-image-5.jpeg?resize=281%2C300&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/word-image-6.jpeg?resize=300%2C210&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/word-image-7.jpeg?resize=200%2C300&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/word-image-8.jpeg?resize=300%2C198&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/word-image-9.jpeg?resize=244%2C300&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/word-image-10.jpeg?resize=700%2C468&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/word-image-11.jpeg?resize=700%2C467&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/word-image-12.jpeg?resize=300%2C209&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/word-image-13.jpeg?resize=300%2C207&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/word-image-8.png?resize=300%2C196&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/solfatara.jpeg?resize=50%2C50&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/GVP-02423.jpg?resize=50%2C50&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.volcanocafe.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/word-image-15449-11.jpeg?resize=50%2C50&ssl=1",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/5cd4d86bd75a4786706616d8acc0a87d?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f545a6bb573152c608c32c0154e9af0f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f545a6bb573152c608c32c0154e9af0f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://www.abouther.com/sites/default/files/2021/03/08/harrat_khaybar_volcanic_field.jpg",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/5cd4d86bd75a4786706616d8acc0a87d?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f545a6bb573152c608c32c0154e9af0f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f545a6bb573152c608c32c0154e9af0f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/404702317197ac327dfe80c4cda0861b?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f545a6bb573152c608c32c0154e9af0f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f545a6bb573152c608c32c0154e9af0f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/cc50c8f96c1c25146700f599570bb5f9?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/bcf0dcd3204290dc67e6ea4658e5f83f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f545a6bb573152c608c32c0154e9af0f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/9ea33b8746fbae3db86b22e189f165f8?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/5cd4d86bd75a4786706616d8acc0a87d?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/9ea33b8746fbae3db86b22e189f165f8?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/171243175fb707e8b0ae4cc1b8fe315b?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/5cd4d86bd75a4786706616d8acc0a87d?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/b09b6a800c39a4137917341243e9bd12?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/5cd4d86bd75a4786706616d8acc0a87d?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/82a329ad206d8f42d69cfed95b040e03?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/5cd4d86bd75a4786706616d8acc0a87d?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/82a329ad206d8f42d69cfed95b040e03?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f545a6bb573152c608c32c0154e9af0f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/5cd4d86bd75a4786706616d8acc0a87d?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/d788ed6c91809b7fc925715dfbf031ed?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/5cd4d86bd75a4786706616d8acc0a87d?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/404702317197ac327dfe80c4cda0861b?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/5cd4d86bd75a4786706616d8acc0a87d?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/5cd4d86bd75a4786706616d8acc0a87d?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/404702317197ac327dfe80c4cda0861b?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/9971a26d31fe62115e4f14175a605aad?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Caldera_Lakes_to_the_North_of_Rome.jpg",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/82a329ad206d8f42d69cfed95b040e03?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/82a329ad206d8f42d69cfed95b040e03?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/315a9ed030c5da642adb7f69228f1050?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/404702317197ac327dfe80c4cda0861b?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/66d4acfd3048bb48d73cab6a1f76ec48?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/cc50c8f96c1c25146700f599570bb5f9?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/cc50c8f96c1c25146700f599570bb5f9?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/82a329ad206d8f42d69cfed95b040e03?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/82a329ad206d8f42d69cfed95b040e03?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/404702317197ac327dfe80c4cda0861b?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/404702317197ac327dfe80c4cda0861b?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Lac_Pavin_Vue_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9.JPG",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f545a6bb573152c608c32c0154e9af0f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f545a6bb573152c608c32c0154e9af0f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/cc50c8f96c1c25146700f599570bb5f9?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f545a6bb573152c608c32c0154e9af0f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/cc50c8f96c1c25146700f599570bb5f9?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/f545a6bb573152c608c32c0154e9af0f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/9ea33b8746fbae3db86b22e189f165f8?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/9ea33b8746fbae3db86b22e189f165f8?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/9ea33b8746fbae3db86b22e189f165f8?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/9ea33b8746fbae3db86b22e189f165f8?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/b09b6a800c39a4137917341243e9bd12?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/cc50c8f96c1c25146700f599570bb5f9?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/cams/V1cam/images/M.jpg",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/cc50c8f96c1c25146700f599570bb5f9?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/cc50c8f96c1c25146700f599570bb5f9?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/cams/F1cam/images/M.jpg",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/cc50c8f96c1c25146700f599570bb5f9?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/cc50c8f96c1c25146700f599570bb5f9?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/b5e9a0ef681c0b54d6c4c60275b20cd7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boring_Lava_Field#/media/File:Boring_lava_allen_map.png",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/404702317197ac327dfe80c4cda0861b?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4b37aac5ac5dfd41d1dad3b998ca755f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/4b37aac5ac5dfd41d1dad3b998ca755f?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0a9827d843517bf5c4690f5154a596f7?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e131ddaabd99fa4b8f58c713780e4ce8?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/27665f9d63ee6e559a8699dd41e8d46c?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/27665f9d63ee6e559a8699dd41e8d46c?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/82a329ad206d8f42d69cfed95b040e03?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e5e50cdedd7b9cf9a0c6b2efa69883f3?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/404702317197ac327dfe80c4cda0861b?s=40&d=wavatar&r=g",
"https://volcaccino.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/volcanohead-car.jpg?w=700"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Gijs de Reijke"
] |
2022-04-29T21:02:37+00:00
|
Think of one thing that has interested you for as long as you can remember, or at least for so long the level of factual knowledge you have of it is almost ridiculously vast. That one thing that al…
|
en
|
VolcanoCafe
|
https://www.volcanocafe.org/sleeping-in-our-back-garden-the-past-present-and-future-of-the-eifel-volcanism-part-i/comment-page-1/#comments
|
Think of one thing that has interested you for as long as you can remember, or at least for so long the level of factual knowledge you have of it is almost ridiculously vast. That one thing that always brightens up your day when you hear or read something about it, no matter how busy you are or down you feel. A passion that goes beyond the level of having an ordinary hobby, because you don’t grow tired of spending time on it and learning more about it. It could be anything. Maybe a football club, or collecting fossils. Perhaps a specific model of a car brand. Or when you pick up your camera for yet another round of bird photography. It doesn’t truly matter what it is, because it hits home with anyone who has that bizarre enthusiasm for something seemingly trivial in the eyes of most people. To me, that one thing that stands out above all my other interests, is the Eifel volcanism.
The volcanic fields of the Eifel
Take some of the bigger names in the world of volcanoes. Etna, Mount St. Helens, Pinatubo, Vesuvius, Krakatau and of course any one pit, mountain or crack spewing lava or ash that happens to make the news. Not many people actually know the relevance of those names from a historical, let alone geological perspective. Yet they do ring a bell. What volcanic area most certainly isn’t on that list? Yes, the one I’m going to describe to you. The Eifel is located in the west of Germany, and is comprised of three different volcanic areas, located on the Rhenish Massif. One of those, the Hocheifel Volcanic Field, is of Tertiary age and lies between the much younger West and East Eifel Volcanic Fields. Scattered across Germany are many volcanoes of Tertiary age, but for the sake of not turning in this article into a book, I’ll stick to a series of facts regarding the youngest products of volcanism that can be found in this part of the world. That means the aforementioned volcanic fields west and east of the Hocheifel, where volcanism took place between approximately 700,000 years ago and 11,000 years ago.
So what are we talking about then, as these volcanoes seem to mean so little in the world of what can arguably be seen as the most visually impressive of natural hazards? All of the volcanic vents in the area are part of so-called ‘monogenetic volcanic fields’, meaning they tend to erupt only once before going extinct. That is, the individual vents, not the volcanism in the field in its entirety. In most cases, a very small amount of magma makes it to the surface, producing an eruption that is often over as quickly as it started. The magmas that erupt onto the surface do so mostly in the form of small ash plumes, scoria and lava flows, only affecting an area directly surrounding the vent. The resulting volcanic edifice: a ‘scoria cone’. When this magma comes into contact with ground water, a hydrothermal explosion occurs, known as a ‘phreatomagmatic eruption’, which is explosive, short-lived and leaves behind an often circular crater known as a ‘Maar’, but again, the effects of such eruptions are mostly of a local nature. Both of these types of volcanoes can be found in great abundance in the Eifel volcanic fields, and maars even got their name from the regional, Eifel name for ‘lake’. All in all, the fields consist mostly of these fairly tiny edifices. Some 200 scoria cones and about 70 maars in the West Eifel Volcanic Field (WEVF) and mostly scoria cones of the ~100 volcanoes in the East Eifel Volcanic Field (EEVF).
What does this mean for the landscape? What does it look like? The volcanoes aren’t hard to spot in quite a few cases, but don’t expect any enormous mountains of the likes seen in the Cascade Mountains, the Andes or Japan. In fact, the scoria cones of the Eifel quite often do count as ‘mountains’, depending on what definition one might apply, but their prominence is rarely more than just a few hundred meters over the surrounding, elevated terrain of the Rhenish Massif. Scoria cones formed by a single eruption just don’t grow that tall. Maars are often hard to spot, but in all cases they are depressions in the landscape, in some cases surrounded by a ring of tuff produced by the Maar-forming eruption. Most however, are very hard to spot, and the same can be said for the majority of the scoria cones; they’re just too tiny to stand out, whether that is the result of having been produced by a comparatively small eruption, the effects of the exogenic forces of weathering and erosion or both. In other words, the volcanoes are there for those who know what to look for, but that’s pretty much it. The Eifel isn’t densely populated, especially not the Westeifel, but its far-from-dramatic undulating terrain and mix of forests and agricultural land give it a very friendly looking, photogenic charm that many tourists appreciate quite a lot.
The threat of eruptions: an unwelcome surprise?
So it’s a fact that the Eifel has been relatively recently been volcanically active, but what does that mean? No activity even came close to there being any sort of historical records of it, at least not of actual eruptions. In geological terms, for an area not to be volcanically active for just over ten thousand years, means nothing. The actual cause of the formation and rise of magma under an area is very likely still present after such a relatively very short time, and in the case of the Eifel it truly is, although I’m not going to delve into that in this article.
So are we to expect an eruption anytime soon? My answer is ‘Yes!’, but that doesn’t mean we’re currently aware of any magma making its way to the surface at such a velocity that we can detect it and that we should panic about it right now. Monogenetic volcanoes are being fed by tiny amounts of magma, often rising directly from the Earth’s mantle in a matter of hours to days. Types of magma that are very ‘primitive’, which means they didn’t really have their chemical compositions changed by what we call ‘magmatic differentiation’. Processes like cooling down somewhat and absorbing a lot of materials from the Earth’s crust. The presence of very primitive lavas on the surface indicate a few important things: matters can change quickly and without a lot of warning, although the effusive and intrinsic mildly explosive nature of the molten rock means any threat is likely to remain local.
However, geoscientists, authorities and the local population are fairly ill-prepared for an eruption if it were to happen anytime soon. Those with any degree of responsibility often tend hide behind statistics and often meaningless facts like the number of years that have passed since the most recent eruption. Being aware and ready for an event that is likely going to happen at any time in the near geological future is being smart about it.
Taking both statistics and the speed at which things can go from ‘Nothing going on at all’ to ‘Oh Scheiße…’, the WEVF seems to be the most likely candidate for the next eruption. There’s reason enough take action on this specific threat, but it doesn’t really exist in the minds of most locals. It doesn’t mean that there’s no attention for any potential future volcanism in the Eifel. Without going to great lengths, one can easily find information on something stirring in the EEVF, where a completely different kind of beast snores in its slumber.
The East Eifel Volcanic Field: a story of evolving magma
About a hundred volcanoes, most of them monogenetic scoria cones. Pretty much the same as the WEVF, just containing just over a third of the amount of vents that once produced lava and ash. The East Eifel Volcanic Field sounds like smaller sibling of its counterpart about 30 kilometers to the southwest, but you’d be wrong to assume the differences stop there. In fact, the EEVF is much larger when we look at the volumes of the erupted volcanic materials we find there. That’s because, among the scoria cones, a few monsters are present.
Located in what is the middle of the volcanic field, are several volcanoes that have been fed by variants of a magma called phonolite. Mafic magmas like basanite and tephrite, which are generally fairly hot, effusive and typical for producing the small eruptions that are common in volcanic field like those of the Eifel, have formed numerous scoria cones that are still clearly visible in the landscape today. In some places, though, these magmas rose to form large magma chambers that have taken tens of thousands of years to grow before erupting. At the same time, the magma partially cooled down and only the minerals that didn’t solidify remained eruptible, becoming phonolite. Phonolite is a so-called intermediate rock, which means it has its place between mafic and felsic. Its viscosity is substantial, which allows for pressure to build up inside it quite efficiently, turning it explosive in most cases. That also happened on a small number of occasions in the EEVF over the last few hundred thousand years. Two of the phonolitic magma chambers have produced eruptions that were even large enough to create calderas.
Going big: the first caldera
After an initial phase of erupting ultramafic magmas occurring in the EEVF between 650.000 and 450.000 years B.P., the Phonolitic eruptions started in what is now called the Rieden Volcanic Complex between 450,000 and 350,000 years ago, which was long considered to have its own caldera, but the depression there is likely to be of an erosional nature than of anything that has to do with the collapse of a magma chamber. Numerous lava flow-producing vents and even lava domes formed in this phase of volcanic activity in the Eifel, before eruptions stopped for about 135,000 years, producing a total volume of ~10 km3 of volcanic deposits. Then, around 215,000 B.P., the ‘Hüttenberg Tephra’ was erupted. It is currently assumed this eruption may have been a high-end VEI5, having erupted a bulk volume of phonolitic ash and pumice that quite possibly lies somewhere between five to ten cubic kilometers. Another substantial, explosive eruption occurred from this volcano about 150,000 years ago, covering the landscape with the ‘Glees Tephra’, which has been produced by an eruption maybe reaching low-end VEI5 with an estimated 1 km3 of ejecta. Very few volcanoes have magma chambers that will not collapse after such events, and this volcano is no exception. Now known as ‘Wehrer Kessel’, which basically means ‘Wehr’s Cauldron’, the volcano is named after the village that can be found in the western half of the almost two-kilometer wide caldera. Currently, the volcano only produces amounts of CO2 that can be expected from extinct volcanoes, but since 2015 unexpected subsidence has been observed within the crater. More on that later.
Earning true infamy: how one volcano took it to the next level
As nasty as Wehrer Kessel’s behavior has been, its next door neighbor is the true beast of the lot. It is currently assumed phonolitic magma started accumulating between five and eight kilometers deep from approximately 30,000 years ago. After a series of large intrusions it accumulated to possibly 18 cubic kilometers (v. d. Bogaard & Schmincke, 1984) before an eruption finally took place an estimated 13,078 years ago (remember that date). And what an eruption it turned out to be. It started with large, phreatomagmatic explosions taking place at the southern end of what is now known as the crater of this volcano. Ash of these events was mainly blown towards the southwest. The main phase of the eruption commenced not long after, opening up a new vent just to the north of the one that had previously formed. The most powerful of the explosions produced ash columns that rose to an altitude of possibly 40 kilometers, before being dispersed toward what is now Scandinavia and Italy. It took an estimated eight to ten days before the eruption was over, and what was left was a vast area that was buried beneath tens of meters of pyroclastic flow and tephra fall deposits. Approximately 6.3 km3 worth of phonolitic magma expanded into some 20 km3 of mostly ash and pumice. The nearby Rhine valley was blocked by two natural dams formed by pyroclastic flows, blocking the river Rhine and causing the flooding of the Neuwieder Becken, a wider valley east and southeast of the volcano. The resulting lake was about 20 meters deep before it catastrophically drained due to the breaking of the dams. At the site of the eruption itself, a caldera formed that measures 2.5 by 3.5 kilometers from rim to rim, still visibly featuring the two different, but now merged explosion craters from which the eruption took place.
Comparing the eruption to well-known events
What happened in the EEVF just over 13,000 years ago is an event of a magnitude that occurs globally no more than a few times every century. Between the years 1900 and 2000, only three events of a similar magnitude occurred, using the logarithmic Volcanic Explosivity Index as a standard to work with. The first eruption at Wehrer Kessel was in all likelihood, as stated above, a large VEI5. But its big brother to the southeast went VEI6, having produced a bulk volume of ~20 km3 and placing it firmly between the 10 and 100 km3 which define an eruption of such magnitude. In 1902, Santa María volcano in Guatemala erupted 10 km3. In 1912, in Alaska, the Novarupta vent formed as part of the Katmai volcano, blasting out between 25 and 30 km3 of ash and pumice and in 1991 Pinatubo in the Philippines produced the world’s most recent VEI6 by erupting 11 km3 of volcanic materials. These events live in infamy because of their destructive legacies, on a list that features Krakatau, Huaynaputina and Ilopango as well, to name just a few exceptionally nasty monsters that have violently erupted over the last few thousand years. Although there was a number of much larger eruptions during the Holocene, ranking as VEI7, a VEI6 is by no means a small event, definitely earning its status of being ‘colossal’. Any event of this size would dominate the news on a global scale for at least days, if not weeks.
A deceptive serenity
After the EEVF eruption of 13,078 years BP ended, the caldera got partially filled up by water, forming a lake that is now 2 by 2.3 kilometers in diameter. This lake, known as Laacher See, gives the volcano its name. The crater walls are covered by a beech forest, an abbey dating back to the 11th century can be found in the southwest of the caldera and the lake is being used for all kinds of recreational purposes. Many paths stretch far and wide in and around the volcano, allowing hikers to enjoy a fine bit of nature. A campsite is located on the northwestern shore, as well as a hotel on the northern crater rim as one next to the abbey, enabling a stay of more than one day for anyone who’d be interested in doing so. Directly surrounding the caldera are numerous villages, various museums and castles and a very fine brewery. The area is bustling with anything and everything that has to do with having a good time. The volcanism of the area is mostly something nice for tourists to be entertained by. Shapes of volcanoes can be seen in the landscape, as well as rock quarries featuring layers of ash and lava. CO2 is being emitted visibly in a few places, like the ‘Andernach Geyser’, which is the result of a borehole blasting out CO2-pressurized ground water to a height of 30 to 60 meters every 90-110 minutes, making it the world’s tallest cold-water geyser. Spectacular and fun, as is underscored by the many signs in the field explaining the geological importance of the volcanic features of the area. The ‘Lava-dome’ volcano museum in Mendig helps to make things more understandable for those of a younger age. It would be easy to think of the Eifel volcanism to be done and dusted, as many have done who live and have lived in the area and those who visit it for work, recreation or social reasons.
One would expect I’m going to state that nothing could be further from the truth than the perceived serenity that is present in both Eifel volcanic fields. Although going to spice things of a bit, it has to be said that nothing even close to the activity of well-known volcanoes like Etna has ever been detected in the Eifel. I mentioned before that things can change quickly in the WEVF, but does the same thing apply to the other field? For both areas we can state that the most recent eruptions have occurred long before there ever could’ve been historical records of it, not to mention not having modern geosciences to our aid to help understand things. There are plenty of other volcanoes around the world which feature much more acute signs of unrest that require monitoring and everything that comes with it, and not every country can easily come up with enough cash for such a project. So does it make sense to invest some time, effort, know-how and money on a topic like the volcanism of the East Eifel Volcanic Field? In my opinion, that is most certainly the case.
Another building with a religious purpose was present within the Laacher See caldera, located on its eastern shore. This ‘villa’ was built in 1870 for a group of Jesuits, but in 1871 things started going wrong. On no fewer than eight occasions, a young Jesuit was found dead in his bed at the start of a new day. At the time, these deaths remained a mystery. Nowadays, it is being assumed they were poisoned and suffocated in their sleep by volcanic CO2 rising up from the partially collapsed magma chamber, through the ring faults and into the bedrooms on the ground floor of the villa. CO2 has a higher density than oxygen, and can kill quickly and without any sort of stress when it fills of room to a level that is higher than that of someone sleeping in a bed. No visible traces of the villa can be found in the landscape today, but the Jesuits are still interred in the grounds of the nearby abbey of Maria Laach.
One might say the Laacher See volcano has already killed several people in fairly recent times, earning a bad reputation. CO2 can still be seen near the eastern shore in the form of so-called ‘Mofetten’, where bubbles are visible and audible in the lake. A smell of rotten eggs, pointing out the presence of Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), is a common occurrence on a day with little to no wind. But does CO2 output mean this volcano can erupt in the near future? No, not really. Magma chambers, especially larger ones, tend to take some time to cool down, all the while the system inevitably degasses. We’d have to look for other signs to figure out if there’s a more substantial volcanic threat coming from this rather big hole in the ground. Think of earthquakes and tremors formed by the motion of magma, or changes in the amounts and compositions of volcanic gasses emitted. Ground deformation, and especially localized rising of the Earth’s surface, is something to be concerned about. Is any of that going under or close to Laacher See? There’s a score of at least two out of three for the EEVF.
Coming to grips with reality
For plenty of geoscientists, getting to do research on a quiet, yet young volcanic field like the ones of the Eifel, especially when they contain nasty beasts like Laacher See and Wehrer Kessel, would be a very interesting project, to say the least. It might surprise you that until recently, nothing substantial had ever been undertaken to get a better perspective of the potential threats of future volcanism in the area. As part of a study (Hensch et al, 2018), using an array of both permanent and temporarily installed sensors, so-called ‘Deep low-frequency earthquakes’ have been detected below the EEVF for the first time between 2013 and 2018. These tiny earthquakes are typical for the motion of magma within the Earth’s crust. Quite a few of these events have been observed at four distinct zones ranging between 44 and 8 kilometers below the surface, most of them being too deep to be of a tectonic origin, although tectonic quakes occur frequently in the area as well. The shallowest of the microquakes were located almost right under… Laacher See. The findings of the very important study concerning this topic caused a bit of a stir, but no major amount of attention by the public formed as a result of this research.
How about very localized ground deformation? I’m not referring to the steady rising of the entire Eifel and surrounding areas by about 1 millimeter per year (Kreemer et al, 2020), which also happens to be quite relevant for the volcanic activity of the region, but the upward motion of the ground in and near the village of Glees. This place, counting about 600 inhabitants, lies a few kilometers northwest of Laacher See and northeast of Wehrer Kessel. The ground on the northern side of the village has been rising quite a bit since 2015, which is when measurements started. The most recent available data, dating from the end of 2020, shows an increase of about 3.5 centimeters, in some places more than 4 centimeters, since early 2015. Again, this is close to nothing compared to what’s currently going on at volcanoes like Campi Flegrei or Edgecumbe, but an area that has always been thought to be extinct or at least very quietly dormant by many, it’s a fact that has caused the raising of some eyebrows over the last few years. Several clusters of tectonic earthquakes near Glees have been observed (Hensch et al, 2018), which may be attributed to the formation of sill-like intrusions of magma and/or increased, CO2-produced pressure. And might there be a connection to the very local subsidence in Weher Kessel? As it stands, magmatic inflation under the Glees area cannot be ruled out, but more research is needed to get a much-needed understanding of what actually is going on, which leads me to a concerning, yet exciting conclusion: we don’t know enough. To my current knowledge, no extensive monitoring is being done in the area, apart from keeping tabs on the deep low-frequency earthquakes and ground deformation. How about gas measurements? Is there still no eye being constantly kept on what’s coming out of the ground? As you will likely understand, I’m quite keen to be kept informed on whatever is going on beneath the feet of those who live in the Eifel and visit that fascinating place for whatever reasons one may have.
Not just interesting for future eruptions
So far for the most exciting volcanic region of Europe north of Naples, which should be mandatory for any European geology class. It is one for the future. But is also helps to understand the past, as will be shown in part II. Stay posted.
Gijs de Reijke, April 2022
Hensch, M., Dahm, T., Ritter, J., Heimann, S., Schmidt, B., Stange, S., Lehmann, K. (2019). Deep low-frequency earthquakes reveal ongoing magmatic recharge beneath Laacher See Volcano (Eifel, Germany), Geophysical Journal International, 2019; DOI: 10.1093/gji/ggy532
Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2007) The Quaternary volcanic fields of the East and West Eifel (Germany). In: Mantle plumes – a multidisciplinary approach. , ed. by Ritter, R. and Christensen, U.. Springer, Heidelberg, pp. 241-322.
Schmincke, H.-U., 2006. Environmental impacts of the Lateglacial eruption of the Laacher See Volcano, 12.900 cal BP. In: von Koenigswald, W., Litt, T. (Eds.), 150 years of Neanderthal Discoveries. Terra Nostra, Bonn, pp. 149- 153.
Goepel, A., Lonschinki, M., Viereck, L., Büchel, G., Kukowski, N., Volcano‑tectonic structures and CO2‑degassing patterns in the Laacher See basin, Germany, International Journal of Earth Sciences 104(5), December 2014, DOI: 10.1007/s00531-014-1133-3
Sundermeyer, C., Gätjen, J., Weimann, L., Wörner, G., Timescales from magma mixing to eruption in alkaline volcanism in the Eifel volcanic fields, western Germany, Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology volume 175, Article number: 77 (2020)
Ginibre, C., Wörner, G., Kronz, A., Structure and Dynamics of the Laacher See Magma Chamber (Eifel, Germany) from Major and Trace Element Zoning in Sanidine: a Cathodoluminescence and Electron Microprobe Study, Journal of Petrology, Volume 45, Issue 11, November 2004, Pages 2197–2223, https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egh053
Schreiber, U., Berberich, G., Why does the Size of the Laacher See Magma Chamber and its Caldera Size not go together? – New Findings with regard to Active Tectonics in the East Eifel Volcanic Field, EGU General Assembly 2013, held 7-12 April, 2013 in Vienna, Austria, id. EGU2013-5908
Kreemer, C., Blewitt, G., Davis, P.M., Geodetic evidence for a buoyant mantle plume beneath the Eifel volcanic area, NW Europe, Geophysical Journal International, Volume 222, Issue 2, Aug. 1, 2020, pp. 1316–1332, https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggaa227
Ritter, J.R.R., Jordan, M., Christensen, U.R., Achauer, U., 2001. Mantle plume below the Eifel volcanic fields, Germany. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 186, 7–14.
Meyer, R., Foulger, G.R., The European Cenozoic Volcanic Province is not caused by mantle plumes, www.manteplumes.org (2007)
Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2009). Vulkane der Eifel – Aufbau, Entstehung und heutige Bedeutung, Spektrum-Akademischer Verlag 2009, ISBN 978-3-8274-2366-5.
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 5
|
https://www.google.com/travel/entity/key/ChYIpKrAhbqn3bUfGgovbS8wZ2ZjenFkEAQ%3Fei%3DXxodYrKWG8malQay4qOQAw%26sa%3DX%26ved%3D2ahUKEwjywaudiaP2AhVJTcUKHTLxCDIQxosIegUIARCKAw
|
en
|
Before you continue
|
[
"https://www.gstatic.com/images/icons/material/system/1x/check_black_24dp.png",
"https://www.gstatic.com/images/icons/material/system/1x/check_white_24dp.png",
"https://www.gstatic.com/images/branding/googlelogo/svg/googlelogo_clr_160x56px.svg",
"https://www.gstatic.com/images/icons/material/system/1x/check_black_24dp.png",
"https://www.gstatic.com/images/icons/material/system/1x/check_white_24dp.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
|
//www.google.com/favicon.ico
|
https://consent.google.com/m
|
If you choose to “Accept all,” we will also use cookies and data to
Develop and improve new services
Deliver and measure the effectiveness of ads
Show personalized content, depending on your settings
Show personalized ads, depending on your settings
If you choose to “Reject all,” we will not use cookies for these additional purposes.
Non-personalized content is influenced by things like the content you’re currently viewing, activity in your active Search session, and your location. Non-personalized ads are influenced by the content you’re currently viewing and your general location. Personalized content and ads can also include more relevant results, recommendations, and tailored ads based on past activity from this browser, like previous Google searches. We also use cookies and data to tailor the experience to be age-appropriate, if relevant.
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 0
|
https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/2016/05/
|
en
|
May 2016 – The Bridgehunter's Chronicles
|
[
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/aebf46b7fc5a96a9d76263bc70c1922f?s=100&d=identicon&r=g",
"https://www.clustrmaps.com/map_v2.png?d=vZZFuP7NTWi-eJ_tkPoliH56YXs_VdY9gLEoAb2nHyk&cl=ffffff",
"https://live.staticflickr.com/3885/14584186910_f60eec4007_m.jpg",
"https://live.staticflickr.com/3866/14584255948_346c8e8b2c_m.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/52854047_2299272173436752_5939636859209515008_o.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/i/rss/red-large.png?m=1391188133i",
"https://s-ssl.wordpress.com/wp-includes/images/rss.png?m=1354137473i",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc32.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/bhc-tour-guide.jpg?w=288",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc19.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc12.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc10.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc9.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1629.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1632.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1630.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1625.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1621.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc33.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1658.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1655.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1657.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1653.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/dscn1227.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc23.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/koenig_albert_bruecke.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp0015.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp0001.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc24.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc22.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-07-57-19-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-07-57-34-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-07-56-11-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-07-55-43-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/p4010932.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc26.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc25.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc241.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/p4010967.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc27.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc28.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc29.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc30.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp9945.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc6.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-08-06-03-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc34.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc221.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc21.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc35.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc361.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc321.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-07-58-28-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/nickelstufen.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/nicolaibruecke.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/nicolaibruecke-2.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/p4010961.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/pic00149.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/mitteltor.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/buttermilchturm.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/27-04-05-026.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc39.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc40.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc38.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc31.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp9950.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp9948.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp9947.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1668.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1666.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1664.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1661.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-07-59-01-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1805.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1813.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1826.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1827.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1830.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1832.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1835.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/29468085_1828032357227405_5502191601138532352_o.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/imgp9994.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/gc18.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/gc19.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-07-59-01-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-07-59-16-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-08-06-48-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-08-08-52-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-07-56-58-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/screenshot-2022-01-29-at-17-01-49-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/122411436_3691453620885260_7845865940596662707_o.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/img_20200412_173611_062.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/img_20200412_132825037.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/img_20190928_151927350_hdr.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/img_20190928_151405562_hdr.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/img_20190928_151907176_hdr.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gc-hirschgrundbrc3bccke.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/img_20190424_183721331_hdr.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp9985.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/21762506_1637345752962734_8352188726924147477_o.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/29495799_1828034530560521_3497121908963409920_o.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/29542360_1828026430561331_4361408275405602816_o.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1846.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1845-e1521750546762.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1841.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp1839.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp9951.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp9952.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp0057.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp0058.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp9957.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc9.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp0049.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc36.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/wernsdorfer-welle-gc.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-08-00-42-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/21641107_1633599140004062_3148725845169045297_o-2.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/21762851_1634439929919983_2649546830223906683_o-1.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp9582-1.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp9583-1.jpg",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/hammer-gc-4.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/screenshot-2022-02-20-at-07-59-42-bridgehunters_chronicles2010-bridgehunters_chronicles17-e280a2-instagram-fotos-und-videos.png?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/hammer-gc-7.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/hammer-gc-6.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/hammer-gc2.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/hammer-gc3.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/hammer-gc-5.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/hammer-gc-4.jpg?w=700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/bhc-amerika.jpg?w=700",
"https://assets.pinterest.com/images/pidgets/pinit_fg_en_rect_gray_20.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc32.jpg?w=1700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc22.jpg?w=1700",
"https://i0.wp.com/bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp0015.jpg?w=346&h=260&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc24.jpg?w=346&h=260&ssl=1",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/gc6.jpg?w=1700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/imgp9945.jpg?w=1700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/bhc-new-logo-jpeg.jpg",
"https://assets.pinterest.com/images/pidgets/pinit_fg_en_rect_gray_20.png",
"https://flensburgerfiles.files.wordpress.com/2016/05/261185-l.jpg?w=1700",
"https://flensburgerfiles.files.wordpress.com/2016/05/fast-fact-logo.jpg?w=1700",
"https://flensburgerfiles.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/frage-fc3bcr-das-forum.png?w=1700",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/bhc-new-logo-jpeg.jpg",
"https://flensburgerfiles.files.wordpress.com/2016/04/flefi-deutschland-logo.jpg?w=1700",
"https://assets.pinterest.com/images/pidgets/pinit_fg_en_rect_gray_20.png",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/cropped-bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=50",
"https://bridgehunterschronicles.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/cropped-bhc-logo-newest1.jpg?w=50",
"https://pixel.wp.com/b.gif?v=noscript"
] |
[
"https://www.youtube.com/embed/yxJ4AprYBc4?version=3&rel=1&showsearch=0&showinfo=1&iv_load_policy=1&fs=1&hl=en&autohide=2&wmode=transparent",
"https://www.google.com/maps/d/embed?mid=1tAy5BvnAIw6hQ2jg3c2CDQP9HTg&hl=en",
"https://flensburgerfiles.wordpress.com/2016/12/15/2016-christmas-market-tour-glauchau-saxony/embed/#?secret=K4sfgPh4NH#?secret=8ce1IqTsK1"
] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2016-05-13T22:53:51+02:00
|
3 posts published by Bridgehunter's Chronicles during May 2016
|
en
|
The Bridgehunter's Chronicles
| null |
There is a philosophy pertaining to visiting a town that makes tourism unique and interesting: Always look for the most uncommon and unvisited places first before visiting the main attractions. They have the most valuable information and features that will make you leave town knowing a bit more than before.
Glauchau, located in western Saxony approximately 20 kilometers west of Chemnitz and 13 kilometers north of neighboring Zwickau is a typical farming community. Yet despite having 23,000 residents, the community, which has a historic city center and two castles, is known for its serenity, as there is not much activity directly in the city, but more in the areas full of green, thanks to its parks, the Glauchau Reservoir and the green areas along the Zwickauer Mulde River. Here’s a sample of what a person can see while spending time in this quiet community:
And while I was there for an interview for a teaching position at an international school, I was reminded of the philosophy mentioned at the beginning, when it came to relics of the past. While the community was once a pub for the textile industry, it also has a set of historic bridges that are worth visiting. One of which was a viaduct spanning a street and valley, which provided a spectacular view of the northwestern end of Glauchau. Once crossing that enroute to the interview and realizing that I had a long waiting time to catch the returning train to Jena in Thuringia, it became my mission to see what other bridges are worth the visit. And sure enough, enough diamonds in the rough were discovered, which were enough to justify constructing a tour guide showing the readers where these bridges can be found and thus encouraging people to visit them in addition to the town’s historic city center. A map and link to a gallery of photos can be found at the end of the article.
*********
Lungwitzbach Railroad Viaducts:
When arriving at Glauchau Railway Station from Dresden and Chemnitz, this bridge pairing will greet you, as you cross Lungwitzsbach Creek and the parallel street leading to St. Egedien. Both structures are at least a century old, but each one having a different design and built using different materials. The sandy grey structure with dark brown arches is the most heavily traveled and also the oldest of the two, having been built in the 1860s and is part of the magistrate connecting Dresden with Zwickau and Hof. The bridge has seven arches and and each spandrel is partially closed, for half-circle openings appear, one on each end of the arch. The bridge appears to have been rehabilitated between five and ten years ago, with the line being electrified and the bridge strengthened to provide more trains along the line. One can see the work with the concrete shelves sticking out between the arches, where each overhead pole sits.
The sandy brown colored bridge next to it features a three-span open spandrel arch bridge, totaling three spans. The spandrels have an arch top- for each arch span, there are three spandrels on each side. That structure only serves freight traffic although it had previously served a railway line along the Zwickauer Mulde, connecting Penig, Rochlitz and Grimma. Both bridges are about 130 meters long and have two tracks each. It is unknown who was behind the design and construction of the two bridges, but they are considered the longest in Glauchau and ones that are a must-see when spending time there.
***********
Am Schafteich Railroad Bridge:
Spanning the Zwickauer Mulde River, this bridge is the nearest of the two arch bridges to greet passengers when entering Glauchau Railway Station from the west (Erfurt, Meerane and Zwickau). This bridge is the gateway to the industrial park, where automobile parts are produced for Volkswagen, whose production facility is located between Glauchau and Zwickau. The structure features three closed spandrel arch spans, the longest (which spans the river) is built using limestone and is about 80 meters. The side arches are built using sandstone and limestone, thus creating a unique color and pattern combination. Each of the spans are about 30 meters, one of which crosses the street. The bridge is the most difficult to photograph because three fourths of the structure is on private property and is fenced off. The last fourth features trees, tall bushes and no sidewalk, thus the risk is great when photographing the structure, as you can see in the pics. The bridge is at least 120 years old but serves the magistrate between Dresden and Hof via Zwickau but also the line between Erfurt and Glauchau. This line is part of the planned Mitteldeutschland Route, connecting Chemnitz with Cologne via Erfurt, Kassel and Gera. It is expected that InterCity trains will start serving the line by 2026, thus making Glauchau a train stop for long-distance trains for the first time since 2006.
*********
.
King Albert Bridge (a.k.a. Lower Mulde Bridge)
When traveling west on Auer Strasse towards the west end of town, you will not recognize the bridge after you cross it, going past the beverage store Getränkewelt on the left side. If anything, it is just a typical beam bridge with railings, that’s all. You will also not recognize its historic appearance unless you do one of the following:
1. Pull into the parking lot of the beverage store, go into the Mulde, swim underneath the bridge and get a shot on the opposite end (as the front side has another bridge carrying a pipeline over it.
or
Cross the street onto the flower bed of a nearby proprietor, walk the line along the curb bordering the flower bed (without stepping into it) and get an oblique shot from the building.
Being dressed in a suit with no SCUBA equipment for a special occasion, I elected the second option, even though it would have been funny and interesting to try the first option.
But the photo opportunity is well worth it.
The current structure, built in 1955, is a single-span stone arch bridge, carrying a concrete decking. Given the scarcity of materials needed for bridge building because of the after-effects of World War II combined with the Soviet occupation of the eastern half of Germany, many of the new structures were constructed using concrete and/or with minimal quality and using either beam or truss structures. This bridge was probably built using stone bricks that originated from the Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge) and was cut on site to fit the structure that is 35 meters long and 25 meters wide.
Its predecessor however consisted of a Parker through truss bridge built in 1888 and was, according to local historical accounts, one of a few Glauchau bridges built by Heinrich Carl Hedrich. The bridge featured riveted connections among the trusses, v-lacing on its overhead bracing and upper chords and a vertical endposts. Also included were ornametal lampposts on both ends of the bridge, featuring spirals and spherical shapes with an oval-shaped glass cover for lighting.
.
The bridge’s original wood decking was replaced in 1927 with a combination of concrete and brick to accommodate increasing traffic loads. 11 years later, a new coating of paint was needed, which kept the bridge from rusting and thus prolonging its lifespan. Sadly, even though the bridge survived two World Wars, it was closed to traffic in 1954 because of rust and corrosion on the trusses, including the lower chord. At the same time, plans for a new bridge commenced, which was realized one year later.
The King Albert Bridge, named after the King of Saxony who was also the member of the House of Wettin, may be just a typical bridge for the City of Glauchau, yet never judge it by its appearance just by crossing it. The treasure can be found in the water, whose historic value will make the writer and historian think twice before writing it off as a typical piece of concrete over a body of water.
*******
Gründelteich Bridge and Statue
Located at the southeast end of Gründelteich pond near the Hintere Glauchau Castle, this bridge has been in service since the 1880s as it served as the lone access to the island. The history behind the island is that it was named in honor of Heinrich Carl Hedrich (1816-1900), who spent most of his life in Glauchau and left a mark in the city’s history. Hedrich was responsible for the rechanneling of the (Zwickauer) Mulde while reconstructing the dam that had been destroyed by flooding in 1839. Furthermore, he invented Germany’s first modern water main system running through the community, providing drinking water to the households, while also channeling water away from the Zwickauer Mulde. In addition to the construction of the mills and dams, Hedrich harnessed electricity through hydroelectric power. The people in Glauchau benefitted from his inventions, and Hedrich was awarded with a head statue and an monument with a golden angel in 1884, about the same time this bridge was built. The decking, railings and piers appeared to be at least 45 years old, yet the design of the bridge is the same as the original built in 1884. After years of wear and tear, the Gründelteich Bridge was rebuilt in 2021. Using the original piers, the bridge was built using the design of the predecessor. It took two months to complete and the bridge reopened to pedestrians in August 2021.
******
.
Meeraner Strasse (Upper Mulder ) Bridge
The Meerane Strasse is one of two major streets that have bridges crossing the Mulde River and its diversion arm (Flutgraben). This bridge is located at the junction with Lindenstrasse and by first glance, one will see a typical 90s style concrete deck girder with vertical lining and orange railings. A rather bland structure unless you have a quick blick at the abutments of an older bridge on the right hand side going west towards the Flutgraben crossing. That bridge had a history of its own as it was a steel pony girder bridge with Town Lattice truss features. Ithel Town created this unique truss design in 1820 that consisted of interwoven diagonal beams. This truss type was common on many wooden covered bridges in the United States, but also among many metal truss bridges in Europe, especially those carrying rail traffic.
The Meerane Bridge was constructed back in the 1880s and was claimed by historic resources to have been built by Heinrich Carl Hedrich. Yet the exact date of construction remains unknown. It is known that the structure, which was about 35 meters long and 15 meters wide, was replaced at the time of the Fall of the Berlin Wall because of age and structural deterioration. A concrete bridge was built alongside the old structure, thus allowing for the continuation of traffic between Glauchau and Meerane on the old one. After traffic was diverted onto the new structure, the old one was removed and scrapped.
*******
THE THREE BRIDGES TO THE “HOLY LAND”
While Glauchau has eight bridges and a dam spanning the Mulde and its diversion canal Flutgraben, one unique feature that makes the city special are the bridges on the hill leading to its historic city center and castles. Dubbed as the Bridges to the Holy Land, each of the three spans consist of arch bridges crossing deep gorges that serve as drainage to the Mulde. Each of the gorges are approximately 20-25 meters deep. From the flood bed of the Mulde, the height of the bridges is approximately 75 meters high, and given the fact that Glauchau was once a walled city and it has a strong religious core- laden with a variety of denominations- one could christen the name of the bridges along Otto-Schimmel-Strasse and Leipziger Strasse between the train station and the castles “The Three Bridges to the Holy Land,” named after the Three Wise Men who brought Baby Jesus gifts and blessed Him on what it today called Day of Epiphany (January 6th). Yet that interpretation would be a bit far-fetched if one is either a non-denominational or an atheist.
Even though one of the arch bridges no longer exists (Nicolas Tower and Bridge), all three bridges still serve it purpose of serving traffic and providing commerce to the city center. We will look at all three bridges going towards that “Holy Land”, beginning with the youngest and longest of the three.
Scherberg Bridge
Spanning Talstrasse at Otto-Schimmel-Strasse and Leipziger Strasse, the Scherberg Bridge is a cross between modernitity and history as the 1920s structure features a concrete closed spandrel Luten arch main span and two circular mini-spans implanted in the wingwall on each side. Furthermore, Art Greco patterns can be seen in the main arch span. A shield representing the City of Glauchau can be seen on the east end on the right of the main arch span.
Construction started in 1921, and despite two harsh winters, combined with a lack of personnel and high inflation upping the cost for the bridge because of the aftereffects of World War I and the Marseilles Treaty respectively, the bridge was dedicated on 29 April, 1923. The bridge was deemed a necessity because of the need to connect the city center and the train station, which was completed three years after the bridge opened. Prior to the bridge, accessing the city center was as difficult as Moses climbing the Mountain to meet God and receive the 10 Commandments. Delivery with horse and buggy had to be made by zigzagging up several streets and dealing with gorges and other obstacles. The plan for the bridge had been created in 1909 but work never commenced because of the war, plus hefty discussions regarding the necessity of the bridge. Despite all the aforemetioned adversities affecting Glauchau, the city mayor Otto Schimmel had the final word in favor of the bridge, which has a total length of 97 meters (the main span is 35 meters), 14 meters wide and 28 feet above Talstrasse.
The bridge was rehabilitated in 2011, which included repairs to the structure, new decking and lighting and new paint- especially with the shield. The bridge may look just like new, but the 100-year old structure is one of the symbols that represent the city of Glauchau. The Scherberg Bridge serves as a posterboy for other arch bridges of this caliber that exist in the US and elsewhere, many of which are in danger of being demolished and replaced. The bridge celebrated its 100th birthday with a combination exhibition and concert at the former cinnema located south of the bridge in 2023. A separate article about this, with more details about the bridge’s history, can be found here.
Gottessackbrücke (a.k.a. Postbrücke)
The next bridge along the Road to the Holy Land is the Postbrücke. Spanning another gorge (which is accompanied with a path down to the residential area) carrying Leipziger Strasse, this masonry stone arch bridge is the shortest of the three bridges, having a span of 15 meters and a width of 12 meters. Built in 1887, it is located next to the historic post office, which had existed much longer than the bridge itself. Apart from some minor structural work on the bridge, the Postbrücke has maintained its historic integrity, while serving traffic between the city center and the district of Gottessack (God’s Sack), north of the structure. The area features several historic, but empty buildings that are ripe for restoration and reuse, making Glauchau even better than it is now. One of the buildings sitting vacant is the century-old post office, whom the bridge has been named after. It closed down at the end of January 2022 and the post office was relocated 50 meters to the other side of the street. The future of the historic post office next to the bridge remains open.
Nicolas Tower and Bridge
The last bridge going to the city center is the Nicolas Tower and Bridge. While no date has been pinpointed to the bridge, it was believed to have been just as old as the tower itself. The Nicolas Tower served as the main entrance to the city center, which had once been walled on all sides, with watch towers and the castles that were included. It is safe to say that the entrance to the walled town was through the Hintere Schlossbrücke on the south side (still extant) and the Nicolas Tower and Bridge on the north side. While the tower may have been built during the Medieval era as part of the project to make Glauchau a walled city, records indicated that the tower was rebuilt from the ground up in 1741. It featured a living quarters above the gate, where the watchman and his family lived, and was later decorated with a church bell by the Lord Albert Christian Ernst in 1758. A clock was later added to the gate. Because of its narrowness combined with the increase in traffic and damage caused by lightning and high winds, the tower was replaced in 1890, but the bridge itself remained in service until 1965. A mural depicting the tower can be seen at the site where it once stood as you cross the bridge, yet a mini-replica can be found in the city museum.
.
The Nicolas Bridge featured two different arch bridges- one made of concrete and one made of brick, whereas the former may date back to the time of the castle and the brick span was later added in the early 1800s. The bridge also featured a series of steps to encourage people walking along the path along the creek to use it to go to the bridge and the city center. Sadly, due to structural damage caused by bombings in World War II and later deterioration because of the increase in automobile traffic, the bridges had to be demolished in 1965. The older arch was first removed, followed by the other arch as soon as the replacement structure was in place and opened to traffic. It is hard to believe that, despite looking like a bridge built in the 1990s, today’s structure is 52 years old. But part of that was because of the rehabilitation work done in 2003-4 to keep the 33.3 meter long bridge open to traffic. Its width of 19.6 meters include 6.1 meters for pedestrians, and its height of 9 meters above the gorge provides viewers with a glimpse of the gorge and the valley of the Mulde, filled with houses and green landscape. The bridge provides good commerce as many stores line up along the street between the bridge and the Postbrücke, but also towards the city center. A bike path was constructed and graded in 2023 to allow for cyclists and pedestrians to pass underneath the bridge towards the city center.
******
Waldenburger Viaduct
The Waldenburger Viaduct is one of three stone arch viaducts serving the rail lines passing through Glauchau. All of them appear to have been built in the 1860s as the rail lines between Glauchau and Werdau were established. This bridge features three arch spans- the center for vehicular traffic, the outer for the cyclists and pedestrians. With the renewed electrification of the line in the early 2000s, this bridge was renovated as part of the plan to reintroduce InterCity trains between Chemnitz and Cologne via Jena, Erfurt and Kassel. By 2026, InterCity trains are expected to stop in Glauchau from Hof (South), Dresden (East) and Cologne (West). Until then, passengers have only the regional trains connecting the town with Meerane, Gößnitz and Gera to the west as well as those going to Zwickau and Aue to the south and those going to Chemnitz and Dresden to the east, to contend with. But subtracting that, the bridge is one of the nicer structures to visit while in Glauchau but one that stands out in the face of buildings that are victims of either neglect or modernization. If one can detect this bridge early, it is not a miss. Otherwise, it is drowned out by these factors.
******
Zimmerstrasse Covered Bridge:
Located behind the Wehrdigtschule, this bridge is an easy miss if one goes past it along Lindenstrasse. But its history dates back to the 19th century, when the establishment of factories and residential areas to the west of town necessitated the need for crossings over the Mulde. This crossing was one of four that were built under the direction of Hedrich (the same person responsible for the modern water main lines, mills and the dam), but six additional ones were built after the turn of the century. While the original crossing was most likely destroyed in World War II, this bridge took its place many years later. Between 15 and 25 years old, this wooden Pratt truss bridge is quite modern for a covered bridge but one that gives the nearby schools at Wehrdigt and the Saxony International Elementary School some charm, especially as children and teachers can utilize this crossing for safety and receational purposes.
This bridge was the lone structure I could not find during my first trip through Glauchau, but I recently visited the bridge in September during a tour to Zwickau and found some details worth noting: The bridge is made of wood but with steel bracing, and the connections are pin-connected, some of which featured steel gusset plates embedded into the wooden beams and then bolted with steel, as you can see in the picture above. One cannot see that with other covered bridges unless it’s modern, thus supporting my previous argument of its age. In either case, the bridge is heavily used, especially by school children. 🙂
******
Hirschgrund Viaduct:
Located at the southern entrance to the Hintere Glauchau Castle, this five-span concrete and stone arch bridge spans a deep valley and judging by the appearance, is perhaps the oldest bridge in Glauchau, having been built at the same time as the castle itself in the 17th Century. The structure was needed to provide passage into and out of the castle, while the valley floor used to be a moat, used to keep intruders from attacking the castle from the outside. Today’s bridge serves pedestrians, but given its appearance, it would cause an American bridge builder to sound off the alarm regarding structural deficiencies, calling for the demolition and replacement with something resembling a bridge at Walt Disney World in Florida. Fortunately, engineers recognize the bridge’s importance and have been working to stabilize the structure, while at the same time, maintain its original form.
.
Extensive Rehabilitation of the Bridge (2018-2021)
After years of planning and garnering funding, work started on rebuilding the bridge in July 2018. All but the outer two arches of the bridge were torn down, but the original brick of the bridge was kept to be used as a façade for the new crossing. As part of the agreement with the Saxony Ministry of Historic Preservation, the outer two arches were kept and rehabilitated, and the bridge was kept on the historic monument list, which allowed for additional funding for its rehabilitation. The bridge was then rebuilt to its original form but with one exception: The structural skeleton was built using concrete slabs before the whole bridge, including its sleeker than the original design decking was covered with the façade using the stones from the original structure. Chest-high steel railings were then added and the restoration was finished in 2020. Because of the reconstruction of the park on the opposite end of the bridge plus delays due to Covid-19 restrictions, the bridge was reopened in November 2021, almost two years later than originally planned, and without much of a ceremony.
Nevertheless, the bridge has regained its original function as a pedestrian crossing, connecting the castle complex with the park. With a couple exceptions to the rule, the Hirschgrundbrücke has returned to it original glory and is now visited by dozens on a daily basis. And while the castle itself is undergoing extensive renovations, bit by bit, it can still be visited today as it has a library, museum, music school and a pair of fine arts clubs. Yet with its main crossing open, there are two ways of crossing the ravine to the castle, though one of them, the restored structure, now serves as an additional tourist attraction.
******
.
Fordere and Hintere Glauchau Castle Bridges:
There are as many bridges at the Castle Complex in Glauchau as the number of castles itself. If counting the Hirschgrund Viaduct, a total of six bridges serve the the two castles that are jointly connected. There are two stone arch bridges that are part of the original Fordere Castle that was built in 1470 and is still considered the oldest Rennaissance castle in the region. Not much has been written about the castle’s history except for the fact that there were three periods of construction involving this Baroque-style castle: between 1470 and 1485, between 1520 and 1534 and in the 18th and 19th Centuries. The Hintere Castle was constructed in the 16th Century, and with that, there are three bridges- two connecting the two castles and one connecting the castle with the inner courtyard. The viaduct connected the castle complex and the park and was built last, having been completed in the 17th Century. All in all, the crossings served their purpose of allowing people to enter and exit the castles without having to worry about drawbridges over moats or even trying to ford the crossing. The crossings at Fordere Castle are only 20 meters apart, still though, they also serve as a good observation deck, where one can see much of Glauchau and its landscape as far as the eye can see. As the castles and the city center are on a high hill, that serves as a big advantage for tourists and photographers alike. 🙂 The crossings at Hintere Castle are inter-connected with the one to the courtyard being 25 meters away from the two enclosed ones, yet the latter provides a good view of the viaduct and the park. 🙂 The Castle Complex is still open for tourists and hosts several events, however changes are being made to make the complex more attractive. And with that the bridges will continue to serve the castle, just like in the Baroque Times.
Hintere Glauchau Bridges:
*******
FLUTRINNE CROSSINGS:
Also noteworthy of the tour in Glauchau are the crossings along the Diversion Canal Flutrinne. The diversion canal bypasses the city on the west side, extending from the north end east of Jerisau Bridge down south to the Glauchau Reservoir, a distance of six river kilometers. And while there are four crossings that are either as long or longer than the Scherberg Bridge, there is a sad history that is in connection with the Flutgraben. On 31 July, 1858, high water from the Mulde devastated much of the residential areas in Glauchau, causing enough damage to make the houses and apartments unliveable. It was afterwards that the city decided to construct a diversion canal, bypassing Glauchau to the west to alleviate the flow of water in the event of the flooding. Construction lasted until 1890 but not before having removed as many as seven dozen houses, buildings and other properties- many of them were empty or unliveable. The width of the canal is the same as the river itself, yet the flood plain is four times as wide as the canal, and with a depth of 3-4 meters, it would accomodate unusually high flows of water.
Four bridges span the Flutrinne, including the railroad bridge that carries both the Dresden-Hof-Nuremberg Magistrate and the Glauchau-Jena-Erfurt rail line. The Nordufer Bridge at Auer Strasse is the oldest remaining bridge along the canal, while the Meerane and Jerisau Bridges were built in the late 1990s and still accomodate major traffic in and out of Glauchau. Additionally, a dam at the Reservoir, dating back to the 1930s is still in use to control the flow of water from the Mulde. Here is a brief summary of each one:
.
Nordufer Bridge:
At over 200 meters spanning the outer channel of the Mulde, the Nordufer Bridge is the oldest of the existing bridges along this channel. As a key link to Zwickau, it is also the busiest as 30 vehicles cross the bridge per minute. The 60+ year old bridge, which is characterized by its expansion and contracting rollers, has shown significant signs of wear and tear with cracks and spalling appearing on the girder spans. It is likely, given its approximate location near the industrial area and the Saxony International School, it will be replaced in the next decade. The structure carries Hwy. 175 which connects Glauchau with Zwickau.
Update: The Nordufer Bridge will be replaced in 2024 as part of the project to convert Hwy. B175 into a four-lane expressway.
******
.
Meerane Bridge:
Located over the Flutgraben at the junction of Meeraner Strasse and Sachsenallee, this bridge was one of the first to have been built at this location after the diversion canal was built. After the Flood of 1858, the city council decided to construct the canal to divert water away from Glauchau, despite successful attempts by Heinrich Hedrich to construct the first drainage system in Germany serving the city. A wooden bridge was built to cross the area where the canal was being built, yet was replaced with a steel trestle at the conclusion of the canal project in 1890. The bridge featured a Bedstead Pratt pony truss bridge divided into three spans. That bridge was later replaced with a concrete girder bridge in 1949, which was later replaced with its current structure in 1994. The cantilever deck bridge continues to serve traffic to Gesau and Meerane to the west and is located next to the sports complex where the soccer team Empor Glauchau has its headquarters. The bridge used to be called the Orphanage Bridge as there was an orphanage located near the site where the diversion canal was located. Built in 1859, the facility housed orphans for 150 years.
***********
.
Jerisau Bridge:
Spanning the Flutgraben at the junction of Waldeburger Strasse and Hochuferstrasse (B-175 Bypass), this bridge connects Glauchau’s northern industrial district with the suburb Jerisau. Before the bypass was built, the bridge carried Highway B-175 through Jerisau enroute to Waldenburg, seven kilometers northeast of Glauchau. The Bypass was built to alleviate traffic and to provide better access to the Autobahn 4. The present bridge, a concrete cantilever span, was built in 1998, with a length of 97 meters- 15 more than its predecessor, a five-span concrete beam bridge built in 1949. This bridge may have followed the footsteps of the Meerane Bridge in terms of the types of bridges that had been built and replaced since the diversion canal was built in 1890.
********
.
Leitschutzdamm at Glauchau Reservoir:
Located near the Glauchau Reservoir, this dam was built for the purpose of rechanneling the Mulde in the event of flooding. That means all excessive water flow through the dam and along the outer channel, alleviating the flow of water along the main river going through town without flooding it. The dam was built in the 1930s and was rehabilitated in 1993. When water is diverted towards the town, one can see some unique patters in the channel bed when little water is flowing, as seen in the pic below. The dam acts as a crossing, enabling cyclists and pedestrians to go in the direction of the southern countryside.
******
.
South Dam and Bridge:
Located over the Mulde at Wehrstrasse, west of Grundelteich, this bridge is one of the oldest in Glauchau, having been built in the late 1890s. This is recognizable with the cast iron railings and its approximate location to the mill and an unusual water silo. It is possible that this bridge was one of four built by Hedrich, but more information is needed to confirm these claims.
******
The Wave (Wernsdorfer Welle):
This bridge, spanning the Mulde in the southern suburb of Wernsdorf, was one that was completely missed while on my first tour in 2016. The reason: Upon arrival at the crossing, I found the bridge to not exist anymore. I later found out in my research that the bridge had been removed due to structural concerns. In addition, as the region was prone to flooding, dikes needed to be reinforced to keep the waters of the Mulde from flooding the corn fields. Prior to its demise, the Chemnitz Free Press wrote a eulogy about the structure and its time as a crossing, which can be summarized as follows:
The bridge was built in 1954 to replace a wooden bridge that had been washed away by flooding. It was a simple beam bridge of six spans, built of concrete and steel, and had once been used as main traffic between the village of Wernsdorf and all points going to the south and west. After sustaining damage by the flooding in 2013, the structure was closed to all traffic, and officials in Wernsdorf and Glauchau worked on a plan to replace the bridge as it served as a vital link, not just for cyclists and locals, but also for farmers.
.
After the plan for a new bridge had been unveiled, the old structure was demolished in April 2016. Despite delays in finishing the project, due to unfavorable weather conditions and the construction of a new bike path connecting the structure with the sports complex, the bridge was dedicated to recreational traffic on 20 June, 2017. Currently, The Wave serves bikers, equestrians and walkers and is part of the Mulde Bike Trail network again, re-establishing a link between Glauchau, Wernsdorf and neighboring villages to the south. As a treat, there is an arch bridge at the junction of the Mulde Bike Trail and the trail leading to the Wave one can photograph (see picture above). That bridge is over 100 years old and has a 3-ton weight limit.
.
Photos of The Wave:
Film:
******
The Pedestrian Bridge at the Einöde:
Our last bridge in this tour guide is one that we don’t pay attention to unless we walk into the wildernis behind the Virchow Hospital on the southeast side of town. This unusual pedestrian bridge features a metal arch design which is partially covered with metal. The bridge is over a century old but it had served as an important function in the past as the natural habitat was once a military complex which existed for over a century until its closure after 1990. It was then torn down and converted into a natural habitat. The story behind that and the bridge’s history can be found by clicking here.
The bridge now sits abandoned at the tip of one of the ponds that was created during the renaturalization process. It is located only 200 meters to the west of the cemetary off the trail.
*********
As one can see in the pics, the philosophy holds true regarding historic places in a community. Glauchau may be considered a ghost town with little or no activity, a town with two castles and a well-networked school system educating people from different nationalities, a farming community, and one laden with places of Christianity. However, in my visit, I found out by chance that the town is laden with diamonds in the rough as far as history is concerned. No one (on the outside) knew about Heinrich Carl Hedrich’s contributions until my visit, let alone the bridges with either a vast amount of documented history or a potential of finding some history about them. Sometimes it takes some tours with the bike and a good camera to find out the sides of a community that no one knew about. With Glauchau, there was more to know about the town than before, and when viewing these bridges, perhaps others will be willing to contribute to the history of the community in western Saxony. 🙂
For more on the places visited in Glauchau, there are a couple useful links that are of use:
Map of Glauchau and the Bridges:
Gallery of Photos of the Places in Glauchau, which you can see here:
Glauchau’s Christmas Market courtesy of The Flensburg Files:
The author would like to thank the City of Glauchau and its office of planning, Ulrich Schleife and the crew at Glauchau-City for their contribution to this tour guide. Without your help, we would not have found out more about the city’s bridges than what I discovered as a photographer and pontist. May God bless you for your help. 🙂
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 20
|
https://dokumen.pub/uranium-matters-central-european-uranium-in-international-politics-19001960-9786155211461.html
|
en
|
Uranium Matters: Central European Uranium in International Politics, 19001960 9786155211461
|
[
"https://dokumen.pub/dokumenpub/assets/img/dokumenpub_logo.png",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/uranium-series-geochemistry-0939950545.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/uranium-9780745670515-0745670512-9780745670522-0745670520.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/prospecting-for-uranium-revised.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/uranium-mineralogy-geochemistry-and-the-environment-0939950502.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/uranium-series-geochemistry-9781501509308-9780939950645.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/remediation-of-uranium-mill-tailings-1032352795-9781032352794.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/wastelanding-legacies-of-uranium-mining-in-navajo-country-0816692645-9780816692644.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/eldorado-canadas-national-uranium-company-9781442674332.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/uranium-mineralogy-geochemistry-and-the-environment-9781501509193-9780939950508.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/uranium-mining-in-virginia-scientific-technical-environmental-human-health-and-safety-and-regulatory-aspects-of-uranium-mining-and-processing-in-virginia-1nbsped-9780309220880-9780309220873.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/uranium-matters-central-european-uranium-in-international-politics-19001960-9786155211461.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/dokumenpub/assets/img/dokumenpub_logo.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
Examines the impact of the Czechoslovak and East German uranium industries on local politics and on societies, particula...
|
en
|
dokumen.pub
|
https://dokumen.pub/uranium-matters-central-european-uranium-in-international-politics-19001960-9786155211461.html
|
Table of contents :
Table of Contents
List of Tables
Preface
Part 1. Unparalleled Power
Terminal
The Race for the Ultimate Weapon
Uranium Monopoly and the Division of Europe
The Erzgebirge and the Soviet Uranium Gap
Notes
Part 2. The Erzgebirge Region
The Silver Mines and Healing Springs
An Early Atomic Age in the Erzgebirge
National Tensions in Jáchymov
Notes
Part 3. The Politics of Czechoslovak Uranium
Part 4. Wismut AG: A State Within a State
The Consequences of War
Wismut and War Reparations
Maltsev and His Team
Soldiers of the Party
Migration into the Erzgebirge
Labor and Its Shortage
The Soviet Secret Police and Its Assistants
From Compulsory to Voluntary Employment
An Overview of the Wismut Workforce, 1946–1953
Becoming a Model Enterprise
Uranium Towns
The Cold War of Words and Spies
The Miners Between Riot and Adjustment
Radiation Damage and Accidents
A Final Remark on the Special Position of Wismut AG
Concluding Remarks
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Archives
Bibliography
Name Index
Citation preview
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 39
|
https://visitsaxony.com/poi/health-resort-eibenstock-eibenstock
|
en
|
Health Resort Eibenstock
|
[
"https://visitsaxony.com/typo3conf/ext/ndstemplate/Resources/Public/Assets/Images/logo-en.png",
"https://img.ecmaps.de/remote/.jpg?url=https%3A%2F%2Fdam.destination.one%2F564367%2Ffa072ad0674ca2df69093d4c96cd32afcb99490532dec5f6bad2b54c35ff0594%2F.jpg&scale=both&mode=crop&quality=90&width=480&height=360",
"https://img.ecmaps.de/remote/.jpg?url=https%3A%2F%2Fdam.destination.one%2F564368%2Fe3729c3dbe4ce083b484e7c6e56c00ea0eef1b65574af31b22bf7efbcfa1b160%2F.jpg&scale=both&mode=crop&quality=90&width=480&height=360",
"https://img.ecmaps.de/remote/.jpg?url=https%3A%2F%2Fdam.destination.one%2F564369%2F5b42cfd4719fabecd59a0356d59fa79eceede4c7b52926696c5b100c712ffdec%2F.jpg&scale=both&mode=crop&quality=90&width=480&height=360",
"https://img.ecmaps.de/remote/.jpg?url=https%3A%2F%2Fdam.destination.one%2F564370%2Fd1d9048d98511b4bcbacb3001ea59652b1269287ec436c5d8c5881391618e473%2F.jpg&scale=both&mode=crop&quality=90&width=480&height=360"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Tourismus Marketing Gesellschaft Sachsen mbH"
] |
2020-09-25T13:21:00+02:00
|
Here we offer holiday fun for big and small – in all seasons!
|
en
|
/typo3conf/ext/ndstemplate/Resources/Public/Images/favicon/SachsenTourismus/favicon.ico
|
https://visitsaxony.com/poi/health-resort-eibenstock-eibenstock
|
Here we offer holiday fun for big and small – in all seasons!
Extensive adventure offers for the whole family are provided, among others, by the "bathing gardens" with indoor pool, giant slide, various pools and water attractions. And an exciting experience is "Wurzelrudi's World of Adventures", a mysterious adventure playground that can only be reached by means of a rocket. The big castle climbing frame can be conquested via subterranean tunnels or a drawbridge and with the water from the fairytale fountain you can wash your treasures. Saxony's longest all-weather bob run with some jumps and constantly changing views provides fun at breakneck speed. It is also great fun to find ones way out of the maze before ones parents or to putt the small ball across all obstacles in the indoor miniature golf course in Eibenstock. And from the new lookout tower on the Bühl one has an impressing panoramic view of the city and the dam.
In winter, the focus is, of course, on the skiing fun on cross-country skiing trails and on ski slopes. Snow canons, snowcats and floodlight help to establish the best possible conditions for our guests. Baby lift, magic carpet and ski instructors ensure great experiences in the snow.
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 81
|
https://www.flickr.com/photos/caledoniafan/30020943582/
|
en
|
Twinkling waters / Glitzernes Wasser
|
[
"https://live.staticflickr.com/5019/30020943582_9e8926cbb1.jpg",
"https://live.staticflickr.com/5019/30020943582_9e8926cbb1.jpg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
"talsperreeibenstock",
"eibenstockdam",
"oremountains",
"erzgebirge",
"caledoniafan",
"nature",
"natur",
"water",
"wasser",
"sunlight",
"sonnenschein",
"sonnenlicht",
"reflections",
"spiegelung",
"wald",
"forest",
"landscape",
"landschaft",
"nikon",
"nikoncoolpixl820",
"nikoncoolpix"
] | null |
[
"Flickr",
"Caledonia 00"
] |
2024-08-29T23:27:31.558000+00:00
|
Eibenstock Dam, Ore Mountains, Germany
**************************************************************
Talsperre Eibenstock im Erzgebirge
|
en
|
https://combo.staticflickr.com/pw/favicon.ico
|
Flickr
|
https://www.flickr.com/photos/caledoniafan/30020943582
| |||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 15
|
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/germany-eibenstock-dam.html
|
en
|
res stock photography and images
|
[
"https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy-black.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy-black.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/mastercard.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/visa.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/amex.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/paypal.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/apple-pay.svg",
"https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/google-pay.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Alamy Limited"
] | null |
Find the perfect germany eibenstock dam stock photo, image, vector, illustration or 360 image. Available for both RF and RM licensing.
|
en
|
Alamy
|
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/germany-eibenstock-dam.html
|
Alamy and its logo are trademarks of Alamy Ltd. and are registered in certain countries. Copyright © 17/08/2024 Alamy Ltd. All rights reserved.
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 42
|
https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/analysis/featurethe-art-of-cleaning-dams-4532147/
|
en
|
The art of cleaning dams
|
[
"https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2024/02/NS-Energy.png",
"https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2018/03/main-127.jpg",
"https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/images/newsletter-new.svg",
"https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2020/06/air-plane-300x300.jpg",
"https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2018/03/main-59.jpg",
"https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2018/03/main-925.jpg",
"https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2018/03/main-217.jpg",
"https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/images/icons/catfish-icon.svg",
"https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/code/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/img/icons/linkedin_icon_w.svg",
"https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/code/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/img/icons/twitter_icon_w.svg",
"https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/code/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/img/icons/facebook_icon_w.svg",
"https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/code/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/images/BTM_INT.jpg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"NS Energy Staff",
"Staff"
] |
2015-03-13T10:28:00+00:00
|
We all know about the multipurpose nature of dam projects but I bet there is one function you’ve overlooked: using…
|
en
|
NS Energy
|
https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/analysis/featurethe-art-of-cleaning-dams-4532147/
|
We all know about the multipurpose nature of dam projects but I bet there is one function you’ve overlooked: using dams as a projection screen for monumental works of art. Yet an innovative German collaboration, between cleaning equipment manufacturer Karcher and artist Klaus Dauven, has won artistic acclaim for the dams industry on a scale never witnessed before.
Utilising its cleaning expertise, Karcher has been engaged in the preservation of historic monuments and buildings on an honorary basis for more than 30 years. The company believes that its international cleaning projects, from the Statute of Christ in Rio de Janeiro to the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, provide true evidence of how its equipment can perform. Having helped to preserve more than 100 historic monuments as part of its cultural sponsorship programme, Karcher has provided equipment free of charge along with the practical assistance of its cleaning specialists.
"Our co-operation with the artist Klaus Dauven started in 2005," says David Wickel-Bajak, Manager of Corporate Communications at Karcher. "We were talking about another dam project that was taking place at the same time. For this project our input was to clean the dam with high pressure washers as the artist Pierre Mettraux needed a clean wall before he could start painting. Then Klaus came up with the idea of doing it the other way round."
Dauven invented the process of drawing by cleaning (known as reverse graffiti) in 1997. He first worked with a vacuum cleaner on a large sheet of paper covered with charcoal, so that when vacuumed the nozzle left bright traces. Two years later he progressed to working on larger canvases and used a wire brush on a concrete wall outside of his art studio. He was literally turning cleaning into an art form. Then in 2003 he had the ingenious idea of utilising a high pressure cleaner as a drawing utensil. He produced numerous temporary drawings on underpasses and bridge supports in public spaces but did not change these permanently in the way that graffiti artists usually do. Gradually his work became more intricate and more ambitious in scale.
Realising that gravity dam walls could offer the largest projection surfaces, Dauven partnered up with cleaning equipment manufacturer Karcher. The first project undertaken to showcase this remarkable combination of high pressure cleaning and art, materialised at Oleftal Valley dam in Germany in 2007.
After studying the soiled surfaces of the dam carefully, Dauven used the widely variable pressure and water flow of a high pressure jet, not to preserve art, but to create it. Cut outs and contrasts and the juxtaposition of cleaned and untreated surface areas gave rise to monumental and intricate drawings.
Creative
Oleftal Dam in Eifel National Park is operated by the Eifel-Rur water utility and was built between 1955-9. One of just two columnar buttress dams in Germany, it comprises a chain of sixteen hollow columns linked by sealing elements. It supplies power and drinking water to the district of Euskirchen and the Aachen metropolitan area.
Jets of water were used to etch out animal motifs from the build-up of fouling on the valley side of the 282m long and 59m high dam. Native forest animals, birds and fish were drawn on untreated surrounding areas of the dam wall to form the appropriately named "Wild-Wechsel" (Game Pass).
To enable Dauven’s design to be transferred to the dam wall, Munich-based surveyors Geosys digitised the image and projected it on to the wall using laser technology. Cleaning was carried out using a Karcher SPP 60 submersible pressure pump which supplied water to three Karcher HD 10/25 cold water pressure washers placed on top of the wall. With the support of GSAR mbH, a company specialising in rope access technology, climbing ropes and a travelling platform were used to access all parts of the wall to remove the soiling, which consisted almost entirely of organic matter. The end result was considered to be the world’s largest drawing with a surface area of more than 8000m2.
"The general public saw how creatively our pressure washers could be deployed," said Hartmut Jenner, CEO and Chairman of the Management Board at Karcher. "The animal motif that Dauven created here caused quite a stir, especially across state frontiers."
Sensational project
Following on from the success of this project, Karcher and Dauven partnered up again in 2008 to mark the 20th anniversary of Karcher’s Japanese subsidiary. This time five delicate blossoms were drawn on the Matsudagawa dam near Ashikaga City in Japan.
Surveyors digitised the image before cleaning commenced and used laser technology to transfer it on to the 228m long and 56m high dam wall. To ensure the accurate transfer of intricate features such as the stamens of the flowers, more than 750 points were marked with modelling clay by industrial climbers. The pressure washers were used to join these up on a ‘painting by numbers’ principle and thus the drawing was in the exact proportions as Dauven had envisaged.
Four Karcher HD 1050B cold water pressure washers were used, which are capable of pumping up to 930 litres of water per hour and can reach operating pressures of up to 230 bar. As the Matsudagawa dam has a comparatively small angle of incline it had to be rinsed twice to ensure that loosened dirt was removed completely.
The dirt on the dam consisted mainly of moss, algae and lichen that could be cleaned off without using chemicals, in compliance with the ecological requirements of this water protection area. Fan-jet nozzles were used to produce an even spray pattern which was ideal for drawing and highlighting the contrast between cleaned and dirty parts of the dam as clearly as possible.
"This sensational project was an extraordinary challenge," says Hartmut Jenner from Karcher. "Our German-Japanese team mastered it most professionally."
Eibenstock dam
The next dam to become a canvas for Dauven was the 308m long and 57m high Eibenstock dam in Germany. Built in 1982, it provides flood protection and hydropower, and is the largest drinking water reservoir in Saxony with a capacity of 64Mm3.
In August 2012 two river trout, entitled Fisch-Reich, were depicted on the dam. More than 1000 measurement points were used and marked with modelling clay to transform the artist’s A3 landscape format onto the structure. Dauven worked from a façade lift and was supported by industrial climbers who abseiled from the top of the dam. Three HP 13/18-4S cold water high pressure cleaners were used; capable of pumping up to 1300 litres of water an hour up to a pressure of 200 bar.
Sympathetic art
Chungju dam is located 100km southeast of Seoul and is South Korea’s biggest dam. Standing at 98m high, 447m long and with a reservoir capacity of 2.7Bm3, it has been providing water supply for the region since 1985. Chungju also generates power and provides important flood protection. In October 2012 the dam carried out another function – a giant canvas for Dauven’s artistic talent.
A tiger called Horang-ee was drawn onto the structure utilising 1300 measurement points. The cleaning work was carried out by HD 10/25-4 S high pressure cleaners. Different challenges had to be overcome at this dam. A large number of recessed installations in the wall made it a comparatively irregular work surface, while differing levels of dirt meant that the art work had to be positioned precisely.
"Works of art using high pressure cleaners are transitory," says Hartmut Jenner. "Unlike graffiti, these drawings fade away of their own violation. After only a few years it is no longer possible to discern the difference between the areas that were cleaned and those left dirty. This sympathetic art form does not impose in any way on the host structure," he added.
Costs for the dam art varies from five to six digit Euros. Each project took about two weeks to complete with six to eight people working on them. Depending on the climate and the direction the dam wall faces, the art work can last about five years in Germany and up to three years in Japan.
"The reaction in Japan and Korea was even better than in Germany," Dauven says upon reflection. "Newspapers and TV stations showed the dam drawings and people were very interested in them. Some of the walls even became tourist attractions. It helped to change the dams’ public image."
Indeed Dauven believes that to elevate a dam into a work of art, distracting from its actual function for a while, is an interesting possibility. It offers an amazing perspective in terms of artistic medium, local history and the use of public spaces. Dams are seen as one of the ultimate structures which harness natural power. Dauven believes that his work acts as a reminder of the humbling scale of human endeavours and that, however impressive these achievements are, everything will eventually return to nature.
"Over recent decades," Hartmut Jenner says, "Karcher has made a name for itself by executing cleaning projects on historic monuments and buildings of note the world over. By working in co-operation with Klaus Dauven we have had the opportunity to be involved in a cultural heritage programme of quite a different type. This sympathetic art form is fully in keeping with our cordial and highly successful long term co-operation with Dauven. I look forward with eager anticipation to our on-going exchange of ideas and future joint projects."
"This is a really nice project we’ve been running with Klaus," David Wickel-Bajak added. "It is a very personal way to support cultural heritage. And we are always looking for new projects."
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 2
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eibenstock_Dam
|
en
|
Eibenstock Dam
|
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Wasserschanze_der_Trinkwassertalsperre_Eibenstock.jpg/220px-Wasserschanze_der_Trinkwassertalsperre_Eibenstock.jpg",
"https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"
] |
2011-02-06T17:00:33+00:00
|
en
|
/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eibenstock_Dam
|
Dam in Erzgebirgskreis, Germany
Eibenstock Dam (German: Talsperre Eibenstock) near Eibenstock in the Ore Mountains, Germany, is the largest dam in the Free State of Saxony in terms of the height of the dam above the valley floor, and its reservoir is the largest in volume in Saxony.[1] The dam impounds the waters of the Zwickauer Mulde and supplies drinking water to the region of Chemnitz and Zwickau, as well as providing flood protection, delivering extra water during times of drought and, to a lesser extent, generating electricity from hydropower. Its dimensions make it the second largest drinking water reservoir in Germany's new federal states.
In order to make way for its construction, the inhabitants of the village of Muldenhammer (also called Windischhammer or Windischthal), whose former buildings (10 homes, 1 wood pulp factory, 1 large estate for the breeding of Höhenfleckrinder cattle and a paper mill) lie today under the water surface, had to be resettled. Many of them moved to new houses that were built in Eibenstock. In addition, the Chemnitz–Aue–Adorf railway between Wolfsgrün and Schönheide Ost was interrupted. The Schönheiderhammer tunnel on that stretch of the route was flooded. At low water levels the old portals of the tunnel can still be seen.[2] Likewise, the branch line from Eibenstock unt. Bf. to Eibenstock ob. Bf. had to be closed. This section, the only standard gauge railway in Saxony with an incline of 1:20, was once known as the Eibenstock Ramp (Steilstrecke Eibenstock).[3]
The barrier itself is a straight gravity dam made of concrete. It was built between 1974 and 1984; it was taken into service in 1982 and completed in 1987. The first partial impoundment had already been carried out by 1980.
The dam has an upstream auxiliary dam (Schönheiderhammer Dam) and four subsidiary upstream basins (Rähmerbach, Geidenbach, Weißbach, Rohrbach).
Above the dam is an observation point offering a view across the reservoir. The dam itself is not accessible to the public. Bathing and water sports are also banned, because the dam impounds a drinking water reservoir.
See also
[edit]
List of dams in Germany
References
[edit]
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 54
|
https://www.runinternational.eu/maps/germany/2577-drei-talsperren-marathon
|
en
|
Marathon (DTM) — Eibenstock, Germany
|
[
"https://www.runinternational.eu/images/runinternational_logo_320x80.jpg",
"https://www.runinternational.eu/images/stories/GER2/drei_talsperren_marathon_sosa.jpg"
] |
[
"https://www.google.com/maps/d/embed?mid=1hrBB7GOFEY1-XDxuautSdpMSJ-g&z=6"
] |
[] |
[
"drei",
"Talsperren",
"marathon",
"DTM",
"Eibenstock",
"Germany",
"Erzgebirge",
"mountain",
"running",
"biking",
"Czech",
"races",
"Lauf",
"Rad",
"run",
"bike",
"September",
"50km",
"100km"
] | null |
[] | null |
The Drei-Talsperren-Marathon (DTM) in Eibenstock, Germany, is a running and mountain biking event held yearly in September in the Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains)
|
en
|
/templates/protostar-runinternational/favicon.ico
| null |
Saturday 21 September 2024
This running and mountain biking event is held yearly on the third Saturday in September in the German part of the Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains), a mountain range that is shared by two countries: Germany and the Czech Republic.
It offers three challenging multi-terrain races for runners ...
8km (8.345km)
Halbmarathon (21km)
Marathon (42.195km)
... and three for cyclists ...
30km (31.6km)
50km (50.82km)
100km (96.5km)
The start and the finish are on the Sportplatz (athletics track) in the small town of Eibenstock which is situated at an elevation of about 650 metres, approximately 33 kilometres from the city of Zwickau and 11 kilometres from the border with Czechia.
The marathon visits three reservoirs and takes the runners across drei Talsperren (three dams): Eibenstock, Carlsfeld and Sosa.
Map of the venue:
29. Drei-Talsperren-Marathon:
Date:
21 September 2024 (Saturday)
Race distance:
Lauf (run): ca. 8km, 21km, 42km
Rad (bike): ca. 30km, 50km, 100km
Event website:
www.drei-talsperren-marathon.de
Number of finishers:
runners mountain bikers
2023 436 497 2022 410 471 2021 436 517 2020 802 656 2019 427 643 2018 428 704
No guarantee is made as to the accuracy or thoroughness of the information on this page.
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 9
|
https://www.karcher.com/ge/inside-kaercher/sponsoring/cultural-sponsorship/eibenstock-dam.html
|
en
|
Eibenstock Dam - Eibenstock, Germany
|
https://www.karcher.com/favicon.ico
|
https://www.karcher.com/favicon.ico
|
[
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/kaercher_logo.svg",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/kaercher_logo.svg",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/kaercher_logo.svg",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/237/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/238/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/239/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/241/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/240/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/242/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/243/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/SSL.png#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/ajax_kaercher_v2_500_orig.gif"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
Kärcher is the world's leading solution provider for cleaning and maintenance with products and services for leisure, household, trade and industry.
|
en
|
/favicon.ico
|
https://www.karcher.com/ge/inside-kaercher/sponsoring/cultural-sponsorship/eibenstock-dam.html
|
"Kingdom of Fishes": Eibenstock Dam adorned with large-scale artwork
On the wall of the Eibenstock Dam, the reverse graffiti artist Klaus Dauven has created a large-scale artwork. Using high-pressure cleaners, he etched a drawing out of the 30-year-old dirt layer, depicting two native trout. The picture, entitled "Kingdom of Fishes", can be seen in the contrast between the light and dark of the cleaned and uncleaned surfaces. Kärcher offered support and advice throughout the project as part of its cultural sponsorship programme, contributing both experience and technology.
The two trout are positioned one on top of the other and stretch across the entire width of the dam wall. They are drawn cut across lengthways so that only the back of one of the fish and the underside of the other can be seen. The way the fish are depicted creates the impression of movement – they appear to be moving in the water. The river trout, which is native to the Ore Mountains, is an important bioindicator because it can only survive in very clean water. The image of the fish is therefore symbolic of the quality of the drinking water in the Eibenstock reservoir.
In order to transfer the artist's design onto the dam wall, it was digitised by a surveying company and projected onto the wall using laser technology. Industrial climbers marked points onto the dam wall, which the artist then connected up to create the image. The artist worked from a facade lift and was supported by the industrial climbers, who abseiled from the top of the dam. Three HD 13/18-4 S cold water high-pressure cleaners were used to carry out the work.
The artist
Klaus Dauven has been using Kärcher high-pressure cleaners since 2003 to create temporary artworks in public spaces. He was born in 1966 in Düren (North Rhine-Westphalia) and studied art in Düsseldorf, Münster and Aix-en-Provence. Klaus Dauven has received numerous awards for his work, including the Joseph and Anna Fassbender Prize from the city of Brühl and the Düren Art Prize. He now lives in Kreuzau (North Rhine-Westphalia). In collaboration with Kärcher, he has already adorned several dam walls with his temporary artworks, including the Olef Dam in the Eifel region in 2007 and the Matsudagawa Dam in Japan in 2008.
The Eibenstock Dam
The Eibenstock Dam went into operation in 1982. It is the largest drinking water reservoir in Saxony. With its capacity of around 64 million cubic metres of water, the reservoir supplies drinking water to the greater Zwickau-Chemnitz area. The dam also helps in providing flood protection, raising low water levels and generating power. The mighty wall of the Eibenstock dam is around 300 metres long and 57 metres high.
|
|||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 8
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eibenstock
|
en
|
Eibenstock
|
[
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Eibenstock.JPG/250px-Eibenstock.JPG",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Wappen_Eibenstock.png/70px-Wappen_Eibenstock.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Eibenstock_in_ERZ.png/240px-Eibenstock_in_ERZ.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Germany_adm_location_map.svg/250px-Germany_adm_location_map.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Saxony_location_map.svg/250px-Saxony_location_map.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Red_pog.svg/6px-Red_pog.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Pfeil_oben.svg/14px-Pfeil_oben.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Pfeil_links.svg/17px-Pfeil_links.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Pfeil_rechts.svg/17px-Pfeil_rechts.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Pfeil_unten.svg/14px-Pfeil_unten.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Wildenthal%2C_Germany.jpg/220px-Wildenthal%2C_Germany.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Eibenstock_reservoir_%28aka%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Eibenstock_Church_%28aka%29.jpg/220px-Eibenstock_Church_%28aka%29.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/DS-Eibenstock.jpg/220px-DS-Eibenstock.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Wappen_Erzgebirgskreis.svg/40px-Wappen_Erzgebirgskreis.svg.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png",
"https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"
] |
2005-11-10T20:35:21+00:00
|
en
|
/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eibenstock
|
Town in Saxony, Germany
Eibenstock is a town in the Erzgebirgskreis, Saxony, Germany. It is situated in the western Ore Mountains, near the river Mulde.
Eibenstock has the following constituent communities: Eibenstock, Blauenthal, Wolfsgrün, Neidhardtsthal, Wildenthal, Oberwildenthal, Carlsfeld, Blechhammer, Neues Wiesenhaus, Sosa, Stabhammer, Wilzschmühle and Weitersglashütte.
Owing to its elevation of more than 600 m, Eibenstock would not have been one of the first farming villages in the Ore Mountains, but rather a longstanding settlement in the form of a radial forest homestead village, founded at the earliest sometime in the thirteenth century in what later became the Barony of Schwarzenberg. About 1.5 km from the edge of town, not far from where the Steinbächel empties into the Große Bockau, a ringwall was unearthed.
The first two documentary mentions as Ybenstok and Ibenstok both date from the year 1378. At that time, an Alte Seife (“Old Placer”) was named, hinting that the village's development was also spurred by mining. Placer mines were being worked in the Eibenstock area even as late as the 19th century, although at the same time, iron ore and tin were also being mined from harder deposits. In 1560 Eibenstock became the official seat of a Bergamt ("mining office") and thereafter called itself freie Bergstadt ("free mining town").
In 1453, Elector Friedrich of Saxony fiefed the Brothers Leonhart und Nickel von Tannenberg auf Plohn with, among other things, the villages of Eibenstock, Sosa and Burkhardtsgrün. These were not under the new ownership for very long, as Wilhelm von Tannenberg had to give up Eibenstock by 1456 to the Hereditary Marshal of Saxony, Hans Löser. In 1464, Eibenstock passed to the lordly estate of Schwarzenberg and hence to the Saxon Amt of Schwarzenberg in 1533.
In 1532, the community was described as a market town, and in 1555 as a small town. The town was only granted market rights in 1639. In 1734, for the first time, a fish market was held at which fresh fish brought in from Hamburg was sold.
Clara Angermann brought Tambourieren to the town in 1775, a kind of artistic lace embroidery.[3] She taught this to the women until 1780, and thereafter embroidery began to blossom. By 1850 there were 6 successful embroidering businesses and in 1858, the first embroidery machine went into operation. The work was famous worldwide, so much so that from 1891 to 1908, the United States even maintained a consulate in town to foster their business relationships.
After three great fires (1856, 1862 and 1892), to which whole neighbourhoods fell victim, reconstruction was undertaken in such a way as to give the buildings a more contemporary look. Between 1864 and 1868, the neo-Romanesque church was built, and in 1906 and 1907 a new art nouveau town hall.
With the First World War (1914–1918), the embroidery industry collapsed and could only establish itself once again after the Second World War. However, it never again achieved the level of fame that it had enjoyed before 1914.
From 1952 to 1990, Eibenstock was part of the Bezirk Karl-Marx-Stadt of East Germany. Small embroidery businesses merged into collectives such as the Produktionsgenossenschaften des Handwerks (PGH) Sticktex or the Eibenstocker Buntstickerei, but then in 1972, these were converted into a Volkseigener Betrieb (“nationally owned business”, a kind of enterprise found in the former East Germany)
Between 1974 and 1979 the second biggest dam project in East Germany was realized. A basin with 77 million cubic metres of storage and 350 ha in area was created and now supplies roughly a million people with drinking water.
After the political and economic changes of 1989 and 1990, Eibenstock's economy suffered, like that of much of the former East Germany, which had its ramifications for the administration of small communities. It became impossible to run them independently, and for this reason came on 1 January 1994 the amalgamation of Blauenthal, Neidhardtsthal, Wolfsgrün, Wildenthal and Oberwildenthal with Eibenstock, and likewise on 1 April 1997 of Carlsfeld and Weitersglashütte.
In 2005 Eibenstock celebrated 850 years of existence.
1875 = 6,553
1913 = 9,899
1959 = 9,500
1998 = 7,410
2004 = 6,708
2007 = 6,339
2010 = 8,168
2012 = 7,838
2013 = 7,736
Source as of 1998: Statistisches Landesamt des Freistaates Sachsen
The elections in May 2014 showed the following results:
CDU: 11 Seats
SPD: 4 Seats
The Left: 1 Seat
Gewerbeverein (Trade association): 1 Seat
FWG (Free voters): 1 Seat
Neo-Romanesque church
Replica of an Electorate of Saxony postal milestone at the Postplatz
Restored Kingdom of Saxony station stone near the former postal station
Eibenstock was once well known for its great Freier Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (FDGB) holiday home at the Eibenstock Reservoir. Today, the complex has been restored and is run as a hotel, beside which a waterpark has been built. Owing to the hotel's conspicuous blue paintwork, it has borne, since the restoration, the name Das Blaue Wunder (“The Blue Wonder”). The building was originally meant as lodging for the dam builders.
South of town is the 778-m-high Adlerfels (a crag), from near which, on a clear day, there is a wonderful panoramic view of Eibenstock. On the mountain ridge are found an all-weather bobsleigh run and a skilift.
From the 14th to 18th centuries there was tin and iron ore mining in the region. After a great famine in 1771-1773, this industry was largely displaced by the embroidery industry.
Paul Drews (1858–1912), theologian and university lecturer
Werner Ehrig (1897-1981), an officer, most recently a general lieutenant in the Second World War
Wolfgang Unger (1948-2004), choral conductor and academic in Leipzig
1895: Otto von Bismarck, Imperial Chancellor
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 3
|
https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/en/world-heritage-experience/mining-region-for-mining-specialists/mining-periods.html
|
en
|
Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří Mining Cultural Landscape
|
[
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/typo3conf/ext/template/Resources/Public/img/montanregion_logo.svg",
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/typo3conf/ext/template/Resources/Public/img/world-heritage.png",
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/typo3conf/ext/template/Resources/Public/img/foerderlogo-sn-cz.png",
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/typo3conf/ext/template/Resources/Public/img/SGS_Logo_DE_freigestellt_gruen.png",
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/fileadmin/_processed_/1/7/csm_Annaberger-Bergaltar2_links_0c0b1b1355.jpg",
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/fileadmin/_processed_/4/0/csm_Annaberger-Bergaltar2_mitte_7372bf680c.jpg",
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/fileadmin/_processed_/8/e/csm_Annaberger-Bergaltar2_rechts_08c91cc211.jpg",
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/fileadmin/_processed_/0/d/csm_Annaberger-Bergaltar2_unten_108baf6144.jpg",
"https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/typo3conf/ext/template/Resources/Public/img/montanregion_logo.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2023-10-02T00:00:00
|
en
|
/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/5/1/csm_favicon_9079e97328.png
|
https://www.montanregion-erzgebirge.de/en/world-heritage-experience/mining-region-for-mining-specialists/mining-periods.html
|
On this news, the Margrave claimed back the three villages and asserted droit de régale in order to claim for himself the subsurface natural resources on his land, in particular the silver, although these resources actually fell under the king’s mining rights. News of the discovery of silver and the promise of riches tempted many miners to the area, particularly from the south of Germany and the Harz region, and with them came retailers, craftsmen and their families to the Erzgebirge. The assurance of special freedoms for miners, including personal freedom and release from various soccage taxes and services, also increased the population influx. In particular, the freedom to mine introduced by Margrave Otto led to an influx of experienced miners. Everyone was allowed to mine the precious silver, and everyone was able to receive authorisation to mine for a corresponding fee. The silver mined and processed, however, was only allowed to be sold to the Margrave’s mint.
Through the wave of immigration, the formerly agricultural forest village of Christiansdorf became the high medieval town of Freiberg (literally the “free mountain”) within two centuries, and it remained the largest and most populous town in the Erzgebirge for several decades. Ius Fribergensis, the famous Freiberg town and mining law, first mentioned in 1233, became very important for the Erzgebirge from 1307 in its written form. In 1267 the silver from Freiberg was described as the “most pure and best silver” in the Book of Minerals by the Dominican monk Albertus Magnus.
The Freiberg mine is the oldest documented and most important mine in the Erzgebirge. However, mining also started from an early date in other areas of the Erzgebirge, in some cases in parallel to developments in the Freiberg area and elsewhere independently from them. For example, the mining town Dippoldiswalde was settled in the 12th century. In the following one and a half centuries mining spread to the north side of the Erzgebirge. In 1387 a first ore mine was named in what was later to become the Brand-Erbisdorf ore fields. More mining areas sprang up in Nossen and Hohen Forst near Schneeberg.
After silver mining came tin mining, at the latest between the 13th and 14th century, on either side of the Erzgebirge. There are records of tin ore finds at Ehrenfriedersdorf in 1293 and tin ore mining in Graupen (Krupka) in 1305. In 1241, Erzgebirge tin had a significant effect on the Cologne metal markets, which were important across Europe. The most important tin deposits at this time were Altenberg’s Zwitterstock from 1436. Over the course of the century, these tin deposits became one of the most important tin mining areas in Europe. During this first mining period from 1168 to the middle of the 15th century, ore mining as well as manufacturing and processing copper and iron began to take off in the entire region.
As a result of the increasing mining activities, new towns – in some cases planned settlements – were founded across the whole of the Erzgebirge near to the discovered ore deposits. Included amongst them were important mining towns such as Schneeberg, Annaberg and Marienberg on the Saxon side and Platten (Horní Blatná) on the Bohemian side. Altogether around thirty of the mining towns on the Saxon side and twenty of the mining towns on the Bohemian side of the Erzgebirge were established within just a few decades as a result of mining, making the Erzgebirge one of the most densely populated low mountain ranges in Europe with a number of mining towns that was unique internationally. With a number of privileges (e.g. market, brewing, tavern and butchering rights), these new towns did not just lure in miners and their families but also craftsmen and merchants as well as artists and scholars. In particular the larger mining towns, such as Freiberg, Annaberg, Marienberg, Schneeberg and St. Joachimsthal (Jáchymov), became economic, spiritual, scientific and cultural centres with numerous spectacular sacred and secular buildings.
But the foundation and rapid development of new mining towns is not the only characteristic of the Erzgebirge’s second main mining period; the exploitation of new ore deposits in the upper Erzgebirge, combined with new mining technology that enabled the mining and exploitation of ore at greater depths, is also a feature of this period. This meant that investments by merchants, electors and dukes gained in significance in the mining industry.
The increased capital inflow led to an intensification of mining activities and the discovery of new, rich ore veins. It was this capital inflow that enabled the construction and productive use of new technology as well as hauling, water-lifting and dressing machines. This allowed ore deposits to be mined at greater depths even under more difficult conditions. Important advances in conveying and water storage technology in particular were made after 1470, while mining work on the ground largely remained the same as it had in the centuries before.
The silver mined in the Erzgebirge was minted in the Freiberg, Annaberg, Buchholz, Schneeberg and St. Joachimsthal (Jáchymov) mints and later made into coins on the Saxon side. Here the Joachimsthaler minted by the Dukes of Schlick in St. Joachimsthal (Jáchymov) from 1519/1520 were particularly important both in Europe and internationally. In addition to the buildings in the mining towns, many spectacular buildings were also constructed elsewhere in Saxony with the proceeds from mining in the Erzgebirge. These include the Albrechtsburg castle in Meißen from 1471 and the hunting lodge Augustusburg from 1568.
Around the middle of the 16th century, the Erzgebirge’s mining industry had attained a worldwide leading position technologically and economically, and the Erzgebirge became the centre of mining in Central Europe. The intense mining activities in the 16th century led the area to be renamed from the “Bohemian Forest” or “Bohemian Mountains” to the Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains. The name Erzgebirge was first used in mining records in 1527.
In addition to silver ore, which had its heyday in the 1530s, many other ores, such as tin, copper, iron and cobalt, were mined and processed in the Erzgebirge in the 15th and 16th centuries. The start of the second mining period is connected in particular to the boom in tin ore mining in the east of the Erzgebirge on both sides of the Saxon-Bohemian border. Graupen (Krupka) received the first mining regulations for the eastern part of the Bohemian Erzgebirge in 1464. In the years from 1514 to 1518, collective mining regulations based on those from Graupen (Krupka) were passed for Altenberg, Geising, Mückenberg (Komáří hůrka) and other tin mines.
In the 16th century, the focus of tin mining activities shifted to the western part of the Erzgebirge, where, after smaller deposits had been depleted, particularly rapid exploitation began in new ore fields, in particular in Hengstererben (Hřebečná), Platten (Horní Blatná), Gottesgab (Boží Dar) and other areas. The Bohemian part of the Erzgebirge, along with Schlaggenwald (Horní Slavkov) in the Kaiserwald (Slavkovský les), south of the Erzgebirge, became the largest tin production centre in continental Europe. Bohemian tin even displaced tin delivered from British mines in certain periods. The highest production figures were achieved between the 1550s and the 1570s, after which tin mining declined.
The violent re-Catholicisation pursued by the Habsburgs from 1620 was a particularly hard blow for the Bohemian Erzgebirge, which had been largely Protestant since the 1520s. It finally led to a political, economic and cultural division of the Erzgebirge between the Catholic Bohemians and Protestant Saxons, whose development took separate paths from the 1650s at the latest. The soon-to-follow rebuilding of the state and the economy was characterised entirely by absolutism, both on the Bohemian and on the Saxon side.
Only in a few regions of the Bohemian Erzgebirge was it possible to maintain mining activities during and after the war. In the tin mines of Hengstererben (Hřebečná), mining was able to restart, albeit on a lesser scale than in the 16th century. However, the subsurface mining of tin ore in the neighbouring area of Platten (Horní Blatná), was limited to a minimum and could largely only be sustained by extracting tin through placer work. Overall, the Thirty Years’ War plunged the mining industry in the Bohemian Erzgebirge into a deep and long-lasting crisis that would soon be exacerbated by the Counter-Reformation. As a result, many Protestant families from Platten and neighbouring mining towns emigrated to Saxony. Here they established the newest mining town in the Erzgebirge, Johanngeorgenstadt, right next to the Bohemian border, with the permission of the Saxon Elector at the beginning of 1654.
In Saxony, many miners and their families had to turn to other professions as a result of the general decline in the mining industry after the Thirty Years’ War. This led to the establishment of many trades more or less directly connected to the mining industry in the Saxon Erzgebirge, such as toy making in the Olbernhau-Seiffen area, serpentine turning in Zöblitz and braid and lace-making around Annaberg and Schneeberg. These trades took advantage of the raw materials to be found in the region as well as its manpower. The specific abilities and knowledge of the miners laid the foundation for the creation of an early centre for publishing and manufacturing production in the Saxon Erzgebirge. The development profited largely from the massive influx of Protestant exiles from Bohemia, who significantly contributed to the commercial structure of the Saxon Erzgebirge with their abilities and knowledge. This also led to a new boom in mining on the Saxon side, as the establishment of Johanngeorgenstadt (1654) and the “Zwitterstock zu Altenberg” union (1663) show.
A significant boom in blue dye production occurred from 1635 in the Saxon Erzgebirge due to the collapse in revenues from cobalt mining between 1625 to 1635 as a result of the war. By 1650 blue dye factories were established in Niederpfannenstiel, Jugel, Oberschlema, Sehma and Zschorlau (Schindler’s Factory). They merged by 1694 to form a blue dye consortium and created an international monopoly on blue dye, which was only broken in the 19th century with the development of synthetic production of ultramarine dye (1828). To this day, Schindler’s factory in Zschorlau continues this tradition of blue dye manufacture – with synthetic ultramarine since 1855, however – in the Erzgebirge.
In Saxony the crisis in the Erzgebirge mining industry triggered by the Thirty Years’ War was slowly overcome at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century, a period characterised by absolutism. In 1702 a fund for the practical and scientific education of Saxon mining officials was established in Freiberg by the mining authority, as a result of which Freiberg Mining University would emerge in 1765.
New mines also went into operation outside of the Freiberg ore fields around the turn of the 18th century. In 1698 in Aue kaolin deposits were found. There provided the basis for the development of European hard-paste porcelain by Johann Friedrich Böttger (1682-1719) and others at the beginning of the 18th century in Saxony. The silver and the kaolin that provided the basis for porcelain manufacture from the Saxon Erzgebirge contributed considerably to financing the expensive upkeep of the court and the enormous buildings and art collections of Elector Augustus II (1660-1733) in Dresden.
In the following decades the entire mining and smelting industries were reorganised. The main focus was the technical modernisation of the mining industry. The founding of the Mining University in Freiberg contributed considerably to the mining, processing and smelting of ore on a sound scientific basis.
Previously hardly used ores such as bismuth, cobalt, nickel, zinc and uranium became more important during this time. The mining industry in the Erzgebirge remained a significant economic factor in Saxony. From a quantitative perspective, Saxon ore mining in the 19th century became less important on the international and national stages, but in qualitative terms it continues to represent a number of technical innovations and scientific advances until this day.
New mining and smelting processes were introduced based on technological and scientific knowledge. Use of improved hauling and water storage technology allowed mining at greater depths, therefore enabling miners to reach more of the existing deposits. With the technical modernisation and the expansion of the infrastructure funded by the state, such as the construction of the ore canal in Freiberg’s northern ore fields (operational from 1789), or the construction of the Rothschönberg adit (1844 to 1877) to drain the Freiberg ore fields, attempts were made to halt the decline of the mining industry. In the end the hardly profitable mining industry in the Erzgebirge owed its existence to the intense investment and support of the State of Saxony.
The same applied to the smelting industry in the Erzgebirge, which, following the closure of unprofitable sites such as Antonshütte smeltery in the western Erzgebirge, was concentrated in two key locations near Freiberg: Muldenhütten and Halsbrücke. New smelting processes based on scientific and chemical research were developed at the Mining University that proved useful in the modernisation of the silver smelteries owned by the state.
In 1823, argentan (nickel silver) was produced in Aue from nickel, zinc and copper. The first factory for argentan production was constructed in 1829 in Auerhammer. Under the trademark Alpaka, a significant amount of tableware and jewellery was manufactured in Aue. This meant that the traditional cutlery manufacturing industry already present in the Erzgebirge was continued in a new form and quantities.
As a new branch of Saxon mining, coal mining at the edge of the Erzgebirge began as a privately funded industry in the first half of the 19th century. It was at the most modern level at the time, with workings in Plauenschen Grund near Dresden and the Zwickau and Lugau/Oelsnitzer ore fields. Coal mining would become an important foundation for the rapid industrialisation occurring in Saxony. The general development of industry in Saxony, particularly mechanical engineering, had a direct influence on the technology used in mining, but it also profited directly from the mining industry and the technology developed there. It was no coincidence that the first locomotive built by Richard Hartmann (1809-1878) in Chemnitz was called “Glück Auf” (a traditional miners’ greeting), and that the steam engine of the shaft complex at Alte Elisabeth in Freiberg designed by Christian Friedrich Brendel, Saxony’s mechanical engineering officer, was constructed by the Chemnitz-based engineering company Pfaff.
Around 1870, 5,000 miners were still working in the Freiberg ore fields alone. But even the completion of the Rothschönberg adit in 1877, the largest and most important adit in Saxony, which drained the entire Freiberg ore fields, could do little to halt the decline. Despite all of the measures taken, ore mining remained unprofitable. For that reason, a policy decision was taken in 1903 to close the Freiberg ore mines, which led to the planned closure of the majority of the mines by 1913.
Coal mining of the three largest Saxon deposits on the other hand took a different turn, a turn that represented an important step for the region’s industrialisation at that time. At the northern edge of the Erzgebirge, this included the Lugau-Oelsnitz coal fields, with important shaft complexes such as the Kaiserin Augusta shaft. This shaft, named in 1869/1874, was completely modernised from 1920 onwards and its performance significantly improved.
Ore mining in the Saxon Erzgebirge first experienced a revival under the National Socialists with their goal of autarchy and the rearmament of Germany in the 1930s. Sachsenerz Bergwerks AG was formed to this end in 1937 and was designed to relaunch non-ferrous metal mining in Freiberg and other ore fields. This led to the building of new mines in the Erzgebirge to extract strategically important natural resources below the surface, including a variety of steel alloying elements such as tungsten, nickel and manganese. By the end of the Second World War, both ore mining and coal mining in the Erzgebirge had attained great strategic importance.
The start of the fifth mining period in the Bohemian part of the Erzgebirge is defined by a number of important events. In 1850 the state became virtually the only mining operator in Joachimsthal (Jáchymov), after acquiring the Einigkeit mine (Svornost) from the town. The ensuing reorganisation of administration and changes to the technical equipment in the mine laid the foundation for the extraction of more silver ore but also for uranium extraction, which was conducted on a large scale for the first time.
Uranium ore was particularly important in the development of mining in Joachimsthal and used for the extensive production of uranium dyes in the second half of the 19th century and later periods. These dyes were manufactured from 1852 in a new factory, which no longer exists, directly in the town. The Joachimsthal mines gained in importance once more when the French physicist Henri Becquerel proved the existence of radiation from radioactive materials in 1896, and when Marie Curie isolated the new chemical elements polonium and radium from waste from the uranium dye factory in Joachimsthal in 1898. At the beginning of the 20th century, the mines in Joachimsthal were the only uranium mines in the world. Following the discovery of the healing properties of radioactive mine water, the world’s first radium and radon spa baths were built in 1906 in Joachimsthal.
The economic boom in the Bohemian Lands, and with it in the Erzgebirge, was severely disrupted between 1914 and 1918 by the First World War. The militarisation of industry at the beginning of the war meant a temporary revival of tungsten mining in Graupen (Krupka) and Zinnwald (Cínovec) and manganese ore mining in Platten (Horní Blatná), but overall the economy suffered severe losses as a result of the war.
Following the formation of Czechoslovakia in 1918, attempts were made to revive some of the mines in the Erzgebirge, but ore mining could not be revived, with the exception of uranium ore mining in Joachimsthal.
Under the cover name Staatliche Aktiengesellschaft der Buntmetallindustrie “Wismut” (AG Wismut, state corporation for the non-ferrous metal industry), mining of the rich uranium ore deposits began in the old mining fields as well as in new, deep shafts in the western part of the Erzgebirge. The Saxon Erzgebirge therefore experienced an unusual mining period from 1946 with the mining of uranium ore. These mining activities, which were unique worldwide, took place in densely populated areas of the Erzgebirge and employed hundreds of thousands of miners. They had a long-lasting effect on the region. For the third time in history, thousands of people came to the Erzgebirge to start a new life. In the early years political prisoners and criminals were forced to mine for uranium, but benefits such as better supplies of food and consumer goods, higher wages and better health care from AG Wismut soon also drew many workers of their own free will to the Saxon Erzgebirge. Under the control of AG Wismut, a “state within a state” developed within the new German Democratic Republic with its own party and state security organisations and its own transport system and health care facilities.
Whereas only 15.7 tonnes of uranium were produced in 1946, a year later it was already 145 tonnes. On 29 August 1949 the first Soviet atom bomb was detonated, which was only possible due to the uranium ore mined in the Erzgebirge. AG Wismut became the most important uranium producer in the USSR’s sphere of control. Initially, the centres for uranium mining were mainly the historic mining areas near Johanngeorgenstadt, Schneeberg and Schlema. Johanngeorgenstadt became one of the most important uranium mining areas in the German part of the Erzgebirge. The intensity of mining activities resulted in many of the deposits being exhausted after a short period of time. New uranium ore deposits were then exploited. In Thuringia, near Ronneburg, Wismut geologists discovered uranium ore deposits that could be mined from the surface. Slowly mining shifted from the Erzgebirge to neighbouring Thuringia. AG Wismut was transformed from a Soviet into a Soviet-German corporation (SDAG) in 1954. Until 1953 the profits of AG Wismut were paid to the Soviet Union as reparations. In this time around 10,000 tonnes of uranium were mined.
With the end of the GDR and the reunification of East Germany with the FRG, SDAG Wismut’s mining activities came to an end after 1990. On the one hand uranium ore was no longer needed in large quantities, and on the other it became unprofitable for Saxon uranium mining to continue on the free market. Following the political changes, the now federally owned Wismut GmbH was responsible for cleaning up the remains of uranium mining and the uranium ore dressing industry. Once again, this transformation is without precedent. Uranium ore mining only continued until 1990 in Schlema and Pöhla. Altogether AG Wismut mined 231,000 tonnes of uranium ore in the GDR. A large part of this came from deposits in the Erzgebirge.
Following the end of the Second World War, the re-establishment of Czechoslovakia let to the displacement, expulsion and emigration of German inhabitants from the Bohemian Erzgebirge and the settlement and immigration of Czechs to this region. Directly after the war, all mines were nationalised, and private companies were forbidden from operating in this industry. In the 1950s and 1960s most of the well-known deposits in the Bohemian Erzgebirge were explored again, and in some areas, mining activities actually restarted.
Uranium ore mining had a very specific role in mining activities after the war. In May 1945 the Jáchymov mines (Joachimsthal) were once more seized by the Czechoslovakian state. But on 11 September 1945 they were occupied by Red Army soldiers. The whole operation was organised by the Red Army’s headquarters in Annaberg, Germany. Along with Jáchymov, the areas around Annaberg and Johanngeorgenstadt were also affected.
After intense recruitment drives, miners began to arrive in Jáchymov, as well as new residents from across Czechoslovakia. At the end of 1947 around 3,750 people were employed here. But even this increase in manpower was no guarantee of meeting the increasing demands of the Jáchymov Commission. As early as February 1948, German prisoners of war, transported here from the USSR, started their “work” in the state-owned corporation Jáchymovskédoly (in total 12,000 people; from the beginning of 1949 they were slowly “expelled” to Germany). Prisoners’ camps were erected near the mines, whose internal organisation, all the evidence they produced and other organisational matters were monitored by the employees of the Soviet security services.
From February 1948, following a government takeover by the communist regime, a boom in ore mining never seen before in the Jáchymov mines occurred: it is unprecedented in the history of Bohemian mining. Sufficient manpower for Jáchymov was now secured from concentration camps and prison camps that were set up directly next to the uranium shafts. The Red Tower of Death remains as a witness to this period in mining.
As a result of the mining activities in the whole history of these ore fields more than 8,000 tonnes of uranium ore were mined, of which 7,200 tonnes was mined under the state-owned corporation Jáchymovskédoly. Prospecting for radioactive materials shortly after the Second World War was not restricted to the Jáchymov ore fields, which included Abertamy (Abertham), but was also conducted in several other ore fields, such as Boží Dar (Gottesgab), Měděnec (Kupferberg), Přísečnice (Preßnitz), Přebuz (Frühbuß) and Oloví (Bleistadt). However, these endeavours had little success.
|
||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 58
|
https://worldwidescience.org/topicpages/r/radionuclide%2Btransfer%2Bfactors.html
|
en
|
radionuclide transfer factors: Topics by WorldWideScience.org
|
[
"https://worldwidescience.org/sites/www.osti.gov/files/public/image-files/WWSlogo_wTag650px-min.png",
"https://worldwidescience.org/sites/www.osti.gov/files/public/image-files/OSTIlogo.svg",
"https://worldwidescience.org/sites/www.osti.gov/files/public/image-files/ICSTIlogo.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
| null |
Soil - plant experimental radionuclide transfer factors
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Dobrin, R.I.; Dulama, C.N.; Toma, Al.
2006-01-01
Some experimental research was performed in our institute to assess site specific soil-plant transfer factors. A full characterization of an experimental site was done both from pedo-chemical and radiological point of view. Afterwards, a certain number of culture plants were grown on this site and the evolution of their radionuclide burden was then recorded. Using some soil amendments one performed a parallel experiment and the radionuclide root uptake was evaluated and recorded. Hence, transfer parameters were calculated and some conclusions were drawn concerning the influence of site specific conditions on the root uptake of radionuclides. (authors)
Transfer factors for assessing the dose from radionuclides in agricultural products
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Ng, Y.C.; Colsher, C.S.; Thompson, S.E.
1979-01-01
Transfer factors to predict the environmental transport of radionuclides through terrestrial foodchains to man were derived from the literature for radionuclides associated with the nuclear fuel cycle. We present updated transfer coefficients to predict the concentration of a radionuclide in cow's milk and other animal products and concentration factors (CF) to predict the concentration in a food or feed crop from that in soil. Where possible we note the variation of the transfer factor with physical and chemical form of the radionuclide and environmental factors, and characterize the distribution and uncertainty in the estimate. The updated transfer factors are compared with those listed in regulatory guides. The new estimates lead to recommended changes (both increases and decreases) in the listed transfer coefficients for milk and meat and to the suggested practice of adopting multiple soil-to-plant CF's that vary with the type of crop and soil in the place of a single generic CF to predict the concentration of a radionuclide in a crop from that in soil. The updated transfer factors will be useful to assess the dose from radionuclides released from nuclear facilities and evaluating compliance with regulations governing the release of radionuclides
Factors affecting the transfer of radionuclides from the environment to plants
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Golmakani, S.; Moghaddam, V.M.; Hosseini, T.
2008-01-01
Much of our food directly or indirectly originates from plant material; thus, detailed studies on plant contamination processes are an essential part of international environmental research. This overview attempts to identify and describe the most important parameters and processes affecting the behaviour of radionuclide transfer to plants. Many parameters influence these processes. These parameters are related to: (1) plant, (2) soil, (3) radionuclide, (4) climate and (5) time. Often there is no boundary between the factors and they are linked to each other. Knowledge of important factors in radionuclide transfer to plants can help to assess and prevent radiological exposure of humans. This knowledge can also help to guide researches and modelling related to transfer of radionuclides to food chain. (authors)
Transfer factors of radionuclides from Andosols to crops
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Ban-nai, Tadaaki; Muramatsu Yasuyuki
2004-01-01
Transfer factors (TFs) of some selected radionuclides from Andosols, a typical soil type in Japan, to several crops (leaf vegetables and root vegetables) have been studied by radiotracer experiments. Cabbages, komatsuna, spinach and lettuce were used as leaf vegetables and radish, carrot and turnip were used as root vegetables. The mean values of TFs (on a wet weight basis) of radionuclides such as 137 Cs, 85 Sr, 60 Co, 54 Mn, 65 Zn and 125 I for edible parts of leaf vegetables were 0.11, 0.24, 0.046, 0.60, 0.51 and 0.0054, respectively. Respective values for edible parts of root vegetables were 0.02, 0.14, 0.004. 0.09, 0.13 and 0.0022. The obtained TFs were, in most cases in the order Mn, Zn, Sr>Cs>Co>I. The TFs of 125 I were much lower than the other nuclides. The transfer factors obtained for the edible part of root vegetables were markedly lower than those for leaf vegetables. The transfer factors of Sr and Mn for leaf vegetables were generally higher for older (outer) leaves than younger (inner) ones. In the root vegetables, TFs for leaf parts were typically higher than those for tubers. (author)
An analysis of domestic experimental results for soil-to-crops transfer factors of radionuclides
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Jun, In; Choi, Young Ho; Keum, Dong Kwon; Kang, Hee Seok; Lee, Han Soo; Lee, Chang Woo [KAERI, Daejeon (Korea, Republic of)
2006-12-15
For more realistic assessment of Korean food chain radiation doses due to the operation of nuclear facilities, it is required to use domestically produced data for radionuclide transfer parameters in crop plants. This paper analyzed results of last about 10 year's studies on radionuclide transfer parameters in major crop plants by the Korean Atomic Energy Research Institute, comparing with the published international data, and consequently suggested the proper parameters to use. The trends of transfer parameter shows normal distributions if we have a lot of experimental data, but some radionuclides showed enormous variations with the environment of experimental, crops and soils. These transfer factors can be used to assess realistic radiation doses or to predict the doses in crops for normal operation or accidental release. Some kinds of parameter can be produced as conservatives or fragmentary results because soil-to-plant transfer factors were measured through greenhouse experiments which sometimes showed improper field situations. But these parameters mentioned in this paper can be representative of the status of Korean food chain than that of foreign country.
An analysis of domestic experimental results for soil-to-crops transfer factors of radionuclides
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Jun, In; Choi, Young Ho; Keum, Dong Kwon; Kang, Hee Seok; Lee, Han Soo; Lee, Chang Woo
2006-01-01
For more realistic assessment of Korean food chain radiation doses due to the operation of nuclear facilities, it is required to use domestically produced data for radionuclide transfer parameters in crop plants. This paper analyzed results of last about 10 year's studies on radionuclide transfer parameters in major crop plants by the Korean Atomic Energy Research Institute, comparing with the published international data, and consequently suggested the proper parameters to use. The trends of transfer parameter shows normal distributions if we have a lot of experimental data, but some radionuclides showed enormous variations with the environment of experimental, crops and soils. These transfer factors can be used to assess realistic radiation doses or to predict the doses in crops for normal operation or accidental release. Some kinds of parameter can be produced as conservatives or fragmentary results because soil-to-plant transfer factors were measured through greenhouse experiments which sometimes showed improper field situations. But these parameters mentioned in this paper can be representative of the status of Korean food chain than that of foreign country
Report on a workshop on the measurement of soils to plant transfer factors for radionuclides
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
1982-01-01
This report includes the proceedings of the workshop on soil-plant transfer factors of radionuclides. Part 1 deals with a general introduction of soil-plant transfer factors, recommendations for the determination of these transfer factors and computer listing of transfer factors specified according to nuclide; type of crop; type of soil; and type of experiment. The second part offers the 12 contributions presented, of which several are included in INIS separately. (G.J.P.)
Soil-plant transfer factors of radionuclides in mangroves in the State of Pernambuco, Brazil
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Paiva, J.D.S.; França, E.J. de
2017-01-01
Mangroves are the main inputs of chemical substances, considering the Brazilian estuarine environments. Natural radionuclides such as 40 K and 228 Ra can be transferred to vegetation. The objective of this work is to determine the transfer factors (TF) and aggregate transfer (TF ag ) of radionuclides 40 K and 228 Ra in the soil-plant system of mangroves in the State of Pernambuco , Brazil. Concentrations of 40 K and 228 Ra activity in the soil of mangroves and in samples composed of leaves of individuals of the native plant species Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa and Aviccenia Schaueriana were determined from Gamma Spectrometry with hyper-pure germanium detector (HPGe). The transfer and aggregate transfer factors were calculated according to the methodology proposed in the literature. The respective TF and TF ag values for the 40 K radionuclide were 0.384 and 2.13 x 10 -3 for R. mangle; 0.394 and 2.05 x 10 -3 for L. racemosa and 1.348 and 3.44 x 10 -3 for Avicennia sp. For the radionuclide 228 Ra, the results were lower for R. mangle (TF = 0.089; TF ag = 1.95 x 10 -4 ) and L. race-mosa (TF = 0.142; TF ag = 3.46 x 10 -4 ). For Avicennia schaueriana, the concentrations of 228 Ra activity in the leaves were below the detection limit. The TF values found demonstrated a greater 40 K transfer in Avicennia and 228 Ra dominated mangroves for mangroves where the L. racemosa distribution predominates
Status report on radionuclide transfer
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
1980-01-01
At the suggestion of the Federal Minstry of the Interior, in June 1978, a group of scientists from several institutions who are active in the field of radionuclide transfer or are interested in these problems got together. During the discussions of the work team, especially the transfer soil/plants was emphasized. Then the work team set up a status report on the transfer of the radionuclides relevant in the sense of the radiation protection act. The nuclides H 3 and C14, the isotopes of the Sr, J, and Cs, Tc99, the so-called corrosion nuclides Mn54, Fe59, co-isotopes and Zn65, and isotopes of Pu, Am, and Cm were regarded as important for a possible radiation exposition. Recent investigations revealed that also the natural radionuclides Ra226, Po210, and Pb210 should be covered by the investigations. The goal of this status report is to present the level of knowledge on the transfer of these radionuclides to man in a brief form, giving hints at the most important literature. It was requested by the Federal Ministry of the Interior, as fas as possible, to indicate transfer factors which are necessary for the radio-occology act to be decreed according to Para. 45 of the radiation protection act. Another goal of the report was to show the gap in the knowledge on the radio nuclide transfer. This was thought to help to create a basis for the decisions of the Federal Ministry concerning the support of other investigation projects in the field of transfer of radionuclides. (orig./MG) [de
Transfer-factors for radionuclides in the coal-fired power plants environments in Serbia
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Todorovic, Dragana; Jankovic, Marija; Joksic, Jasminka; Radenkovic, Mirjana
2008-01-01
Full text: During the coal combustion in power plants, radionuclides are distributed in solid and gaseous combustion products and discharged into environment. Radioactivity monitoring of coal-fired power-plants environments (PP Nikola Tesla, PP Kolubara, PP Morava and PP Kostolac) in Serbia was carried out during 2003-2006. Here are presented results concerning the soil-plant and ash-plant systems. Plant samples growing at the soil and ash disposals are analyzed by gamma spectrometry (HPGe detector, relative efficiency 23%) and corresponding transfer factors (TF) for natural isotopes 226 Ra, 232 Th and 40 K were calculated and discussed. Obtained concentrations values of naturally occurring radionuclides are in following ranges: (0.4 - 29) Bq/kg 226 Ra, (0.16 - 23) Bq/kg 232 Th, (245 - 1274) Bq/kg 40 K, (1.7 - 30) Bq/kg 238 U, (0.08 - 4.7) Bq/kg 235 U, (5.6 - 95) Bq/kg 210 Pb; (28 - 288) Bq/kg 7 Be and man-made 137 Cs in range 0.06 - 2.8 Bq/kg. Ash-to-plant and soil-to-plant transfer factors for 226 Ra, 232 Th and 40 K are calculated for several sampling points. Values for both ash-to-plant and soil-to-plant transfer factors are much higher for 40 K than 226 Ra and 232 Th probably due to different assimilation mechanisms of these elements by plants. Analyzed radionuclides have higher concentrations in the ash disposal than soil, and corresponding transfer-factors values obtained for ash-plant systems (ranged from 0,007 to 0,179 for 226 Ra, from 0,015 to 0,174 for 232 Th and from 0,418 to 2,230 for 40 K) are higher, indicating that there is no limit value for absorption in plants. (author)
Variations in soil-to-red pepper transfer factors of radionuclides with time of their application and fruit harvest
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Choi, Yong Ho; Lee, Won Yun; Lim, Kwang Muk; Park, Soo Won; Lee, Myung Ho; Lee, Chang Woo; Lee, Hyun Duk; Lee, Jeong Ho
1997-01-01
A mixed solution of 54 Mn, 60 Co, 85 Sr and 137 Cs was applied to the soil of culture boxes in a greenhouse 2 days before transplanting red pepper and at 3 different times during its growth for investigating transfer factors (m 2 /kg-dry) for its green and red fruits. Transfer factors varied with radionuclide, application time and harvest time by factors of about 20-100. They decreased mostly radionuclide, application time and harvest time by factors of about 20-100. They decreased mostly in the order of 85 Sr> 54 Mn> 60 Co> 137 Cs while 54 Mn and 60 Co was higher than 85 Sr when time lapse between application and harvest was short. Transfer factors of 85 Sr and 137 Cs at the last application were lower than those at the previous one by factors of 3-20 depending on harvest time. Variations in 54 Mn and 60 Co transfer factors with application time after transplanting were comparatively low. Transfer factors of 54 Mn, 60 Co and 85 Sr mixed with topsoil before transplanting were up to 3-9 times higher than those for the application onto soil surface 2 days after transplanting root-uptake concentrations of the radionuclides in red pepper fruit and taking proper measures for its harvest and consumption at the event of an accidental release during the growing season of red pepper
Radionuclide transfer from forage plants into milk
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Heeschen, W
1987-06-09
There is a lot of information regarding the transfer of radionuclides (iodine, caesium, strontium) which allows the transfer factor being calculated with high certainty. The transfer coefficients (forage-)plant/milk laid down in Paragraph 45 of the Radiation Protection Ordinance (Strahlenschutzverordnung) amount to 1.0x10/sup -2/ for iodine-131, 1.2x10/sup -2/ for caesium-137 and 2.0x10/sup -3/ for strontium-90. More recent calculated factors are markedly lower at the average. During milk processing, the greatest amount of radionuclides gets access to the whey or into the permeate after ultrafiltration of whey. In butter and cheese only minute amounts of caesium can be expected.
Radionuclide transfer from soil to plants
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Teufel, D.; Steinhilber-Schwab, B.; Hoepfner, U.; Ratka, R.; Sand, H. van de; Franke, B.
1979-01-01
The planned nuclear reprocessing plant (NEZ) Gorleben will fundamentally differ from actually operating nuclear power plants with regard to its radioactive emissions because relatively long-life isotopes will play a greater role in the emissions. The longevity of the radionuclides emitted in the planned NEZ implies that there will be an accumulation of radionuclides in the surroundings of the plant and long-term effects of the plant on the environment will get higher significance. As radionuclides mainly reach milk and meat via the food of farm animals the transfer of cesium and strontium from the ground into plants was amply investigated. The results show that the correlation calculations are suitable to describe the effect of different parameters on the transfer factor. They are not suited for a forecast of the transfer conditions on a certain location for the reasons explained before. Location-specific measurements seem to be indispensable for these purposes. Besides the greenhouse tests open air measurements of fall-out nuclides with and without elimination of external contamination seem to represent a realistic possibility for the determination of transfer factors. Great attention has to be paid in this kind of tests to the growth conditions (especially fertilization) which have to be accurately registered. (orig./MG) [de
Environmental behaviour of radionuclides and transfer to man
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Smith, H.
1982-01-01
The environmental behaviour of the radionuclides making the major contribution to man's irradiation through diet is described. The following stages are emphasized: transfer of radionuclides to plants; transfer of radionuclides to animals; metabolism of inhaled or ingested radionuclides in animals providing food for man; transfer of radionuclides through the aquatic environment; application of food chain models. (43 references)
Soil-to-plant transfer factors for natural radionuclides in the Brazilian cerrado region
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Jacomino, Vanusa M.F.; Oliveira, Kerley A.; Menezes, Maria Angela de B.; Mello, Jaime de; Silva, David F. da
2009-01-01
Large amounts of phosphogypsum produced have been attracting attention of Radiological Protection institutions and Environmental Protection agencies worldwide, given its high potential for environmental contamination. In Brazil, this material has been used for several decades, especially for agricultural purposes. Due to the presence of radionuclides in its composition, it is necessary to understand the mechanisms for natural radionuclide transfer in the soil/plant system and to evaluate if the use of phosphogypsum in soil contributes to increased exposition of humans to natural radioactivity. Experiments were accomplished in a greenhouse with lettuce cultivation in two types of soil (sandy and clayey) fertilized with four different amounts of phosphogypsum. Samples of phosphogypsum, soil, lettuce and drainage water were then analyzed for key radionuclides. 238 U and 232 Th analyses were carried out by Neutron Activation Analysis; 226 Ra, 228 Ra, and 210 Pb by analyzed by Gamma Spectrometry; and 210 Po by Alpha Spectrometry Technique. Finally, Transfer Factors of soil-plant were calculated as well as annual contribution to the effective dose due to the ingestion of lettuces. 22 '6Ra average specific activity in phosphogypsum samples (252 Bq kg -1 ) was below the maximum level recommended by USEPA, which is 370 Bq.kg -1 for agricultural use. Although most of the results for mean specific activity of radionuclides in lettuce presented values below the Minimum Detectable Activity (MDA), Transfer Factors were estimated for those conditions in which the mean specific activity proved to be superior to MDA. Values ranged from 1.8 10 -3 to 2.3 10 -2 for 232 Th; 3.5 10 - '2 to 4.1 10 -2 for 226 Ra, 2.4 10 -1 to 3.2 10 - '1 for 228 Ra, and 3.5 10 -2 to 8.5 10 -2 for 210 Po, depending on the type of soil used for planting vegetables. In general, results obtained in the present study indicated that mobility of radionuclides was low in both soils studied. Calculated effective
Soil-to-plant transfer factors for natural radionuclides in the Brazilian cerrado region
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Jacomino, Vanusa M.F.; Oliveira, Kerley A.; Menezes, Maria Angela de B., E-mail: vmfj@cdtn.b [Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear (CDTN/CNEN-MG), Belo Horizonte, MG (Brazil); Mello, Jaime de; Silva, David F. da, E-mail: jwvmello@ufv.b [Universidade Federal de Vicosa (UFV), MG (Brazil). Dept. de Solos; Siqueira, Maria C.; Taddei, Maria H.; Dias, Fabiana F., E-mail: mc_quimica@hotmail.co, E-mail: mhtaddei@cnen.gov.b, E-mail: fdias@cnen.gov.b [Comissao Nacional de Energia Nuclear (CNEN-MG), Pocos de Caldas, MG (Brazil). Lab. de Pocos de Caldas (LAPOC)
2009-07-01
Large amounts of phosphogypsum produced have been attracting attention of Radiological Protection institutions and Environmental Protection agencies worldwide, given its high potential for environmental contamination. In Brazil, this material has been used for several decades, especially for agricultural purposes. Due to the presence of radionuclides in its composition, it is necessary to understand the mechanisms for natural radionuclide transfer in the soil/plant system and to evaluate if the use of phosphogypsum in soil contributes to increased exposition of humans to natural radioactivity. Experiments were accomplished in a greenhouse with lettuce cultivation in two types of soil (sandy and clayey) fertilized with four different amounts of phosphogypsum. Samples of phosphogypsum, soil, lettuce and drainage water were then analyzed for key radionuclides. {sup 238}U and {sup 232}Th analyses were carried out by Neutron Activation Analysis; {sup 226}Ra, {sup 228}Ra, and {sup 210}Pb by analyzed by Gamma Spectrometry; and {sup 210}Po by Alpha Spectrometry Technique. Finally, Transfer Factors of soil-plant were calculated as well as annual contribution to the effective dose due to the ingestion of lettuces. {sup 22}'6Ra average specific activity in phosphogypsum samples (252 Bq kg{sup -1}) was below the maximum level recommended by USEPA, which is 370 Bq.kg{sup -1} for agricultural use. Although most of the results for mean specific activity of radionuclides in lettuce presented values below the Minimum Detectable Activity (MDA), Transfer Factors were estimated for those conditions in which the mean specific activity proved to be superior to MDA. Values ranged from 1.8 10{sup -3} to 2.3 10{sup -2} for {sup 232}Th; 3.5 10{sup -}'2 to 4.1 10{sup -2} for {sup 226}Ra, 2.4 10{sup -1} to 3.2 10{sup -}'1 for {sup 228}Ra, and 3.5 10{sup -2} to 8.5 10{sup -2} for {sup 210}Po, depending on the type of soil used for planting vegetables. In general, results
Transfer of radionuclides to animal products following ingestion or inhalation
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Coughtrey, P.J.
1996-01-01
Contamination of animal products forms an important pathway in the transfer of radionuclides from source to man. Simulation of radionuclide transfer via animal products requires an understanding of the processes and mechanisms involved in absorption, distribution, turnover and excretion of radionuclides and related elements in animals as well as knowledge of animal grazing habits and husbandry. This paper provides a summary of the metabolism of important radionuclides in typical domestic animals and of the mathematical approaches that have been used to simulate transfer from diet to animal product. The equilibrium transfer factor approach has been used widely but suffers a number of disadvantages when releases or intakes are variable with time or when intakes are short relative to the lifetime of the animal of interest. Dynamic models, especially those of the compartmental type, have been developed and used widely. Both approaches have benefited from experiences obtained after the Chernobyl accident but a number of uncertainties still exist. Whereas there is now extensive knowledge on the behaviour of radiocaesium in both domestic and wild animals, knowledge of the behaviour of other potentially important radionuclides remains limited. Further experimental and metabolic studies will be required to reduce uncertainties associated with the transfer of radionuclides other than radiocaesium and thereby produce a sound basis for radiological assessments. (author)
Measurements for modeling radionuclide transfer in the aquatic environment
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Kahn, B.
1976-01-01
Analytical methods for measuring radionuclides in the aquatic environment are discussed for samples of fresh water and seawater, fish and shellfish, biota such as algae, plankton, seaweed, and aquatic plants, and sediment. Consideration is given to radionuclide collection and concentration, sample preservation, radiochemical and instrumental analysis, and quality assurance. Major problems are the very low environmental levels of the radionuclides of interest, simultaneous occurrence of radionuclides in several chemical and physical forms and the numerous factors that affect radionuclide levels in and transfers among media. Some radionuclides of importance in liquid effluents from nuclear power stations are listed, and sources of radiochemical analytical methods are recommended
Korean experimental studies on the radionuclide transfer in crop plants
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Choi, Y.H.; Lim, K.M.; Choi, G.S.; Choi, H.J.; Lee, H.S.; Lee, C.W.
2003-01-01
In Korea, data on the radionuclide transfer in crop plants have been produced almost exclusively at the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI), where experimental studies have been carried out for last about 20 years. These works are briefly outlined in this paper which shows results with emphasis on rice data. Soil-to-plant transfer factors of radionuclides including radiocesium and radiostrontium were measured through greenhouse experiments for various crop species. Not only conventional transfer factors but also those based on the activity applied to unit area of the soil surface were investigated. Field studies on the transfer of fallout 137 Cs were carried out for rice and Chinese cabbage. As for parameters in relation to direct plant contamination, interception factors and translocation factors were obtained through greenhouse experiments. Plants were sprayed with radioactive solutions containing 54 Mn, 57 Co, 85 Sr, 103 Ru and 134 Cs at different growth stages. Experiments on the plant exposure to airborne HTO and I 2 vapor were also carried out. The transfer parameters generally showed great variations with soils, crops, radionuclides and isotope application times. Most experiments were designed for acute releases of radioactivity but some results are applicable to steady-state conditions, too. Many of the produced data would be of use also in other countries including Japan. (author)
Radionuclide transfer
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Gerber, G.B.
1993-01-01
The research project described here had the aim to obtain further information on the transfer of nuclides during pregnancy and lactation. The tests were carried out in mini-pigs and rats receiving unchanging doses of radionuclides with the food. The following findings were revealed for the elements examined: Fe, Se, Cs and Zn were characterized by very high transfer levels in the mother, infant and foetus. A substantial uptake by the mother alone was observed for Co, Ag and Mn. The uptake by the foetus and infant here was 1 to 10 times lower. A preferential concentration in certain tissues was seen for Sr and Tc; the thyroid levels of Tc were about equally high in mothers and infants, while Sr showed less accumulation in the maternal bone. The lanthanide group of substances (Ce, Eu and Gd as well as Y and Ru) were only taken up to a very limited extent. The uptake of the examined radionuclides (Fe, Co, Ag, Ce) with the food ingested was found here to be ten times greater in rats as compared to mini-pigs. This showed that great caution must be observed, if the behaviour of radionuclides in man is extrapolated from relevant data obtained in rodents. (orig./MG) [de
Transfer soil-wood of radionuclides of uranium decay series
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Deus, P.; Petschat, U.; Schmidt, P.
1998-01-01
The radionuclide transfer soil-plant is an essential feature for radioecological characterisation of the biosphere. Beside of plants used only for nutrition purposes also plants have to be investigated which are used otherwise intensively or over long periods by humans. This e.g. comes true in the case of wood which as timber or furniture in buildings could be the reason of radiation expositions of inhabitants. In this work by means of experimental investigations for 226 Ra, 210 Pb, 210 Po, 238 U and 227 Ac transfer factors of wood grown on areas used formerly by uranium mining are estimated. The dependence of transfer factors on specific activity in soil is determined. It is shown that in the case of higher soil activities transfer factors of wood are comparable with factors published for other vegetation. As a rule no linear dependence of plant activity on soil activity has been found. As known from other radionuclides saturations take place which result in an upper level of activity in the plants. An effective dose estimation in the case of typical applications shows as a rule no remarkable radioecological risk due to wood grown on mining areas with the exception of processes including radionuclide enrichment. In latter cases and for wood grown on areas with soil activities >1 000 Bq/kg with respect to a general radiation protection precaution duty and aspects of licence problems, however, a case-to-case decision is recommended. (orig.) [de
Prediction of Radionuclide transfer based on soil parameters: application to vulnerability studies
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Roig, M.; Vidal, M.; Rauret, G.
1998-01-01
The multi factorial character of the radiocaesium and radiostrontium soil-to-plan transfer, which depends on the radionuclide level in the soil solution amplified by a plant factor, prevents from establishing univariate relationships between transfer factors and soil and/or plant parameters. The plant factor is inversely proportional to the level of competitive species in the soil solution (Ca and Mg, for radiostrontium, and K and NH 4 for radiocaesium). Radionuclide level in soil solution depends on the radionuclide available fraction and its distribution coefficient. For radiostrontium, this may be obtained from the Cationic Exchange Capacity (CEC), whereas for radiocaesium the Specific Interception Potential should be calculate, both corrected by the concentrations of the competitive species and selectivity coefficients. Therefore, the transfer factor eventually depends on soil solution composition, the available fraction and the number of sorption sites, as well as on the plant factor. For a given plant, a relative sequence of transfer can be set up based solely on soil parameters, since the plant factor is cancelled. This prediction model has been compared with transfer data from experiments with Mediterranean, mineral soils, contaminated with a thermo generated aerosol, and with podzolic and organic soils, contaminated by the Chernobyl fallout. These studies revealed that it was possible to predict a relative scale of transfer for any type of soil, also allowing a scale of soil vulnerability to radiostrontium and radiocaesium contamination to be set up. (Author)
The soil-to-plant transfer of radionuclides. Feasibilities and limits of the transfer concept
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Gerzabek, M.H.
1993-01-01
The present paper discusses the simple transfer model. After the Chernobyl fallout in Austria field investigations dealt with the behaviour of radionuclides in the soil-plant system. They led to the following conclusions: (1) A single plowing does not result in a homogeneous radionuclide distribution in the A p horizon. (2) Low plant availability of radionuclides (e.g. 137 Cs) led to a higher contribution of outer contamination (resuspension) to concentrations in plants in the first years after the fallout. Differences arose between high and low contamination areas. This was not true for 90 Sr, which exhibited three to ten times higher transfer factors as compared to 137 Cs. (3) The contamination source has a distinct impact on the plant availability of radionuclides. (4) In semi-natural environments radiocaesium can be bound to the biomass to a great extent, which results in significantly higher biological half-lives as compared to agricultural ecosystems. (author)
Radionuclide transfer to fruit in the IAEA TRS No. 472
Directory of Open Access Journals (Sweden)
Giosuè S.
2012-04-01
Full Text Available This paper describes the approach taken to present the information on fruits in the IAEA report TRS No. 472, supported by the IAEA-TECDOC-1616, which describes the key transfer processes, concepts and conceptual models regarded as important for dose assessment, as well as relevant parameters for modelling radionuclide transfer in fruits. Information relate to fruit plants grown in agricultural ecosystems of temperate regions. The relative significance of each pathway after release of radionuclides depends upon the radionuclide, the kind of crop, the stage of plant development and the season at time of deposition. Fruit intended as a component of the human diet is borne by plants that are heterogeneous in habits, and morphological and physiological traits. Information on radionuclides in fruit systems has therefore been rationalised by characterising plants in three groups: woody trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. Parameter values have been collected from open literature, conference proceedings, institutional reports, books and international databases. Data on root uptake are reported as transfer factor values related to fresh weight, being consumption data for fruits usually given in fresh weight.
Parameters on the radionuclide transfer in crop plants for Korean food chain dose assessment
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Choi, Yong Ho; Lim, K. M.; Cho, Y. H.
2001-12-01
For more realistic assessment of Korean food chain radiation doses due to the operation of nuclear facilities, it is required to use domestically produced data for radionuclide transfer parameters in crop plants. In this report, results of last about 15 years' studies on radionuclide transfer parameters in major crop plants by the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, were summarized and put together. Soil-to-plant transfer factors, parameters quantifying the root uptake of radionuclides, were measured through greenhouse experiments and field studies. In addition to traditional transfer factors, which are based on the activity in unit weight of soil, those based on the activity applied to unit area of soil surface were also investigated. Interception factors, translocation factors and weathering half lives, parameters in relation to direct plant contamination, were investigated through greenhouse experiments. The levels of initial plant contamination with HTO and I2 vapor were described with absorption factors. Especially for HTO vapor, 3H levels in crop plants at harvest were expressed with TFWT (tissue free water tritium) reduction factors and OBT (organically bound tritium) production factors. The above-mentioned parameters generally showed great variations with soils, crops and radionuclide species and application times. On the basis of summarized results, the points to be amended or improved in food chain dose assessment models were discussed both for normal operation and for accidental release
Physical and chemical factors influencing radionuclide behaviour in arable soils
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Rauret, G.; Vidal, M.; Alexakhin, R.M.; Kruglov, S.V.; Cremers, A.; Wauters, J.; Valcke, E.; Ivanov, Y.
1996-01-01
Soil-to-plant transfer of radionuclides integrates plant physiological and soil chemical aspects. Therefore, it is necessary to study the factors affecting the equilibrium of the radionuclides between solid and soil solution phases. Desorption and adsorption studies were applied to the podsolic and peat soils considered in the ECP-2 project. In the desorption approach, both sequential extraction and 'infinite bath' techniques were used. In the adsorption approach, efforts were directed at predicting Cs and Sr-K D on the basis of soil properties and soil solution composition. Desorption approach predicts time-dynamics of transfer with time but it is un sufficient for comparatively predicting transfer. Adsorption studies informs about which are the key factors affecting radionuclide transfer. For Sr, availability depends on the CEC and on the concentration of the Ca + Mg in the soil solution. For Cs, availability is mainly dependent on the partitioning between FES -frayed edge sites-, which are highly specific and REC -regular exchange complex-, with low selectivity for Cs. Moreover, availability depends on the K and NH 4 , levels in the soil solution and fixation properties of the soil. Considering these factors, the calculation of the in situ K D values helps to predict the relative transfer of radionuclides. The calculation of the K D of the materials that could be used as countermeasures could permit the prediction of its suitability to decrease transfer and therefore to help in producing cleaner agricultural products
Radionuclide transfer from contaminated field to crops
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Ohmomo, Yoichiro; Tanaka, Giichiro
1987-03-01
Since the policy for land disposal of radioactive wastes were proposed, the importance of terrestrial radioecology has been re-recognized in Japan. The National Institute of Radiological Sciences (NIRS) held a Two-Day Seminar concerning terrestrial transfer of radionuclides. This is a compilation of papers presented at the seminar. The purpose of the seminar is twofold: firstly, to raise basic problems concerning transfer of not only radionuclides but also elements into crops, as well as to present NIRS's studies on radionuclide transfer; and secondly, to discuss in depth the topics about possible transfer of I-129 into rice plant arising from the commercial fuel reprocessing plant, the construction of which is under planning. Finally, general discussion of further issues on radioecology is given. (Namekawa, K.)
Transfer of fallout radionuclides derived from Fukushima NPP accident: 1 year study on transfer of radionuclides through hydrological processes
Science.gov (United States)
Onda, Yuichi; Kato, Hiroaki; Patin, Jeremy; Yoshimura, Kazuya; Tsujimura, Maki; Wakahara, Taeko; Fukushima, Takehiko
2013-04-01
Previous experiences such as Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant accident have confirmed that fallout radionuclides on the ground surface migrate through natural environment including soils and rivers. Therefore, in order to estimate future changes in radionuclide deposition, migration process of radionuclides in forests, soils, ground water, rivers should be monitored. However, such comprehensive studies on migration through forests, soils, ground water and rivers have not been conducted so far. Here, we present the following comprehensive investigation was conducted to confirm migration of radionuclides through natural environment including soils and rivers. 1)Study on depth distribution of radiocaesium in soils within forests, fields, and grassland 2)Confirmation of radionuclide distribution and investigation on migration in forests 3)Study on radionuclide migration due to soil erosion under different land use 4)Measurement of radionuclides entrained from natural environment including forests and soils 5)Investigation on radionuclide migration through soil water, ground water, stream water, spring water under different land use 6)Study on paddy-to-river transfer of radionuclides through suspended sediments 7)Study on river-to-ocean transfer of radionuclides via suspended sediments 8)Confirmation of radionuclide deposition in ponds and reservoirs
Maternal transfer of anthropogenic radionuclides to eggs in a small shark
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Jeffree, Ross A.; Oberhansli, Francois; Teyssie, Jean-Louis; Fowler, Scott W.
2015-01-01
Maternal transfer of radionuclides to progeny is one of the least known sources of contamination in marine biota and more information is needed to assess its radiological significance. A radiotracer study on spotted dogfish, Scyliorhinus canicula, evaluated the hypothesis that four anthropogenic radionuclides (Cobalt-60, Zinc-65, Americium-241 and Cesium-134) could be maternally transferred to eggs and each of their major components during maternal ingestion of radiolabelled food. The linear regressions between cumulative radioactivity that had been maternally ingested and the level in subsequently laid eggs were used to derive maternal-to-egg transfer factors (mTFs). These maternal transfers varied over an order of magnitude and were ranked 134 Cs > 65 Zn > 60 Co > 241 Am. This ranking was the same as their relative assimilation efficiencies in radiolabelled food consumed by adults. Among these four radionuclides the potential radiological exposure of embryos is accentuated for 65 Zn and 134 Cs due to their predominant transfer to egg yolk where they are available for subsequent absorption by the embryo as it develops prior to hatching from the egg capsule. Thus, for cartilaginous fish like shark, the potential radioecological consequences of a pulsed release of these radionuclides into the marine environment may extend beyond the temporal duration of the release. - Highlights: ⢠Dogfish maternally transfer anthropogenic radionuclides to eggs. ⢠Transfers are ranked 134 Cs > 65 Zn > 60 Co > 241 Am. ⢠Both 65 Zn and 60 Co are mainly deposited in yolk
Transfer of radionuclides from the environment to human milk
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Eaman, M.
1986-06-01
The author reviews literature from an on-line bibliographic search and describes what is known about radionuclide and elemental transfer from the environment to human milk. Included in the review are factors affecting elemental transfer, element concentrations observed in human milk, as well as sampling and analytical methods used. Recommendations are given for the development of a field survey. 59 refs
Radionuclide data bases available for bioaccumulation factors for freshwater biota
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Blaylock, B.G.
1982-01-01
Aquatic models currently in use for dose assessment simulate the transfer of radionuclides in aquatic environments and the transfer to man. In these models the assimilation of a radionuclide in aquatic biota is calculated by using a simple empirical relationship known as the bioaccumulation factor (BF) to represent the transfer of the radionuclide from water to organism. The purpose of this article is to review data bases that are available for BFs for freshwater biota and to identify the uncertainties associated with them. Data bases for raidoisotopes of Co, Cs, C, H, I, Pu, Ra, Ru, Sr, and U are reviewed. With the exception of ruthenium and carbon, the review is restricted to BFs determined for natural freshwater systems. Factors influencing the variability of BFs are identified, uncertainties associated with the validation of BFs are discussed, and some guidance is given for collecting data and measuring BFs
Transfer of radionuclides into human milk
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Steiner, M.; Wirth, E.
1998-01-01
Up until now the potential radiation exposure to breast-fed babies due to contaminated human milk has not been taken into account, when deriving international limit values and reference levels for radionuclides in foodstuffs, in air at monitored work places or for exposures in the medical field. It was the aim of the research project 'Transfer of radionuclides into human milk' to quantify the transfer of incorporated radionuclides into mother's milk, and develop simple models to estimate the radiation exposure of babies through the ingestion of human milk. The study focused on considerations of the radiation exposure due to the ingestion of contaminated foodstuffs by the mother, the inhalation of radionuclides at monitored work places, and the administration of radiopharmaceuticals to breast-feeding mothers. The blocking of infant thyroid glands by stable iodine in the case of accidental releases of radioiodine was considered as well. (orig.) [de
Transfer of radionuclides to plants of natural ecosystems at the Semipalatinsk Test Site.
Science.gov (United States)
Larionova, N V; Lukashenko, S N; Kabdyrakova, A M; Kunduzbayeva, A Ye; Panitskiy, A V; Ivanova, A R
2018-06-01
A systematic study devoted to 137 Cs, 90 Sr, 241 Am, 239+240 Pu radionuclides in vegetation cover from several spots of the Semipalatinsk test site (STS) is summarised in this paper, highlighting the main findings obtained. The analysed spots are characterized by various types of radioactive contamination. Transfer factors (Tf) required for the quantitative description of the radionuclides transition from the soil to aboveground plant parts were determined, being found that, on average, the minimum Tf for all the radionuclides concerned were determined on the "Experimental Field" ground, followed by the determined ones in the "plumes" of radioactive fallout and in the conditionally "background" territories analysed. The highest transfer factors were characteristic of zones of radioactive streamflows and places of warfare radioactive agent (WRA) tests. On the other hand, ordering the radionuclide transferring factors in descending order, the following sequence was obtained: 90 Sr Tf > Cs Tf > 239+240 Pu Tf > 241 Am Tf, with the 90 Sr Tf, on the average, exceeding the 137 Cs Tf by 8 times and exceeding the 239+240 Pu Tf by up 16 times. 239+240 Pu Tf values were up to 3 times higher than the 241 Am Tf. The exception to the indicated radionuclide Tf descending order corresponded to places of WRA tests where Tf of radionuclides of interest by plants follows the sequence 90 Sr > 239+240 Pu > 137 Cs. Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Radionuclide transfer from mother to embryo
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Toader, M.; Vasilache, R.A.; Scridon, R.; Toader, M.L.
1998-01-01
The transfer of radionuclides from mother to embryo is still a matter of high interest. Therefore, the relation was investigated between the amount of radionuclides in the embryo and the dietary intake of the mother, this for two scenarios: a recurrent intake of variable amounts of radionuclides, and a long-term intake of a relatively constant amount of radionuclides, the radionuclide being 137 Cs. In the first case, the amount of radionuclides present in the embryo increases with the age of the embryo and with the intake of the mother. In the second case, no correlation could be found between the age of the embryo and its radioactive content; only the correlation between the intake of the mother and the radionuclide content of the embryo remained. (A.K.)
Transfer factors of radionuclides and elements in the terrestrial and fresh water environment of India
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Hegde, A.G.; Hemalatha, P.; Desai, M.V.M.
2004-04-01
This document presents the transfer factor values such as Bioaccumulation factors B p , Transfer coefficient K d , Soil to plant transfer coefficient B v etc. generated in the terrestrial and fresh water environmental matrices of India. This attempt is made with a view to provide site and species specific values in comparison with IAEA default values from Safety Series(SS) No.57 and IAEA Technical Report Series (TRS) No.364. Our recommended B p values for 137 Cs and 90 Sr are matching well with IAEA reported values. B p value for 228 Ra also match well with IAEA values. While the freshwater sediment K d values for 137 Cs is 5000 which is closer to TRS 364 value, 90 Sr K d value is lower than IAEA value. Natural radionuclides Ra, Th and U values are also found to be higher than IAEA values which indicates the site specificity. B p values for stable elements such as Cu, Pb, Mn and Cd are comparable with IAEA whereas the recommended K d value for Zn is higher than IAEA reported value. Transfer factors for cereals, pulses and vegetables are also tabulated in this report in comparison with IAEA reported values. (author)
Transfer factors of some selected radionuclides (radioactive Cs, Sr, Mn, Co and Zn) from soil to leaf vegetables
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Ban-nai, Tadaaki; Muramatsu, Yasuyuki; Yanagisawa, Kei
1995-01-01
Transfer factors of radionuclides from soil to leaf vegetables (cabbage, Chinese cabbage, komatsuna, spinach and lettuce) have been studied by radiotracer experiments using Andosol as a representative of Japanese soils. The transfer factors of radioactive Cs, Sr, Mn, Co and Zn for edible parts of vegetables (average of five vegetables) were 0.11, 0.24, 0.61, 0.05 and 0.52, respectively. These values should be used in safety assessment for Japanese agricultural environment. The transfer factors of Mn, Co and Zn for spinach were higher than those for the other vegetables. The transfer factors of Cs for different organs of the leaf vegetables were rather homogeneous. The transfer factors of Sr and Mn were higher for older (outer) leaves than younger (inner) ones. In contrast to Sr and Mn, transfer factors of Zn for younger leaves were higher than those for older ones. The distribution ratios of the elements between soil-solution and soil were in the order Sr>Mn>Cs>Co>Zn, whereas the distribution ratios of the elements between plant and soil-solution were in the order Zn>Cs>Mn>Co>Sr. These results indicate that the selectivity for Sr by plants from the soil-solution was low and that for Zn was very high. (author)
Soil-plant transfer factors of radionuclides in mangroves in the State of Pernambuco, Brazil; Fatores de transferência solo-planta de radionuclÃdeos em manguezais do Estado de Pernambuco, Brasil
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Paiva, J.D.S.; França, E.J. de, E-mail: paivajds@gmail.com [Centro Regional de Ciências Nucleares do Nordeste (CRCN-NE/CNEN-PE), Recife, PE (Brazil)
2017-07-01
Mangroves are the main inputs of chemical substances, considering the Brazilian estuarine environments. Natural radionuclides such as {sup 40}K and {sup 228}Ra can be transferred to vegetation. The objective of this work is to determine the transfer factors (TF) and aggregate transfer (TF{sub ag}) of radionuclides {sup 40}K and {sup 228}Ra in the soil-plant system of mangroves in the State of Pernambuco , Brazil. Concentrations of {sup 40}K and {sup 228}Ra activity in the soil of mangroves and in samples composed of leaves of individuals of the native plant species Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa and Aviccenia Schaueriana were determined from Gamma Spectrometry with hyper-pure germanium detector (HPGe). The transfer and aggregate transfer factors were calculated according to the methodology proposed in the literature. The respective TF and TF{sub ag} values for the {sub 40}K radionuclide were 0.384 and 2.13 x 10{sup -3} for R. mangle; 0.394 and 2.05 x 10{sup -3} for L. racemosa and 1.348 and 3.44 x 10{sup -3} for Avicennia sp. For the radionuclide {sup 228}Ra, the results were lower for R. mangle (TF = 0.089; TF{sub ag} = 1.95 x 10{sup -4}) and L. race-mosa (TF = 0.142; TF{sub ag} = 3.46 x 10{sup -4}). For Avicennia schaueriana, the concentrations of {sup 228}Ra activity in the leaves were below the detection limit. The TF values found demonstrated a greater {sup 40}K transfer in Avicennia and {sup 228}Ra dominated mangroves for mangroves where the L. racemosa distribution predominates.
Semipalatinsk test site: Parameters of radionuclide transfer to livestock and poultry products under actual radioactive contamination
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Baigazinov, Z.; Lukashenko, S. [Institute of Radiation Safety and Ecology (Kazakhstan)
2014-07-01
The IAEA document 'Handbook of Parameter Values for the Prediction of Radionuclide Transfer in Terrestrial and Freshwater Environments' published in 2010 is one of the major sources of knowledge about the migration parameters of radionuclides in the agro-ecosystems that is necessary to assess the dose loads to the population. It is known from there that Sr and Cs transfer has been studied thoroughly, however the factors vary over a wide range. Few studies were conducted for Pu and Am transfer. It should be noted that the studies carried out in real conditions of radioactive contamination, i.e. under natural conditions is also very few. In this regard, since 2007 the territory of the former Semipalatinsk Test Site has been used for comprehensive radioecological studies, where the major radionuclides to be investigated are {sup 90}Sr, {sup 137}Cs, {sup 239+240}Pu, {sup 241}Am. The objects for these studies are birds and animals typical for the region, as well as products obtained from them (lamb, beef, horse meat, chicken, pork, cow's milk, mare's milk, eggs, chicken, chicken feathers, wool, leather). It should be noted that these products are the main agricultural goods that are available in these areas. The studies have been conducted with grazing animals in the most contaminated areas of the test site. Some groups of animals and birds were fed to contaminated feed, soil, contaminated water. Radionuclide intake by animal body with air were studied. Husbandry periods for animals and birds ranged from 1 to 150 days. The transfer parameters to cow and mare's milk have been investigated at single and prolonged intake of radionuclides, also their excretion dynamics has been studied. The studies revealed features of the radionuclide transfer into organs and tissues of animals and birds intaken with hay, water and soil. The results showed that the transfer factors vary up to one order. A relationship has been identified between distribution of
The transfer of radionuclides into domestic animals and their products
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Miyamoto, Susumu
1979-01-01
The contamination of animal products, especially milk, with radionuclides, are regarded as the important problem in the food chain, and has been one of the remarkable public concerns in Japan since the nuclear tests in 1954. The transfer of several radionuclides into domestic animals and their products is described. 131 I, 90 Sr and 137 Cs are very important as the radionuclides that transfer into domestic animals and their products. The data of the transfer of several orally administered radionuclides into milk from the references are summarized as follows: (1) 131 I transfered into milk was 5 -- 30% of dose (cow), 10 -- 40% (goat). (2) 90 Sr( 89 Sr) transfered into milk was 0.6 -- 1.9% (cow), 0.5 -- 0.6% (goat). (3) 137 Cs( 134 Cs) transfered into milk was 10 -- 13% (cow), 7.0% (goat). (4) 140 Ba- 140 La transfered into milk was 0.6% (cow), 0.1 -- 0.2% (goat). (5) 181 W transfered into milk was 0.06% (goat). (author)
Transfer factor of the radionuclides in food crops from high-background radiation area of south west India
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Shanthi, G.; Thampi Thanka kumaran, J.; Allen Gnana raj, G.; Maniyan, C. G.
2012-01-01
It is necessary to obtain the transfer factor (TF) of long-lived radionuclides because soil type and vegetation can affect TF. We studied the food crops commonly consumed by the general public of Kanyakumari district of south India. The main focus was on rice, fruits, vegetables and tapioca because the consumption of these is high. The soil to rice TF for the radionuclides, 226 Ra, 232 Th, 238 U and 40 K are 8.8 x 10. -2 , 14.2 x 10. -2 , 5.8 x 10. -2 and 6.3 x 10. -2 , respectively. The TF of tapioca for 226 Ra, 232 Th, 238 U and 40 K are 6.2 x 10 -2 , 11 x 10 -2 , 1.9 x 10 -2 and 8.9 x 10 -2 , respectively. For fruits and vegetables, the TFs are low. In the majority of the crops the non-edible parts accumulate more radionuclides than the edible parts. (authors)
The transfer of radionuclides from soil to animal feed
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Frissel, M J; Ginkel, J.H. van; Stoutjesdijk, J F; Koester, H W [Lab. of Radiation Research, Nat. Inst. of Public Health and Environmental Hygiene, Bilthoven (Netherlands)
1986-07-01
Non volatile radioactive compounds which become released into the atmosphere will finally accumulate in the top layer of soils. The soil-to-plant transfer is therefore a key process for the contamination of food and animal feed. The spread of the uptake factors is large; even so large that a worst case approach for estimating the contamination may lead to very unrealistic conclusions. The Int. Union of Radioecologists (IUR) has established a working group to approach this problem. By means of a joint programme of many institutions sufficient transfer data are being collected to allow a sophisticated statistical evaluation resulting in predictions of transfer factor values and confidence levels. Possible counter measures against the uptake of radionuclides are discussed. (author)
The transfer of radionuclides from soil to animal feed
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Frissel, M.J.; Ginkel, J.H. van; Stoutjesdijk, J.F.; Koester, H.W.
1986-01-01
Non volatile radioactive compounds which become released into the atmosphere will finally accumulate in the top layer of soils. The soil-to-plant transfer is therefore a key process for the contamination of food and animal feed. The spread of the uptake factors is large; even so large that a worst case approach for estimating the contamination may lead to very unrealistic conclusions. The Int. Union of Radioecologists (IUR) has established a working group to approach this problem. By means of a joint programme of many institutions sufficient transfer data are being collected to allow a sophisticated statistical evaluation resulting in predictions of transfer factor values and confidence levels. Possible counter measures against the uptake of radionuclides are discussed. (author)
Soil-to-plant transfer factors for natural radionuclides in grass in the vicinity of a former uranium mine
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Štrok, Marko, E-mail: Marko.Strok@ijs.si; Smodiš, Borut, E-mail: Borut.Smodis@ijs.si
2013-08-15
Highlights: ⢠Soil and grass samples were collected from sites at the uranium mill tailings pile. ⢠{sup 238}U, {sup 230}Th, {sup 226}Ra and {sup 210}Pb activity concentrations were determined. ⢠Soil-to-plant transfer factors were determined and are comparable with literature. ⢠Potential use of grass as a monitor of radionuclide migration was evaluated. ⢠Grass has potential in predicting {sup 238}U and {sup 226}Ra migration. -- Abstract: The activity concentrations of {sup 238}U, {sup 230}Th, {sup 226}Ra and {sup 210}Pb were determined in soil and grass samples collected from sites at the uranium mill tailings waste pile, which lies near the former uranium mine at Žirovski vrh in Slovenia. Soil-to-plant transfer factors were determined and the potential use of grass as a monitor of radionuclide migration from the waste pile was evaluated. It was found that grass was not suitable for monitoring {sup 230}Th and {sup 210}Pb migration (no linear correlation between soil and grass activity concentrations) but has potential in predicting {sup 238}U and {sup 226}Ra migration (linear correlation between soil and grass activity concentrations). Soil-to-plant transfer factors for grass were in the range from 0.0014 to 0.015 kg/kg DM for {sup 238}U, 0.0039 to 0.012 kg/kg DM for {sup 230}Th, 0.035 to 0.46 kg/kg DM for {sup 226}Ra and 0.098 to 1.5 kg/kg DM for {sup 210}Pb.
Peculiarities of radionuclide transfer to plants
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Butkus, D.; Andriulaityte, I.; Luksiene, B.; Druteikiene, R.
2003-01-01
The biosphere and its interacting components (air, soil, bottom sediments, flora, fauna, human beings) are constantly affected by ionizing radiation. One of the ionizing radiation sources is noble radioactive gas that is continually released into the environment because of the normal operation of nuclear power plants (short-lived and long-lived noble gas) and nuclear fuel-reprocessing plants (long-lived noble gas). Another source is related to nuclear tests and the Chernobyl NPP accident, when long-lived gaseous and aerosol radionuclides ( 85 Kr, transuranics, 137 Cs, 90 Sr, etc) were spread in all environmental systems. In order to evaluate the mechanism of radionuclide transfer to plants, model experimental investigation using gaseous 85 Kr and ionic state 137 Cs was undertaken. For this purpose specific chambers with defined physical parameters were applied. The gained tentative results show the importance of these experiments for the estimation of radionuclide transfer to plants and for the prognosis of human internal irradiation. (author)
Transfer of radionuclides to man through environmental pathways
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Mitchell, N.T.
1974-01-01
The most widely accepted method in current use for the evaluation of environmental impact from releases of radioactivity that may cause human radiation exposure used an environmental pathway model. The more important aspects of the model involve the use of critical pathway techniques to set controls on the releases of radioactive material to the environment and to assess the human radiation exposure arising as a consequence. The basic concepts of the environmental pathway model and its application are discussed. The model depends on achieving an understanding of radionuclide behavior in the environment, from the moment of release up to the time when contamination results in radiation exposure to the public. Exposure may be as a result of contaminated material entering the body-as air, water or a foodstuff; alternatively, it may be due to radiation whose source is external to the body. For each of these types of exposure pathway the sequence of events can be divided up into a number of compartments, between which transfer takes place. Transfer along the pathway is a dynamic process and can be described mathematically in terms of transfer functions between interacting compartments. Alternatively, for the situation of a regular discharge resulting in a steady-state condition the relationship between compartments can be expressed as a 'concentration factor'. The derivation of both of these terms is described and some aspects of their use are discussed. The paper then goes on to discuss the types of environmental pathway that are encountered as a result of release of radionuclides to the atmospheric and aquatic environments. Disposal to the ground is regarded as a special case of release to the aquatic environment. Some ot the literature on the subject is reviewed in discussingthe better known pathways showing what, to date, have been the most important mechanisms of transfer of radionuclides to man. (author)
Standard protocol for evaluation of environmental transfer factors around NPP sites
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Hegde, A.G.; Verma, P.C.; Rao, D.D.
2009-01-01
This document presents the standard procedures for evaluation of site specific environmental transfer factors around NPP sites. The scope of this document is to provide standard protocol to be followed for evaluation of environmental transfer factors around NPP sites. The studies on transfer factors are being carried out at various NPP sites under DAE-BRNS projects for evaluation of site specific transfer factors for radionuclides released from power plants. This document contains a common methodology in terms of sampling, processing, measurements and analysis of elemental/radionuclides, while keeping the site specific requirements also in place. (author)
Model of the long-term transfer of radionuclides in forests
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Avila, Rodolfo [Facilia AB, Bromma (Sweden)
2006-05-15
rate and the radionuclide concentration in the soil solution might not hold. For these radionuclides, and in particular for analogues of plant macronutrients, an alternative approach was implemented based on the assumption that their uptake by plants is modulated by the plant uptake of the nutrient. This means that the radionuclide and its corresponding analogue nutrient are taken up by plants in an identical manner via the same carrier molecules. Assuming that only ions in the soil solution near the roots, where the radionuclide concentrations are much lower than analogue concentrations, are available for transition into the roots, the transition of radionuclides from soil to plants can be represented as an independent Poisson process. In this case, the uptake rate of the radionuclide will be proportional to the uptake rate of the analogue nutrient and the concentration of the radionuclide in the soil solution near the roots and inversely proportional to the analogue concentration in the soil solution near the roots. Transfer factors to forest wild animals are lacking for many of the relevant radionuclides. Hence, an alternative approach was introduced which uses an allometric equation relating the radionuclide concentration in the animal diet to the radionuclide concentration in the animal body. In order to test the model, predictions of the transfer factor (TF) from soil to herbivores (expressed in Bq/kg fresh weight per Bq/kg dry weight) were compared with empirical values found in the literature. For Caesium and Strontium the predicted TFs were within the range of empirical observations. The model predictions were slightly higher for Radium and Uranium and slightly lower for Thorium. However, it should be noted that the intervals given for these three elements are based on few empirical data.
Model of the long-term transfer of radionuclides in forests
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Avila, Rodolfo
2006-05-01
rate and the radionuclide concentration in the soil solution might not hold. For these radionuclides, and in particular for analogues of plant macronutrients, an alternative approach was implemented based on the assumption that their uptake by plants is modulated by the plant uptake of the nutrient. This means that the radionuclide and its corresponding analogue nutrient are taken up by plants in an identical manner via the same carrier molecules. Assuming that only ions in the soil solution near the roots, where the radionuclide concentrations are much lower than analogue concentrations, are available for transition into the roots, the transition of radionuclides from soil to plants can be represented as an independent Poisson process. In this case, the uptake rate of the radionuclide will be proportional to the uptake rate of the analogue nutrient and the concentration of the radionuclide in the soil solution near the roots and inversely proportional to the analogue concentration in the soil solution near the roots. Transfer factors to forest wild animals are lacking for many of the relevant radionuclides. Hence, an alternative approach was introduced which uses an allometric equation relating the radionuclide concentration in the animal diet to the radionuclide concentration in the animal body. In order to test the model, predictions of the transfer factor (TF) from soil to herbivores (expressed in Bq/kg fresh weight per Bq/kg dry weight) were compared with empirical values found in the literature. For Caesium and Strontium the predicted TFs were within the range of empirical observations. The model predictions were slightly higher for Radium and Uranium and slightly lower for Thorium. However, it should be noted that the intervals given for these three elements are based on few empirical data
The role of fungi in the transfer and cycling of radionuclides in forest ecosystems
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Steiner, M.; Linkov, I.; Yoshida, S.
2002-01-01
Fungi are one of the most important components of forest ecosystems, since they determine to a large extent the fate and transport processes of radionuclides in forests. They play a key role in the mobilization, uptake and translocation of nutrients and are likely to contribute substantially to the long-term retention of radiocesium in organic horizons of forest soil. This paper gives an overview of the role of fungi regarding the transfer and cycling of nutrients and radionuclides, with special emphasis on mycorrhizal symbiosis. Common definitions of transfer factors, soil-fungus and soil-green plant, including their advantages and limitations, are reviewed. Experimental approaches to quantify the bioavailability of radionuclides in soil and potential long-term change are discussed
The role of fungi in the transfer and cycling of radionuclides in forest ecosystems
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Steiner, M. E-mail: msteiner@bfs.de; Linkov, I.; Yoshida, S
2002-07-01
Fungi are one of the most important components of forest ecosystems, since they determine to a large extent the fate and transport processes of radionuclides in forests. They play a key role in the mobilization, uptake and translocation of nutrients and are likely to contribute substantially to the long-term retention of radiocesium in organic horizons of forest soil. This paper gives an overview of the role of fungi regarding the transfer and cycling of nutrients and radionuclides, with special emphasis on mycorrhizal symbiosis. Common definitions of transfer factors, soil-fungus and soil-green plant, including their advantages and limitations, are reviewed. Experimental approaches to quantify the bioavailability of radionuclides in soil and potential long-term change are discussed.
Evaluation of data on the transfer of radionuclides in the food chain post-Chernobyl action
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Desmet, G.; Sinnaeve, J.
1992-01-01
During the accident at Chernobyl large amounts of radioactive materials were released into the atmosphere and distributed all over Europe. Depending on the trajectories of the radioactive clouds and the large variation of rainfall during its passage through, large local and regional differences in deposition were observed, leading to an enhanced contamination of soil and plants. Consequently, the radionuclides entered the foodchain by several pathways. The radiological consequences of radionuclides discharged from nuclear installations usually are evaluated using doses assessment models. In these models the passage from one compartment into another, e.g. the transfer from soil into plants, from plants into milk or meat is defined by transfer factors, which are influenced by various parameters. From the long term point of view only the long-lived nuclides like 134/137 Cs are important for long term radiation risk assessment after the Chernobyl accident. In this accident the release of radioactive materials took place over a longer time period and varied in rate and radionuclide composition. Some regions of Europe were contaminated several times. To improve radiation dose prediction the CEC has initiated the Post-Chernobyl radiation protection programme 'Evaluation of Data on the Transfer of Radionuclides in the Foodchain' including five main items to be studied by different laboratories: 1. Impact of chemical speciation on the radionuclide transfer in terrestrial ecosystems after a core disruptive accident, especially in soils and plants. 2. Transfer paths of radionuclides in seminatural and natural ecosystems and their role in contaminating the foodchain. 3. Validation of soil-to-plant parameters. 4. Transfer of radionuclides to animals and animal products. 5. Transfer paths in aquatic systems and their importance for the contamination of the foodchain
Transfer coefficients of radionuclides secreted in milk of dairy cows
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Sam, D.; Williams, W.F.; Rockmann, D.D.; Allen, J.T.
1980-01-01
This study simulated experimentally the transfer of radionuclides to milk of dairy cows on a worst-case situation using various radionuclides known to emanate from nuclear power stations and which have been detected on particulates. Two lactating Holstein cows were administered orally one gelatin capsule containing 10 radionuclides in water-soluble form per day for 14 consecutive days. Milk samples were collected and aliquots analyzed in a germanium lithium-drifted detector coupled to a 2048-multichannel gamma-ray analyzer to measure small amounts of complex mixtures of radionuclides. The transfer coefficients of the radionuclides were calculated when their secretion in milk reached or approached a plateau of concentration. The radionuclides and their transfer coefficients to milk were: chromium 51 less than 0.01%; manganese 54 0.033 +- 0.005%; cobalt 60 0.01 +- 0.002%; iron 59 0.0048 +- 0.002%; zinc 65 0.31 +- 0.07%; selenium 75 0.29 +- 0.1%; antimony 125 0.011 +- 0.003%; iodine 131 0.88 +- 0.05%; and cesium 137 0.79 +- 0.08%
Verification of radionuclide transfer factors to domestic-animal food products, using indigenous elements and with emphasis on iodine
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Sheppard, S.C., E-mail: sheppards@ecomatters.co [ECOMatters Inc., WB Lewis Business Centre, 24 Aberdeen Avenue, Pinawa, Manitoba, R0E 1L0 (Canada); Long, J.M.; Sanipelli, B. [ECOMatters Inc., WB Lewis Business Centre, 24 Aberdeen Avenue, Pinawa, Manitoba, R0E 1L0 (Canada)
2010-11-15
Recent reviews have established benchmark values for transfer factors that describe radionuclide transfer from plants to animal food product such as milk, eggs and meat. They also illustrate the paucity of data for some elements and some food products. The present study quantified transfer data using indigenous elements measured in dairy, poultry and other livestock farms in Canada. Up to 62 elements are reported, with particular emphasis on iodine (I) because of the need to accurately assess the behaviour of {sup 129}I from disposal of nuclear fuel waste. There was remarkable agreement with the literature values, and for many elements the present study involved many more observations than were previously available. Perhaps the most important observation was that product/substrate concentration ratios (CR) were quite consistent across species, whereas the traditional fractional transfer factors (TF, units of d kg{sup -1} or d L{sup -1}) necessarily vary with body mass (feed intake). This suggests that for long-term assessments, it may be advisable to change the models to use CR rather than TF.
Verification of radionuclide transfer factors to domestic-animal food products, using indigenous elements and with emphasis on iodine
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Sheppard, S.C.; Long, J.M.; Sanipelli, B.
2010-01-01
Recent reviews have established benchmark values for transfer factors that describe radionuclide transfer from plants to animal food product such as milk, eggs and meat. They also illustrate the paucity of data for some elements and some food products. The present study quantified transfer data using indigenous elements measured in dairy, poultry and other livestock farms in Canada. Up to 62 elements are reported, with particular emphasis on iodine (I) because of the need to accurately assess the behaviour of 129 I from disposal of nuclear fuel waste. There was remarkable agreement with the literature values, and for many elements the present study involved many more observations than were previously available. Perhaps the most important observation was that product/substrate concentration ratios (CR) were quite consistent across species, whereas the traditional fractional transfer factors (TF, units of d kg -1 or d L -1 ) necessarily vary with body mass (feed intake). This suggests that for long-term assessments, it may be advisable to change the models to use CR rather than TF.
Verification of radionuclide transfer factors to domestic-animal food products, using indigenous elements and with emphasis on iodine.
Science.gov (United States)
Sheppard, S C; Long, J M; Sanipelli, B
2010-11-01
Recent reviews have established benchmark values for transfer factors that describe radionuclide transfer from plants to animal food product such as milk, eggs and meat. They also illustrate the paucity of data for some elements and some food products. The present study quantified transfer data using indigenous elements measured in dairy, poultry and other livestock farms in Canada. Up to 62 elements are reported, with particular emphasis on iodine (I) because of the need to accurately assess the behaviour of (129)I from disposal of nuclear fuel waste. There was remarkable agreement with the literature values, and for many elements the present study involved many more observations than were previously available. Perhaps the most important observation was that product/substrate concentration ratios (CR) were quite consistent across species, whereas the traditional fractional transfer factors (TF, units of d kg(-1) or d L(-1)) necessarily vary with body mass (feed intake). This suggests that for long-term assessments, it may be advisable to change the models to use CR rather than TF.
The transfer of radionuclides in the terrestrial environment
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Oehlenschlaeger, M.
1991-04-01
The transfer of radionuclides in the terrestrial environment have been investigated. The thesis is divided into two parts. Part I; Dynamic model for the transfer of radionuclides in the terrestrial environment. The study comprises the development of a compartment model, that simulates the dynamic transport of radioactive pollution in the terrestrial environment. The dynamic processes include, dry and wet deposition, soil resuspension, plant growth, root uptake, foliar interception, animal metabolism, agricultural practice, and production of bread. The ingested amount of radioactivity, by man, is multiplied by a dose conversion factor to yield a dose estimate. The dynamic properties and the predictive accuracy of the model have been tested. The results support the dynamics very well and predicitions within a factor of three, of a hypothetical accident, are likely. Part II; Influence of plant variety on the root transfer of radiocaesium. Studies of genetic differences, in plant uptake of radiocaesium, were concluded with a pot experiment. Four varieties of spring barley and three varieties of rye-grass have been tested in two types of soil. The results for barley showed a significant difference between the four varieties. Analyses of variance confirmed a high root uptake of radiocaesium in the variety Sila and a significantly lower root uptake in the variety Apex in each type of soil. The pattern between the varieties was identical in 1988, 1989 and 1990. Similarly for the grass varieties, one variety, the Italian rye grass, was identified as having the relatively highest uptake of radiocaesium. (author) 22 tabs., 30 ills., 56 refs
Canadian database for radionuclide transfer in the environment
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Sheppard, S C; Corbett, B J [Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd., Pinawa, MB (Canada). Whiteshell Labs.
1995-04-01
The transfer of radionuclides throughout the biosphere is described in models that rely on a series of transfer parameters. These parameters are typically based on experimental or monitoring observations, and describe processes such as soil-to-plant transfer, soil-to-atmosphere transfer, and water-to-fish transfer. The parameters values used in many applications to date have come from around the world. However, data from Canadian settings are generally preferable for Canadian safety assessment applications. This is particularly true for geographically unique parameters relating to specific soils and environments. This database was constructed to record future radionuclide transfer parameter data systematically and completely, and to record particularly valuable existing data. The database supports element-specific parameters. Because the emphasis is on Canadian data, the data are indexed by geographic and physiographic region. In addition to the specific transfer parameter values, there is provision for a substantial amount of ancillary data. The database now operates with dBase software. (author). 1 tab.
Canadian database for radionuclide transfer in the environment
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Sheppard, S.C.; Corbett, B.J.
1995-04-01
The transfer of radionuclides throughout the biosphere is described in models that rely on a series of transfer parameters. These parameters are typically based on experimental or monitoring observations, and describe processes such as soil-to-plant transfer, soil-to-atmosphere transfer, and water-to-fish transfer. The parameters values used in many applications to date have come from around the world. However, data from Canadian settings are generally preferable for Canadian safety assessment applications. This is particularly true for geographically unique parameters relating to specific soils and environments. This database was constructed to record future radionuclide transfer parameter data systematically and completely, and to record particularly valuable existing data. The database supports element-specific parameters. Because the emphasis is on Canadian data, the data are indexed by geographic and physiographic region. In addition to the specific transfer parameter values, there is provision for a substantial amount of ancillary data. The database now operates with dBase software. (author). 1 tab
Transfer of radionuclides at the uranium and thorium decay chains in aquatic and terrestrial environments
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Letourneau, C.
1987-04-01
This report examines the transfer of radionuclides from the uranium and thorium decay chains (U-238, Ra-226, Th-232, Th-230, Po-210 and Pb-210) through the aquatic and terrestrial environment. This transfer is characterized by a transfer coefficient; environmental and experimental factors which cause this coefficient to vary are presented and discussed in this report. Furthermore, based on a literature survey, the report indicates the range of coefficients found for the aquatic sector (that is, sediment and freshwater and marine organisms) and for the terrestrial sector (that is, plants and domestic and wild animals). Afterwards, generalisations are formulated on the transfer of the different radionuclides through the multiple environmental compartments. 75 refs
Soil-to-plant transfer factors of stable elements and naturally occurring radionuclides. (2) Rice collected in Japan
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Uchida, Shigeo; Tagami, Keiko; Hirai, Ikuko
2007-01-01
The critical paths of radionuclides and the critical foods in Japan are different from those in European and North American countries because agricultural products and food customs are different. Consequently, safety assessment in Japan is required to consider rice and vegetables as the critical foods. In this study, we measured soil-to-plant transfer factors (TFs) for rice using naturally existing elements as analogues of radionuclides under equilibrium conditions. Rice and associated soil samples were collected from 50 sampling sites throughout Japan and TFs of 36 and 34 elements for brown rice and white rice, respectively, were calculated on dry weight basis. Probability distributions of TFs of elements for brown rice and white rice were a log normal type. Except for As and Mo, the TFs for brown rice were usually lower than those for wheat and barley especially for K, Fe, Sr (t-test: p 90 Sr and 137 Cs observed in field experiments. Thus, the TFs of naturally existing elements can be used as TFs of those radionuclides which have been in contact with the environment for a long time and have reached equilibrium conditions. (author)
Transfer of radionuclides into and their removal from agricultural products
Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDEWEB)
Hisamatsu, Shun-ichi [Akita Univ. (Japan). School of Medicine; Takizawa, Yukio
1996-12-31
Transfer of radionuclides to agricultural products and their removal before ingestion are reviewed briefly. Ingestion of {sup 137}Cs through various food groups were intensively has been studied from 1960s. The results of these studies indicated that cereals were relatively important food groups in Japan, while dairy products were a critical food group in Western countries. However, Westernization of Japanese diet and other factors recently make dairy products more important. In the case of {sup 137}Cs ingestion from the Chernobyl accident, 43% of total {sup 137}Cs intake was ingested through dairy products. The removal of radionuclides from food by washing, preparing and cooking is also discussed. (author)
RADAL: a dynamic model for the transfer of radionuclides through agricultural food chains
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Jerez Vegueria, S.F.; Frometa Suarez, I.; Jerez Vegueria, P.F.
1996-01-01
The contamination of agricultural products by radionuclides is a mechanism which results in radiation dose commitment to the population, following fallout deposits from the atmosphere to the landscape. This paper describes the structure of the dynamic food chain model RADAL. This model simulates an acute environmental transport of fallout radionuclides through agricultural food chains to man and estimates the levels of radiation doses resulting from consumption of contaminated food. The development of RADAL was based on different existing models. For mathematical representation the transport of radionuclides was modeled through compartments representing environmental elements and/or food products. The model solves a set of linear, first-order, differential equations to estimate the concentrations of radionuclides in soil, vegetation, animal tissues and animal products as a function of time following their deposition. Dynamic physico-chemical processes of the model include the following: deposition and foliar interception, weathering, foliar absorption, soil resuspension, transfer from soil surface to the root zone, absorption by plant roots, transfer to deep soil, transfer to animal products, and human consumption of agricultural products. A parameter sensitivity analyses, performed for the main parameters of the model, showed that the foliar interception constant and resuspension factor are the most influential parameters over the radiation doses / model output. (author)
Evaluation of small scale laboratory and pot experiments to determine realistic transfer factors for the radionuclides 90Sr, 137Cs, 60Co and 54Mn
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Steffens, W.; Fuehr, F.; Mittelstaedt, W.
1980-01-01
Transfer factors for the root uptake of 90 Sr, 137 Cs, 60 Co and 54 Mn were compared using outdoor lysimeters, Kick-Brauckmann experimental pots under greenhouse conditions and Neubauer cups under growth chamber conditions. The uptake was studied in barley, potatoes, sugar beet and salad vegetables grown on either podsolic or loess soil. The transfer factors for these radionuclides under the specific conditions of the small scale Neubauer cup experiments differed greatly from those obtained from the outdoor lysimeter. In the pot experiments, the transfer factors for 90 Sr, 137 Cs and 54 Mn showed less deviation from the lysimeter results especially in crops grown on podsolic soil. For 60 Co, the transfer factors varied for the different crops grown. Transfer factors obtained in pot experiments can only be applicable to a limited extent to field conditions; factors influencing the transfer factors in pot experiments include soil volume, root density, root/shoot ratio, water supply and fertilizer application rate. (UK)
Confirmation of selected milk and meat radionuclide transfer coefficients. Progress report
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Ward, G.M.; Johnson, J.E.
1984-01-01
The objectives are to determine transfer coefficients to milk, beef and chicken of four radionuclides for which transfer coefficients were either indetermined or based upon secondary data. The radionuclides are 99 Mo, 99 Tc, 140 Ba, and 131 Te. The transfer coefficient for 133 I to eggs was also determined, because again only limited data was available in the literature
Environmental parameters series. 3. Concentration factors of radionuclides in freshwater organisms
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
1994-03-01
This report outlines recent research activities of Radioactive Waste Management Center. Aiming to estimate the radiation dose of man exposed to radioactive materials in an environment, construction of a calculation model on the transfer of radionuclide in the environment was attempted. This issue, Environmental parameter series No.3 includes six reports on the factors related to environmental concentration for radionuclides. The title of the reports are as follows; Factors modifying the concentration factor (CF), Evaluation of accumulation of radionuclides in brackish water organisms, Dose assessment, CF derived from Japanese limnological data, Data table of CF and Metabolic parameters in relation to bioaccumulation of elements by organisms. In addition to collect and arrange the existing data, CF was calculated based on the concentration of stable elements in various lakes and rivers in Japan. (M.N.)
Transfer of long-lived radionuclides through marine food chains: a review of transfer data
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Belot, Y.
1986-01-01
Experimental data on the transfer of long-lived radionuclides through food chains have been summarized from the available literature. The transfer to a given organism is characterized by a transfer factor (TF), defined as the activity in the organism relative to that in the ingested food or sediment. The TFs of Pu, Am and Tc from sediment to benthic species have been directly measured and generally do not exceed a value of 0.1. The TFs from prey to predator are related to uptake and retention parameters whose values can be derived from experimental data. It was estimated that these TFs do not generally exceed unity and that an increase of concentration through a food chain is very unlikely. (author)
Statistical analysis of fallout radionuclides transfer to paddy-field rice
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Takahashi, T.; Morisawa, S.; Inoue, Y.
1996-01-01
Radionuclides released from nuclear facilities to atmosphere are transported through various pathways in biosphere and cause human exposure. Among these radionuclides transfer pathways, an ingestion of crops containing radionuclides is one of the dominant pathway for human exposure. For the safety assessment of nuclear facilities, it is important to understand the behavior of radionuclides in agricultural environment and to describe them in a mathematical model. In this paper, a statistical model is proposed for estimating the concentration of fallout radionuclides in paddy-field rice, the staple food for Japanese people. For describing behavior of fallout radionuclides in a paddy-field, a dynamic model and a statistical model have been proposed respectively. The model used in this study has been developed assuming that the amount of radionuclides transfer to brown rice (hulled rice) or polished rice through direct deposition of airborne radionuclides (the direct deposition pathway) and root uptake from a paddy soil (the root uptake pathway) are proportional to the deposition flux of radionuclides and concentration of radionuclides in paddy soil respectively. That is, the model has two independent variables; the deposition flux of radionuclides and the concentration of radionuclides in the paddy soil, and has single dependent variable; the concentration of radionuclides in brown rice or polished rice. The regression analysis is applied by using environmental monitoring data. Then the distribution of radionuclides between rice-bran (skin part of rice crop) and polished rice (core part) through both the direct deposition pathway and the root uptake pathway are evaluated by the model. (author)
Approaches to modelling radionuclide transfer in agricultural systems
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Mitchell, N. G.
1995-01-01
Radiological dose assessment requires information describing the concentration and distribution of radionuclides in the environment. This information can be obtained from monitoring but is also evaluated with the aid of mathematical models. In such models the pathways of radionuclides from the release point to man are described in terms of transfer between compartments. The main pathways to be considered include: deposition to vegetation and soils; transfer from soil-to-plant; uptake and turnover in domestic animals; and, intake by man. The development of mathematical models for simulating transfer via these pathways depends on: an understanding of the system under study, in particular for those processes that are most important in the overall transfer to man; the availability of data to determine the structure and parameters for the model; the computing systems available; the knowledge of the user of the model; and, the application of the model. (author)
Ingestion Pathway Transfer Factors for Plutonium and Americium
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Blanchard, A.
1999-01-01
Overall transfer factors for major ingestion pathways are derived for plutonium and americium. These transfer factors relate the radionuclide concentration in a given foodstuff to deposition on the soil. Equations describing basic relationships consistent with Regulatory Guide 1.109 are followed. Updated values and coefficients from IAEA Technical Reports Series No. 364 are used when a available. Preference is given to using factors specific to the Savannah River Site
Parameter values for the estimation of radionuclide transfer to major food crops in Korea
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Choi, Yong-Ho; Lim, Kwang-Muk; Jun, In; Keum, Dong-Kwon; Lee, Chang-Woo
2008-01-01
This paper summarizes the results of the radiotracer experiments and field studies performed in Korea for the past 20 years to obtain parameter values for estimating the environmental transfer of radionuclides to food crops. With regards to direct plant contamination, the interception fractions, weathering half-lives and translocation factors of Cs, Sr, Mn, Co and Ru were measured for depositions at different growth stages of selected food crops. In order to investigate an indirect contamination pathway, the soil-to-plant transfer factors (TF m , dimensionless) of Cs, Sr, Mn, Co and/or Zn were measured for rice, Chinese cabbage, radish, soybean, barley, lettuce and so on in one or more soils. In addition, the transfer factors (TF a , m 2 kg -1 ) based on a deposition density were also measured following depositions at different times during the growth periods of several food crops. Particularly for rice and Chinese cabbage, tritium experiments were also carried out for the TF a . The obtained parameter values varied considerably with the soils, crops, radionuclides and deposition times. These data would be applicable to both normal and acute releases not only in Korea but also in many other countries. (author)
Radionuclides transfer into halophytes growing in tidal salt marshes from the Southwest of Spain
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Luque, Carlos J.; Vaca, Federico; GarcÃa-Trapote, Ana; Hierro, Almudena; BolÃvar, Juan P.; Castellanos, Eloy M.
2015-01-01
Estuaries are sinks of materials and substances which are released directly into them or transported from rivers that drain the basin. It is usual to find high organic matter loads and fine particles in the sediments. We analyzed radionuclide concentrations ("2"1"0Po, "2"3"0Th, "2"3"2Th, "2"3"4U, "2"3"8U, "2"2"6Ra, "2"2"8Th, "2"2"8Ra, "4"0K) in sediments and three different organs (roots, stems and leaves) of three species of halophytes plants (Spartina maritima, Spartina densiflora and Sarcocornia perennis). The study was carried out in two tidal salt marshes, one polluted by U-series radionuclides and another nearby that was unpolluted and was used as a control (or reference) area. The Tinto River salt marsh shows high levels of U-series radionuclides coming from mining and industrial discharges. On the contrary, the unperturbed Piedras River salt marsh is located about 25 km from the Tinto marsh, and shows little presence of contaminants and radionuclides. The results of this work have shown that natural radionuclide concentrations (specially the U-isotopes) in the Tinto salt marsh sediments are one order of magnitude higher than those in the Piedras marsh. These radionuclide enhancements are reflected in the different organs of the plants, which have similar concentration increases as the sediments where they have grown. Finally, the transfer factor (TF) of the most polluted radionuclides (U-isotopes and "2"1"0Po) in the Tinto area are one order of magnitude higher than in the Piedras area, indicating that the fraction of each radionuclide in the sediment originating from the pollution is more available for the plants than the indigenous fraction. This means that the plants of the salt marshes are unhelpful as bioindicators or for the phytoremediation of radionuclides. - Highlights: ⢠Radionuclides were analyzed in sediments and plants in unpolluted salt marshes. ⢠Plants uptake radionuclides in all organs in both salt marshes. ⢠The transfer factors
Radionuclide soil-to-plant transfer - experiences from the Chernobyl accident in Austria
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Gerzabek, M.H.
1994-03-01
In field studies after the Chernobyl fallout in Austria distinct differences in soil-to-plant transfer of 137 Cs and 90 Sr between crops were observed. However, within single plant species transfer values varied over one to three orders of magnitude. The main influencing factors are the soil properties, the soil adhesion phenomenon and probably the unhomogeneous vertical distribution of the radionuclides after plowing. On the basis of the presented results we should be aware of the uncertainties of the simple soil-to-plant transfer model, which partly mask the influence of soil parameters on root uptake and translocation. (author)
Modelling and experimental studies on the transfer of radionuclides to fruit
International Nuclear Information System (INIS)
Carini, F.; Atkinson, C.J.; Collins, C.; Coughtrey, P.J.; Eged, K.; Fulker, M.; Green, N.; Kinnersley, R.; Linkov, I.; Mitchell, N.G.; Mourlon, C.; Ould-Dada, Z.; Quinault, J.M.; Robles, B.; Stewart, A.; Sweeck, L.; Venter, A.
2005-01-01
Although fruit is an important component of the diet, the extent to which it contributes to radiological exposure remains unclear, partially as a consequence of uncertainties in models and data used to assess transfer of radionuclides in the food chain. A Fruits Working Group operated as part of the IAEA BIOMASS (BIOsphere Modelling and ASSessment) programme from 1997 to 2000, with the aim of improving the robustness of the models that are used for radiological assessment. The Group co
|
|||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 80
|
https://alchetron.com/Saidenbach-Dam
|
en
|
Alchetron, The Free Social Encyclopedia
|
[
"https://alchetron.com/cdn/private_file_1517239239757052e8d59-827e-4b46-9b9a-050aa36b5a9.jpg",
"https://alchetron.com/cdn/saidenbach-dam-0b1637d3-1bae-4b8e-b16a-ba37ae29ac5-resize-750.jpg"
] |
[
"https://maps.google.co.uk/maps?hl=en&q=Talsperre+Saidenbach,+09514+Pockau-Lengefeld,+Germany&Iwloc=near&output=embed"
] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2017-08-18T08:30:48+00:00
|
The Saidenbach Dam (German Talsperre Saidenbach) is a dam in the German state of Saxony. Its reservoir supplies drinking water to Chemnitz and, in conjunction with the Central Ore Mountain Dam System (Talsperrensystem Mittleres Erzgebirge) and its other dams Neunzehnhain I und II and Einsiedel
|
en
|
/favicon.ico
|
Alchetron.com
|
https://alchetron.com/Saidenbach-Dam
|
The Saidenbach Dam (German: Talsperre Saidenbach) is a dam in the German state of Saxony. Its reservoir supplies drinking water to Chemnitz and, in conjunction with the Central Ore Mountain Dam System (Talsperrensystem Mittleres Erzgebirge) and its other dams - Neunzehnhain I und II and Einsiedel - contributes to the supply of the region covered by the South Saxony Long Distance Water Association (Zweckverbandes Fernwasser Südsachsen).
Map of Talsperre Saidenbach, 09514 Pockau-Lengefeld, Germany
To a lesser extent the dam is also used to generate electricity and for flood protection.
The actual dam is a curved gravity dam made of rubble stone and based on the Intze Principle. The dam was built from 1929 to 1933 in the vicinity of Lengefeld in the Ore Mountains and was taken into service in 1933. It is a "large dam" according to ICOLD criteria. The streams impounded are the Haselbach, Saidenbach, Lippersdorfer Bach and Hölzelbergbach.
A public footpath runs along the dam crest. Bathing and leisure sports in the reservoir are not permitted, but the public may walk around the reservoir and it is also available for fishing.
The Saidenbach Dam also has a pre-dam (Forchheim) and ten upper basins, of which four are usually filled.
|
||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 38
|
https://www.agoda.com/eibenstock/maps/eibenstock-de.html
|
en
|
https://www.agoda.com/favicon.ico
|
https://www.agoda.com/favicon.ico
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
|
/favicon.ico
| null | ||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 35
|
https://wallaceterrycjr.com/author/wallaceterrycjr/page/3/
|
en
|
wallaceterrycjr
|
https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/a8eeb13c49286e3e0fe237210b1c7a98?s=200&d=identicon&r=g
|
https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/a8eeb13c49286e3e0fe237210b1c7a98?s=200&d=identicon&r=g
|
[
"https://2.gravatar.com/avatar/b887086d29e36d73f8f1fa147fda5e8fa84b2df52070cedb872b9de604cd0cac?s=48&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://0.gravatar.com/avatar/9952df7ac42835a3a7d75021e9e98ba30cf0dc3e7770535063567ccd99509d5e?s=48&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://2.gravatar.com/avatar/b887086d29e36d73f8f1fa147fda5e8fa84b2df52070cedb872b9de604cd0cac?s=48&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://0.gravatar.com/avatar/9952df7ac42835a3a7d75021e9e98ba30cf0dc3e7770535063567ccd99509d5e?s=48&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://2.gravatar.com/avatar/2c9e6262cf3d3cc329f867709ff3902bb5156994e529edfd3d6faa3307ce3e72?s=48&d=identicon&r=G",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/fromtheplane.jpg?w=300&h=158",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/vallesgrande.jpg?w=300&h=195",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/bland-1900.jpg?w=300&h=160",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/insulator.jpg?w=225&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/vallecaldera_etm_2002142_lrg.jpg?w=300&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/vallea-cauldera-section-700.jpg?w=300&h=232",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/jemez-htm_txt_smithmapjemez2.jpg?w=223&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/ashfall.jpg?w=300&h=267",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/vcc-copy.jpg?w=300&h=253",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/vallesroute.jpg?w=300&h=198",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/start.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/cajete-elk.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/profile.jpg?w=300&h=133",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/vallegrande.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/finishline.jpg?w=225&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/michigan-silver-2.jpg?w=300&h=211",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/china-silver.jpg?w=254&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/goldschmidt-figure.jpg?w=186&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/silvercubes.jpg?w=275&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/theidentity.png?w=300&h=94",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/batopilas-silver.jpg?w=300&h=199",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/twinning-plane.gif?w=640",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/spineltwin2.gif?w=640",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/triangularface.jpg?w=300&h=73",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/favorite.jpg?w=300&h=143",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/spineltwin-closeup.jpg?w=246&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/the-mittens.jpg?w=300&h=190",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/stagecouch2.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/forrest-gump1-1200x1920_f_improf_446x253.jpg?w=300&h=170",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/racestart-ls.jpg?w=300&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/monumentvalley1.jpg?w=300&h=235",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/strat-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/makingbuttes.jpg?w=161&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/startoftherace-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/sunriseonmitchell-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/thehub-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/totempole-ks.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/winderosion.jpg?w=300&h=143",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/arches-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/mitchellmine-1.jpg?w=240&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/tyuyamunite.jpg?w=300&h=252",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/mitchellmesaclimb-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/westmitten-mitchell-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/mitchellpoint-ls.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/forrestgump-ls.jpg?w=300&h=280",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/goosenecks-ls.jpg?w=300&h=117",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/polybasite1.jpg?w=300&h=209",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/1pieta1.jpg?w=300&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/michelangelo-pieta-vandalism-attack-4.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/almaqueen-3.jpg?w=248&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/rhodoinplace.jpg?w=640",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/almaking-2.jpg?w=300&h=247",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/mrcover.jpg?w=229&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/emerald_treatment_before_after.jpg?w=300&h=146",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/rowingincircles.gif?w=237&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/proustite.jpg?w=197&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/proustite-label1.jpg?w=300&h=108",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/newfirst-proustite.jpg?w=229&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/crystalstructure.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/prism-best.jpg?w=300&h=206",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/proustite_structure.jpg?w=300&h=156",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/electronic-density.jpg?w=300&h=133",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/proustite-silver.jpg?w=300&h=155",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/proustite-silver-best.jpg?w=300&h=236",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/energybands.jpg?w=300&h=280",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/redcolor.jpg?w=296&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/vaux-proustite.jpg?w=200&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/proustite-vaux-1-lowres-wilson.jpg?w=258&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/chlorargyrite.jpg?w=300&h=193",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/fettelite.jpg?w=300&h=205",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/schneeberg-large-best.jpg?w=231&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/silberstr.png?w=300&h=255",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/schneeberg-slab.jpg?w=209&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/bright-proustite1.jpg?w=278&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/schlema-1960.jpg?w=300&h=146",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/last-best.jpg?w=215&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/tucsonmap2.jpg?w=300&h=142",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/ett-1991.jpg?w=224&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/rainfallduringrace.jpg?w=300&h=233",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/sabinocreek.jpg?w=199&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/startingline.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/tucson-geology.jpg?w=300&h=230",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/corecomplex.jpg?w=300&h=201",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/officalmap.jpg?w=300&h=231",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/santacruz.jpg?w=212&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/desertmuseum-origins.gif?w=196&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/boneyard.jpg?w=300&h=285",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/saguaroeast1935.jpg?w=300&h=206",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/sabinocrossing.jpg?w=199&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/pimagrowth1_3.png?w=300&h=221",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/paceline.jpg?w=199&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/tonysvanadinite.jpg?w=300&h=287",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/inthebooks.jpg?w=200&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/michelleterry-finish.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/chacloacanthite.jpg?w=300&h=199",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/chalco-acanthite.jpg?w=300&h=210",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/acanthite-vaux.jpg?w=300&h=219",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/agularite-calcite.jpg?w=300&h=199",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/agularite-label.jpg?w=300&h=205",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/vaux-labels.jpg?w=221&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/wallace-bideauxite.jpg?w=300&h=241",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/gold_the_dragon.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/kosnar-label1.jpg?w=300&h=176",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/kosnar-label2.jpg?w=300&h=209",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/csm-5600-with-cshs-label.jpg?w=227&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/lau-collection-old-5600.jpg?w=300&h=112",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/barlow-jalpaite.jpg?w=300&h=243",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/coverphoto.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/bannerimage2.jpg?w=300&h=110",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/backgroundmap.jpg?w=300&h=219",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/crosssectionfromnorth.jpg?w=300&h=80",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/mttaylor.jpg?w=300&h=220",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/uraniummines.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/jackpilemine.jpg?w=300&h=270",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/u238chain.gif?w=300&h=163",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/startofrace.jpg?w=200&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/coloroffall.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/thecourse.jpg?w=300&h=159",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/thelongclimb.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/profile.jpg?w=300&h=98",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/andesiteridge.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/mtaylor.jpg?w=300&h=199",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/done.jpg?w=200&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/feet.jpg?w=300&h=225",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/rainiersept9.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/rainier1.jpg?w=300&h=238",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/faulttrip.jpg?w=300&h=212",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/overhead-rainier.jpg?w=300&h=230",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/cascade_eruption_2008v.jpg?w=300&h=201",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/muir-summit.jpg?w=300&h=280",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/cross-section.jpg?w=300&h=143",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/subduction.gif?w=227&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/rainierelectricview.jpg?w=300&h=98",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/kanamori-ruff.jpg?w=300&h=232",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/fig38.jpg?w=300&h=107",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/rainierfrombottom.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/journeybegings.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/muirsnowfieldup2.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/campmuirimg.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/mapofrainier.jpg?w=300&h=189",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/highcamp2.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/highcamp.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/summitteam.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/rainiercrater.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/moonsetting.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/fortheblog.jpg?w=300&h=200",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/stephanite-3.jpg?w=300&h=168",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/mineralkingdom.jpg?w=225&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/enhanced-buzz-1902-1384306037-25.jpg?w=300&h=119",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/ikons.jpg?w=225&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/legrandite.jpg?w=225&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/czechsingle.jpg?w=199&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/stephanitelabels.jpg?w=190&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/fres-steph-polyb-tcw.jpg?w=218&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/freibergstephan.jpg?w=199&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/fresnillo-prefect.jpg?w=228&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/arizpe-large.jpg?w=300&h=253",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/foote-stephanite.jpg?w=284&h=300",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/friebergstephanite.jpg?w=300&h=223",
"https://wallaceterrycjr.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/fresnillojewel.jpg?w=199&h=300",
"https://s2.wp.com/i/logo/wpcom-gray-white.png",
"https://s2.wp.com/i/logo/wpcom-gray-white.png",
"https://pixel.wp.com/b.gif?v=noscript"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2015-04-26T01:29:13+00:00
|
Read all of the posts by wallaceterrycjr on Wandering in the Mountains
|
en
|
https://s1.wp.com/i/favicon.ico
|
Wandering in the Mountains
|
http://wallaceterrycjr.wordpress.com
|
Some things will never change. Some things will always be the same. Lean down your ear upon the earth and listen…..All things belonging to the earth will never change–the leaf, the blade, the flower, the wind that cries and sleeps and wakes again, the trees whose stiff arms clash and tremble in the dark, and the dust of lovers long since buried in the earth–all things proceeding from the earth to seasons, all things that lapse and change and come again upon the earth–these things will always be the same, for they come up from the earth that never changes, they go back into the earth that lasts forever. Only the earth endures, but it endures forever – Thomas Wolfe, in You Can’t Go Home Again (1940).
There are numerous influences in my childhood that propelled me to a career in the Earth sciences; a father that loved to prospect and collect minerals, hundreds of family camping trips to the most interesting geologic province in the world (the Rocky Mountains!), and a progressive high school that offered a rich course in geology. In hindsight, one of the most important influences was the fact that I grew up on the flank of a huge volcanic complex, the Jemez Mountain Volcanic Field. The terrain of deep canyons, flat mesas, and a beautiful grass valley, the Valle Grande, surrounded by ponderosa pine covered peaks frame my childhood memories and help define home for me. The Jemez Mountains rise some 5000′ above the Rio Grande River and are remnants of a massive volcanic system that experienced two “super” eruptions about 1.4 million years ago. The Jemez don’t really look like a volcano today if one’s idea of an active volcano is Mt. St. Helens or Kilauea – it is a large circular depression surrounded by the high peaks that once where the steep slopes of a series of craters that spewed forth hundreds of cubic km of hot ash. The figure at the top of this column is an aerial view of the Jemez, and the depression and surrounding peaks protect a series of valleys that once were filled with rain water after the great eruptions. These valleys, or valles in spanish, are a unique feature of the Jemez. These mountains shaped me in many ways. Out my back door was a riveting geologic panorama that provided an open invitation to explore nature. Although most of the Valle Grande proper was off limits during my youth – it was a working cattle ranch that we just called “The Baca” in recognition that it was part of a old Land Grant called Baca Location Number 1 – the surrounding mountains and forest lands were our play ground.
I learned about hiking, camping, wildlife, and calm call of nature. I even learned some things about mineral collecting; in general, there is not much “mineral wise” in the Jemez, with the one exception. My first vehicle was a hand-me-down four wheel drive Toyota Land Cruiser. Not many things worked on it (including the gas gauge which more than once left me stranded), but it did afforded me the freedom to explore the Jemez on my own. My favorite trip was to the ghost town of Bland, a short-lived gold mining center located a few miles south of the Valles Caldera. The mineral deposits were not formed by the volcanic processes that built the Jemez Mountains, but were from an earlier epoch of magmatic activity that injected quartz dikes into surrounding bedrock. The Jemez volcanics covered these dikes, and later, through the randomness of erosion, were exposed in a narrow canyon (Bland Canyon). In 1893 the first of a dozen claims was staked on these dikes for gold and silver. A rush ensued, and soon a town was built and the population grew to more than a 1000 people. The town was named Bland in honor of Richard Bland who had advocated for the governmental purchase of silver, and in turn, that bullion was minted into silver dollars. The Bland act, and further requirements for the government to purchase silver (in particular, the Sherman Silver Purchase Act) were repealed in 1893 causing a collapse in silver prices — just as the mines in Bland were being discovered.
I drove to the ghost town of Bland every chance I got in the early 1970s. There was a “back way” in that required delicate 4WD navigation; I was rewarded with a harrowing journey through the Jemez Mountains, and a chance to search through all the old building looking for artifacts and the mining dumps for some sign of gold or silver. Mostly my searches were unsuccessful, but I had taste of the treasure hunter.
In the year 2000 the Federal Government purchased the “Baca” and it became the Valles Caldera Natural Preserve. The charge of the Preserve was to remediate the effects of logging and cattle/sheep grazing, and eventually make the Valles Caldera a multi-use facility. Although access is still carefully controlled to the Valles it has become the home to several special events. In 2006 it became the site of a trail run – first a marathon, and later a half marathon and 10 km run were added. The course has changed over the years, and a fire in late May of 2013 forced a change to a partial out-and-back route. The chance to run in a certified super volcano, only a few miles from my house is a huge draw – the Valles Grande Caldera Runs are a geologist’s dream.
The volcano in my backyard
The Jemez Mountains and Valles Caldera are a spectacular sight from space. The satellite image above shows the circular depression that is about 13 miles across that formed after a series of very large eruptions of ash-flow tuffs emptied a large, shallow magma chamber. Nearly 800 cubic km of ash were propelled from various volcanic vents, and the “hole” left by this erupting ash caused the volcanic edifice to collapsed back into itself producing a broad valley. Later, renewed magmatic activity pushed rhyolitic magmas up through the fractures formed during the collapse, producing a ring of domes breaking up the original valley into smaller, isolated valleys. The largest of these magma extrusions, known as resurgent domes, is Redondo Peak, which has an elevation of 11,258′ and towers some 2500′ above the valley floor. Redondo Peak is not a volcano – it was not “erupted” but extruded from the magma chamber beneath the Valles much like tooth paste would be extruded from a tube as it is slowly squeezed.
The Valles Caldera remarkable symmetric, and incredibly well preserved — there were no major eruptions after the last collapse a million years ago to obscure the valley, resurgent domes and ring fractures that were formed during that collapse. These qualities attracted geologists from around the world, and it has become the archetype volcanic caldera referenced in hundreds of studies and textbooks. Although the Jemez Mountains were recognize being volcanic by the later part of the 19th century, it was not until the 1920s when C.S. Ross of the USGS visited, and later teamed with R.L. Smith in 1946 that the area was mapped in detail. This mapping was done in part to understand the potential for supplying the new Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory with fresh water, and whether it was possible to bring a large natural gas line across the Valles to provide energy for my home town. In 1970 Smith, Bailey and Ross published a beautiful geologic map of the Jemez Mountains and the Valles Caldera (figure below), and was the first map to grace the wall of my bedroom (I wish I could find that original wall hanging, but alas, it was packed away when I left for college and no doubt is today been composted and returned to the soil…).
The colors of the map hint at the extraordinary history of the Jemez Mountain Volcanic Field (JMVF). The exact reason that the JMVF exists remains a bit of a mystery; it is located at the intersection of the western margin of the Rio Grande Rift and a trend of volcanic fields called the Jemez Lineament that has been postulated as a ancient “zone of weakness” that allows magma generated in the mantle to rise up into the crust. I think that it is far more likely that the Jemez Lineament is the lucky connection of dots on a map, and that a more plausible explanation is that marks the boundary between a thick and stable crust (the Colorado Plateau) and thinner, more tectonically active crust. Irregardless, it is clear that the opening of the Rio Grande rift caused volcanic activity to began about 13 million years ago in the vicinity of present day Los Alamos. For about 10 million years the volcanism was dominated by basaltic lava flows. Black Mesa, near Espanola, is one of the most famous landmarks representing this period of volcanism (Black Mesa is about 3.7 million years old). About 3 million years ago eruption of more silica rich magmas commenced and the Jemez Mountain began to grow — there were probably 6 to 10 major volcanoes that tapped interconnected magma bodies. These volcanoes conspired to create a major eruption about 1.5 million years ago that erupted what is known as the Otowi Member of the Bandelier Tuff. Nearly 450 cubic kilometers of ash was erupted over a short period (probably a few years, but certainly less than a few decades). This resulted in a collapse of the volcanic system, and the creation of the Valle Toledo Caldera. This caldera is obscured by a similar sized eruption about 1.2 million years ago that ejected about 350 cubic kilometers of ash, the Tshirege Member of the Bandelier Tuff. On the eastern margin of the Valle Toledo is the highest peak in the Jemez, Tschicoma Peak (elevation 11,561′), an remnant that survived both collapses. The second eruption, and subsequent collapse created the now familiar Valles Caldera.
The widely popular phrase “super volcano” has its roots in the 20th century, but mostly it is a phrase invented by the media around 2002 to dramatize the power of big volcanoes. By 2003 the phrase appeared in more than 100 stories that covered everything from global warming and cooling to mass extinctions. The USGS tied the phrase to the Volcano Explosivity Index (VEI), a measure of “explosiveness of eruptions”, and a VEI value of 8 became the definition of a super volcano, and implies a volume of material erupted that is at least 250 cubic km. There have been 3 super volcanic eruptions in the US in the last 1.2 million years; the Jemez, Long Valley, California and Yellowstone in Montana/Wyoming. All three of these eruptions resulted in the creation of a caldera. Of course, our human centric view of geologic time — i.e, a million years is a long time — distorts the sense of “super” volcanic eruptions. Although Yellowstone was a large eruption, it was dwarfed by an eruption 28 million years ago that created the La Garita Caldera near Creede, Colorado. Over the same time that it took the Jemez to erupt the Tshirege tuff, the La Garita erupted the Fish Canyon Tuff — all 5,000 cubic km of it (more than 15 times larger!). Despite the size of La Garita, Los Alamos is perched on the shoulder of a real super volcano.
The relative tranquility of the Valles Caldera belies its violent history and magnificent history. The most recent significant volcanic activity in the Jemez is the Banco Bonito rhyolite flow, which is located smack dab in the middle of the Jemez Caldera marathon. The Banco Bonito is a very silica-rich rhyolite, and filled with large blocks of obsidian. Although most everyone recognizes obsidian, and thinks arrowheads and black shiny pebbles, the geologist thinks about very rapid cooling of a volcanic rock. Obsidian is silica glass – same material as a chunk of quartz, but it has no crystalline structure due to the rapid quenching of the hot lava. The Banco Bonito rhyolite was extruded (probably not erupted) 40,000 years ago. Although the Jemez Mountain Volcanic Field will be active again in the future, it is mainly showing signs of exhaustion, and the likelihood of a future, large scale eruption is extremely small. Running through the Valles Caldera on a marathon is a unique experience. Laid out along the course is every aspect of a few million years of violent tectonic history. Ash fall, resurgent domes, ancient lake beds that filled with water in cooler and wetter times.
The Valles Caldera Marathon
The Valles Caldera runs – there is a marathon, half marathon, and a 10 km – are not classic trail runs per se. Most of the courses utilize dirt roads that once were used to move cattle or cut timber, and only some short segments are single track. However, this does not diminish the spectacular setting of the race. It does mean that most people run the distances much faster than a typical trail run (I say “most” because single track versus tire rutted roads has nearly zero impact on my speed – sadly). The races start at Banco Bonito Staging Area within Valles Caldera National Preserve. The name “Banco Bonito” is applied to a modest plateau that is composed of the rhyolite-obsidian conglomerate that goes by the same name. It is easy to find very attractive pieces of obsidian at the starting line — just look down. There are more than 300 people signed up for the half marathon and 10k, but only about 45 of us toe the line for the full marathon at 7:30 in the morning.
The course for the marathon heads due east, climbing up the Banco Bonito lava flow along a logging road. The lava flow is probably not obvious to most of the runners as it now is forested, and only along certain sections are there stratigraphic sections exposed. But the topography of the lava flow is evident; over the first three miles we climb about 450 feet (not much elevation gain, but enough to slow old runners down). The pack of runners sorts out pretty rapidly, and good runners like Dave Coblentz disappear with a doppler shift over the horizon. At the three mile mark the course comes to an aid station on the edge of a large bowl shaped depression — El Cajete. This is a very significant geologic formation (but not such a significant aid station). El Cajete is the crater that last had significant volcanic activity in the Valles Caldera. It is responsible for the Banco Bonito lava flow 40,000 years ago, as well as a massive eruption of pumice sometime after the lava flow. The pumice fell close to the El Cajete, and dammed the Jemez river creating a lake in the Valle Grande.
From El Cajete the course drops off the plateau and the run is downhill for 2 miles. Fast and easy. Unfortunately, the elevation lost is a penalty for the next part of the race. At mile five there is a steep climb up a pass between Redondo Peak and another resurgent dome called South Mountain. In a little bit more than a mile we climb 550 feet to the high point of the race, 9150′. The top of the pass is a reward, but also a harbinger of things to come since we have to repeat this climb on the return from the Valle Grande.
From mile 6 to mile 12 the course is in the Valle Grande – well, strictly speaking, skirting around the edge of the Valle. The grass “meadow” of the Valle Grande is due to the fact that it was a reoccurring lake bed in the last million years, and it is not particularly friendly nutrition wise to trees. The last time the lake had a significant extent was after the El Cajete pumice eruption, and probably lasted for 4 to 7 thousand years (there have been smaller lakes during damp cool periods usually associated with glacial epochs). The picture below is a view across the Valle towards Pajarito Mountain. That summit, all 10,400 feet of it, is the high point of the Jemez Mountain Trail Runs — which will be run a month from now.
Running through the Valle is always wonderful. It is sensational scenery, and mostly flat topography. At mile 9.4 I get passed by the leader of the pack returning towards the finish. This means that the leader is about 4 miles ahead of me already. Once the first runner passes by me it is a steady stream; strangely, all the runners that are ahead of me look like they are strong and running very easily. I, on the other hand, am beginning to lose focus and daydreaming of the geology. Dave Coblentz passes me with a group of 5 or 6 runners at mile 9.7. The course “turns around” is at a point just beyond another resurgent dome — Cerro Pinon. The milage here is just about 12 miles; there is a mental boost knowing that the “out and back” is done, but I also realize that there are 14 miles to go. For the next 5 miles I pass by a few runners (a very few) that are slower than me, but mostly see no one. I am alone – happy, but alone. The climb back up the pass at South Mountain is brutal, but once that is done I am certain that I will finish the race largely unscathed. The run down from South Mountain is fast, but as I expected, hard on my legs. The run between miles 18 and 22 is a descent of nearly 800 feet. It should be fast, but my legs are tired. There is a great aid station at mile 19, and I stop for way too long to eat oreo cookies. The descent ends at a broad meadow called Redondo Meadow. This meadow is an wildlife experiential station, and there are lots of people working in the area. The course route is always confusing here because there is no real trail across the meadow, and there are meandering streams. The course is marked, but that means you actually have to pay attention to the flagging (not my best skill – however, I have memorized the maps, so I don’t get detoured). Once across the meadow the home stretch begins. A steep climb up the Banco Bonito lava flow, and then a lonely run back to the finish. I pass a couple of slowest runners of the 1/2 marathon, and try to encourage them (however, they are really tired).
I rambled into the finish line in a little over 5 1/2 hours. It is a nice marathon – not exactly a trail run, but much harder than a street run. The total elevation gain is about 3000 feet and the average elevation along the course is 8400′. However, it is the geology that makes this run so great. The Valles Caldera is truly a marvel….
The universe is built on a plan the profound symmetry of which is somehow present in the inner structure of our intellect, Paul Valery, 19th century French Poet
When I first started building a mineral collection — back about 1960 — the single most compelling criteria for determining if a specimen was a “keeper” or just something for the beer flats filled with colorful, yet, unworthy rocks, was whether there was a euhedral crystal. My fascination with the perfection of a sharp crystal face is not at all uncommon for beginning collectors. The fact that nature could take time to construct something so perfect strikes a deep chord; the vast universe created by the ultimate act of violence – the big bang – and ruled by entropy, and inevitable decay, still values symmetry. I recall an early discussion with my mother on the beauty of spring flowers – I asked her why she thought they were beautiful, and she responded with a joyful exposition on the bright and varied colors and the delicate nature of the pistil, and remarkable symmetry of the petals. I told her that the petals were exactly like crystals since they are always alike, and must be following some sort of “rules”.
The English word symmetry comes from the Greek symmetria; in turn, symmetria is a concatenation of Greek words sun and metron, meaning “together” and “measure”. There is a substantial body of Greek literature that refers to symmetry as “harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance”. This philosophical definition of symmetry deviates from the strictly mathematical definition, but still projects the power of something that is predictable and has a geometric balance to be pleasing to the eye. This “pleasing to the eye” is a euphemism for beauty — hard to define exactly, but beauty excites our aesthetic senses.
To me, there is nothing more pleasing to the eye than a silver specimen exhibiting spinel twinning – repeating patterns of crystals that produces a highly geometric weave. The photograph at the top of the column is a silver from the Kearsarge Mine, Houghton Co., in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. The specimen is defined by a central rib — an elongated stack of silver octahedrons, and branches intersecting the this rib at angles of approximately 60 degrees. In turn, these branches have secondary branches exiting at similar angles. The repeating geometry yields a specimen architecture that is clean and sharp – an exemplar of what the Greeks meant by symmetry.
Silver: a special element
Silver is a remarkable element that can form an array of minerals; about 180 different species. Thankfully, elemental silver is sufficiently inert to occur in nature and is widely distributed throughout the world. Native silver is a metal of bright white color; it has the highest reflectivity of any metal. Silver is also the best metallic conductor of heat and electricity and extremely malleable and ductile. These properties are, of course, a result of crystal and atomic structure, which is a face-centered cube with metallic bonds. The atomic radius of silver is nearly identical to that of gold – and gold commonly substitutes into the silver crystal lattice.
Silver crystallizes in the isometric system, and although individual, sharp macro crystals are rare, the octahedron and cube forms are most common. The largest individual crystals are from Kongsberg, Norway, where some octahedrons 3-5 cm on a side grace a few fortunate collections.
As a rule, crystals of silver are equi-dimensional or platy. The platy nature comes from the propensity from silver to twin (this is similarly seen in gold and copper) on octahedral faces {111}. This twinning is known as spinel twinning and is described below. The conditions for when spinel twinning occurs appears limited – although silver masses of spinel twins are known from hundreds of locations, there are only three or four localities where this type of silver crystallization is common. The two most famous localities are Batopilas, Mexico and Chanarcillo, Chile.
By far, the most common form of silver in a mineral collections is the wire – which is a secondary growth from the decomposition of silver sulfides and sulfosalts. Any silver deposit that undergoes supergene enrichment inevitably has silver wire specimens. The picture at the top of this section of the article is a fine silver wire mass from Tongchong in China. The wires in this specimen are attached to a very small piece of acanthite, no doubt the host material that provided the silver. All silver sulfides and most silver sulfosalts will produce silver wire upon disassociation — especially promoted by heating. Although wires can be extremely interesting and coveted specimens for collectors, there are been numerous cases where the wires were “grown” by unscrupulous collector/dealers and passed off as “natural” specimens.
Beauty in Nature
When I hear the word “beautiful” used to describe minerals by collectors I often ask what they mean. More often than not, the answers seem wanting to me. Mostly, it is about color — pink and red minerals are always “beautiful”, but black and brown minerals are “interesting”. Although color can transfix, and certainly evoke emotion, I can not relate to it as the primary metric of natural beauty. I am also looking for structure in my surroundings – a window into the soul of nature, order out of the chaos all around me.
A seminal event for me was attending “math summer camp” during the summer between 7th and 8th grade. The instructor was an outstanding teacher named Jack Gehre, and his focus was geometry and trigonometry. Early in the class Mr. Gehre introduced Euler’s formula; for any normal polyhedron, the sum of the number of faces plus the number of vertices, minus the number of edges always equals 2. I spent the rest of the summer camp trying to understand why. I suddenly had a “rule” in nature that I could apply to my mineral collection — a rule mysterious and powerful, but incredibly simple. It was beautiful. I did not know much about Euler then, but later in college I was introduced to another “law” by Leonhard Euler — an incredible 18th century Swiss mathematician — that has to be the most beautiful equation in all of nature. I was in a class on series analysis, and the professor, Alan Sharples, walked in the first day of the semester and wrote the following on the black board:
Sharples said, “this is Euler’s identity, a remarkable assertion. Prove it. That is all for this first day of class.” Turns out that this is pretty easy to prove, but when I viewed this on the blackboard I was transfixed — it was pure beauty. Imagine three essential mathematical constants – e, pi, and i – combined to equal -1. Wow – simple, brief, and exact. To this day I view this as a definition of beauty (Euler’s identity is routinely identified as the one of the most beautiful equations in science).
Euler’s identify may seem a long ways from realm of beauty in the mineral kingdom. However, to me, they are very much related. Simple, surprising, and an expression of natural symmetry.
Respect the Spinel Twin
Crystal growth in nature is quite complex; the crystal form, crystal size, crystal chemistry all are expressions of the paragenesis. Crystallization for most geologic materials involves the precipitation of a solid (the crystal) out of a solution or solvent (usually hot thermal fluids, although solutions of nearly any temperature can carry dissolved loads of ions and cations). Crystals start with nucleation of a few molecules from the solution, and then growth occurs by pulling the necessary ionic components out of solution. The rate at which individual crystals grows depends strongly on the saturation level of the ions of interest – supersaturated solutions appear to be able to grow crystals at extraordinary rates (at least compared to geologic time!), sometimes at several cubic cm per hour.
It is not clear who first recognized twinning in crystals, but it was first written about in detail by Rene-Just Haüy in his epic tome Traité de Minéralogie, published in 1801. In the beginning part of the 20th century there were a number of studies to understanding twinning in minerals. The classic definition was introduced by Friedel in 1926: A twin is a complex crystalline edifice built up of two or more homogeneous portions of the same crystal species in contact (juxtaposition) and orientated with respect to each other according to well-defined laws. The “well-defined laws” all are based on some simple ideas, the most important of which is that within a crystal core that a least one lattice row (i.e., a crystal edge) is common to two different crystals. The figures below illustrate this concept — the lattice of a cubic crystal is defined by four points, and a plane can be drawn through these points that allows a second crystal to share lattice points but have a rotated orientation. Twinning adds symmetry to a crystal aggregate, most commonly about a rotation axis or reflection across a plane. In the metals copper, gold and silver, a particular type of twin is common, called the spinel twin.
Spinel twins are so-named because it is a very common habit seen in the mineral spinel. They are contact twins, meaning that have a planar composition surface shared by two individual crystals; this surface is along an octahedral face (written as {111}), and means that there is a rotation of 180o about the contact plane. This is illustrated by the lower figure above – there are two octahedrons joined along a contact plane, but the top terminations “point” in directions and are separated by 120o. The figure below shows how spinel twins can be flattened, and give the characteristic triangular faces that are seen on platy crystals of silver (and gold).
In silver, spinel twinning almost always repeats itself with regularity, producing a pattern that resembles a weave of wires. The silver at the top of this section of the article is from Batopilas, Chihuahua, Mexico, and is an example of a mass of spinel twins. Through the middle of the specimen is a series of parallel elongated crystals, and growing “off” these strands are regular strands oriented at 60 degrees (or 120 degrees, strictly speaking). These are all spinel twins – repeating some natural frequency that is due to a long lost geologic condition. Once assembled, the spinel twins from an aggregate of crystals that has been called a “herringbone” silver in reference to the similarity to the shape of the rib cage of the smelly game fish beloved by the peoples of the Baltic.
Why do spinel twins form in silver? Under certain ideal conditions, a single large crystal represents a “minimum” energy condition, and thus is due to an important thermodynamic rule — a chemical system will stabilize at state of least energy. If individual crystals are a minimum energy state, then twinned crystals are by necessity at state of higher energy, and thus should be rare. However, environmental conditions tend to localize energy states; for a supersaturated solution, the crystal growth is extremely rapid, and twinned crystal allow more ions to join a crystallize aggregate faster, thus minimizing a local energy state. For all “herringbone” silver specimens it appears that the conditions of formation require a supersaturated solution, low in concentrations of sulfur, and extremely rapid crystal growth. These conditions are relatively rare in most epithermal vein deposits; it is very uncommon to find a spinel twinned silver specimen from the great silver deposits of Colorado, Ontario or Freiberg!
The silver pictured above is my favorite native silver in my entire mineral collection. This is a large “herringbone” plate with a three dimensional repeating pattern of twins. The specimen represents something remarkable in turns of crystal growth. The tiniest variations in chemistry or temperature during growth would have truncated the growth of this silver weave.
A close examination of the Chanarcillo herringbone yields views of spectacular detail – endlessly repeating, and shouting the fundamental rules for symmetry in crystals. Along the edges of the crystalline mass you can see individual octahedrons – the termination of various elongated crystals.
Beauty and the pretenders
Rapid growth in silver often produces crystalline masses that are complex. However, spinel twins are distinct, and uncommon. Rapid growth often leads to dendritic masses – mostly silver feather patterns or strings of stacked cubes. These dendrites are not spinel twins; in fact, instead of fundamental order, they represent chaotic growth. Although there is some sense of beauty in the randomness of dendrites, it is mostly through “self-similarity” – various patterns that appear to scale with size. This is fundamentally different than ordered spinel twins – and in many ways points to disordered processes. I am always shocked (okay, probably an overly harsh expression of emotion) when I find dealers selling “herringbone” silvers that are in fact dendrites. That is like marketing hamburger as Filet Mignon. Similarly, silver wires can certainly be attractive; however, they are products of mineral destruction not construction. To me, beauty in silver spinel twins is about construction, order, and symmetry. Defining beauty will allows be in the eye of the beholder — it is just better when there are rules involved.
Monument Valley is the place where God put the West. John Wayne, American Actor, circa 1950.
The southern half of the Colorado Plateau stretches from Lake Meade in the west, to Cuba, New Mexico in the east, and is a stunning desert highland of pastel colored bluffs, and exotic wind sculpted rocks. The land is both beautiful and desolate; in more than 80,000 square miles there are only 250,000 inhabitants (more people live around Lake Meade and Flagstaff that the rest of the southern plateau combined), but there are 10 National Parks and 17 National Monuments, 10 Wilderness areas, along with another half dozen parks in the Navajo Nation. It is also the land that American geologists wandered in the 1860-1880s and their observations shaped modern thoughts about geologic time and the extraordinary patient, but always persistent, force of erosion which eventually grinds even the highest mountains to dust. John Wesley Powell navigated the Colorado River through the Grand Canyon and Clarence Dutton mapped the geology with remarkable insight; these geologic giants were the vanguard of the American contribution of “the second age of discovery” that transformed the mystery of nature into a science. I love visiting these desert lands; in a crowded and noisy world the Colorado Plateau imposes it’s will of solitude and reminds one of man’s temporary significance. Ulta Adventures runs a series of ultra runs across the southern Colorado Plateau that they call the Grand Circle. Last year I ran the Ultra Adventures Bryce Canyon 50k – and it was a spectacular run! The geology was great, the UA staff are wonderful, and course was challenging. This year I decided I wanted to run the UA ultra in Monument Valley held in mid-March. No other piece of real-estate has defined the American psyche of “the old west” than Monument Valley. You would be hard pressed to find any baby boomer that would not immediately recognize the “Mittens” — sandstone bluffs in Monument Valley — as the movie backdrop to scores of films.
Monument Valley is a tract of canyon lands located about 100 km west of the Four Corners along the Utah-Arizona border. Within the valley there is a 140 square mile park – the Navajo Nation’s Monument Valley Park — that was “discovered” by film director John Ford in 1939 with the release of the classic western Stagecoach. Ford chose Monument Valley because, to his mind, the desolation and isolation of the bluffs and red sandstone captured the essence of the hardscrabble life of the wild west. Ford cast John Wayne as the Ringo Kid, a gunslinger. This roll is largely credited with making Wayne a film superstar – and forever he is pictured across from the Mittens. There is a creation myth about how John Ford found Monument Valley — it starts with Harry Goulding, a sheep herder and owner of a trading post in Monument Valley packing up and heading to Hollywood with photographs of the scenery as an act of desperation during the crushing poverty of the great depression. Goulding showed up at Ford’s offices and somehow, against all logic, convinced Ford that he should film his upcoming western in the corner of Arizona that was hundreds of miles from the nearest train station and only accessible by a dicey dirt road. Ford eventually filmed parts of 6 of his most famous movies there; other directors followed, and Monument Valley has appeared in more than 100 movies!
It is only appropriate that the rich movie heritage of Monument Valley would collide with ultra runs. The 1994 movie Forrest Gump is the tale of a man’s life that serendipitously criss-crosses 40 years of tremulous American history. I saw the movie in Flagstaff, Arizona when my wife was working on the geodetics of volcanoes at the USGS field office – we loved the movie and it remains one our top ten favorites ever. In the movie, Forrest starts running on October 1, 1979 to ease the pain of rejection by his true love. He ends up running for 3 years, 2 months, 14 days and 16 hours, and covered 15,248 miles (crossing America at least 4 times) – no ultra runner has ever equaled the trail brazed by Forrest. Forrest ended his run at Monument Valley – he just stopped, and decided the run was over, and it was time to go home.
What a perfect setting for an ultra run; geology, history, and the termination point for the greatest ultra run ever.
Running on Ancient Sand Dunes Monument Valley refers to a large swath of landscape along the Arizona-Utah border, but most people associate the name with a modest 3 by 5 mile drainage basin. This basin stretches from the world famous Mittens in the north to Wetherill and Hunts Mesas in the south. The name “Monument Valley” first showed up on maps in 1917. Who exactly was responsible for that moniker is lost to history, but the name is appropriately descriptive; the view down the valley is filled with monoliths and buttes that are the erosional remnants of a thick layered cake of sedimentary rocks that were deposited by water and wind nearly 200 million years ago. The Navajo name for the valley is Tse’Bii’Ndzisgaii, which translates approximately to Valley of the Rocks (at least my Navajo friend tells me this – others have slight variations).
The Colorado Plateau is one of the most unique geologic provinces on the globe. A huge, broad plain or basin was formed at the margin of the primal landmass that today we call the North American Continent. This “basin” captured the cobbles and shards that resulted from the erosion of the ancient continent. Sometimes the basin was beneath a shallow sea filled with corral reefs and marine life. Other times it was at the edge of an uplifted and rejuvenated continent and was covered by a system of deltas cut by meandering rivers – not unlike the Mississippi delta today. Still other times it was a massive wasteland covered by sand dunes. Over a period of 500 million years this broad area we now call the Plateau accumulated a lithic layer cake; thousands of feet of alternating sandstones, limestones, shales and conglomerates. About 20 million years ago this layered rock cake was uplifted, and subjected to the same erosional forces – wind, water and ice – that had ground ancient mountain ranges to dust.
The slice of this great lithic cake that is exposed in Monument Valley dates from the Permian Age. The rocks exposed on the Valley floor are the oldest – and are known as the Organ Rock shale (about 280 million years old). This shale was deposited as muddy clays in deltas and swamps. Above the shale is the rock that builds the monuments, the DeChelly sandstone. The DeChelly is an amazing rock – it is a nearly pure quartz grain sandstone, that is tough and strong, and can maintain vertical cliff faces hundreds of feet high. The DeChelly was formed from wind blown sand dunes. The modern day analogy for these type of sand dunes is the Namib Desert along the southwestern coast of Africa. The desert that made the DeChelly sandstone was long lived — probably 25 million years of blowing dunes. Finally, that desert yielded to a more hospitable environment and rivers returned depositing sandstones and shales, which we call the Moenkopi formation. About 230 million years ago the last of the rocks exposed at Monument Valley were deposited on top of the Moenkopi, the hard cobbles and boulders of the Shinarump conglomerate. The Shinarump is the “cap stone” on the mesa in Monument Valley, and reason that the softer rocks below have not completely eroded away.
The landscape of Monument Valley today is only a shadow of what it most have been a few million years ago. In a few more million years, there will be no sign of DeChelly sandstone, and all the steep cliffs will have been reduced to rubble. The unique monuments are a result of the layered cake geology; the Shinarump conglomerate is a difficult rock to erode, and for millions of years protected the “softer” rocks below. However, joints and zones of weakness in the Shinarump eventually yielded to the relentless rains, frost, wind and gravity, and began to erode forming small washes exposing the DeChelly sandstone below. The DeChelly is relatively easily eroded, but forms steep cliff faces, making for spectacular canyons. Eventually these canyons cut down to the soft Organ Rock shale which is rapidly washed away. The canyons then begin to undercut the DeChelly, and the stout sandstone collapsed in rock falls and avalanches. What is left are isolated buttes, mesas, and rock towers. When you run through Monument Valley your view is one of the distant past. The vertical cliffs demand your attention; they tell a story of time when huge sand dunes moved slowly across the edge of a continent. There not many fossilized bones in the DeChelly, but there are numerous fossilized track ways of Permain Age creatures (both vertebrate and invertebrate). The ultra runner today may find the course difficult, but the arthropod racers of 260 million years ago had it much worse.
Race Day The Monument Valley Ultras — 100 miles, 50 miles and 55 km — all start near the Monument Valley visitor center that sits on the lip of a small cliff overlooking the iconic Mittens. The runners gathered at 6:45 am for a traditional Navajo prayer welcoming the new day. The prayer, the approaching sun rise, a perfect temperature of 39 degrees, and the energy of the runners creates an emotional aura. Two weeks before the race, Monument Valley received a record snow fall during a late season storm. There was some question as to whether the race would follow the traditional course as flooding from the melting storm closed much of the Valley. However, everything reopened days before the race; the 55 km course followed a quick descent along a sweet single track that looped around the West Mitten before joining the main Monument Valley tour road. For the first couple of miles I run a pace of about 9;45 minutes per mile – a little faster than I want given the long day ahead, but there never is any way to calm the emotion! One of the biggest surprises to to me in the first couple of miles is seeing the Mittens from all angles. Although they look like large buttes, they are actually very thin monuments. Viewed from the start of the race the West Mitten is a couple of hundred meters across, but when I pass the western extreme I see that the West Mitten is only a few 10s of meters wide. Although the race started in the glow of pre-sunrise, soon the sun is lighting up the cliffs of DeChelly sandstone. The reds and browns glow – the promise for a great run.
There are a few tour vans on the Valley road, and tourists are busy taking pictures in the early morning light. I roll into the main aid station, called Hogan, at 58 minutes. The total distance covered is 5.75 miles, so I am feeling pretty good. The 55 km course is shaped like a 4-leafed clover with the Hogan aid station at the center – I will pass through it four times today. I am trying to run the course today with minimal aid station support – I only want to refill my water bottles, and I carry all the food I will need. Turns out this is not a great idea – the food looks pretty good at Hogan!
After a quick fill of my water bottles (and longing gazes at the food – I decide to stick to my plan, and eat a lemon wafer I am carrying), I start the second clover leaf, a relatively short 5 mile loop, almost all on a wonderful single track. I roll back into the Hogan aid station at 2 hours (10.5 miles), and began a much longer loop towards Hunt’s Mesa. The first couple of miles are along the Valley road, and pretty easy. However, the course then begins to follow a very sandy trail/road route. I had hoped that the recent snowfall would have made the sand semi-compact and easier to run. Wrong. The fine grained sand does not hold moisture, and it is a leg burner! The course passes a series of slender monuments – the tallest of which is called the Totem.
I ponder the fate of the Totem; it is an inverted pendulum, and will eventually fall. It is clear that there has not been any significant earthquake activity for a couple of thousand years near Monument Valley, or the precarious nature of Totem would most certainly have caused it to tumbled. I guess it will stand for a few thousand more years. Assuming there are ultra runners in a few more millennia, they will not experience the Totem. Miles 14-18 are sandy. The cliffs of the DeChelly sandstone are rounded by the abrasion from the winds. Today is a rare and fortunate day – little wind. The wind of Monument Valley picks up the fine gains of sand and silt that had eroded from the Permian sediments and slams them into the cliff faces. This constant assault eventually carves the rocks into bridges and arches.
The route takes us to an amphitheater-arch call the “Big Hogan”. It is a wonderful example of the power of saltation. The wind has carved an amphitheater, and at the top has cut an arch – like the smoke hole in a hogan, hence the name.
The route eventually loops back to the Hogan aid station. The mileage for the third visit is almost exactly 20 miles. My time is 4 hrs and 6 minutes. A little slower than I planned, but considering the sand and all the time I took out to take pictures, I am pretty much on schedule. Once again, I look at the great selection of food laid out at the aid station and regret my stubborn dedication to minimal support. Out of the Hogan aid station the last loop is an out and back to the top of Mitchell Mesa — before me is the most difficult climb in the run. The trail leads west along a road cut to support a uranium mine on the the top of Mitchell Mesa back in the 1960s.
During the uranium frenzy of the 1950s, amateur and professional prospectors fanned out across the Colorado Plateau in search of the metal that fueled the nuclear age. There are numerous small uranium deposits located in old river channels within the Shinarump formation. These old channels captured carbon debris – trees, branches, decomposing leaves, etc. – which in turn served to precipitate uranium out of circulating ground waters. One of these ancient river channels cuts across Mitchell Mesa, and was mined briefly in the period 1962-1965. The mine’s operation came to an abrupt end when the operator, Robert Shiver, accidentally backed the ore hauler he was driving over a cliff, and tumbled more than 450 feet into the valley. The same cliff that took Shiver’s life is the one that we have to climb to get to the top of Mitchell Mesa!
The ore from the mine on Mitchell Mesa was primarily Tyuyamunite – a rare uranium-vanadium oxide (chemical formula: Ca(UO2)2V2O8·(5-8)H2O). Like many uranium minerals it is colored canary yellow. The picture above is a sample of Tyuyamunite that was found across the valley on Hunt’s Mesa. I don’t see any sign of mineralization as I grind my way up the mesa…. The climb really begins at mile 23; there is a rocky and relentless pitch that ascends 1200 feet in only a mile. I had visions that I would bound up the winding trail – wrong. It takes me 30 minutes to get to the top, and my quads are burning.
The run to the northern end of Mitchell Mesa is physically easy – but the views into the valley are breath taking, and I find myself drifting into tourist mode. Mitchell Mesa and Merrick Butte are named after a pair of prospectors that were murdered in the Valley in December, 1879. Charles Merrick had supposedly found three crude smelters built by Ute Indians to recover silver. Merrick recruited Henry Mitchell to help him find the source of the silver; legend has it that they indeed did find a rich deposit, and the prospectors were heading home with ore samples when they met their untimely demise. For years treasure hunters have searched for the lost Merrick-Mitchell mine, but it remains lost.
The run along the top of the mesa is only about a mile long, but it is difficult after the long climb. There are patches of snow in the shade of trees, and I stop twice and fill my hat with a couple of handfuls of snow. It is now about 64 degrees (at least according to my weather app), and I am really overheated. The melting snow cools my hot head, and steels me for the last 9 miles of the run.
The turn around point is the end of the Mesa. There is a hole punch that you apply to your bib, and turn around and retrace your steps back to the Hogan aid station. The view from the turn-around point is down to the finish line — so close, yet so far. I am pretty tired at this point, and my pace is slow. I pass lots of runners still making their way to the turn-around point, and I realize that although I have been pretty much running alone for hours, there are people that are going to finish several hours after I do. The descent off Mitchell Mesa is much more difficult than I expect – no springy legs hoping from rock to rock for me! I get to the Hogan aid station for the final time about 7 hours and 14 minutes. There is still a little less than four miles to go – argh. The last part of the run is completely along the Valley tour road. Unlike earlier in the morning, the road is now heavy with traffic. The speed limit is 15 miles per hour, and many of the cars and tour vans honor the limit, which minimizes the dust. However, every fourth or fifth car comes zooming by, and stirs up a chocking cloud of red dust. I really hate this part of the run, and curse at drivers that are obvious to the runner’s fate. The last two miles of the run are a steep climb back up to the lip of the cliff where the race started at dawn. I finish at 8 hours and 10 minutes by my watch – 40 minutes slower than I planned, but I am just happy to done! My watch says 33.5 miles, so it is just short of 55 km. Within a few minutes of rest I begin to think about how great the run was, and even the dust of the tail end begins to seem not so bad. A wonderful place to have a trail run.
My Forrest Gump Moment I discovered trail running late in life. Not mountains, geology, the solitude of towering peaks and deep canyons – those have been with me since my earliest memories. But trail running is a too recent passion, but has allowed me to experience calm even as my muscles ache and I experience true exhaustion. I am not a competitive runner – oh sure, I wish I was fast, but my age and athletic ability preclude even the allusion of “competitive”. So, why run as hard as you can during an ultra run if you have no chance of being competitive? Because it is a grand challenge – ultra train races are hard, and pushing your limits are rewarded with the knowledge that you accomplished something difficult. That sounds a bit trite, but doing difficult things, accomplishing goals, are a reality check on realizing one’s potential. Like most everyone, I have much grander goals in life than just running long distances on dusty trails; I want to make a difference in the world, I want to discover, I want to make right. Those goals are pretty hard to evaluate except post-mortem, and once I am dead I don’t much care. But doing difficult things allows me to center; accomplishments are mileage posts along the way.
This past January I had my annual physical (I will soon be 59). Once you pass the half century mark the ritual of the annual physical is aways approached with trepidation. Most American medial studies define “old age” as an onset of a plethora of symptoms, usually beginning sometime between 60 and 70 years. The most frightening of these symptoms is the decline of cognitive abilities – slowing down of the brain and gradual memory lose, for example. Everyone is different, and the decline is certainly a broad spectrum, but just as erosion will eventually wear down Mt. Everest to a nub, brains do wear out. So, at each annual check up I listen attentively to my doctor hoping to hear that I am amazingly young for “my age”. My check up in January started more or less as always – I have great heart function, good cholesterol, I seem to have good hearing except when my wife asks me to do something, still have most of my hair, etc. However, when the final part of my blood test was discussed my doctor said that my thyroid was pretty much kaput. I was diagnosed with hypothyroidism – an under active thyroid – a little over a decade ago. I have been taking levothroxin everyday for that decade. This is a synthetic hormone replacement; over the years my dose of levothroxin has been increased, so it was clear my thyroid was declining. I did not receive the news of “kaput” well – I was assured that this is okay, but I needed increase my medication, and monitor it closely. Hypothyroidism is not particularly rare – a few percent of Americans experience it, and both my parents had it. But it does have consequences – the thyroid helps regulate many functions in the body (including hair loss, which I appear to be immune to), but to athletes it is the key to fatigue, and to recovery from endurance events. In fact, there is a mini-scandal in world of endurance racers with the suggestion that some elite runners are using levothroxin to enhance performance. That has never been my case! But now I began to question if I would be able to truly run, bike or swim anymore. Was this the onset of old age for me?
The Monument Valley ultra was my first race since my new medicine regime. As I lined up on the start line I could not help but wonder if I could actually do the race. However, I ran it just fine (well, my legs are not so sure it was just fine). Unlike Forrest Gump, I am not ready to stop running.
Shades of grey wherever I go
The more I find out the less that I know
Black and white is how it should be
But shades of grey are the colors I see
Billy Joel, Shades of Grey, released 1993.
In the mid 1980s I was first asked to be a judge of the competitive mineral exhibits at the Tucson Gem and Mineral Show. At that time the TGMS competition, and its two top awards – the McDole Trophy (best case of minerals entered into competition) and the Lidstrom Trophy (best individual mineral entered into competition) – were considered the pinnacle of the mineral world. The winners of these awards looked like a “Who’s Who” of the mineral collecting community, and every year the competition was passionate and savage. The rules for the McDole and Lidstrom awards were few; it was based on the judges experiences, biases, and an element of luck on who decided to enter the competition. The judging for the McDole and Lidstrom awards was also a “discussion” rather than some type of formal poll — a judge with a domineering personality could filibuster the other judges into accepting his or her opinion. I recall clearly the discussion around a particular specimen entered into the Lidstrom competition that I was fond of; “We can’t possibly consider that specimen a best – it has been repaired!” The pronouncement carried such an air of academic certitude that I immediately agreed. Of course, it had been repaired! How could it really be a great mineral specimen if there was some glue involved!
It was not too long after that I began to ponder the absurdity of dismissing anything that is repaired as inherently flawed (on a personal note, now that I have multiple metal parts in various joints, I embrace the repaired). Repairing a mineral is rather common – mineral extraction is inherently a violent activity, and the very act of handling a specimen introduces the possibility of drops, dings and scratches. But there is still a feeling that repairs should affect the monetary value of a specimen. I don’t think I have ever been to mineral show where I have not heard some version of the conversation between a dealer and a collector where the potential purchaser doesn’t ask for a significant discount because the specimen has been repaired. The stephanite pictured at the top of this article is a fantastic complex crystal from the Husky Mine in the Yukon Territory, Canada. I first committed to buying this piece for my collection around the year 2000. However, when I went to go pick it up from the dealer I opened the box and the marvelous sample of “brittle silver” was in three pieces! The stress of transport had caused the crystal to part along inter-growth boundaries. I was heart broken, and walked away from a masterpiece. The dealer repaired the piece expertly, and eventually I was able to acquire it. However, several years later I was transporting it to be photographed and it “parted” again! Fortunately, it was once again restored, and now sits permanently in my mineral cabinet never to travel again. I believe it is the best, or one of the best, Husky Mine stephanites in existence, and the fact that it has some clear cyanoacrylate helping to hold it together is inconsequential.
Repair would, thus, seem to be a rather “black and white” issue – restoring a collectable to its original configuration is not fraud or even misrepresentation of nature. Sadly, it is not “black and white”, and repair/restoration has become a spectrum disorder in the mineral collecting world. Today many consider filling missing gaps in crystals with acrylic resin, buffing away scratches on crystal faces or even heating a specimen to “restore” its primordial color as simply “sophisticated repair”. Not black and white, but shades of grey.
Real Repairs
The Pieta is a signature masterwork of Italian sculptor Michelangelo, and one of the most famous works of art in history. Michelangelo was only 23 years old when he carved the single block of Carrara marble into a haunting image of a crucified Jesus being held by his mother. By any figure of merit, the Pieta is priceless. Yet, it is repaired – several times! The four fingers of Mary’s left hand were snapped off during a move in the 18th century (restored in 1736). The most egregious damage occurred in an instant of insanity when Laszio Toth, an unemployed Hungarian geologist attacked. Toth struck the Pieta more than a dozen times with his field hammer, breaking off Mary’s arm, part of her nose, and chipping her face.
The repair of the statue was done by a team of 10 people painstakingly reassembling the fragments and filling in voids with a mixture of powdered marble and polyester resin. When the restore work was unveiled it was claimed that it was impossible to identify where the damage had been. Some experts suggest that with the passage of time the resin has perceptibly changed color, but in general the repair has faded into history and the magnificence of the Pieta has been restored.
The restoration of the Pieta might be a fanciful stretch as an analogy for mineral repair, but it does frame the philosophy of specimen “value”. It is highly unlikely that the reconstruction of Mary’s left hand would effect the value of the Pieta if the Vatican decided to part with the treasure; I can’t imagine any art collector asking the Vatican for a “discount” because the marble was not exactly as Michelangelo carved it long ago. On the other hand, the restoration process went to great lengths to assure that nothing changed from the original – no added expression to Mary’s face, no extra lamb seated at her feet.
The Rhodochrosite Royalty – a family full of plastic surgery
In 1966, a 90 year old silver mine located on the slopes of Mt Bross – one of Colorado’s 53 peaks that have elevations in excess of 14,000 feet above sea level – yielded a remarkable mineral specimen. The mine was called the Sweet Home, and during its on-again, off-again mining history had periodically produced some of the world’s best rhodochrosite. However, the standard for rhodochrosite was reset when a mining crew drilled into a pocket and found a 10 cm rhombohedron of cherry red rhodochrosite perched on a slab of pencil thin white quartz. The specimen was purchased by one of Colorado’s earliest fine mineral dealerships, Crystal Gallery, for the princely sum of $2500. Crystal Gallery was a partnership between Merle Reid and Colorado collector legend George Robertson. The rhodochrosite ended up in the hands of Peter Bancroft (much to the chagrin of George Robertson), who christen the piece as the “Alma Queen”, in recognition of the mining town a few miles southeast of the Sweet Home Mine (the picture above is “official” photo of the Alma Queen from its present home, the Houston Museum of Natural Science). In short order the Queen passed through a hands of a number of famous mineral dealers, finally becoming a prized possession of Perkins Sams. In 1986, Sams sold the Queen to Houston Museum – and a few years later it was being moved and was broken! Actually, it was not too surprising given that the rhodochrosite has perfect cleavage, and the huge crystal was isolated and perched on matrix. Fortunately, the crystal was “repaired” – it is impossible to see the glue reattaching the rhomb – and is still considered a masterpiece.
The Alma Queen enticed others to want to return to the Sweet Home Mine and search for more rhodochrosite. In 1991 Bryan Lees and partners began a professional and systematic exploration for mineral specimens. In 1992 Lees’ operation discovered a 1.5 meter long pocket that yielded incredible — larger than even the Alma Queen — specimens. Most of the crystals were detached from matrix, jarred from their natural perches by the mining activity. The largest of the crystals was more than 15 cm across, and was dubbed the Alma King.
The Alma King was eventually reattached to matrix, and was brought to the Tucson Gem and Mineral Show in 1993. I remember seeing the specimen, and was stunned. I also recall standing next to a old time collector who remarked “too bad it is repaired”. Wow – my thoughts were not conflicted at all – the repair was sincere and returned a natural masterpiece to it’s rightful magnificence. It was exactly like the restoration of the Pieta!
There is little argument that the repair of the Sweet Home rhodochrosites was the right course of action, and certainly did not diminish the value of the specimens. However, it also coincided with the crest of a darker tsunami in the collecting hobby that demanded specimen perfection, and art aesthetics overtaking all other metrics of mineral specimen evaluation. A significant percentage of the Sweet Home specimens required repair, although the evolving euphemism was “specimen preparation”; a dialog developed around the theme of “returning the specimen to the condition it was in nature”. This catch phrase has become the a divide between collectors; those that prize the art of mineral specimens are willing to see flaws removed by polish and resins, while other collectors recoil at any man-induced enhancements and celebrate only that which can be documented “as found”. This gulf is wide, and brings cries of “fake and fraud” from collectors in the later group when they view many of the world’s best mineral specimens. However, this group of collectors – the old school – is dying away. Not yet irrelevant, but mostly marginalized. I am old school.
When a grey line becomes red — and crossed
In the last 50 years the mineral collecting hobby has seen dramatic changes – or perhaps evolution. What was once the realm of rockhounds is now a glided age of art. One of the most obvious symptoms of this change is what collectors accept and expect in a mineral specimen. Repair and restoration have always been important for mineral specimens; however, the definition of repair and restore has changed as prices have escalated. There has always been a desire to make specimens attractive, but today it is expected that many specimens are oiled, waxed or sprayed with silicon to enhance their luster and hide their imperfections. Use of these cosmetic trappings was once a “red line” for collectors – absolutely rejected. But just like US foreign policy on the use of chemical weapons, that red line was faded to grey. A tour through the many hotel rooms of the “high end” mineral dealers participating in the 2015 Westward Look Fine Mineral Show in Tucson (February 6-8) reinforces this dramatic shift; it is fair to say that most expensive fluorite specimens for sale have been treated with oil, every recent amazonite dug from the pegmatites in the high peaks of Colorado has been “juiced” to enhance the luster, and most gem-quality garnets are getting at least a spray of enhancement. And, further, casual conversation with collectors seems to reinforce that this is what they want. Perfection is essential for a work of art.
The desire to “improve” minerals is a couple of thousand years old. There is written accounts of Greeks using cedar oil on emeralds to enhance the color. The purpose of the oil was to fill the flaws and cracks with a material (the oil) such that when light is shined on the crystal there would not be reflections from the imperfections. The cedar oil had approximately the right index of refraction (about the same as the emerald itself), and low enough viscosity (when heated) to flow into the tiny cracks, but high enough such that it would remain (at least for a while) after treatment. Today the oil is mixed with a polymer which “fixes” the oil. There are about a half dozen “restoration” labs in the US that work on minerals, and most have proprietary processes to do essentially the same thing as the cedar oil treatment except for fluorite, sphalerite, garnet, etc. The science behind these processes is fairly sophisticated — but the treatment is rarely disclosed.
Today it is hard to “lay blame” for the practice of mineral restoration that relies on removing perceived imperfections at the doorstep of dealers. The nature of the “trophy collector” is to find perfection – and that sense of perfection does not have to be the hand that nature dealt. Further, it is clear that repair and restoration no longer decrease specimen value, but actually increase value. As Sir Walter Scott opined: Oh what a tangled web we weave, When first we practice to deceive.
Old School with a New World Order
I love collecting minerals – it is something that I have done with passion for more than 50 years. I have changed along the way, and the hobby has changed even more than I. I am deeply disturbed by many of the changes, but that does not make them “wrong”. Just as I am aghast at at what I perceive as the personal values of generations other than mine, my sense of why I collect, and what a mineral specimen means to me, does not have to be shared with others. The Dalai Lama says: “Happiness is not something ready made. It comes from your own actions.” I don’t need to change what and how I collect. It is the science and human story that are codified and crystallized in my minerals. That is why I happily collect that which is repaired and total reject oils and waxes. A red line.
Beauty of whatever kind, in its supreme development, invariably excites the sensitive soul to tears, Edgar Allan Poe, 19th century American Poet.
There are certain minerals that hypnotize the collector – some with their monetary value, some with their art esthetics, and others with their specimen fame and history. A few appeal to a most primal attraction, a fascination with a rich and distinctive color. Perhaps no species in the mineral kingdom has a more unique and appealing hue and chroma than proustite; vermillion-scarlet red, appearing to glow under moderately bright light, yet fleeting and fading with time. In Mexico and Chile, miners use the phrase “Sangre de Toro” – the Blood of the Bull – when they encounter freshly broken rock that exposes proustite (or the closely related mineral pyargyrite). These miners celebrated the rock bleeding with rich silver ore.
A “great proustite” is prized in any mineral cabinet, and is considered an essential in a great mineral collection. However, proustite is enigma to most collectors — beautiful, but it poses very special challenges in terms of curation. Proustite is well known to darken on exposure to light – mainly sunlight, but also on exposure to the light from most electrical bulbs found in mineral cases. Proustite is probably the only mineral that is proudly advertised as “stored away in a dark box for the last 100 years”. A great mineral that no one every gets to observe? By far, proustite is the mineral I get questioned must intensely about; Can you reverse the darkening? Why does my proustite that I leave boxed up develop a white coating? Can I find display glass for my mineral case that will block damaging light? Unfortunately, the same chemistry and physics that endows the mesmerizing color to proustite leads to its ultimate demise.
I bought my first fine proustite in 1983 at the Tucson Gem and Mineral Show — or more correctly, I bought it late one evening in a dingy hotel room in the Desert Inn located a few blocks west of the TGMS show. The crystal is about 3.8 cm high, and distinctive in its habit; there is no question that it was from Chanarcillo, Chile. I was introduced to an English mineral dealer named Simon Harrison, who was reported to have a fine proustite. Simon took me into the bathroom to show me the piece — I recall that the bathtub was filled with ice and cans of beer, and there were mineral flats stacked high — and as I opened the box I was incredibly excited (the crystal is shown at the top of this article). Inside was a perfect prismatic crystal, fantastic color, and an retired British Museum of Natural History label. Reality splashed over me as I realized this piece was probably out of my meager means — having just completed my PhD, and was only notionally visualizing what a “paycheck” was. He told me the price was 3000 dollars – cash, no stink’in checks. I quickly said yes, but had no clue where I was going to find 3k. I had three flats of pretty good material in my car out front, and I hoped to sell them in the next couple of days. I was incredibly lucky that I was able to cajole a dealer to take them all for 3,800 dollars, and I became the proud owner of a piece of ruby silver.
I showed my treasure to a number of friends and colleagues and the everyone told me it was great, but that I had to keep it closed up tight in a box, and make sure it never saw the harsh and bright Tucson sunlight (I recall thinking that perhaps everyone was confusing the proustite with a miniature vampire…). I stored it away, and was happy. Two years later I opened up the box to show a friend, and I was dismayed to see a white powder near the base of the crystal. The color seemed as great as ever, but what the heck was the white powder, and what did it portend for the demise of my great specimen? I removed the white powder with a tooth brush and x-rayed it; I found it was arsenic oxide. This seemed mysterious to me, and started me down a path of understanding the complex chemistry and physics of proustite.
Since that first purchase long ago, I have added about 15 proustites to my collection. I love the species, and even occasionally show the pieces. I have also probably been asked a hundred times on how to reverse the aging of proustite; sadly, just like the human body, a grand chemistry experiment is going on all the time, and although it is possible to delay the darkening of the crystal, the majestic color will eventually change. It is not a mystery, but a testament to the wonderful properties of the element silver.
The next two sections of this post are about the structure and color of proustite – they require some faith in quantum mechanics, and for some readers it is best to just jump to the section on The World’s Great Proustite Localities.
The structure of proustite; silver sulfides and sulfosalts all die and go to heaven
The color of proustite, and the fact that it fades and decomposes on exposure to sunlight, is a result of its chemistry and crystal structure. The chemical formula for proustite is Ag3AsS3, which represents the arsenic end-member of a solid solution series with the “dark ruby silver” pyrargyrite (Ag3SbS3). From a chemical point of view, the proustite-pyrargyrite series is one of the simplest silver-bearing sulfosalt systems. “Simple,” however, is relative when dealing with anything that contains silver. For example, in the laboratory it is possible to make antimony-rich proustite; yet in natural proustite, only a tiny fraction of the arsenic is actually replaced by antimony.
The crystal structure of proustite contains covalently bonded As-S3 pyramids, which are stacked in a spiral parallel to the c-axis of the crystal. The silver atoms are situated between the As-S3 pyramids, and link the over and underlying pyramids via S-Ag-S bonds. The figure above shows the packing, and the resulting crystal symmetry. The stack of the unit cells gives a hexagonal structure (in the ditrigonal pyramidal class). Proustite crystals are typically highly modified scalenohedrons – often they resemble “dog-tooth” calcite crystals.
The classical representation of the atomic interactions in the unit cell does not capture the complexity of proustite very well; it is important to take a quantum view, more fully appreciating that the silver atoms are fickle with their attachment to a given sulfur atom. Below is an individual proustite molecule presented using Einstein’s model for the harmonic displacement of atoms. The ellipsoids represent an envelope of space with a certain probability that the atom is inside; in the figure sulfur is shown in yellow, arsenic in green, and silver is the in silver (of course!). The silver atoms have the largest ellipsoids — in fact, larger than the entire As-S3 pyramid dimension — reflecting the fact that silver wanders within the structure.
In the classical description of the proustite structure a given silver atom interacts with two sulfur atoms (on the over and underlying As-S3 pyramid). However, if you consider the interactions of a given Ag atom with the neighboring six sulfur atoms, it is possible to define a very distorted AgS6 octahedral group.
In this representation two of the S atoms are much closer to the silver atom as compared to the other four (making the silver 2-coordinated). The other 4 sulfur atoms form a plane around the Ag, defining a “cage”. When the silver atom experiences thermal motion it bounces back and forth between the four sulfur atoms undergoing short periods of being bonded to each of them. This can lead to strong silver migration within the proustite structure — and this is the root cause of the deterioration of proustite on exposure to light!
The mobility of silver in sulfides and sulfosalts is described as a thermal effect, which usually leads one to the conclusion that physical heating is required. In fact, the thermal motion of the silver atoms can be excited by radiation, including visible light. When light shines on proustite the unit cell increases in volume; this volume is accommodated in the c lattice parameter, meaning that the distance between the As-S3 pyramids in adjacent layers increases, promoting a reaction that liberates the arsenic which reacts with the atmosphere to produce As2O3 – the white powder that is sometimes seen on proustite. The light also mobilizes the silver, which typically combines with the sulfur to form acanthite. The “darkening” of proustite on exposure to light is actually the surface growth of acanthite and silver.
The chemical changes associated with light degradation of proustite are irreversible. Once the silver migrates and reforms on the surface as a new sulfide, the host proustite is forever changed. The “darkening” of the proustite is in fact a surface coating, and it can be removed with silver cleaner, although this “cleaning” leaves a pitted and damaged surface.
The mobility of silver in proustite is hardly unique; in fact, all silver sulfides and sulfosalts are temperature sensitive. The classic example is the growth of silver wires out of acanthite. Recently, there have been a large number of “constructed” silver wire specimens from Morocco and China where acanthite crystals have been blow-touched to liberate bright curls of silver. The same thing happens to proustite when point heated, something that has been know since the 19th century when the figure above was published (criminal, blow-touching a proustite crystal!).
The color red – band gaps
The structure of proustite is also responsible for its marvelous color. It also requires a detour through quantum mechanics to understand how electrons behave with energized. Proustite is a semiconductor, and thus its color is controlled by the energy of electrons and the “band theory of metals”. The main tenet of band theory is that the outermost electrons of the atoms within the mineral belong to the crystal as a whole. For pure metals, such as silver and gold, each atom contributes the electrons in their outer orbits to a “pool”; these electrons are free to move throughout the crystal, and this results in high thermal and electrical conductivity, and metallic luster. For semiconductors – like proustite – there is a prevalence of covalent bonding, or electron sharing. This limits the mobility of electrons, and there are gaps in energy between the covalence band and a band that would be required for the true electronic sharing (the conduction band). The size of this energy gap controls the color of the semi-conductor.
For metals, the electron pool absorbs energy from incident light and the electrons are excited to higher energy levels; the electrons return to their native lower energy state and emit a photon of energy proportional to the difference between the excited and native levels. For gold, the electrons have a strong absorption of energy at 2.3 eV, which we observe as yellow. For silver, the absorption peak is at about 4 eV, which is closer to the ultraviolet – so all the visible spectra is returned and the metal acts like a mirror. Hence the shiny, nearly white color of the metal.
For semiconductors, it is only possible to absorb the energies of incident light at all energies above the band gap, but not below. If the gap is very small, the color appears black. If the gap is very large, no absorption occurs, and the mineral appears colorless. Diamond has an energy gap of 5.5 eV, well beyond the spectra of visible light. Proustite has an intermediate gap – about 2 eV — and therefore only red light is transmitted; all other colors have energies larger than Eg and thus, are absorbed. Pyrargyrite has slightly smaller gap (the difference between a covalent bond with antimony vs arsenic) and therefore is slightly darker.
The unique hue of proustite is a product of silver-sulfur bonds competing with the arsenic-sulfide pyramids. Since most silver sulfides and sulfosalts are similarly constructed, they all have a red color. We tend to think of minerals like miargyrite and polybasite as “black”, but in fact their streak is red.
The World’s Great Proustite Localities
Proustite is known from thousands of localities, but only a paltry half dozen have produce collector specimens of note. Proustite and pyrargyrite are generally late forming minerals in hypogene (high temperature and pressure fluids) environments, although occasionally there found in supergene (near surface, and typically controlled by meteoric waters) environments. Proustite is considerably rarer than pyrargyrite; both minerals are typically dispersed in smallish grains within vein systems. The abundance of proustite in world-wide silver localities portends that there should be exceptional crystals from many localities. However, macro-crystals are quite rare except at Chanarcillo, Chile and near Schneeberg, Germany.
Chanarcillo: The undisputed heavy weight champion of proustite localities is Chanarcillo, Chile. Between 1850 and 1875 an extraordinary number of terminated, undamaged proustites were recovered in veins of calcite. The largest of these crystals is reported to be more than 9 cm in length, and hundreds of specimens are known in museums and private collections across the globe that are long prismatic candles of red in excess of 5 cm length.
The Chanarcillo deposits are located south of Copiapo, about halfway between Antofagasta and Santiago, Chile, in the Atacama Desert. In May 1832 a freight hauler and prospector named Juan Godoy was hunting Ilamas when he tired and decided to rest under the shade of an outcrop. Godoy noticed a waxy vein and began to pry the vein material out with his knife – he later described it as “soft as cheese”. He loaded up two mules with the ore — chlorargyrite — and headed to the nearby town of Copiapo to have it assayed. Godoy entered into partnership with a friend, Juan Callejos Miguel Gallo, and founded the Descubridora mine. Rumors of the richness of the strike started a rush to Chanarcillo, and by 1850 there were 1,750 mires in the district. Unfortunately, the story of Godoy ends sadly, in the way of many prospectors; Miguel Gallo became immensely wealthy, but Godoy squandered his share of the Descubridora and died a beggar.
The Descubridora Mine produced the largest and best native silver specimens from Chanarcillo. Much of the silver occurred as thick wires encased in calcite, but the most characteristic habit is arborescent “flags” or herringbone plates of crystals. Two other mines produced specimens of note: the Mina Dolores Tercera and the Bolados. The Dolores is perhaps the most famous to mineral collectors, and during the 1850s the lower levels of the mine encountered a series of vugs filled with proustite, acanthite and chlorargyrite. The Bolados (named after four brothers who discovered it) contained huge masses of native silver — one of these weighed an estimated 1,360 kilograms, and had to be hand-chiseled from the mine because black powder blasts only dented and bent the lode. Another Bolados bonaza pocket contained chloragyrite and silver weighing 20,450 kilograms!
There were 18 major mines in Chanarcillo that produced more than $90 million (as measured in 1875 dollars) worth of silver in aggregate. Most mining was abandoned by the end of the nineteenth century due to the exhausting of the ore. There were periodic attempts to revive the camp in the camp in the 20th century, but this only resulted in all the dumps being hauled away for processing. Every trace of mineralization has been chipped away from the tunnels and open workings. I visited Chanarcillo in 2001, and was amazed how little remained. The value of the proustite is not lost on the locals; if you travel to Copiapo and inquire about buying proustite, someone will show up at your hotel room with red-colored rock and asking price of thousands of dollars. Sadly, no new proustite has been recovered in more than a century.
However, there are plenty of Chanarcillo proustites stored away in museums, and occasionally returned to the collector world. About 12 years ago a large proustite was traded out of the Harvard Museum; as traded it was an ugly clod. It was a mass of calcite with glimmers of proustite. The dealer made the trade with the hope that the removal of the calcite would reveal a masterpiece. In fact, it revealed many masterpieces! During the cleaning it also revealed some material that looked like red mica. Testing confirmed it was fettelite, a rare silver-mercury sulfosalt (Ag16HgAs4S15). Fettelite was only described in 1994, and all the known material was flakes less than .2 mm across. However, the “cleaned” Harvard piece yielded crystal books to .7 cm! I was fortunate to acquire the very best of these (before others decided that these should be really expensive since they were the world’s best!).
Schneeberg/Schlema: The Erzgebirge — translates as the ore mountains – is a fault block mountain range that forms the border between southeastern Germany and the Czech Republic. For mineral collectors, The Erzgebirge is a mineral locality of mythical proportions; Freiberg, Marienberg, Annaberg, Jachymov, Johanngeorgenstadt, Pöhla and Schneeberg. These mines operated for centuries, and gave birth to modern mining geology, engineering and mineralogy. These mines produced a larger volume of world class silver minerals than any where else on the globe – and so many of these specimens are preserved because of the rise of gentlemen naturalist that were ravenous collectors in the 18th century had access to these marvels.
Proustite is found throughout the Erzgebirge, but a series of mines in the Schlema valley produced the very best specimens. The town of Schneeberg sits at the western end of a small valley — about 5 km long — that drains into the Zwickau Mulde (river). Within this modest strip of land sits the Schlema-Hartenstein and Schneeberg mining districts. Silver was known to have been mined in the area from at least since the beginning of the 15th century, and the first major discovery occurred in 1470. Within 4 years there were 176 mines recorded to be producing silver. The most famous of the early mines was the St. Georg; in 1477 a large lode of native silver and various silver sulfides was discovered which is said to have contained 20,000 kg of silver. A large slice of this lode exists today in the Senckenberg Natural History Collections, in Dresden.
The mines in the Schneeberg-Schlema area exploit a network of hundreds of veins that vary in size; the most important are over 2 km in length and 3 meters wide. The character of the mineralization within in the veins is complex which is the result of the superposition of multiple hydrothermal events over a long period of time — from the Permian to the Cretaceous. The complex mineralogy is characterized by the metals C0-Ni-Bi-Ag-U. In fact, the variety of metals also explains the long mining history of the region. Within 25 years of the first major discovery most of the silver mining had ended, but the region was revitalized in 1520 when cobalt became an important commodity to produce blue glass. In the early part of the 19th century the focus of the mining shifted to nickel, and by 1830 the uranium became a main mining target.
After the conclusion of World War II the Soviets invested heavily in the region to mine uranium for their nascent nuclear weapons program. By the end of the 1950s East Germany was the fourth largest producer of uranium, and the Schneeberg-Schlema area is now recognized as the largest vein-style uranium deposit in the world. By the time the mines shut down in 1990 the total uranium production was more than 96,000 tonnes.
Although the Schneeberg-Schlema mines had a complicated history in terms of the target metal, a constant through time was the occasional encounter with rich pods of silver ore. Proustite specimens were documented as being recovered from the mines for over 500 years. Many of the best specimens were recovered in the 20th century, and preserved. Unfortunately, the names of the specific mines are often obscured — in fine Soviet tradition the mines operated post WWII were donated by numbers assigned to the adits or shafts. The most famous of these shafts was “207” located in Niederschlema. WISMUT, the uranium mining enterprise, made a gift of several dozen stunning proustites from shaft 207 to the Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg (the Frieberg Mining Academy). These proustites reside in a drawer – hidden from light, but when the proustite drawer is brought out the reaction from collectors is always one of disbelief!
To Show or Not to Show
Proustite is a marvelous and complex mineral – to quote Winston Churchill, it is “a riddle, wrapped in a mystery, inside an enigma”. The unique color of proustite demands attention, but each flash of attention under the display lights inevitably permanently changes the specimen. There is no simple solution to delaying the darkening of proustite — the short wavelength end of the spectra causes the reaction to occur more rapidly, but the lattice will swell with exposure to any part of the visible light spectra. Thus, it is not possible to just install UV glass on a mineral case and assume your fine proustites will glow red for a generation. On the other hand, a brief exposure to light for an occasional display has little consequence. Judicious displays — both in frequency and out of direct sunlight – can make poustites objects to behold for at least a hundred years.
A man on foot, on horseback or on a bicycle will see more, feel more, enjoy more in one mile than the motorized tourists can in a hundred miles – Edward Abbey, in Desert Solitaire
I moved to Tucson late in the summer of 1983 to become an Assistant Professor of Geosciences at the University of Arizona. I spent 20 years in the “Old Pueblo” and lived the academic life, became curator of an outstanding mineral museum, worked on the greatest mineral show in the world (the Tucson Gem and Mineral Show), met my future wife, raised my family and saw my son become a third generation Eagle Scout. The Sonora Desert is like a cactus in bloom – beautiful but also deadly. I hated the summers that seemed to stretch from May 1st to the end of October, but the months of November and February are so extraordinary that heaven is the only description that is sufficient.
A few years after I arrived in Tucson I began to ride a bike to recover from knee surgery, and discovered that long rides in the Sonoran Desert were therapeutic both for the body and soul. In the 1990s Tucson was a very bike friendly community, and you could choose rides of any flavor; climb 6500 feet up Mt Lemmon along the Catalina Highway, ride the frontage road near I-10 to the north and easily average 22-25 miles an hour, group rides, and daily commutes. My first “serious” bike was an aluminum framed Cannondale, and in 1990 I purchased a sweet steel lugged Serotta Colorado. I entered a number of the centuries, and in 1991 I signed up for one of the premier long rides, the El Tour de Tucson.
The El Tour de Tucson, which had its inaugural event in 1983, is one of the nation’s largest single day cycling events. The father of the Tour, Richard DeBernardis, wanted an epic event that captured the challenge of “riding the perimeter” of a landmark, and circling the Tucson Basin fit the bill perfectly. In 1991 the event attracted around 3000 cyclists – which seemed immense to me when I pushed my bike to the start line at the Sheraton El Conquistador on the north side of Tucson. It was a cool Saturday morning just before Thanksgiving, and riders were segregated in “corrals” based on ability – I was in the massive public corral. It took me a little less than 5 hours and 20 minutes to ride the 109 mile course that included some iconic peculiarities of the El Tour (there were two “water” crossing that require the cyclists to dismount and carry or push their bikes – mostly the crossings are about getting off the bike, but sometimes they are wet!). Cyclists that finished the course in times between 5 and 6 hours received a “gold medal”, and I only regretted that I totally bonked the last hour and imagined I barely missed out on a “platinum” medal (it is really unlikely I could have made up the 20 minutes, but that is the power of positive thinking!). I rode the El Tour again in 1994 when the temperatures at the starting time were much less than 40 degrees and froze, but still did the ride in less than 5 1/2 hours.
When I left Tucson in 2003 I always thought I would return to ride the El Tour often — I did not find the time until 10 years later when a couple of friends from Los Alamos and I entered the 31st version of the El Tour. We headed out from New Mexico on Friday, November 22, and by the time we got to Tucson it was raining. It is not unusual to get some precipitation in Tucson in November, but the storm forecast called for a significant chance of rain during the race.
It rained overnight before the race, and was lightly sprinkling at the start of the race. Cold and wet, I waited at the start line with high expectations — how bad could it be? Well, it rained nearly continuously for 4 hours. The map above shows the rainfall totals at stations across the Tucson Basin during the race – many recorded more than 1.5″ during the race. I never had a more miserable ride – between the rain fall, the spray from other riders, and road grim that comes with big storms, the ride was a major challenge! I did the first 75 miles on pace for a 5:50 finish, but cramped up and limped home in a time of 6 hr 21 minutes, and placed 521 out of 1626 riders (the race officials pulled a large number of riders off the course because the Sabino Creek crossing became too dangerous – and thus there was a much smaller finishing cadre than usual). After a few hours of recovery, my friends and I vowed to return and conquer the El Tour in 2014 and simply celebrate the most ridiculous and wet ride we just experienced.
The 2014 El Tour de Tucson
The line up for the El Tour begins before sunrise and the sky has a faint red glow associated with the sunlight diffracting from beyond the horizon. 3200 cyclist mill around the starting line in Armory Park near the center of old Tucson just before 7 am start time for the 104 mile race/ride (the distance of the course changes from year to year depending on road construction). It is always clear that the cyclist come in all varieties — there are expensive bikes, mountain bikes, tiny people, large bodies, and some just strange sights like the fellow in a hot pink body suit. The Armory Park area dates from the the civil war when Union troops from California established a military camp here, and today it is the heart of one of the oldest Tucson neighborhoods. It is cool — 38 degrees — as the starting count down begins. I know I am pretty far back in the corral, right behind a group of riders that are wearing jerseys advertising bicycle accident lawyers (Hurt in a Biking Accident? Call xxxx). I am not sure if this is some sort of message from father fate, but I am reminded that I really have to be careful over the next 30 minutes. The countdown from 10 signals the start — and I don’t move for 3 minutes as the mass of cyclist in front of me slowly start up; it takes another 1 1/2 minutes until I pass the official start line. The mass of cyclists is amazing. Finally, I am rolling along and hugging the far left side trying to pass as many of the cyclist as possible within the first 5 minutes.
Tucson sits in a broad valley (with an average elevation of about 2600 ft above sea level) surrounded by tall mountains in all directions. To the east and north are the Rincon and Santa Catalina Mountains, to the west are the Tucson Mountains, and to the South are the Santa Rita Mountains. Despite the high mountains, the El Tour de Tucson is a relatively flat course – rolling hills, but less than 3000 feet elevation gain/loss for 104 miles. Of course, this is because of geology! It is a little hard to examine geology from a bike, especially during a fast moving century, but I have the advantage of knowing about the geology and that makes the ride much more interesting.
The Tucson Basin separates the crystalline cored mountains in the east (the Rincon and Santa Catalina mountains) from the mostly andesitic volcanics in the Tucson Mountains. Before about 1975 it was assumed that the Catalina-Rincon mountains were simply an uplifted batholith (granitic roots that represented large, mid-crustal depth magma chambers), but there was a perplexing rock fabric that was exposed with the granite that hinted at much more complex geologic pedigree. Around 1980, Peter Coney (an extraordinary geologist from the University of Arizona) proposed that this fabric was the result of extensive “stretching” of the crust and denuding of the deep seated rocks along low angle detachment faults. The fabric in the rock is a metamorphic (recrystallization due to extreme stains due to the crustal extension) overprint on the granites. The Catalina-Rincon mountains became the “type” locality of what geologist coined as metamorphic core complexes (MCC). When I was a young faculty member at the University of Arizona there was an intense debate on how low-angle detachment faults could form – in fact, to this day, their origin is hotly – and emotionally – contested. What makes the MMC model so significant for the Tucson Basin is that it provides an mechanism to connect the Tucson Mountains to the Catalina-Rincons; the Tucson Mountains once set on top of the Catalina Mountain rocks!
The start of the El Tour sends the riders for a short jaunt to the south before ending east and crossing the Santa Cruz River. The Santa Cruz River is a misnomer today – it is a dry ribbon of sand that only comes alive when there a large rainstorms that run off the parched desert landscape. The Santa Cruz River drainage basin covers a large area in southern Arizona, and eventually empties into the Gila River just south of Phoenix. Two major tributaries of the Santa Cruz — again, dry sandy washes most of the time – are also crossed by the El Tour. These are the Rillito River which drains the southern Catalina Mountains, and the Canada Del Oro which drains the northern Catalina Mountains. Last year all three washes were flowing with brown, churning water; this year they are sandy hiways.
The first 5 miles of the El Tour is all about survival – avoiding accidents and falling water bottles, getting ahead of wandering cyclists, and making a couple of sharp turns with cyclists of mixed experience. There is lots of shouts of “hold your line” – mostly in vain, but survive I did! After about 15 minutes the rider field is beginning to spread out, and the course turns back east; almost immediately we have our first “river crossing” — a run through the sandy Santa Cruz channel. The riders have to dismount and wade/walk/trot about 150 yards. This crossing seems crazy, but it actually spreads out the rider field.
Once I climb out of the wash I quickly get back on my back on my bike knowing that the real ride begins now. The vistas to the east are spectacular (although, in truth, my glances towards the Rincons are very brief as I mostly worry about other cyclist’s wheels). The detachment faulting that beheaded the Catalina-Rincons occurred between 30 and 20 million years before the present. Around 10 million years ago Southern Arizona was subjected to another episode of crustal extension, characterized by fairly steeply dipping faults (in opposed to the shallow dipping detachment faults) and a whole series of down dropped grabens were developed to accommodate the extension. In the Tucson area a series of high angle faults down dropped the area west of the Catalina-Rincons producing a deep basin. Subsequent erosion of the mountains has filled the basin with sediment, and the relatively flat topography of the developed area of Tucson belies the 1000s of feet of sediments filling the basin. The fast flat track of the El Tour more or less follows a contour line circling the basin.
The first hour of the bike ride is mostly uneventful; I averaged 21 miles per hour and pass at least a 1000 riders. The course loops around Tucson International Airport, and eventually turns along the frontage road of I-10. Finally, we turn north off the I-10 frontage road on to Kolb Road and cross over the massive freeway. A few minutes after the peddling along Kolb the riders pass through a unique Tucson landmark — the Bone Yard. Kolb road slices across property associated with Davis-Monthan Air Force Base that is home to the Air Force Materiel Command’s 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group (AMARG) – an organization charged with “dealing” with excess military and government aircraft. In reality, “dealing” with excess aircraft means miles and miles of out of service planes parked in the dry Tucson desert. As I cycled along Kolb I can see planes to the left of, planes to the right (and I am stuck in the middle with a bunch of jokers on bikes). One of my favorite planes in the line up are a few hundred B-52s that have their wings chopped off – all in the name of the START I treaty that required the US and Russians to remove a large number of delivery systems for nuclear weapons.
At about mile 29 the already huge mass of riders merges with the riders that have chosen to ride the 75 mile tour. The merger is more than vaguely related to a stream being captured by a river; the 1200+ riders that are starting the 75 mile course flow in from the left, but are slower than the passing mass of the 104 mile cyclists, so they tend to form a strip of cyclists that keeps its “identity” for at least a half a mile. The organizers plan the start times of the shorter routes such that all but the elite riders can arrive at the finish line within about a 2 hour window. This means that
|
||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 4
|
https://www.kaercher.com/int/inside-kaercher/company/sponsoring/cultural-sponsorship/talsperre-eibenstock.html
|
en
|
Eibenstock Dam - Eibenstock, Germany
|
https://www.kaercher.com/favicon.ico
|
https://www.kaercher.com/favicon.ico
|
[
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/kaercher_logo.svg",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/kaercher_logo.svg",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/kaercher_logo.svg",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/237/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/238/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/239/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/241/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/240/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/242/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/media/image/file/243/d0/talsperre-eibenstock.jpg#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/SSL.png#webp",
"https://s1.kaercher-media.com/versions/2024.8.0/static/img/ajax_kaercher_v2_500_orig.gif"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
Kärcher is the world's leading solution provider for cleaning and maintenance with products and services for leisure, household, trade and industry.
|
en
|
/favicon.ico
|
https://www.kaercher.com/int/inside-kaercher/company/sponsoring/cultural-sponsorship/talsperre-eibenstock.html
|
"Kingdom of Fishes": Eibenstock Dam adorned with large-scale artwork
On the wall of the Eibenstock Dam, the reverse graffiti artist Klaus Dauven has created a large-scale artwork. Using high-pressure cleaners, he etched a drawing out of the 30-year-old dirt layer, depicting two native trout. The picture, entitled "Kingdom of Fishes", can be seen in the contrast between the light and dark of the cleaned and uncleaned surfaces. Kärcher offered support and advice throughout the project as part of its cultural sponsorship programme, contributing both experience and technology.
The two trout are positioned one on top of the other and stretch across the entire width of the dam wall. They are drawn cut across lengthways so that only the back of one of the fish and the underside of the other can be seen. The way the fish are depicted creates the impression of movement – they appear to be moving in the water. The river trout, which is native to the Ore Mountains, is an important bioindicator because it can only survive in very clean water. The image of the fish is therefore symbolic of the quality of the drinking water in the Eibenstock reservoir.
In order to transfer the artist's design onto the dam wall, it was digitised by a surveying company and projected onto the wall using laser technology. Industrial climbers marked points onto the dam wall, which the artist then connected up to create the image. The artist worked from a facade lift and was supported by the industrial climbers, who abseiled from the top of the dam. Three HD 13/18-4 S cold water high-pressure cleaners were used to carry out the work.
The artist
Klaus Dauven has been using Kärcher high-pressure cleaners since 2003 to create temporary artworks in public spaces. He was born in 1966 in Düren (North Rhine-Westphalia) and studied art in Düsseldorf, Münster and Aix-en-Provence. Klaus Dauven has received numerous awards for his work, including the Joseph and Anna Fassbender Prize from the city of Brühl and the Düren Art Prize. He now lives in Kreuzau (North Rhine-Westphalia). In collaboration with Kärcher, he has already adorned several dam walls with his temporary artworks, including the Olef Dam in the Eifel region in 2007 and the Matsudagawa Dam in Japan in 2008.
The Eibenstock Dam
The Eibenstock Dam went into operation in 1982. It is the largest drinking water reservoir in Saxony. With its capacity of around 64 million cubic metres of water, the reservoir supplies drinking water to the greater Zwickau-Chemnitz area. The dam also helps in providing flood protection, raising low water levels and generating power. The mighty wall of the Eibenstock dam is around 300 metres long and 57 metres high.
|
|||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 59
|
https://en.mapy.cz/%3Fsource%3Dosm%26id%3D1054897284
|
en
|
Mapy.cz
|
https://en.mapy.cz/screenshoter?url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.mapy.cz%2F%253Fsource%3Dosm%26id%3D1054897284%26p%3D3%26l%3D0&width=1200&height=630
|
https://en.mapy.cz/screenshoter?url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.mapy.cz%2F%253Fsource%3Dosm%26id%3D1054897284%26p%3D3%26l%3D0&width=1200&height=630
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
"Mapy",
"mapy online",
"mapa ČR",
"hrady a zámky mapa"
] | null |
[] | null |
Nejpoužívanější mapový portál v ČR s celou řadou tématických map - základní, turistickou, cyklistickou, dopravní a plno dalších. Nabízí možnost reálného leteckého, panoramatického nebo 3D pohledu. Rozsáhlé množství obsahu, firem a turistických bodů zájmu. Umožňuje vyhledávání, plánování tras, měření a tvorbu vlastních značek.
|
/img/favicon/favicon.ico?2.65.5
|
Mapy.cz
|
https://en.mapy.cz/%3Fsource=osm&id=1054897284
| ||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 54
|
https://wise-uranium.org/udde.html
|
en
|
Decommissioning Projects - Germany
|
[
"https://wise-uranium.org/flags/de.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/nw.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/nw.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/pdf.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/nw.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/nw.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/nw.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/img/aw/165.jpg",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/nw.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/nw.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/nw.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/nw.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/nw.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/nw.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif",
"https://wise-uranium.org/ico/exit.gif"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null | null |
(last updated 3 Apr 2024)
Compensation of former Wismut uranium miners Federal cleanup of Wismut's uranium mine and mill sites: General · Saxony · Thuringia Cleanup of Wismut's abandoned legacy uranium mine and mill sites: General · Saxony · Thuringia Cleanup of radioactive mine waste used for road construction
> See also Issues for: New Mining Projects · Operating Mines · Legislation & Regulations
> See also Data for: Deposits, Proposed and Active Mines · Old Mines and Decommissioning
Compensation of former Wismut uranium miners
3,700 Wismut miners contracted lung cancer after Wismut stopped operations
The number of former Wismut miners who contracted lung cancer is higher than expected. According to the German statutory accident insurance, 3,700 cases of lung cancer were recognized as occupationally caused since 1991. Moreover, 100 workers contracted cancer of the larynx, and 2,800 workers a quartz pneumoconiosis. (MDR Apr. 27, 2012)
Federal Social Court awards former Wismut miners compensation for larynx cancer
On Aug. 18, 2004, the German Federal Social Court (Bundessozialgericht ) in a landmark ruling for the first time decided, that a compensation of cancer other than lung cancer is justified for uranium miners. In two cases, filed by former Wismut uranium miners and/or their surviving families, the Court has found that the larynx cancer developed by the miners must be seen as caused by their former occupation and therefore has to be compensated by the employers' liability insurance. The insurance had maintained that no epidemiological evidence had ever proven such causation, while only the dosimetric model by Jacobi (1995) had been used so far to support such claims. The court decisions are relevant for approx. 2000 other former Wismut miners who have contracted cancers other than lung cancer.
(Aktenzeichen: B 8 KN 2/03 U R, B 8 KN 1/03 U R)
Sources: Bundessozialgericht: Presse-Vorbericht Nr. 46/04 (5.8.2004), Presse-Mitteilung Nr. 46/04 (18.8.2004), ap Aug. 18, 2004
Federal cleanup of Wismut's uranium mine and mill sites
General · Saxony · Thuringia
General
> see also: Uranium Mining in Eastern Germany: The WISMUT Legacy (38k)
(see also Decommissioning Data)
> See also: National Reports for Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management (IAEA)
'Much remains to be done' - review of 30 years of reclamation of Wismut's uranium mining legacy concludes
The local NGO "Kirchlicher Umweltkreis Ronneburg" who has been following the issue since the last years of the former GDR, has published a review of 30 years of reclamation works in the former uranium mining areas of Saxony and Thuringia, Germany.
> Download: 30 Years of Remediation of Uranium Mining in Saxony and Thuringia, Germany, by Frank Lange, Translation of Supplement in Ronneburger Strahlentelex No. 2, Oct. 31, 2021 (777kB PDF - in English)
Original version: 30 Jahre Sanierung Uranbergbau in Sachsen und Thüringen, Sonderbeilage in Ronneburger Strahlentelex No. 2 , 31. Okt. 2021, S. 12 - 16 (1.4MB PDF - in German)
Last shipment of uranium recovered from water treatment at decommissioned Wismut uranium mines
On June 1, 2021, the last shipment if uranium left Wismut's former Königstein uranium mine site in Saxony: it contains 19.5 t mixture of water and uranium oxide recovered from the water treatment at the site. This residue is sold to Nuclear Fuels Corporation since 1997.
The total amount of uranium recovered during Wismut's decommissioning phase between 1990 and 2021 was 3,350 t U.
While the water treatment will have to continue for years to come, the uranium will no longer be extracted from the residues from now on.
(Wismut June 1, 2021)
Government approves Wismut's reclamation plan for the next 30 years - at costs of EUR 2.1 billion
The German Federal Ministry of Economics has approved Wismut's reclamation plan for the years from 2020 to 2050. The reclamation of the Helmsdorf tailings dam is to be completed by 2022, that of the Königstein and Schlema-Alberoda mines by 2025, and that of the Culmitzsch tailings dam by 2028. After that, treatment of contaminated water and effluents will still be required at Wismut's former sites for decades to come.
The plan requires another EUR 2.1 billion in addition to the EUR 6.8 billion spent so far already. (Wismut GmbH / dpa Feb. 17, 2021)
Total cost for reclamation of Wismut's uranium mining legacy to rise to EUR 8 billion
Wismut's current estimate for the total decommissioning cost until 2045 is around EUR 8 billion, of which around EUR 6 billion have been spent so far. (Ostthüringer Zeitung June 17, 2016)
Long-term management of Wismut legacy requires another EUR 2.1 billion
The management of Wismut's former uranium mining sites in Eastern Germany requires another EUR 2.1 billion until 2045, mainly for water treatment purposes. (Ostthüringer Zeitung Dec. 10, 2015)
[This comes in addition to the EUR 6.6 billion allocted so far and represents a four-fold increase over last year's estimate of an additional EUR 500 million required until 2040, see below.]
New European Union Basic Safety Standards may water down standards for cleanup of remaining Wismut uranium mine sites in Germany
> View here
Funds provided for decommissioning of Wismut's uranium mines not sufficient to cover longterm maintenance
At the end of the year 2013, Wismut had completed over 80% of its decommissioning task. The decommissioning work is expected to be completed by 2020, while longterm maintenance and surveillance will have to continue for an indefinite period of time.
So far, 5.8 billion of the 6.6 billion Euros allocated by the government have been spent. It is expected that the total cost until 2040 will rise to EUR 7.1 billion. (Ostthüringer Zeitung July 15, 2014)
Wismut plans to complete cleanup of uranium mining legacy by 2020
Wismut GmbH plans to conclude the cleanup of the uranium mining legacy in Thuringia and Saxony by 2020. After this date, long-term tasks such as water treatment, environmental monitoring and surveillance of reclaimed surfaces will have to continue for an unknown period of time. (DAPD June 23, 2011)
Federal cleanup of Wismut's uranium mining legacy to cost more and last longer
The Federal Republic of Germany, sole owner of Wismut GmbH, has increased the initial Euro 6.65 billion cleanup budget by 5.3% to Euro 7 billion. Of this total amount, Euro 5.4 billion have been spent until end 2010 already. The amount available for the year 2011 is Euro 139 million.
The completion of the reclamation work, initially set at 2010/2012, is now expected 10 years later at 2020/2022. The completion of the most challenging task, the stabilization of the largest uranium mill tailings deposit Culmitzsch is expected for 2022. The water treatment facilities for the effluents arising at various sites will have to continue operation even beyond that date, as heavy metal concentrations will still be too high for unrestricted release. (Freie Presse May 4, 2011)
German radiation protection authority releases monitoring results for radon in former uranium mining areas
> View here
Cleanup of Wismut legacy to take longer than foreseen
The cleanup of the uranium mining legacy in Saxony and Thuringia will take longer than foreseen and continue beyond 2015, according to Wismut's technical director Stefan Mann. The funding requirements won't increase, though. Euro 5.1 billion have been spent until end 2008, while the total cost was initially estimated at Euro 6.6 billion. (Freie Presse Jan. 2, 2009)
Wismut's cleanup funds assured in 2004
In an answer to a parliamentary question, the Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour has stated that Wismut GmbH will receive Euro 215 million for its regular reclamation work during the course of the year 2004. According to the current schedule, the clean-up will be completed in 2015. (Bundestags-Drucksache 15/2791 vom 26.3. 2004)
No major damages by floods at Wismut sites
The heavy rain events and floods in Eastern Germany have caused minor damages only to the Wismut uranium mine sites undergoing reclamation. The Saxonian mine sites of Schlema/Alberoda and Königstein were those most affected, while the Thuringian sites of Ronneburg (mine) and Seelingstädt (mill/tailings) were not affected. (Wismut Aug. 20, 2002)
The situation at the sites that are no longer under the jurisdiction of Wismut, including a number of uranium mill tailings ponds, is unclear, however.
Saxony
Helmsdorf tailings (Saxony), aerial view: Google Maps
Königstein underground/in-situ leach mine with Schüsselgrund waste pile (Saxony), aerial view: Google Maps
Reclamation of Helmsdorf uranium mill tailings pile completed
On December 15, 2023, Wismut employees installed the last cubic meters of material for the final cover at the Helmsdorf tailings pile . With this symbolic act, the company has completed the reclamation of the largest uranium mill tailings site in Saxony. At the Helmsdorf site, 50 million cubic meters of radioactive residues (tailings) from uranium ore processing are stored on an area of around 200 hectares. The costs of the renovation totaled 300 million euros.
A complex drainage system collects seepage water around the facility and will continue to purify it in the new Helmsdorf water treatment plant. Over time, the amount of seepage water will decline due to the covering systems applied; however, it will never completely dry up. In the long term, it is assumed that the amount of seepage water will be 30,000 liters per hour, which will continue to accumulate and be collected and cleaned over many decades. The quality of these waters will not allow them to be released directly into bodies of water until further notice. (Wismut GmbH Dec. 15, 2023)
Last Wismut uranium mine shaft plugged
On Apr. 20, 2023, Wismut's last former uranium mine shaft 208 in Aue-Bad Schlema was plugged with a 10 m high concrete plug. (dpa Apr. 20, 2023)
Reclamation of Wismut's former Crossen uranium mill site finally completed
Together with representatives of Wismut GmbH, the state dam administration and the city of Zwickau, Saxony's Environment Minister Wolfram Günther presented the results of the project "Space for the Zwickauer Mulde river - Zwickau Crossen Project" on Wednesday (November 10th) in Crossen.
The renovation of the former Cross processing plant by the federal company Wismut GmbH included the complete demolition of the operating facilities and buildings, the relocation of the mine dump and the subsequent area renovation. In addition, Wismut GmbH and the state dam administration have implemented extensive flood protection measures, including relocating dikes. The area directly next to the Zwickauer Mulde river was converted into green space by October 2021. The result is a floodplain landscape that serves as a retention area in the event of a flood.
The total costs of around 120 million euros were divided into 27 million euros for demolition work, 57 million euros for the removal of the Crossen heap and 36 million euros for area renovation measures. (SMEKUL Nov. 10, 2021)
Wismut's former uranium mining site in the Ore Mountains becomes World Heritage
In July 2019, Wismut's reclaimed waste rock piles at Bad Schlema and the mine shaft 371 in Hartenstein have become a UNESCO World Heritage as part of the Erzgebirge/Krušnohorí Mining Region World Heritage site. (Wismut GmbH Sep. 16, 2019)
> View: Erzgebirge/Krušnohorí Mining Region (UNESCO World Heritage Center)
Relocation of Wismut's Crossen waste rock pile completed
On Sep. 19, 2018, the relocation of the 4 million m3 Crossen waste rock pile was completed. The material consisting of processing wastes and tailings from the former Crossen uranium mill was brought to the Helmsdorf uranium mill tailings deposit, mostly via a 2 km pipe conveyor built for this purpose. (Wismut Sep. 19, 2018)
Now, soil cover of Wismut's waste rock pile No. 66/207 starts slumping down
During an inspection in early January 2018, a slump of the cover of the waste rock pile No. 66/207 in Bad Schlema was discovered. A crack with a length of approx. 20 metres had formed in the top cover of the pile, and the cover had moved about 1 metre downhill.
The pile covering an area of 31 hectares had been reclaimed between 1994 and 2017. (Wismut Jan. 19, 2018)
The repair works on the damaged cover of the waste rock pile No. 66/207 in Bad Schlema have been completed. The damaged cover was removed and new cover material was installed and compacted. The cause of the slump was attributed to water saturation of the cover after heavy rain and thaw of snow in connection with very fine-grained cover material. (Wismut Nov. 13, 2019)
Mystery of slumping soil cover of Wismut's waste rock pile No. 366 solved (?)
Other than previously thought, it wasn't the mice who caused recurring slumps of the cover of Wismut's waste rock pile No. 366 near Aue, Saxony. After a thorough investigation, Wismut now believes that the silt contents of the cover material was too high, causing the soil cover to creep. Wismut now has replaced the cover material in question and strengthened the requirements for the silt contents of cover material. (Freie Presse Aug. 23, 2016)
> See also: Cover of Wismut's waste rock pile No. 366 slumps again
> See also: Mice undermining stability of uranium mine waste rock pile in Saxony
Conveyor belt failure delays completion of relocation of Wismut's Crossen waste rock pile
The conveyor belt transporting the material of the Crossen waste rock pile to the Helmsdorf uranium mill tailings deposit is broken. As repairs would be excessively expensive, Wismut now plans to relocate the rest of the pile by trucks. At present, only a fraction of the scheduled amounts are being relocated. The original plan was to have the relocation completed within a year from now. (Freie Presse Apr. 12, 2016)
Seepage from Wismut's Helmsdorf uranium tailings deposit decreases, as construction of cover is nearing completion
The cover on top of Wismut's 50-million tonne Helmsdorf uranium mill tailings deposit has been completed on an area of 194 of a total of 220 hectares by now. Accordingly, the amount of seepage catched and treated has already decreased considerably. The treatment residue is dumped in the deposit in cemented form. Completion of the cover is expected by 2018/2019. It is still unclear, whether the operation of the water treatment plant will have to continue indefinitely. (Freie Presse Oct. 6, 2015)
Cover of Wismut's waste rock pile No. 366 slumps again
Seven years after the cover of Wismut's waste rock pile No. 366 near Aue, Saxony, slumped, cracks are now found at the same place of the cover. Other than last time, when the slump affected 2500 square metres of the cover, this time only 200 square meters are involved, so far, but any further extension of the affected area cannot be exluded yet. (Freie Presse Mar. 13, 2015)
Wismut has removed parts of the cover of waste rock pile No. 366 to investigate the cause of its previous failures. (Freie Presse May 3, 2016)
> See also: Mice undermining stability of uranium mine waste rock pile in Saxony
Rising radon emissions from Wismut's reclaimed waste rock piles leading to public doses above 1 mSv/a target value
According to Wismut's 2013 Environmental Report (p.14), radon concentrations in part of the town of Niederschlema have increased above the 80 Bq/m3 target value as a result of rising radon release rates from reclaimed waste rock piles. The target value includes the background radon concentration and is meant to assure a 1 mSv/a dose limit for the public. The increase of the release rates from the reclaimed piles has been observed over several consecutive years already. The report offers no discussion nor any proposals for remedies of the situation.
> Download: Umweltbericht 2013 , Wismut GmbH (7.4MB PDF - in German)
According to a conference paper presented by the Saxon State Office for Environment, Agriculture and Geology (LfULG) on Sep. 22, 2014, the doses actually reach 3 - 5 mSv/a in certain local areas.
Source: Assessment of the success of rehabilitation at waste rock piles of the former uranium mining from the supervisory authority's perspective by the example of Schlema-Alberoda (Germany), by Klaus Flesch, Andrea Sperrhacke, in: Broder J. Merkel, Alireza Arab (Eds.), Uranium - Past and Future Challenges, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Uranium Mining and Hydrogeology, 2014, p. 325-332
Decommissioning of underground workings of Wismut's Königstein uranium mine completed
At the end of April 2013, the last shaft of the Königstein underground uranium mine was backfilled with a self-hardening fill up, completing the decommissioning of the underground part of the mine. Cleanup work continues at the surface of the mine site. (Wismut GmbH May 6, 2013)
Effluent from Wismut's former Aue uranium mine to be used for geothermal heating in Bad Schlema
Next week, a geothermal heating system will start to operate at the Schillerschule school in Bad Schlema. It uses the effluent of a water treatment plant that reduces concentrations of uranium, arsenic, etc. in water pumped from a former Wismut uranium mine from a depth of 90 metres. The town is investigating the opportunity to extend the geothermal heating to larger parts of the community. (Freie Presse Nov. 23, 2012)
Effluent from Wismut's former Aue uranium mine could be used for geothermal heating
The city of Aue is investigating the feasibility of using the effluent from the water treatment plant at Wismut's former Aue mine for geothermal heating in an industrial park. The effluent amounts to 800 cubic metres per hour at a temperature of 25°C. (Freie Presse Oct. 31, 2011)
The proposal to use mine water from the former Aue uranium mine for geothermal heating in the Alberoda industrial park has been put on the back burner, as it would not be economically feasible. The water is not hot enough to make it attractive for the firms. (Freie Presse Nov. 23, 2012)
Pilot project for geothermal heating from former Wismut uranium mines
Mine water at temperatures of 25 °C is to be pumped in a pilot project from depths of 60 to 90 metres to supply heating for a school in Bad Schlema. For the future, Bad Schlema hopes to supply heating from mine water for the whole town. (Sächsische Zeitung Jan. 16, 2010)
Final phase of flooding begins at Wismut's Königstein underground/ISL mine
On August 3, 2009, Wismut started the final flooding phase of the former Königstein underground/ISL mine in Saxony. Flooding of the mine is expected to be completed in 2015. (Sächsische Zeitung Aug. 3, 2009)
Final phase of flooding begins at Wismut's Schlema underground mines
On July 6, 2009, Wismut plans to begin the final phase of flooding at the former underground uranium mine in Schlema. Flooding of the deepest sections of the up to 1800 metres deep mine started already in 1991. The water level is allowed to rise at a slow pace to avoid subsidence at the surface. After completion of the flooding, contaminated discharges from the mine will have to be treated in the long term at a rate of 800 cubic metres per hour. (Freie Presse July 2, 2009)
Water treatment plant under construction at Wismut's Hartenstein waste rock pile
An effluent treatment plant is under construction for seepage catched at Wismut's No. 371 waste rock pile at Hartenstein in the Aue area. While seepage at other waste rock piles is allowed to flow into former underground mines located beneath the piles, there exist no such mines at this site: therefore, seepage could reach the Zwickauer Mulde river, if untreated. The No. 371 pile covers an area of more than 65 hectares. The average amount of seepage collected is 37 cubic metres per hour, while the plant can handle 100 cubic metres per hour.
Excess mine water from the former underground mines in the Aue area arises at a rate of 750 cubic metres per hour and is treated by a treatment plant with a capacity of 1150 cubic metres per hour. It is expected that treatment will have to continue for several decades, until contaminant concentrations will be low enough to allow for direct effluent discharge into the Mulde river. (Freie Presse Mar. 17, 2009)
Reclamation of Dänkritz I uranium mill tailings deposit almost completed
On Dec. 2, 2008, Wismut GmbH announced that the reclamation of the Dänkritz I uranium mill tailings deposit in Saxony is almost completed.
Reclamation of former Crossen uranium mill site completed
On Nov. 17, 2008, Wismut GmbH announced that the reclamation of the former Crossen uranium mill site in Saxony has been completed. Demolition of the buildings on the 17 hectare site had started in 1992. All waste material was dumped on the Helmsdorf tailings deposit.
The relocation of the 3.2 million m3 Crossen waste rock pile to the Helmsdorf tailings deposit is still ongoing, with completion expected by 2012.
Potential collapse of Wismut's Helmsdorf tailings dam in an earthquake could lead to severe local and regional environmental damage and contamination, study
"In summary, the exposure of German tailings facilities to earthquakes is low, especially because of the effective standards and regulations which are used to operate them. However, a collapse of a tailings dam could lead to a wide range of loss-scenarios. Overall, the main earthquake-triggered collapses of dams are breaches and liquefactions. These loss-scenarios could lead to severe local and regional environmental damage and contamination, also leading to high economic losses with high costs for down time and compensation."
Implications of Earthquakes on the Stability of Tailings Dams , by Tobias Rudolph, Wilhelm G. Coldewey, 10th International Mine Water Association Congress, June 2 - 5, 2008, Karlsbad, Czech Republic (233k PDF)
> See also:
Implications of Earthquakes on the Stability of Tailings Dams , by Tobias Rudolph, Workshop on the Safety of Tailing Management Facilities, 12 - 14 November 2007, Yerevan, Armenia, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (943k PDF)
Mice undermining stability of uranium mine waste rock pile in Saxony
After heavy rain, a section of the soil cover on Wismut's waste rock pile No. 366 in Aue (Saxony) slipped down. The 1 metre soil cover had been installed in 2001 and was meant to last for decades. It is assumed that burrowing mice have contributed to the problem. An expert will conduct an investigation into the cause of the failure. (Freie Presse Jan. 22, 2008)
The investigation concluded that the cover failure had been caused by heavy rain, in combination with tunnels burrowed by mice. Meanwhile, another section of the cover began sliding down. (Freie Presse Apr. 15, 2008)
The damaged cover has been repaired, including some modifications to improve surface water runoff. (Wismut GmbH June 2, 2008)
> See also: Cover of Wismut's waste rock pile No. 366 slumps again
Wismut to drive dewatering tunnel to continue flooding of Dresden-Gittersee mine
In 1995, Wismut had halted the pumps at the former Dresden-Gittersee underground uranium mine, to allow for flooding of the mine by inflowing groundwater. In July 2003, however, groundwater reached the surface at several locations in the town of Freital-Potschappel, while the mine was not completely flooded yet. So, flooding had to be halted temporarily. Wismut now made a decision to drive a 2900 m long dewatering tunnel, to allow for resumption of the flooding process, without endangering surrounding settlements. (Wismut GmbH Dec. 19, 2005)
Former Wismut waste rock pile becomes golf course
A golf course is to be built on the reclaimed parts (comprising 57 hectares) of Wismut's former No. 382 uranium mine waste rock pile in Schlema, Saxony. Environmental monitoring of the site will continue; the cost will be paid for by Wismut GmbH for a limited period of time. (Wismut GmbH May 11, 2004)
Construction of the golf course started on April 21, 2008. (Freie Presse Apr. 23, 2008)
Construction of the golf course is completed. (Freie Presse Aug. 27, 2008)
The golf course Golfpark Westerzgebirge was inaugurated on May 31, 2009. Total construction cost was EUR 1.3 million. (Freie Presse Jun. 1, 2009)
Thuringia
former Ronneburg mine (Thuringia), aerial view: Google Maps
Culmitzsch tailings (Thuringia), aerial view: Google Maps
Trünzig tailings (Thuringia), aerial view: Google Maps
Wismut completes profiling of south/southeast embankment at Culmitzsch uranium mill tailings pile
Wismut GmbH has completed the flattening of the south/southeast embankment of the Culmitzsch tailings facility, which began in 2015. The volume removed totaled approx. 2.6 million m3.
In the last construction phase, employees removed material from a width of approx. 1.6 km on the outer contour of the south/southeast embankment. In doing so, they lowered the crest of the dam by about 20 m.
The profiling of the south/southeast embankment of the IAA Culmitzsch increases the long-term stability and erosion resistance of the dam structure. (Wismut GmbH May 3, 2023)
Wismut starts construction of final cover on Culmitzsch uranium mill tailings pile
In early September, Wismut started the construction of a small section of the final seven-layer cover in the southwest corner of basin A of its Culmitzsch uranium mill tailings pile. (Wismut GmbH Sep. 11, 2019)
Groundwater level in former Ronneburg underground uranium mine cavity finally reaches target value
At the end of 2018, the groundwater level in the abandoned underground mine cavity at the Ronneburg site reached the medium-term target level of 247 m above sea level. In the future, the water level will be stabilized at this value by pumping out any excess amounts of groundwater flowing in.
The collection takes place via an underground water collection system and a well located in the Gessental valley and directly connected to the mine cavity. The water level is thus kept as far as possible at a largely uniform level. Impairments of the environment through uncontrolled leaks of groundwater are thus avoided.
In recent years, the technical equipment for the collection, transport and treatment of the amounts of groundwater arising had to be extended. Wismut GmbH thus responded to groundwater quantities that were well above the original expectations. After the expansion of the Ronneburg water treatment plant (until 2011), the flooding water level was lowered intermediately. Afterwards, the collection and transport facilities in the Gessental valley could be extended (until 2017). In 2018, the water level rose again the now reached level. (Wismut GmbH Jan. 11, 2019)
Wismut completes reclamation of Lichtenberg open pit uranium mine
On June 30, 2018, Wismut completed the reclamation works at the former Lichtenberg open pit mine in Ronneburg by finishing the final cover on the waste rock dump built at the location. A total of 133 million cubic metres of waste rock and contaminated material has been moved into the pit, forming a hill at the former open pit site. (Wismut GmbH July 2, 2018)
Wismut builds new disposal cell to accomodate future waste arisings from ongoing water treatment in former Ronneburg uranium mining district
Due to expiring disposal capacities at the site of the backfilled former Lichtenberg open pit uranium mine, Wismut started the construction of a designated disposal cell covering an area of 9.55 hectares and providing a capacity of 760,000 cubic metres of radioactive material. (Wismut GmbH June 11, 2018)
Wismut completes intermediate cover on its last tailings pile Culmitzsch
After an effort of about 25 years, Wismut completed the installation of intermediate covers on all of its large uranium mill tailings piles. The intermediate cover of the last pile, Culmitzsch, was completed on June 24, 2017. The completion of the final cover is expected to be completed by 2028. (dpa June 24, 2017)
Wismut starts installation of wicks to dewater Culmitzsch A tailings pile in order to support final cover
On April 29, 2016, Wismut announced that it has begun to install wicks reaching from the intermediate cover of the Culmitzsch A tailings dam up to 30 m down into the tailings. The process is meant to dewater the tailings in order to increase the stability of the tailings for they can support a final cover. The total length of the wicks will be 900 km. The process will take several years.
Reclamation of Wismut's largest tailings pile Culmitzsch won't be completed before 2028
In a recent update to its reclamation program, Wismut announced on Feb. 26, 2016, that its reclamation task will continue until 2028, when the reclamation of the 90 million t Culmitzsch tailings pile in Thuringia will be completed.
Construction of test plot for final cover of Wismut's largest uranium mill tailings pile Culmitzsch to start
On Feb. 9, 2015, Wismut announced that it has obtained the licence for the construction of a 17.3 hectare test plot for the final cover of the 90 million tonne Culmitzsch uranium mill tailings deposit in Thuringia. Wismut had filed the application for the whole area of 241 hectares in December 2012. The licence issued by the state mining office (Landesbergamt) in Gera requires a thicker and more expensive cover than Wismut had applied for. Construction is planned to start this spring.
Base area of relocated Paitzdorf uranium waste rock piles to be reafforested
The town council of Ronneburg approved the acquisition of the 28.5-hectare base area of the relocated Paitzdorf uranium waste rock piles from former uranium miner Wismut. The area is to be reafforested. (Ostthüringer Zeitung June 14, 2014)
Horses grazing on top of Wismut's reclaimed Trünzig uranium mill tailings pile
The top plateau of Wismut's reclaimed Trünzig uranium mill tailings pile is being used as a grazing by a horse breeder. The vegetative cover of the deposit thus remains open land, as requested by the Nature Conservation Authority. (Ostthüringer Zeitung May 28, 2014)
Heavy metal contents of plants grown on soils in former Ronneburg uranium mine area exceeds safe levels for incalculable time spans, study finds
"It is concluded that the content in Cd/As, Cd, and Cu exclude herbage/Ronneburg soil from the commercial use as forage or pasture land soil for incalculable time spans."
Forage and rangeland plants from uranium mine soils: long-term hazard to herbivores and livestock? by Gramss, G and Voigt, KD, in: Environmental Geochemistry and Health, ahead of print Oct 6, 2013.
Installation of intermediate cover on Culmitzsch uranium mill tailings pile halted again due to heavy rains
Due to heavy rains, the amount of water ponding on top of the Culmitzsch A uranium mill tailings pile has increased from about 13,000 cubic metres (May 2012) to about 399,000 cubic metres in June 2013. The surface area of the ponding water correspondingly has increased from about 3 hectares to about 20 hectares. The installation of an intermediate cover on top of the pile therefore cannot be continued in 2013. Completion of the reclamation of the pile will take until 2020, according to current plans. (Wismut GmbH June 27, 2013)
On Jan. 17, 2014, Wismut announced that the works for the installation of the intermediate cover have resumed. Completion is expected within three years.
Proposed cover for Germany's largest uranium mill tailings pile Culmitzsch needlessly allows for excessive infiltration of precipitation, group warns
The Ronneburg church environmental group criticizes the current plan for the final cover of the 90 million t Culmitzsch uranium mill tailings deposit. The tailings are located in two former open pits, enlarged by earth dams, and cover 234 hectares. The tailings do not have a bottom liner and are to be reclaimed in place. Therefore, a rather impermeable cover would be desirable to limit infiltration of precipitation in order to keep seepage and its treatment as low as possible in the future.
The current plan, however, is to use locally available waste rock for the cover, with a permeability 13-fold higher than an earth cover, needlessly increasing the infiltration problem and the demand for water treatment in the long term.
The group also criticizes the planning process, which is conducted according to mining law without environmental assessment and opportunity for public involvement.
(Die Endabdeckung Deutschlands größter radioaktiver Deponie steht vor der Genehmigung, von Frank Lange, in: Strahlentelex Nr. 630-631, 4. April 2013, S. 5-9)
Cleanup of Wismut's former Seelingstädt uranium mill site to be completed this year
The remaining cleanup work comprises the removal of 55,000 cubic metres of contaminated soil from an area of 2.6 hectares. The contaminated material has to be excavated from depths down to 6.5 metres and is trucked to the Culmitzsch uranium mill tailings deposit. After excavation, the area will be filled with 49,000 cubic metres of clean material. The surface will then be seeded with grass and partly planted with trees. (Thüringer Allgemeine Feb. 26, 2013)
Solar park opened on former Ronneburg uranium mining site
A solar park with more than 80,000 photovoltaic modules has been inaugurated on a 40 hectare reclaimed area of the former Reust uranium mine. The expected annual production is 19 million kilowatt hours. (Wismut GmbH Oct. 4, 2012)
Work on intermediate cover of Culmitzsch A uranium mill tailings deposit resumes
On June 25, 2012, Wismut GmbH announced that the works to install an intermediate cover on top of the Culmitzsch A uranium mill tailings deposit have resumed. The works had to be halted in 2010 after heavy rains had increased the surface area covered by ponding water from 3 to 40 hectares. Completion of the works is expected within three years. The Culmitzsch A deposit with a tailings height of up to 72 metres is the last tailings deposit still without an intermediate cover in Wismut's federal reclamation programme.
Wismut builds new deposit for water treatment plant residues
On Aug. 8, 2011, Wismut began the construction of a second deposit for the residues from its Ronneburg water treatment plant. The deposit with a capacity of 540,000 cubic metres will cover an area of 7.6 hectares. (Wismut GmbH Aug. 29, 2011)
Wismut plans to release higher salt loads to river
Wismut has applied for a permit to release higher salt loads from its Ronneburg water treatment plant to the Weiße Elster river. While the plant removes contaminants such as uranium, radium, and heavy metals, sulfate passes the plant undeminished. The salt load would increase the degree of hardness of the river's water from 19 to 24 °dH [from 3.4 to 4.3 mmol/l], making it "very hard". The Ronneburg church environmental group warns from impacts on microorganisms. (Ostthüringer Zeitung Aug. 23, 2011)
Wismut's water treatment plant capacity increased, but untreated mine water still has to be released occasionally
Wismut has increased the capacity of the water treatment plant in the former Ronneburg mining area from 500 to 750 cubic metres per hour. The new treatment line is currently being tested at full capacity, but will be completed only by end September. In the meantime, excess water inflow into the flooded underground mines will have to be released untreated. After a period of heavy rain, the groundwater level in the mining area had increased to unexpected levels. To avoid the uncontrolled escape of the contaminated mine water to the surface, excess water has to be released to surface waters after treatment. (Ostthüringer Zeitung July 1, 2011)
On Oct. 6, 2011, Wismut announced the completion of the capacity increase of the water treatment plant.
Wismut's water treatment plant capacity insufficient to handle effluent volume increase after heavy rains
The standards for nickel and cadmium are currently exceeded in the Gessenbach creek in the former Ronneburg uranium mining area in Thuringia. The problem is apparently caused by the heavy rains of the last months, impacting the flooding process of the underground mines and dissolving contaminants from the rock. The capacity of Wismut's water treatment plant is insufficient to treat all of the current effluent; its capacity will be increased only in the second half of 2011. (Ostthüringer Zeitung Feb. 11, 2011)
Capacity of water treatment plant at Wismut's former Ronneburg mine to be increased
Wismut is planning to increase the capacity of the water treatment plant at the former Ronneburg uranium mine from 450 to 750 cubic metres per hour. The expansion became necessary due to increased groundwater inflow. The expanded plant is scheduled to start operation at the end of 2010. (Wismut Apr. 2, 2009)
Overflowing mine flooding water contaminates surface waters in Wismut's former uranium mining area in Thuringia
At times of wet weather, contaminated waters from the flooded underground uranium mines in the Ronneburg area reach the surface and spill into surface waters, in particular the Gessenbach creek. Due to various technical problems, Wismut GmbH currently is not capable to treat the water nor keep the groundwater level at a lower level in order to avoid further spills. (Kirchlicher Umweltkreis Ronneburg Nov. 26, 2007)
Relocation of Wismut's landmark waste rock piles in Thuringia completed
The relocation of the last two conical waste rock piles left from Wismut's uranium mining operations in Ronneburg/Thuringia has been completed. One last larger waste rock pile (Halde 4) is being relocated now. (Wismut March 23, 2007)
Flooding of southern part of Ronneburg underground mine completed
On Aug. 21, 2006, groundwater water reached its natural level in the flooded southern part of Wismut's former Ronneburg uranium mine. Subsequently, a new water treatment plant started operation in order to maintain the natural groundwater level. The plant treats further inflowing groundwater before release into the Wipse creek. It is expected that the water treatment plant will have to operate for 15 to 25 years. The flooding of the underground mine had started in 1998 (that is, groundwater inflow started to refill the mine, when the pumps that kept the mine dry were halted, after all hazardous material had been removed from the mine and 120 underground barriers had been built). The cavity volume of the northern and southern parts of the mine combined is approx. 27 million cubic meters. (Wismut GmbH Aug. 22, 2006)
Intermediate cover on Basin B of Culmitzsch uranium mill tailings completed
On August 14, 2006, the 85 ha intermediate cover on top of the Basin B of Wismut's 90 million t Culmitzsch uranium mill tailings deposit in Thuringia was completed. The completion of the intermediate cover for the Basin A is expected for 2009. (Wismut GmbH, Aug. 14, 2006)
No more radiation hazard on former uranium mining area that is intended for 2007 garden festival
The former uranium mining area in Ronneburg (Thuringia) that is to host the 2007 federal garden festival (Bundesgartenschau 2007 ) no longer presents a radiation hazard. A study performed by Öko-Institut found that a visitor receives a dose of 4.85 Micro-Sievert during a 20-hour stay on the festival area (i.e. 242 nSv/h). This value includes gamma radiation, inhalation of radon and dust, among others. Such values were also to be found in areas not affected by uranium mining. (dpa June 7, 2006)
The garden festival was opened on April 27, 2007, and will last until Oct. 14, 2007.
During the garden festival, IPPNW will hold several events on the history and the hazards of the Wismut uranium mining operations. For details, see: uranrisiko.de · kunstschau.tv
Church environmental group calls for memorial site commemorating consequences of Wismut's uranium mining
The church environmental group of Ronneburg (Kirchlicher Umweltkreis Ronneburg) calls for the construction of a memorial to commemorate the consequences of decades of uranium mining in Thuringia, as there are the villages that had to make way for the mines, and the victims of the mining operations, many of whom died from lung cancer contracted in the mines. The memorial should commemorate the commitment of the miners, but it should also make clear that there is no clean nuclear energy, given the impacts of uranium mining. (Press Release of Lutheran Church in Thuringia, May 11, 2005)
Relocation of Paitzdorf waste rock piles (Thuringia)
The relocation of the Paitzdorf waste rock piles was completed on Dec. 12, 2006. (Wismut Dec. 12, 2006) The Relocation of the two conical landmark Paitzdorf waste rock piles started on Jan. 4, 2006. It is scheduled for completion until the end of the year 2006. (Wismut Jan. 5, 2006)
On March 23, 2005, Wismut will start the pull down of the two conical Paitzdorf waste rock piles. From January 2006, the material totalling 8.2 million cubic meters will be transported over a distance of 5.5 km to the former Lichtenberg open pit mine. (Wismut March 17, 2005)
Environmental group criticizes cleanup at Thuringian Wismut sites
The church environmental group of Ronneburg (Kirchlicher Umweltkreis Ronneburg) criticizes some aspects of the reclamation currently being performed by Wismut GmbH in the former uranium mining area of Thuringia. The group raises concerns related to the flooding of the former underground mines, and related to the top cover to be applied to the Lichtenberg waste rock pile.
The Thuringian underground mines with approx. one thousand kilometers of tunnels are currently in the process of being refilled with groundwater. During the active mining period, groundwater had been pumped, producing a huge depression cone. Now, the pumps have been shut off, allowing inflowing groundwater to refill the mine. According to the group, the procedure chosen for the refilling of the mines allows for higher contaminant levels in any outcropping water than achievable with a more modest refilling scheme that would require more expenses for water treatment, though.
The former Lichtenberg open pit is being refilled with contaminated waste rock material. Eventually, the waste material will form a new pile at the site of the former open pit. It is planned to cover this pile with 1 metre of slightly contaminated material, plus a 40 cm top cover of neutral material. The group criticizes that this cover design allows for twice the infiltration rates from rainfall than achievable with a better cover design that would be more expensive, though; in addition, it were not clear whether the design chosen would be suitable to sustain trees and whether it would meet the 200 year durability criterion aimed at by Wismut. (Strahlentelex, 3 Feb. 2005)
Wismut to begin relocation of Ronneburg landmark uranium waste rock piles
On June 5, 2004, Wismut GmbH will start the pull down of the four conical landmark uranium waste rock piles in the Ronneburg area (Thuringia). The piles are approx. 100 meters high and contain a total of 15 million cubic meters of waste rock from the former underground mines in the area. The material will be relocated to the former Lichtenberg open pit mine in Ronneburg.
Due to their visibility over a long distance, these piles - in common parlance referred to as "the pyramids of Ronneburg" - have become landmarks symbolizing the uranium mining era in Thuringia, although they are by far smaller in volume than other uranium waste rock piles in the area. The relocation operation will be completed in 2007. (ddp May 3, 2004)
Cleanup of Wismut's abandoned legacy uranium mine and mill sites
General · Saxony · Thuringia
(these sites are not covered by the above federal cleanup program!)
General
> See also: Uranium Mining in Eastern Germany: The WISMUT Legacy (38k)
(see also Decommissioning Data)
German radiation protection authority releases monitoring results for radon in former uranium mining areas
"Summary
In the Federal States of Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia, centuries of mining and milling activities resulted in numerous residues with increased levels of natural radioactivity, like waste rock dumps and tailings ponds. These may have altered the situation concerning radiation exposure significantly. Especially waste rock dumps from old mining activities as well as 20th century uranium mining may, due to their radon exhalation capacity, lead to significant radiation exposures. They often lie close to or within residential areas. To investigate the impact on the natural radon level, the federal office for radiation protection has run networks of radon measurement points in 16 former mining areas, together with 2 networks in regions not influenced by mining for comparison purposes. Altogether, data has been taken at 595 measurement points.
As a result of these investigations, representative overviews of the long-term outdoor radon concentrations could be established including estimates of regional background concentrations. One of the most important findings of the investigations is the fact that the former mining and milling activities did not result in large area impacts on the outdoor radon level. Only some of the neighbourhoods immediately adjacent to mining residues show a significant increase of concentration, which might also influence the indoor concentrations in nearby houses.
Based on the background values, regions were identified where the radon exhalation from mining residues has lead to increased concentrations in residential areas and resulting radiation exposures of the population estimated. Also, the consequences of the Wismut companies reclamation activities are reported. Finally, recommendations are given on the radiological evaluation of outdoor radon concentrations."
> Download: Ergebnisse der Radonmessungen in der bodennahen Luft der Bergbaugebiete , BfS-SW-05/09, C. Dushe, C.; Gehrcke, K.; Kümmel, K.; Müller, S., Dezember 2009 (BfS - in German)
Assessment of abandoned sites completed - Cleanup still not assured
The Federal Radiation Protection Agency (Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz) has completed a survey of the sites where Wismut mined uranium but where Wismut no longer is the site owner. These sites are not included in the cleanup programme funded by the Federal Government, but their cleanup has to be paid for by the State governments. The survey showed that radiation hazards exist only at 20% of the 8000 sites identified, and that those hazards are limited to the immediate vicinity of the sites. (BfS press release March 15, 2001 - in German )
The estimated cleanup cost for those abandoned sites located in Saxony alone is estimated at DM 900 million (US$ 410 million). The Saxonian State Government has spent only DM 60 million so far on their cleanup. (Freie Presse March 17, 2001)
> See also: Altstandorte des Uranbergbaus in Sachsen (30k PDF, in German)
Saxony
Schneckenstein tailings (Saxony), aerial view: Google Maps
Lengenfeld tailings (Saxony), aerial view: Google Maps
Dänkritz 2 tailings (Saxony), aerial view: Google Maps
Johanngeorgenstadt Steinsee tailings (Saxony), aerial view: Google Maps
Dresden-Gittersee tailings (Saxony), aerial view: Google Maps
Freital tailings (Saxony), aerial view: Google Maps
> See also: Altstandorte des Uranbergbaus in Sachsen (30k PDF, in German)
After decades of delays, reclamation of Collmberghalde legacy uranium waste rock pile in Dresden finally begins
In February 2024, preparatory work started for the reclamation of the Collmberghalde uranium waste rock and mixed waste pile in Dresden. The 17-hectare pile contains more than 2 million m3 of 19th-century coal mine waste, uranium waste rock (generated between 1948 and 1955), domestic waste, construction waste, and power plant ashes.
After successful tests on a 1.2 ha plot, it is planned to cover the pile with 2 m of ashes (!) and a 0.5 m top soil layer. The reclamation is expected to take four to five years at costs of more than EUR 10 million. (Wismut Dialog No. 122, March 2024)
> See also: Wismut legacy waste rock pile Collmberghalde in Dresden to be reclaimed from 2016
Wismut finally starts cleanup of legacy uranium mill tailings site Dänkritz 2
In mid-September, Wismut GmbH begins preparatory work for the in-situ rehabilitation of the uranium mill tailings site Dänkritz 2. The rehabilitation of the tailings pond with residues from uranium ore processing is financed within the scope of the legacy Wismut sites and, according to current planning, will last until 2027.
From 1955 to 1958, residues from the Crossen uranium mill were dumped in the Dänkritz 2 tailings pond, a former gravel pit. (Wismut GmbH Sep. 10, 2021)
According to current planning, the costs for the entire measure will be around EUR 11.2 million. (Wismut GmbH June 21, 2022)
Cleanup cost of Wismut's abandoned legacy uranium mine and mill sites in Saxony to cost over EUR 450 million
For the cleanup of abandoned uranium mine and mill sites in Saxony (that is those not covered by the federal cleanup program), the Federal Government and the State Government allocate EUR 225 million each for the period 2003 to 2035 (EUR 114.5 million of which each for the period 2021-2035). Any further cleanup cost incurring after 2035 will have to be covered by the State Government on its own.
(Deutscher Bundestag: Drucksache 19/28892 , 19. Wahlperiode 21.04.2021, Antwort der Bundesregierung auf die Kleine Anfrage der Abgeordneten Torsten Herbst, Frank Sitta, Renata Alt, weiterer Abgeordneter und der Fraktion der FDP - Drucksache 19/28291 - Förderprogramme des Bundes zur Unterstützung der Sanierung von Altlasten, 448kB PDF)
Reclamation of former Johanngeorgenstadt uranium mill site completed
The reclamation of the former Objekt 98 uranium mill in Johanngeorgenstadt has been completed. Between 1950 and 1956, the mill processed approx 3.15 million tonnes of uranium ore.
The 7.6 hectare site is a legacy site that was not part of the federal cleanup program. The reclamation cost of EUR 1.8 million were covered by Saxon state and federal grants. (Wismut GmbH Sep. 16, 2020)
Cleanup required of former sports field constructed with uranium mine waste in Dresden, before site can be developed
The former sports field on Nöthnitzer Straße [in Dresden] is contaminated. This has been revealed by radiological investigations in the area of the "Nöthnitzer Straße-Campus Süd" development plan. The sports field was apparently built from waste material from uranium ore mining.
The northern part of the contaminated area is intended for the construction of institute buildings. In the southern part a recreational sports area for the South Park should be created.
The contaminated soil [16,000 tonnes] should be removed and disposed of in a landfill approved for such material. Wismut GmbH has already agreed to dump the radioactive contaminated fillings from the south of Dresden on a heap at Hartenstein near Zwickau. The expected cleanup costs are Euro 1.5 million, which have to be allocated by the city of Dresden. (Dresdner Neueste Nachrichten Jan. 8, 2020)
Reclamation of waste rock pile Halde 42 in Johanngeorgenstadt completed
Wismut has completed the reclamation of legacy waste rock pile Halde 42 in Johanngeorgenstadt at cost of EUR 2.3 million. (Freie Presse Nov. 26, 2019)
Wismut completes reclamation of Freital No. 4 tailings pond
Wismut has completed the reclamation of the 8.9 ha Freital No. 4 legacy tailings pond at costs of EUR 6.2 million. The pond contains around 700,000 cubic metres of uranium mill tailings. 14,000 vertical drains were installed for dewatering of the tailings. Finally, a 1.5 metre 3-layer cover was installed. The surface of the deposit serves as a rainwater retention basin. (Wismut GmbH Sep. 17, 2019)
Further financing assured for reclamation of Wismut legacy sites in Saxony
The state of Saxony and the Federal Republic of Germany have signed an agreement to continue the reclamation of abandoned uranium mining legacy sites (not covered by the federal cleanup program) in Saxony beyond 2022. Another EUR 216 million will be supplied to continue the work until 2035; the state and the federal government each contribute half of this amount. (Freie Presse July 5, 2019)
Preparations started for reclamation of abandoned Hakenkrümme uranium mill tailings site
Clearing of the vegetation has started at the site of the abandoned Hakenkrümme uranium mill tailings site near Aue-Bad Schlema. The actual reclamation is to start in the third quarter of 2019.
At the site, a uranium mill was in operation from 1948 to 1952. The tailings deposit contains 1.07 million t of uranium mill tailings, dumped in a 10 meter layer covering 6 hectares between 1949 and 1957. The tailings were covered by other wastes between 1970 and 1980. (Wismut GmbH May 13, 2019; Chronik der Wismut, 2011)
The actual reclamation works started on Oct. 15, 2019. (Freie Presse Oct. 16, 2019)
Injured mineral collector rescued from unsecured abandoned uranium mine
On Mar. 24, 2019, a mineral collector was injured when he fell 20 meters deep inside an abandoned underground uranium mine in the Erla-Antonsthal area in the Ore Mountains. He was rescued in a combined effort of various rescue teams. While Wismut has already secured 20 abandoned mine entries in the area, this mine was one of those that are still unsecured. (Freie Presse Mar. 26, 2019)
Current cleanup program of Wismut's abandoned legacy uranium mine sites in Saxony covers only half of sites needing attention
The cleanup program of Wismut's abandoned legacy uranium mine and mill sites in Saxony will have spent all of the available EUR 216 million by 2022, when only half of the currently known sites will be cleaned up. (Freie Presse June 12, 2017)
Relocation of Halde 65 uranium waste rock pile in Bad Schlema
Former uranium waste rock pile in town center of Bad Schlema to become residential area and fairground: The way is clear for a planned new residential area on the old Halde 65 in Bad Schlema. At its meeting on Wednesday (Jan. 26) evening, the town council of Aue-Bad Schlema voted unanimously in favor of a development plan that envisages forming up to 13 plots for single-family and multi-family homes in the upper area. A fairground is to be built in the lower area. (Freie Presse Jan. 28, 2022)
Since elevated levels of radon and arsenic are still expected on the site, the development plan calls for appropriate protective measures.
Relocation of uranium waste rock pile from center of town of Bad Schlema completed: On July 2, 2020, the relocation of the Halde 65 uranium waste rock pile in the center of the town of Bad Schlema was completed. 500,000 cubic metres of material were relocated to the Halde 371 waste rock pile near Hartenstein, while another 400,000 cubic metres remaining on site were re-graded and covered with neutral soil. (Wismut GmbH July 2, 2020)
Relocation of uranium waste rock pile from center of town of Bad Schlema to start: On Jan. 22, 2018, preparatory works will start for the relocation of the Halde 65 uranium waste rock pile located in the center of the town of Bad Schlema: first, trees that of grown on top of the pile will be cut, while the relocation is scheduled to start during the summer. The approx. 490,000 cubic metres of slightly radioactive material will be trucked to the Halde 371 waste rock pile near Hartenstein. The whole process is expected to be completed within two to three years, at costs of EUR 6.7 million. (Freie Presse Jan. 16, 2018)
Residents oppose planned relocation of uranium waste rock pile located in center of town of Bad Schlema: 100 residents have signed a petition to abandon the relocation project for the Halde 65 uranium waste rock pile located in the center of the town of Schlema. The signatories fear dirt and noise from the relocation of the pile that has never received any cover. (Freie Presse Feb. 1, 2017)
Relocation planned for uranium waste rock pile located in center of town of Bad Schlema: A waste rock pile erected by Wismut in the 1940s in the center of the town of Schlema and operated until 1957 is to be relocated to the nearby Hartenstein waste rock pile No. 371. The relocation of the approx. 490,000 cubic metres of material could start in mid-2017. (Freie Presse July 13, 2016)
Reclamation of waste rock pile in Johanngeorgenstadt suspended due to local opposition
Wismut GmbH has suspended the planned reclamation of the Halde 51 waste rock pile (im Lehmergrund) in Johanngeorgenstadt due to opposition from residents. Wismut had planned to recontour the pile to increase stability and apply a soil cover to reduce the release of radon. Residents opposed the cutting of trees that is required to perform the task and the expected truck traffic. (Freie Presse Jan. 19, 2016)
Wismut starts partial reclamation of Freital No. 4 tailings pond
On Sep. 23, 2015, Wismut GmbH announced that the partial reclamation of the Freital No. 4 tailings pond in Saxony started on Sep. 22, 2015. This pond received uranium mill tailings from Jan. 1958 to Dec. 1960, and it has since not been cleaned up. Large parts of the deposit are covered with water. The (unspecified) cleanup work is to be performed by contractor Heitkamp and is estimated to last 5 years.
Wismut legacy waste rock pile Collmberghalde in Dresden to be reclaimed from 2016
The city of Dresden, the state of Saxony, and the Federal Republic have concluded an agreement for the finaning of the reclamation of the legacy waste rock pile Collmberghalde in Dresden. The reclamation cost for the 17 hectare pile is estimated at EUR 7 million. Reclamation will start in 2016 and hopefully be completed by 2021 or 2022. Currently, investigations are underway to assure that no historic mine cavities under the pile will endanger its stability. Initially, the pile received waste rock from Wismut's uranium exploration in the area, later domestic waste and coal ash. (Dresdner Neueste Nachrichten Feb. 9, 2015)
Further financing assured for reclamation of Wismut legacy sites in Saxony
Saxony's state parliament (Landtag) agreed on April 17, 2013, to an agreement with the federal government, according to which the State and the Federal Republic each contribute half of the EUR 138 million required until 2022 for the reclamation of the Wismut legacy sites in the state - sites that are not covered by the federal cleanup program. (Freie Presse Apr. 17, 2013)
The agreement was signed on April 24, 2013 (Freie Presse Apr. 24, 2013).
Reclamation of largest legacy waste rock pile in Johanngeorgenstadt completed
The reclamation of the 31.7 hectare Zentralschachthalde waste rock pile in Johanngeorgenstadt, Saxony, has been completed. The pile with a volume of 3 million cubic metres is the largest pile in the Johanngeorgenstadt area. Reclamation had started in September 2003. (Wismut GmbH Oct. 5, 2012)
Reclamation of Coschütz/Gittersee legacy uranium mill and tailings site in Dresden completed
The reclamation of the legacy uranium mill and tailings site site in Dresden-Coschütz has now been completed: The two uranium mill tailings piles located next to the site in the valley of Kaitzbach creek have been reclaimed in place. The piles contain a total of 2.5 million cubic metres of uranium mill tailings, plus 2.28 million cubic metres of ashes and other wastes. The cleanup of the 72 hectare former mill site had already been completed in 2003; the site was then developed into an industrial estate. The cleanup that started in 1993 caused costs of Euro 45.5 million, 14 million of which were contributed by the city of Dresden, and the rest by the state of Saxony and the Federal Republic. The monitoring of the site during the next 25 years will cost another Euro 3.5 million.
Until its closure in 1961, the mill had produced a total of 7,000 tonnes of uranium from locally-mined uranium-containing coal and from uranium ores mined in Schlema and Aue (Ore Mountain area). After an only cursory decontamination, the mill site was then re-used as a tyre factory until 1991. (Press release of the City of Dresden, Aug. 13, 2012)
Reclamation of Halde 296 legacy waste rock pile in Aue-Alberoda completed
The reclamation of the Halde 296 legacy waste rock pile in Aue-Alberoda, Saxony, has been completed. The originally conic pile was in use between 1950 and 1959. It had a volume of 952,000 cubic metres and covered an area of slightly more than 5 hectares. (Wismut GmbH Sep. 1, 2011)
Additional funding assured for reclamation of Wismut legacy sites
The German Federal Government and the State of Saxony have agreed to equally make available another EUR 138 million from 2013 to 2022 for the reclamation of uranium mining legacy sites in Saxony that are not covered by the Federal cleanup program. For the ten years from 2003 to 2012, EUR 78 million had been allocated for this purpose. (Freie Presse July 15, 2011)
Reclamation of Halde 278 legacy waste rock pile in Grünstädtel completed
The reclamation of the Halde 278 legacy waste rock pile in Grünstädtel, Saxony, has been completed at cost of EUR 3 million. The cleanup also included demolition of the buildings of the Schacht 278 mine. (Wismut GmbH Nov. 20, 2009)
Additional funding required for reclamation of Wismut legacy sites
The amount of EUR 78 million jointly provided by the Saxonian state and the Federal Government for the reclamation of abandoned Wismut legacy sites turns out to be insufficient. From 2012, another EUR 140 million will be required to reclaim all of the sites left from the late 1940s and the 1950s - sites which are not covered by the federal clean-up programme initiated in 1990. (Freie Presse Aug. 12, 2009)
Cleanup of abandoned Lengenfeld uranium mill tailings site and tailings spill
New floodings damage Lengenfeld uranium mill tailings pond again - one year after reclamation completed
One year after the completion of works to remediate the impacts of a spill caused in 1954 by floodings, new floodings spilled 3,200 tonnes of sediment into the Lenkenteich tailings pond in 2013. Now, works have started to clean up the new mess. (Freie Presse Oct. 14, 2017)
Cleanup of 1954 Lengenfeld uranium mill tailings spill finally completed
The cleanup of the areas contaminated by the 1954 Lengenfeld tailings spill finally has been completed. 55,000 cubic metres of contaminated material have been excavated from the Plohnbach creek valley floor and the Lenkteich pond and deposited in the Nordhalde waste pile. The total project cost was approx. EUR 3 million. (Freie Presse Oct. 22, 2011)
The Lenkteich pond was reopened with a celebration on June 23, 2012. (Freie Presse June 24, 2012)
Cleanup of 1954 Lengenfeld uranium mill tailings spill to start in April 2010
The cleanup of the areas contaminated by the 1954 Lengenfeld tailings spill is scheduled to start in April 2010. The reclamation of the contaminated Plohnbach creek and the restoration of the Lenkteich pond is to be completed by end 2011. At present, the radiation readings in the valley floor of the Plohnbach creek are the highest in any public area in Germany. The excavated contaminated material is to be deposited on the Nordhalde waste pile. Preparatory work has started in December 2009 already. (Freie Presse Feb. 17, 2010)
Cleanup of 1954 Lengenfeld uranium mill tailings spill finally to start
From July 8, 2009, the plans for the cleanup of the areas contaminated by a 1954 tailings spill are open for public review. Floods had caused a dam failure of the Lengenfeld uranium mill tailings deposit and thousands of tonnes of tailings spilled into the Lenkteich pond. The cleanup is expected to last until October 2013 at cost of EUR 2.5 million. (Euroherz July 8, 2009)
Reclamation of abandoned Lengenfeld tailings site to start with 4-year delay in 2009 (Saxony)
The public consultation on the proposed reclamation of the Lengenfeld uranium mill tailings deposit is to be held in 2008. Reclamation work is scheduled to start in 2009 - four years later than originally planned. (Freie Presse Dec. 15, 2007)
Federal Republic and Saxony sign agreement on reclamation of abandoned Wismut legacy sites
On September 5, 2003, after 13 years of dispute, the Federal Government of Germany and the Saxonian State Government signed an agreement on the reclamation of the Wismut legacy sites that are not covered by Wismut's current reclamation mission. The agreement covers the sites that were no longer owned by Wismut after 1962, mainly located in the Ore Mountains near the Czech border. The total amount of Euro 78 million (US$ 84 million) is to be spent on the legacy sites until 2012 - that is only 17% of the sum required, according to earlier estimates. The reclamation project will be managed by Wismut GmbH; local businesses will be involved in the realization. (Freie Presse/ddp Sep. 5, 2003)
Saxony contracts Wismut GmbH for reclamation of Johanngeorgenstadt uranium legacy sites
Twelve years after the unification of Germany, the state of Saxony has contracted Wismut GmbH for the project management of the planned reclamation of seven sites of former uranium mining activities in Johanngeorgenstadt and Breitenbrunn in the Ore Mountains. Former uranium miner Wismut is not legally responsible for these sites which were abandoned before 1960. (Wismut release Jan. 14, 2003)
Thuringia
Wismut GmbH sues state over order demanding preparatory work for reclamation of abandoned Gauern legacy waste rock pile
The abandoned legacy waste rock pile of Gauern contains 7.5 million m3 of waste rock left from uranium mining between 1954 and 1967. It has no seepage collection system, and elevated activity concentrations are found in seepage, surface and ground water.
The Thuringian State Office for the Environment, Mining and Nature Conservation issued a decision in 2021 that Wismut GmbH should investigate the type and extent of the radioactive contamination and draw up a remediation plan. Frank Lange of the Church Environmental Group of Ronneburg says that the state follows the polluter pays principle: Wismut built the dump and Wismut should solve the problem.
The mining rehabilitation company is defending itself against exactly this consideration before the administrative court in Gera. Because [federal government-owned] Wismut GmbH is not the former SDAG Wismut, the old Gauern site is not part of its federally financed reclamation mandate. (MDR Jan. 2, 2024)
No remediation in sight for high uranium concentrations in village ponds impacted by Wismut legacies
Since October 2015, the water from the ponds in the village of Gauern may no longer be used. The pond water is impacted by Wismut's nearby Gauern waste rock pile. Sampling showed uranium concentrations up to 1,437 µg/L in the pond water, while background concentrations are about 20 µg/L. As the waste rock pile is not part of Wismut's cleanup responsibility and is now privately owned, there is no remediation planned. The Thuringian Ministry of Environment also sees no need for further action. (Ostthüringer Zeitung Mar. 31, 2016)
According to the church environmental group of Ronneburg (Kirchlicher Umweltkreis Ronneburg), this water use ban does not include the fish held in the pond nor the use of the downstream water for irrigation. (Strahlentelex Nr. 702-703 / 7 April 2016)
See also: High uranium concentrations in village pond
Environmental group demands reclamation of Wismut's abandoned legacy sites in Thuringia
While in Saxony efforts for the reclamation of Wismut's abandoned legacy sites (i.e. sites that are not part of the federal cleanup programme) are ongoing for some years already, the Thuringian Ministry of Environment sees no need to set up a similar effort for those of Wismut's legacy sites that are located in Thuringia. These sites are not even secured against release for new uses, in spite of the persisting hazards.
The church environmental group of Ronneburg (Kirchlicher Umweltkreis Ronneburg) now demands an effort for the securing of Wismut's abandoned Thuringian legacy sites comparable to the one ongoing for the Saxonian sites. (Strahlentelex Nr. 544-545, 3. Sept. 2009)
Meanwhile, the church environmental group of Ronneburg (Kirchlicher Umweltkreis Ronneburg) has compiled a list of legacy sites in Thuringia. It comprises 9 sites (covering 352.66 hectares) in the Seelingstädt area and 17 sites (covering 50.29 hectares) in the Ronneburg area. (Strahlentelex Nr. 560-561, 6 May 2010)
Hazards resulting from the abandoned legacy sites can even endanger neighbouring sites currently undergoing reclamation: On July 23, 2010, heavy rain caused a slope slide at a waste rock pile near the Trünzig tailings deposit. (Strahlentelex Nr. 570-571, 7 Oct 2010)
In a meeting with the Thuringia state chancellery, the church environmental group of Ronneburg urged a reassessment of the legacy uranium sites in Thuringia. Only a small fraction of the sites has been documented and assessed properly, the group says. In the Ronneburg area alone, there are 300 hectares of abandonded and radiologically hazardous land. In some areas near Seelingstädt, radon concentrations of 50 - 115 Bq per cubic metre are observed during winter. (Ostthüringer Zeitung Oct. 28, 2010)
On May 10, 2012, the Thuringia state parliament (Landtag) turned down a petition filed by the church environmental group of Ronneburg in September 2011. The group had demanded to set up a reclamation programme for Wismut's abandoned legacy sites in Thuringia. (Strahlentelex Nr. 610-611, June 7, 2012)
Legacy Wismut waste rock pile unsafe for unlimited occupancy: According to monitoring performed by the church environmental group of Ronneburg, the gamma dose rate on top of the forest-covered Gauern waste rock pile reaches 7 times background; consequently, a dose of 1 mSv would be reached after an occupancy time of 2,100 hours. Peak dose rates above 1000 nSv/h (as identified by the authorities) would allow for an occupancy of only 950 hours. The Thuringia state government sees no problem with this situation, unless a change of use were planned for the areas in question. (Strahlentelex Nr. 702-703 / 7 April 2016)
High uranium concentrations in village pond
High uranium concentrations of up to 3.5 milligrams per litre were found in the water of the village pond and some private ponds in the village of Gauern in Eastern Thuringia. The village is located close to the 80 million t Culmitzsch uranium mill tailings pile and the Gauern uranium waste rock pile.
For comparison: the World Health Organization WHO recommends a value of 0.002 milligrams per litre for drinking water, and the U.S. drinking water standard is 0.03 milligrams per litre.
Fish caught from the village pond also had elevated radionuclide concentrations: more than 10 Bq uranium, 5 Bq Pb-210, and 0.3 Bq Ra-226 per kg. The uranium concentration exceeds normal concentrations 500-fold, the Pb-210 concentration 20-fold.
The Thuringian Geological Survey (TLUG ) is now investigating causes and impacts of these concentrations. (Ostthüringer Zeitung Aug. 15, 2002)
The ponds are located at the site of a former open pit uranium mine. The mine was in operation in the 1950s and later was used as a dump for mine waste. It has not been subject to Wismut's reclamation efforts. (Thüringer Allgemeine Aug. 27, 2002)
> See also: No remediation in sight for high uranium concentrations in village ponds impacted by Wismut legacies
Cleanup of radioactive mine waste used for road construction
80,000 tonnes of uranium mine waste material removed during road construction near Zwickau, Saxony
During construction work on the B 175 major road near Zwickau-Mosel, 80,000 tonnes of uranium mine waste material were discovered that had to be transported to a Wismut waste rock pile in Hartenstein-Alberoda for disposal. (Freie Presse Mar. 9, 2017)
Groups ask for more efforts to locate uranium mine waste material used for road construction in Thuringia
The Thuringian Green party and the Church Environmental Group of Ronneburg have asked the Thuringian state government to spend more efforts on locating the whereabouts of uranium mine waste material used for road construction and other purposes in Thuringia during the GDR era. So far, 370,000 tonnes have been disposed of, while the total amount used was around 1.9 million tonnes, according to government figures. (OTZ June 10, 2014)
> Download: Verwendung von radioaktiven Wismut-Schotter als Baumaterial in Thüringen , Kleine Anfrage der Abgeordneten Siegesmund (BÜNDNIS 90/DIE GRÜNEN) und Antwort des Thüringer Ministeriums für Landwirtschaft, Forsten, Umwelt und Naturschutz, Thüringer Landtag, Drucksache 5/7686, 17.04.2014 (146k PDF - in German)
> See also: Verwendung von radioaktivem Wismut-Schotter als Baumaterial in Thüringen, by Frank Lange, in: Strahlentelex Nr. 658-659, 5. Juni 2014, p.8-12
Residents worried about hazards from former use of uranium mine waste material for road construction
According to the Church Environmental Group of Ronneburg, up to 14 million tonnes of radioactive material originating from Wismut's Crossen (near Zwickau) waste rock pile have been used in road construction in the area before the political changes. In the residential area of Waldsachsen in the city of Meerane, for example, external radiation doses of up to 267 nSv/h have been found in streets, where natural background is only up to 95 nSv/h. Citizens now demand the removal of the contaminated material from residential areas. (Freie Presse Nov. 1, 2013)
|
||||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 18
|
https://www.gettyimages.in/photos/eibenstock-dam
|
en
|
Getty Images
|
[
"https://www.gettyimages.in/sign-in/assets/static/white-f114c2d21e50f9b239ac.svg",
"https://www.gettyimages.in/sign-in/assets/static/black-dd9588e3db810afab0eb.svg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
Getty Images India. Find high resolution royalty-free images, editorial stock photos, vector art, video footage clips and stock music licensing at the richest image search photo library online.
|
en
| null | |||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 36
|
https://archive.org/stream/registercontaini1911unit/registercontaini1911unit_djvu.txt
|
en
|
Full text of "Register [containing a list of persons employed in the department and in the diplomatic, consular and territorial service of the United States, with maps showing where the ministers and
|
[
"https://archive.org/services/img/etree",
"https://archive.org/services/img/librivoxaudio",
"https://archive.org/services/img/metropolitanmuseumofart-gallery",
"https://archive.org/services/img/clevelandart",
"https://archive.org/services/img/internetarcade",
"https://archive.org/services/img/consolelivingroom",
"https://archive.org/images/book-lend.png",
"https://archive.org/images/widgetOL.png",
"https://archive.org/services/img/tv",
"https://archive.org/services/img/911",
"https://athena.archive.org/0.gif?kind=track_js&track_js_case=control&cache_bust=2068114587",
"https://athena.archive.org/0.gif?kind=track_js&track_js_case=disabled&cache_bust=1341198854"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
|
https://archive.org/details/registercontaini1911unit
|
See other formats
ik->.^- s^ -. f?^ s-^i^' ^^r**u*. €,<.'.;.l.* #^ '^ REGISTER OF THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE SEPTEMBER 20. 191 .h y WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1911 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. I. Secretaries of State 7 II. Assistant Secretaries of State 9 III. Second Assistant Secretaries of State 10 IV. Third Assistant Secretaries of State 10 V. Officers and Clerks of the Department of State 11 VI. Organization of the Department of State 17 VII. Present Diplomatic Service of the United States 21 VIII. Classification of Consulates-General and Consulates 24 IX. Consular Districts 26 X. Tariff of United States Consular Fees 29 XI. Compensation of Consular Agents '. 30 XII. Present Consular Service of the United States 31 Consuls-General at Large 3 i Consular Officers in Abyssinia, 32; Argentine Republic, 32; Austria-Hungary, 32; Belgium, 32; Brazil, 32; Chile, 33; China, 33; Colombia, 34; Costa Rica, 34; Cuba, 34; Denmark and Dominions, 34; Dominican Re- public, 34; Ecuador, 35; France and Dominions, 35; German Empire, 36; Great Britain and Dominions, 37; Greece, 42; Guatemala, 42; Haiti, 42; Honduras, 42; Italy, 43; Japan, 43; Kongo, 43; Liberia, 44; Mexico, 44; Morocco, 45; Netherlands and Dominions, 45; Nicaragua, 45; Norway, 45; Oman, 45; Panama, 46; Paraguay, 46; Persia, 46; Peru, 46; Portugal and Dominions, 46; Roumania, 46; Russia, 46; Salvador, 47; Servia, 47; Siam, 47; Spain and Dominions, 47; Sweden, 47; Switzerland, 47; Turkey and Dominions, 48; Uruguay, 49; Vene- zuela, 49; Zanzibar, 49. Consular Assistants 50 Student Interpreters in China 5° Student Interpreters in japan 50 Student Interpreters in Turkey 50 XIII. Biographical Statement Respecting Persons Serving Under Appointment of the Department of State, at home or abroad 51 XIV. Regulations Concerning Precedence of Diplomatic Agents 109 XV. Regulations Governing Appointments and Promotions in the Diplomatic Service and for the Improvement of the Personnel of the Department of State 109 XVI. Information for Applicants Desiring Appointment to Secretaryships of Em- bassy or Legation in XVII. Posts in the American Diplomatic Service 112 XVIII. General Information Regarding Secretaries in the Diplomatic Service 112 XIX. Information Regarding Clerical Appointments in the Diplomatic Service 113 XX. Sample Examination for the Diplomatic Service 113 XXI. Regulations Governing Appointments and Promotions in the Consular Service.. 117 (3) 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. XXII. Regulations Governing Examinations for the Consular Service Promulgated by the Board of Examiners December 13, 1906 iig XXIII. Information for Applicants Desiring Appointment in the Consular Service 12c XXIV. General Information Regarding Consular Officers 120 Duties of Consular Officers, 120; Vice-Consular Officers, 121; Deputy Con- sular Officers, 121; Consular Agents, 121; Consular Assistants, 121; Clerks in Consular Offices, 122; Student Interpreters, 122; Marshals for Consular Courts, 122. Compensation of Consular Officers 122 Traveling Expenses 122 Examinations (see also Sections XX, XXV, and XXIX) 122 XXV. Sample Examination for the Consular Service 123 XXVI. An Act to Provide for the Reorganization of the Consular Service of the United States, approved April 5, 1906, as amended by the Act approved May 11, 1908.. 127 XXVII. Regulations Governing Interpreters and Student Interpreters in China, Japan, and Turkey 129 XXVIII. Information for Applicants Desiring Appointment to the Student-Interpreter Corps 131 XXIX. Sample Examination for the Student-Interpreter Corps 132 XXX. Board of Examiners for the Diplomatic Service 135 XXXI. Board of Examiners for the Consular Service 136 XXXII. United States Court for China 136 XXXIII. Despatch Agents 136 XXXIV. International Boundary Commission, United States and Mexico 136 XXXV. Alaskan Boundary Delimitation Commission and Canadian Boundary Delimi- tation Commission 136 XXXVI. International Waterways Commission 136 XXXVII. Boundary Waters Commission, United States and Canada, under the Treaty signed January 11, 1909 136 XXXVIII. St. John River Joint Commission 136 XXXIX. Rio Grande River Commission 137 XL. International Fisheries Commission 137 XLI. International Prison Commission 137 XLII. International Institute of Agriculture at Rome, Italy 137 XLIII. International Office of Public Health at Paris 137 XLIV. Pan-American Committee of the United States 137 XLV. International Exposition of Art and History, Rome, 1911 137 XLVI. International Exposition of Industry and Labor, Turin, Italy, igri 137 XLVII. International Opium Conference, The Hague 137 XLVIII. Perry's Victory Centennial Commission, Put-in-Bay, 1913 137 XLIX. Commissioners-General to the National Exposition, Tokyo, 1917 138 L. International Tribunals of Egypt 138 LI. Permanent Court of Arbitration Provided for by the Convention signed at The Hague July 29, 1899 138 LII. Foreign Embassies and Legations in the L^nited States 145 LIII. Foreign Consular Officers in the United States 149 Index 175 ABBREVIATIONS. Agt. — Consular Agent. Agt. & C. G. — Agent (Diplomatic) and Consiil- General. Amb. E. & P. — -Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary. C. — Consul. C. A. — Consular Assistant. C. G. — Consul-General. D. C. — Deputy Consul. D. C. G. — Deputy Consul-General. Dip. Agt. — Diplomatic Agent. E. E. & M. P. — Envoy Extraordinary and Min- ister Plenipotentiary. Int. — Interpreter. Mar. — Marshal. Mil. Att.— Military Attach^. Nav. Att: — Naval Attache. Sec. of Emb. — Secretary of Embassy. Sec. of Leg. — Secretary of Legation. Stud. Int. — Student Interpreter. V. C. — Vice-Consul. V. & D. C. — ^Vice and Deputy Consul. V. & D. C. G. — Vice and Deputy Consul- General. KEY TO REFERENCES. «Born of American parents residing abroad. f'Ente.red the service after examination under Executive order of September 20, 1895. ^Entered the service after examination under Executive order of November 10, 1905. '^Entered the service after examination under Executive order of June 27, J906. ^Appointed under Executive order of June 27, 1906. .^Entered the service as Student Interpreter, after examination. 5' Entered the Consular Service as Student Interpreter, after examination, 'i Incomplete returns. * Entered the service after examination under Executive order of November 26, 1909. ./The Consul-General is also Minister Resident, /^The Consul-General is also Secretary of the Legation. 'The Consul-General is also Agent (Diplomatic). '"Accredited to Greece and Montenegro. '* Naturalized citizen. "Accredited to the' Netherlands and Luxemburg. 7^ Accredited to Paraguay and Uruguay. ^■Accredited to Roumania, Servia, and Bulgaria. ''Date of appointment as Consular Clerk ; appointed Consular Assistant July i, 190S. •sAnd fees. 'Temporary. " Provisional. (5) REGISTER OE THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE. I — SECRETARIES OF STATE (1789-1911). Presidents. Secretaries of State. Date of commission. George Washington Do Do Do I John Adams t Do Do Thomas Jefferson Do James Madison Do Do Do James Monroe Do Do John Quincy Adams Do Andrew Jackson Do Do Do Do I Martin Van Buren 1 William H. Harrison Do ( JohnTyler J Do Do Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia Entered upon duties March 22, 1790. Retired December 31, 1793 Edmund Randolph, of Virginia Entered upon duties January 2, 1794. Retired August 19, 1795. Timothy Pickering, of Pennsylvania (Secretary of War) Ad interim August 20, 1795, to December 9, 1795. Timothy Pickering, of Pennsylvania Entered upon duties December 10, 1795. Retired May 12, iSoo. Charles Lee, of Virginia (Attorney-General) Ad interim May 13, 1800. John Marshall, of Virginia Entered upon duties May 14, 1800. Retired March 4, 1801. Levi Lincoln, of Massachusetts (Attorney-General) Ad interim March 4, 1801, to May i, 1801. James Madison, of Virginia Entered upon duties May 2, 1801. Retired March 3, i8og. Robert Smith, of Maryland Entered upon duties March 6, 1809. Retired April i, iSii. James Monroe, of Virginia Entered upon duties April 6, iSii. Retired September 30, 1814. James Monroe, of Virginia (Secretary of War) Ad interim October i, 1814, to February 28, 1815. James Monroe, of Virginia Entered upon duties March i, 1815. Retired March 3, 1817. John Graham (Chief Clerk) Ad interim March 4, 1817, to March 9, 1817. Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania (Attorney-General) Ad interim JVIarch 10, 1817, to September 22, 1817. John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties September 22, 1817. Retired March 3, 1825. Daniel Brent (Chief Clerk) Ad interim March 4, 1825. to March 8, 1825. Henry Clay, of Kentucky Entered upon duties March 9, 1825. Retired March 3, 1829. James A. Hamilton, of New York Ad interim March 4, 1829, to March 27, 1829. Martin Van Buren, of New York Entered upon duties March 28, 1829. Retired May 23, 1831. Edward Livingston, of Louisiana Entered upon duties May 24, 1831. Retired May 29, 1833. Louis McLane, of Delaware Entered upon duties May 29, 1833. Retired June 30, 1834. John Forsyth, of Georgia Entered upon duties July i, 1834. Retired March 3, 1841. J. L. Martin (Chief Clerk) Ad interim March 4, 1841. Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties March 5, 1841. Retired May 8, 1843. Hugh S. Legare, of South Carolina (Attorney-General) Ad interim May 9, 1843, to June 20, 1843. Died June 20, 1843. William S. Derrick (Chief Clerk) Ad interim June 21, 1843, to June 23, 1843. September 26, 1789. January 2, 1794. December 10, 1795. May 13, 1800. March 5, 1801. March 6, 1809. April 2, 1811. February 28, 1815. March 5, 1817. March 7, 1825. March 4, 1829. March 6, 1829. May 24, 1831. May 29, 1833. June 27, 1834. March 5, X841. (7) SECRETARIES OF STATE. Presidents. John Tyler. Do Do Do Secretaries of State. Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia (Secretary of the Navy).. Ad interim June 24, 1843, to July 23, 1843. Date of commission. Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia Entered upon duties July 24, 1843. Died February 28, 1844. John Nelson, of Maryland (Attorney-General) Ad interim February 29, 1844, to March 31, 1844. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina Entered upon duties April i, 1844. Retired March 10, 1845. James K. Polk ZacharyTaylor / Millard Fillmore ( James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania Entered upon duties March 10, 1845. Retired March 7. 1849. John M. Clayton, of Delaware Entered upon duties March 8, 1849. Retired July 22, 1850. Do Do Do Franklin Pierce... Do James Buchanan. Do Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties July 23, 1850. Died October 24, 1852 Charles M. Conrad, of Louisiana (Secretary of the Navy).... Ad interim September 2, J852, to November 5, 1852. Edward Everett, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties November 6, 1852 Retired March 3, 1853. William Hunter (Chief Clerk) Ad interim March 4, 1853, to March 7, 1853. William L. Marcy, of New York Entered upon duties March 8, 1853. Retired March 6, 1857. Lewis Cass, of Michigan Entered upon duties March 6, 1857. Retired December 14, i85o. William Hunter (Chief Clerk) Ad interim December 15, i860, to December 16, i860. Do Abraham Lincoln | Andrew Johnson ) Jeremiah S. Black, of Pennsylvania Entered upon duties December 17, i860. Retired March 5, 18 William H. Seward, of New York., Entered upon duties March 6, 181 Ulysses S. Grant.. Do Rutherford B. Hayes James A. Garfield j Chester A. Arthur ( Elihu B. Washburne, of Illinois... Entered upon duties March 5, il Hamilton Fish, of New York Entered upon duties March 17, 1869. Recommissioned Retired March 12, 1877. William M- Evarts, of New York Entered upon duties March 12, 1877. Retired March 4, i86g. Retired March 16, iSjg. Retired March 7, h. Retired December 19, 1881. Do Grover Cleveland... Benjamin Harrison., Do Do Do Grover Cleveland... Do Do William McKiiiley. Do James G. Blaine, of Maine Entered upon duties March 7, iS Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey Entered upon duties December 19, 1881. Retired March 6, Thomas F. Bayard, of Delaware Entered upon duties March 7, 1885. Retired March 6, 1889. James G. Blaine, of Maine Entered upon duties March 7, ifi Retired June 4, 1892. William F. Wharton, of Massachusetts (Assistant Secretary).. Ad interim June 4, 1802, to June 29, 1892. John W. Foster, of Indiana Entered upon duties June 29, 1892. Retired February 23, 18 William F. Wharton, of Massachusetts (Assistant Secretary).. Ad interim February 24, 1893, to March 6, 1893. •Do.. Theodore Roosevelt I Walter Q. Gresham, of Illinois Entered upon duties March 7, 1893. Died May 28, 1895. Edwin F. Uhl, of Michigan (Assistant Secretary) Ad interim May 28, 1895, to June 9, 1895. Richard Olney, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties June 10, 1895. Retired March 5, 1897. John Sherman, of Ohio Entered upon duties March 6, 1897. Retired April 27, 1898. William R. Day, of Ohio Entered upon duties April 28, 18 Retired September 16, July 24, 1843. March 6, 1844. March 6, 1845. March 7, 1849. July 22, 1850. November 6, 1852. March 7, 1853. March 6, 1857. December 17, i860. March 5, 1861. March 5, 1869. March 11, 1869. March 17, 1873. March 12, 1877. i March 5, 1881. December 12, 1881. March 6, 1885. March 5, 1889. June 29, 1892. March 6, 1893. June 8, 1895. March 5, 1897. April 26, 1898. Alvey A. Adee, of the District of Columbia (Second Assistant Secretary;.. Ad interim September 17, 1898, to September 29, i8g8. John Hay, of the District of Columbia Entered upon duties September 30, 1898. Recommissioned • Died July i, 1905. September 20, 1898. March s, igoi- ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE. Presidents. Secretaries of State. Date of commission. Francis B. Loomis, of Ohio (Assistant Secretary) Ad interim July i, 1905, to July i8, 1905. Elihu Root, of New York July 7, 1905- Entered upon duties July ig, 1905. Retired January 27, 1909. 1 Robert Bacon, of New York 1 January 27, 1909. Entered upon duties January 27, 1909. Retired March 5, iqog. William H.Tait Philander C. Kno.x, of Pennsylvania j March 5, 1909. I Entered upon duties March 6, 1909. Theodore Roosevelt. Do Do II ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE (1853 1911). Assistant Secretaries of State. Date of commis- sion. Ambrose Dudley Mann, of Ohio Retired May 8. 1855. William Hunter, of Rhode Island (Chief Clerk) Ad interim May g, 1855, to October 31, 1855. John A. Thomas, of New York Entered upon duties November i, 1855. Retired April 3, 1857. John Appleton, of Maine Entered upon duties April 4, 1857. Retired June 10, i860. William H. Trescot, of South Carolina Entered upon duties June 11, i860. Retired December 20, i860. William Hunter (Chief Clerk) Ad interim March i, 1861, to March 5, 1861. Frederick W. Seward, of New York Entered upon duties March 6, 1861. Retired March 4, 1869. J. C. Bancroft Davis, of New York Entered upon duties April i, 1869. Retired November 13, 1S71. Charles Hale, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties February 19, 1872. Retired January 24, 187 J. C. Bancroft Davis, of New York ... Entered upon duties January 25, 1873. Retired June 30, 1874. John L. Cadwalader, of New York Entered upon duties July i, 1874. Retired March 20, 1S77. Frederick W. Seward, of New York Entered upon duties March 21, 1877. Retired October 31, iSyg. John Hay, of Ohio Entered upon duties November i, 1879. Retired May 3, 1881. Robert R. Hitt, of Hlinois Entered upon duties May 4, i88r. Retired December ig, 1881. J. C. Bancroft Davis, of New York Entered upon duties December 20, 1881. Retired July 7, 1882. John Davis, of the District of Columbia Entered upon duties July 8, 1882. Retired February 23, 1885. James D. Porter, of Tennessee Entered upon duties March 21, 1885. Retired September 10, 1887 George L. Rives, of New York Entered upon duties November 21, 1887. Retired March 5, 1889. William F. Wharton, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties April 11, 1889. Retired March 20, 1893. Josiah Quincy, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties March 21, 1893. Retired September 22, 189; Edwin F. Uhl, of Michigan Entered upon duties November 11, 1893. Retired February 11, i William Woodville Rockhill, of Maryland Entered upon duties February 14, i8g6. Retired May 10, 1897. William R. Day, of Ohio Entered upon duties May 11, 1897. Retired April 27, 1898. John B. Moore, of New York Entered upon duties April 28, 1898. Retired September 16, 1898. David J. Hill, of New York Entered upon duties October 25, 1898. Retired January 28, 1903. March 23, 1853. May 8, 1855. November i, 1855. April 4, 1857. June 8, i86o. March i, i86». March 6, 1861. March 25, 1869. February 19, 1872. January 24, 1873. June 17, 1874. March 16, 1877. November i, 1879. May 4, 1881. December 19, 1881. July 7, 1882. March 20, 1885. November 19, 1887. April 2, 1889. March 20, 1893. November i, 1893. February 11, 1896. May 3, 1897. April 27, i8g8. October 25, 1898. lO ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE. Assistant Secretaries of State Francis B. Loorais, of Ohio Entered upon duties February 9, 1903. Retired October 10, 1905 Robert Bacon, of New York Entered upon duties October 11, 1905. Retired January 27, 1909. John Callan O'Laughlin, of the District of Columbia Entered upon duties January 28, igog. Retired March 5, 1909. Huntington Wilson, of Illinois Entered upon duties March 6, 1909. Date of commis- sion. January 7, 1903. September 5, 1905. January 27, 1909. March 5, 1909. III.-SECOIMD ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE (1866 1911). Second Assistant Secretaries of State. Date of commis- sion. William Hunter, of Rhode Island I July 27, 1866. Entered upon duties July 27, 1866. Died July 22, 1886. Alvey A. Adee, of the District of Columbia j August 3, i88i Entered upon duties August 6, 1886. IV TBIRD ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE (1875-1911). Third Assistant Secretaries of State. Date of commis- sion. John A. Campbell, of Wyoming Entered upon duties February 24, 1875. Retired November 30, 1877. Charles Payson, of New York Entered upon duties June 22, 18 Retired June 30, 18 Retired June 30, 188 Walker Blaine, of Maine Entered upon duties July i, lE Alvey A. Adee, of the District of Columbia Entered upon duties July 18, 1882. Retired August 5, John B. Moore, of Delaware Entered upon duties August 6, iS Retired September 30, William M. Grinnell, of New York Entered upon duties February 15, 1892. Retired April 16, 1893. Edward H. Strobel, of New York.. Entered upon duties April 17, i8( Retired .April 16, 1894. February 24, 1875. June II, 1878. July 1, 1881. July 18, 1882. August 3, 1886. February 11, 1892. April 13, 1893. April 14, 1894. February 24, 1896. William Woodville Rockhill, of Maryland Entered upon duties April 17, 1894. Retired February 13, 1896. William Woodward Baldwin, of New York Entered upon duties February 29, 1896. Retired April i, 1897. Thomas Wilbur Cridler, of West Virginia April 8, 1897. Entered upon duties April 8, 1897. Retired November 15, 1901. Herbert H. D. Peirce, of Massachusetts November 15, 1901. Entered upon duties November 16, 1901. Retired June 22, 1906. Huntington Wilson, of Illinois Entered upon duties July 2, 1906. Retired December 30, 15 William Phillips, of Massachusetts Entered upon duties January 11, igog. Retired October 13, 1909. Chandler Hale, of Maine Entered upon duties October 14, 1909. June 22, 1906. January 11, 1909. September 25 , 1909. OFFICERS AND CLERKS. v.— OFFICERS AIVD CLFRKS OF THC: DFPARTIUEIVT OF STATE. I 1 Names, offices, and salaries. Secretary of State ($12,000). PliUander C Knox The Assistant Secretary of State {$S,ooo). Huntington Wilson ADMINISTRATIVE OP^FICERS. Second Assistant Secretary of State {S4,Joo). Alvey A. Adee TAird Assistant Secretary of State {S-f,SOo). (With tlie added duty of Ciiief, Division of Western European Aflfairs.) Chandler Hale Director of the Consular Service ($4,^00). Wilbur J. Carr Chief Clerk {$3,000). William McIVeir ADVISORY OFFICERS. Counselor for the Department of State ($7,^00). Chandler P. Anderson Resident Diplomatic Officer {$7,300). Thomas C. Dawson Solicitor {$J,O00). Joshua Reuben Clark, jr OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICERS. Chief of the Division of Latin-Ai7ierican Affairs {$4,300). William T. S. Doyle Chief of the Division of Far Eastern Affairs {$4,300). Ransford S. Miller Chief of the Diplomatic Bureau {$2,230). Sydney V. Smith Chief of the Consular Bureau {$2,230). Herbert C. Hengstler Chief of the Bureau of Trade Relations {$2,300). John Ball Osborne Chief of the Bureau of Appointments {$2,100). Miles M.Shand Chief of the Bureau of Citizenship {$2,100). Richard W. Flournoy, jr Chief of the Bureau of Indexes and Archives {$2,100). John R. Buck Chief of the Bureatc of Accounts and Disbursing Clerk {$2.joo). Thomas Morrison" Where born. Pa. N. Y. D. C. D. C. Conn . Wis Utah. Cal. N. Y. Whence appointed. D. C. Me. Mich. N. Y. Iowa . Utah, Cal. N. Y. D. C 1 D. C. Ohio I Ohio. Pa. N.J. Va. N.J. Md. Me Date of appointment. March 5, 1909. March 5, igog. August 3, i886. September 25, 1909. November 30, igog. November 30, igog. December 16, igio. June 27, igii. June 28, igio. June 27, igrr. August 31, igog. April 8, 1897. May g, 1907. July I, 1911. November 2, igo8. November 27, igo8. July 2, igo6. Canada 1 N. Y I April i, 1900. 12 OFFICERS AND CLERKS. Names, offices, and salaries. Chief of the Bureau of Rolls and Library {$2^iod). John A. Tonner Where born. Chief of the DiTtsion of Information (Sjfioo). Ohio. 'J'ranslators {$2joo). Whence ' T^ . r appointed. ^^^^ °^ appointment. Ohio November 30, 1009. Jolin S. Martin, jr.. Wilfred Stevens Assistant Solicitors {Sj^ooo). Fredericlc Van Dyne Preston D. Richards Edward Henry Hart Private Secretary to the Secretary of State (Ss,Joo). Charles F. Wilson Assistant Chiefs of the Di7'ision of Latin- A inerican Afairs($j,ooo). Henry L. Janes George T. Weitzel Assistant Chief of the Division of Far Eastern Affairs (Sj,ooo). Percival Heintzleman Assistant Chief of the Division of Near Eastern Affairs {$2,506). Charles W. Fowle" Officers engaged in important drafting and specialization {$4^00). Charles M. Pepper Mack H. Davis Law Clerks {S2^;oo). Henry L. Bryan Lester H. Woolsey Clerh to the Secretary of State (S/,Soo) lUig^h S. Kno.x Assistant La%v Clerh {S/,soo}. Pa j Pa June25,i9oo. Minn Minn February 11, 1904. N. Y N. Y I June22, 1910. Utah j Utah i September 10, 1910. N. Y N, Y September 22, 1910. D. C. Wis.. Ky.. D. C. Wis.. Mo.. Pa. Pa. Turkey. Ohio Ill Ohio Ohio., Mass.. Charles H. Miller Clerks of the fourth class {Si^Soo). Julian Taylor T. John Newton " Edward L. Wliilehouse John T. Coughlin James H. Tibbitts Ward A. Fitzsimmons Charles H. Campbell David A. Salmon Otis T. Cartwright WallachA. McCathran George L. Brist Charles Lee Cooke William Robert McDowell. D. C. N. Y. D. C. N. Y., D. C. Va England. Me D. C. Va.... D. C. Me ... Md Mich.. Mich I Mich . Pa Pa D. C I D. C. Conn I Conn . i Ind ' Nebr . D. C. Wis... D. C. 111.... Iowa D. C. June I, 1910. June 22, 1910. June 27, 1911. June 27, 191T. June 27, 1911. August 31, igcg. September 23, 1909. November i, rgog. April iS, igii. Pa November 15, igio. December 17, 1909. October i, 1887. May II, 1893. November 4, 1895. June 25, 1900. July 19, 1902. June 15, 1904. May 24, 1905. March 4, 1907. March 4, 1907. D. C July I, 1908. November 2, 1908. August 2, 1909. December i, 1909. OFFICERS AND CLERKS. i3 Names, offices, and salaries. Where born. N. Y, Pa... Pa... Clerks 0/ the fou7-th ;:/««— Continued. Elislia J. Babcock Wallace J. Young Charles B. Welsh Clerks o/the third class {$l,bod). Thomas Griffin" Edward C. Stewart Margaret M. Hanna George H. Schultze"... Leonard A. Merntt Isabella L. Hagner John D. Johnson Joseph R. Baker Paul Webster Eaton Wesley Frost Henry G. Crocker Worthington E. Stewart Maitland S. Wright Edward B. Russ Fred K. Nielsen" Percy F. Allen John Van A. MacMurray N. Y. Alovsius Wenger" Switz Whence appointed. N. Y. 111... Pa... Ireland D. C Mich Germany.. Wis j D. C I Vt N. Y Me Ohio Wis Mich Minn Mo Denmark.. Md Clerks o/the second class {$1,400). James L. Duncan. Conn . Andrew E. Marschalk ' Ga \ Mary Greer D.C — Wilbur Underwood D. C — Otis G. Stanton Ind James S. Skinner Tex .... Maud M. Crane D. C — Frank N. Bauskett S. C Clarence E. Sis D. C.... Marianna Davis Ohio.... George B. Stambaugh Pa Charles A. Sidman Mich ... Stephen H. Quigley Md Charles Jenkinson ' R. I .... Ethel L. Lawrence N. Y Roger S. Drissel Pa Charles L. Wade D. C Clarence E. Gauss D. C... J. Hubbard Bean : W. Va. Jacob A. Metzger Ohio.... D. C... D.C... Kans... R. I Minn.. D. C... Vt Okla... D. C... Ky Cal.... Ohio... Wash. Pa Nebr . P. R... N.J La Conn . D. C. Ohio.. D. C. Ind.... Tex .. D. C. S. C... Date of a[)poiiUmcnt. June 22, igio. December 16, igio. June 27, 1911. October 11, igor. June 15, 1904. March 4, 1907. March 4, 1Q07. March 2, 1908. March i, igog. June I, igog. June I, igog. June 23, igog. September 2, igog. December i. igog. January 3, igio. October 21, igio. December 31, igio. April 25, igii. June 27, igii. June 27, 1911. June 27, igii. July I, 1Q03. May 24, 1905. July 2, igo6. March 4, igo7. March 4, 1907. March 4, 1907. October 5, 1907. March 2, igo8. D. C July I, igoS. Ohio I July I, igoS. Pa ! July I, 1908. N. Y.. Md.... R. I .. Kans. Pa D. C. Conn . November 2, igo8. June 23, 1909. June 23, igog. December i. igog. December i, igog. January 3, igio. July I, igio. D.C I October II, igio. Ohio I October 21, iQio. H OFFICERS AND CLERKS. Names, offices, and salaries. Where born. Clerks oj^ the second class — Continued. Bert L. Hunt Pa Charles W. Williams D. C. Luther O. Keeton Miss., Howard R. Barnes Ohio.. Walter J. Goedeke i Md .... Clerks of the Jirst class (S/,20o). Mary W. Goss N. Y.. Lucy E. Abbot [ Ohio.. Mary D. Moore D. C. N. J... Mich Whence appointed. Dale of appointment. Gilbert F. Randolph. Edna K. Hoyt David Stuart Waters I D. C. Frank H. Peabody Bertha S. Davis Nina G. Romeyn Laura R.Cramer Frances R. Hough ArthurJ. Decker Jennie Cook Bopp Herbert P. Middleton., Owen F. Mullen William C. Ten Eyck... Walter W. le Mat Frances M. Marsh Emily S. Morrison Homer C. Steves Harry A. Havens Stanley H. Udy Glenn A. Smith James A. O'Keefe Albert W. Willard Ohio.. Va Kans. Md.... Ohio.. D. C. N. v.. Mo Pa N.J... Md .... Pa N. v.. Ohio.. N. Y.. Pa Tenn . N.J Me N. Y j December 23, igio. Pa I December 31, igro. Miss j May 26, iqii. N. H j June 27, ign. Md : June 27, lyn. N. Y j November 4, 1895. Ohio ' January 6, i8g6. Va , October i, igoi. D. C I July I, igo2. Mich j July i, 1904. D. C December 4, 1905. Ohio I July 2, igo6. Va July 2, igo6. Ind March 4, 1907. D. C March 4, 1907. 1 D. C I May 13, 1907. D. C I June i, rgoS. Iowa I July I, 1908. N. Y July I, 1908. Pa July I, 1908. Mass July x, 1908. Md November 2, 1908. Pa April 16, igog. N. Y ' June i, igog. N. Y I June i, igog. Archibald S. Pinkett ' Va. Adelaide M. Hughes D. C.. David L. Pitcher, jr Va ... Seth E. Tracy Te.x .. Dora 1. Coddington Iowa . Edwin Tarrisse Pa Donald A. de Lashmutt Md .... Edgar A. Shreve Va Orville B. Lamason 1 N. J.... William A. Newcome N. Y Ohio. D wight W. Fisher Clinton R. Whitney D. C. Duane E. Washburn ' Ohio. N. Y June 23, igog. N. Y December i, igog. Tenn December i, igog. D. C December 7, igog. Conn December 20, igog. Pa January 3, igio. N. Mex I March 24, 1910. D. C I June22,i9io. Te.x July i, 1910. Iowa July I, 1910. D. C September i, igio. D. C October 11, 1910. Va October 21, 1910. N. J December 31, igio. Cal April i, igii. D. C April I, 1911. Conn April I, 1911. N. C May i, igti. OFFICERS AND CLERKS. 15 Names, offices, and salaries. I Clerks of ihf first class — Continued. William J. Kavanagh Thomas Griffin, jr Edward T. Hynes Henry P. Dugan Seth Low Pierrepont Clerks 11/ /lie S',000 class. Alfred Cammack" H. C. McArthur Ada Mixon Lilla L. Page James M. Durant Frances S. Osborne W. Ford Cramer Richard C. Tanis" Bessie C. Bell Margaret H. Went worth Humphrey D. Howell Joseph W. McMahon William H. Smith Edwin G. Balinger Roger B. Piatt Lucy S. Fitzhugh William F. Marshall Robert S. Clayton Clerks 0/ the Sgoo class. Nerval J. Oster John F. Doyle Arthur A. Chenay" John L. Mitchell Frank X. Ward James E. McKenna Clinton E. MacEachran Bertin F. Toulotte Ethel G. Christenson John H. Prince Archibald E. Brown Harvey E. Fenstermacher Harry G. Reigner Daisy J. Loomis Winifred Mallon Alton R. Hodgkins Stephen Latchford Chief messenger {S',000). Edward A. Savov Where born. N. Y.. D. C. D. C. Pa N. Y., England.. Ohio Ark Ky Miss Pa D. C Holland.. Pa Ohio D. C Conn R.I D. C N. Y Ky R.I Mo Whence appointed. N. Y. D. C. Va.... D. C. Pa N. Y Canada.. Pa Pa Mass Mass D. C Ind N. C D. C Pa Pa Conn N. Y Me Md Conn.. D. C. Iowa . Ark.... Md Md.... Pa N. Y.. N.J... Pa N. Y.. D. C. Conn . R. I.... Va N. Y.. Ky R. I.... N.J... D. C. Pa Ill Tex .. Pa Pa Mass . Mass . D. C. Ind.... S.C... D. C. Pa Pa Conn . N. Y.. Me D. C. Date of appointment. May 26, 1911. June 27, igii. June 27, igii. July I, igii. July 25, igii. March 6, igoo. March 4, 1907. July I, igo8. July 28, igog. September 24, igog. November g, igog. December 22, igog. March i, igio. March 24, igio. October n, igio. October 21, igio. November i, igio. April I, igii. April I, 1911. April I, igii. May I, igii. June 27, igii. June 27, iQii. July I, igog. July 28, igog. October 16, igog. January 25, igio. June 30, igio. October 8, 1910. October 21, igio. November 17, igio. February 28, igir. April 26, igii. May 12, igii. June 17, igii. June 28, 1911. July II, 1911. July 20, 1911. July 24, igii. August ig, 1911. D. C November 30, igoi. i6 OFFICERS AND CLERKS. Names, offices, and salaries. Where Whence born. I appointed. Date of appointment. Ga. Messengers i William Freer Md. John S. Butler Md .... Richard H. Hawkins Md..., Lloyd Sharps Nebr Charles M. Pugh Pa. Assistant messengers {$y3o). Russell N. Boyd John Barry" Ireland.... Albin F. Fairall , Md Edwin P. Walker Ill Robert P. Leftridge | Va Levi Austensen " Norway .. Howard Sangston D. C Alexander H. Clements l D. C Colbert S. Sypha.x D. C Isaac Edwards Pa Frank Johnson Va James O. Holmes D. C Carothers Smith ' Va Thomas C. Malonc N. J Charles E. Dyson N. Y George Scott Md Samuel Cole" England.. Irving Jackson D. C Daniel L. Reed Te.x Charles Reeder Colo . A. Russell Wooding \ Mo John L. Hargreaves ' Tex Guy V. Booth Pa William D. Evans D. C Thomas Sayers ] Pa Packer (S720). Md December 5, 1901. D. C July 1, 1902. D. C i November I, iqo6. Nebr July i, i9"7. Pa July 13, 1909. James S. Svvann Telephone switchboard of>erator {$~2d). Bella Hargreaves Assistant telephone switchboard operator ($dod). Alice M. Covel ; I,abore7\t. Charles H. Clements ($6oo> William W. Hawley ($600) Frederick Remler (f6oo) George Webb (|6ooi Messenger boy ($420). John S. McGraw Md. N. Y. N. Y. D. C. Va D. C, Va D. C August I, 1893. D. C July ii 1902. Md July I, 1902. Ill July 21, 1902. Va July I, 1903. Minn November i, 1905. D. C November i, 1905. D. C j October 16, 1907. D. C July 2, 1906. D. C July 2, igo6. Va ; July 12, igo6. D. C December i, 1906. Va I July I, 1907. N. J July 8, 1907. D. C October 15, 1907. D. C j March 2, 190S. D. C I December 14, 1908 D. C July 13, 1909. Tex I August II, 1909. D. C February 10, 1910. Mo I May 7, 1910. Tex j June 22, 1910. Pa I June 22, igio. D. C June 22, 1910. N. V' I July I, 1910. Md. October i6, 1907. Tex I August 13, 1907. N. Y. D. C. D. C. D. C. Va D. C. Va. September 25, 1907. January 12, 1907. August 22. 1907. April 17, igo8. August 13, igio. April 30, 1908. I ORGANIZATION. IJ VI OllCiAIVIZATIOIV OF THE IJEPARTMEI^T OF STATE. CHIEF CLERK. General supervision of the clerlvs and employees and of departmenlal matters; charge of the property of the Department. William McNkir, Chief Clerk. Howard R. Barnes. DIPLOMATIC BUREAU. Diplomatic correspondence and miscellaneous correspondence relating thereto. Sydney Y. Smith, Chief of Bureau. Julian Taylor, Assistant Chief of Bureatt. Wallach A. McCathran. Frances M. Marsh. Edwin Tarrisse. Elisha J. Babcock. Adelaide M. Hughes. Ada Mixon. Paul Webster Eaton. David L. Pitcher, jr. Winifred Mallon. Worthington E. Stewart. Dora I. Coddington. Stephen Latchford. Edward *B. Russ. DIVISION OF LATIN-AMERICAN AFFAIRS. Diplomatic and consular correspondence, on matters other than those of an administrative charac- ter, in relation to Mexico, Central America, Panama, South America, and the West Indies. William T. S. Doyle, Chief of Division. Henry L. Janes, Assistant Chief of Division. George T. Weitzel, Assistant Chief of Divisioyi. John T. Coughlin. Seth Low Pierrepont. Richard C. Tanis. Charles Jenkinson. DIVISION OF FAR EASTERN AFFAIRS. Diplomatic and consular correspondence, on matters other than those of an administrative charac- ter, in relation to Japan, China and leased territories, Siberia, Hongkong, French Indo- China, Siam, Straits Settlements, Borneo, East Indies, India, and, in general, the Far East. Ransford S. Miller, Chief of Division. Percival Heintzleman, Assistant Chief of Division. Frank N. Bauskett. Jacob A. Metzger. DIVISION OF NEAR EASTERN AFFAIRS. Diplomatic and consular correspondence, on matters other than those of an administrative charac- ter, in relation to Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Roumania, Scrvia, Bulgaria, Monte- negro, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Abyssinia, Persia, Egypt, and colonies belonging to countries of this series. Charles W. Fowle, Assistant Chief of Division. John Van A. MacMurray. Roger B. Piatt. S 1564 2 1 8 ORGANIZATION. DIVISION OF WESTERN EUROPEAN AFFAIRS. Diplomatic and consular correspondence, on matters other than those of an administrative charac- ter, in relation to Great Britain (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and British colonies not elsewhere enumerated), Portugal, Spain, France, Morocco, Begium, the Kongo, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, the Netherlands, Luxemburg, Denmark, and Liberia. Supervised by the Third Assistant Secretary of State. CiiAKi.E.s Lke C(-)UKK, Assistant Chief of Division. Charles W. Williams. Duane E. Washburn. CONSULAR BUREAU. Consular correspondence and miscellaneous correspondence relating thereto. HiCKiJF.RT C. Hengsi'LEK, Chief of Bmeaii. EiiUARD L. WniTEHOUSE, Assistant Chitf of Bureau. Charles H. Campbell. Charles L. Wade. Glenn A. Smith. John D. Johnson. Clarence E. Gauss. Albert W. Willard. Clarence E. Sis. Mary D. Moore. Humphrey D. Howell. Maud M. Crane. Arthur J. Decker. Norval J. Oster. Ethel L. Lawrence. Harry A. Havens. John L. Mitchell. BUREAU OF TRADE RELATIONS. Preparation of instructions to consular officers for reports to be printed by the. Department of Commerce and Labor, revision and transmission of such reports to said Department and to other branches of the Government service, and compilation of commercial information for the use of the Department of State. John Ball Osuorne, Chief of Bureau. Charles M. Pepper, Assistant Cliief of Bureau. Mack H. Davis, Assistant Chief of Bureau. Marianna Davis. Orville B. Lamason. Edwin G. Balinger. Wesley Frost. James M. Durant. William F. Marshall. Isabella L. Hagner. Frances S. Osborne. Harry G. Reigner. Owen F. Mullen. Bessie C. Bell. BUREAU OF APPOINTMENTS. Custody of the Great Seal and applications for office, and the preparation of commissions, exequa- turs, warrants of extradition, Departmental Register, diplomatic and consular lists, and con- sular bonds: correspondence and other matters regarding entrance examinations for the foreign service. Miles M. Shand, Chief of Bureau. Wallace J. Young, Assistant Chief of Bureau. Percy F. Allen. Luther O. Keeton. Edward T. Hynes. Stephen H. Quigley. William J. Kavanagh. ORGANIZATION. BUREAU OF CITIZENSHIP. 19 Examination of applications for passports, issuance of passports and authentications; receiving and filing duplicates of evidence, registration, etc., under act of March 2, 1907, in reference to expatriation of citizens and their protection abroad; keeping of necessary records thereunder; conduct of correspondence in relation to the foregoing. Richard W. Flournov, Jr., Chief of Bureau. James H. Tikiutts, Assistant Chief of Biiremt. Walter W. le Mat. Bertha S. Davis. Alfred Cammack. Jennie Cook Bopp. Lilla L. Page. BUREAU OF INDEXES AND ARCHIVES. Recording and indexing the general correspondence of the Department; charge of the archives. John R. Buck, Chief of Bureau. T. John Newton, Assistant Chief of Bureau. David A. Salmon. Nina G. Romeyn. William H. Smith. George L. Brist. William C. Ten Eyck. John F. Doyle. Edward C. Stewart. Homer C. Steves. Arthur A. Chenay. George H. Schuitze. James A. O'Keefe. Frank X. Ward. James L. Duncan. Seth E. Tracy. James E. McKenna. Wilbur Underwood. Edgar A. Shreve. Ethel G. Christenson. James S. Skinner. Dwight W. Fisher. Archibald E. Brown. Roger S. Drissel. Henry P. Dugan. Harvey E. Fenstermacher. J. Hubbard Bean. Margaret H. Wentworth. Daisy J. Loomis. Frank H. Peabody. Joseph W. McMahon. BUREAU OF ACCOUNTS. Custody and disbursement of appropriations and indemnity funds, and correspondence relating thereto. Thomas Morrison, Chief of Bureau. Waru a. Fitzsimmons, Assistant Chief of Bureau. Leonard A. Merritt. George B. Stambaugh. Herbert P. Middleton. Maitland S. Wright. Emily S. Morrison. W. Ford Cramer. Andrew E. Marschalk. BUREAU OF ROLLS AND LIBRARY. Custody of the rolls, treaties, etc.; promulgation of the laws, treaties. Executive orders, and procla- mations; care and superintendence of the library and public documents; care of papers relating to international commissions. John A. Tonner, Chief of Bureau. William Robert McDowell, Assistant Chief of Bureau. Otis G. Stanton. Lucy E. Abbot. Lucy .S Fitzhugh. Thomas Griffin, jr. Laura R. Cramer. Alton R. Hodgkins. 20 ORGANIZATION. DIVISION OF INFORMATION. The preparation and distribution to the foreign service of diplomatic, commercial, and other cor- respondence and documents important to their information upon foreign relations; editing "Foreign Relations" of the United States. , Chief of Division. Charles B. Welsh, Assistant Chief of Division. Aloysius Wenger. David Stuart Waters. Frances R. Hough. Mary Greer. OFFICE OF THE TRANSLATOR. John S. Martin, Jr., / ^, ,,. „ ;- I ranstators. Wilfred Stevens, \ Edna K. Hoyt. Private Secretary to the Secretary of State. — Charles F. Wilson. Clerk to the Secretary of State. — Hugh S. Knox. Confidential Clerk to the Assistant Secretary. — Stenographer to the Assistant Secretary. — Clinton E. MacEachran. Clerk to the Second Assistant Secretary. — Margaret M. Hanna. Clerk to the Third Assistant Secretary. — Bert L. Hunt. Clerk to the Director of the Consular Service. — Walter J. Goedeke. .Stationery Room. — -Thomas Griffin, Gilbert F. Randolph. Mail Clerk. — Charles A. Sidman. Lithographer. — Walter Scott. OFFICE OF THE SOLICITOR. Determination of questions of municipal and international law, claims of citizens of the United States against foreign governments, claims of subjects or citizens of foreign governments against the United States, applications for the extradition of criminals, and matters relating to international arbitrations. Joshua Reuf.en Clark, Jr., Solicitor. Frederick Van Dvne, \ Preston D. Richards, > Assistant Solicitors. Edward Henkv Hart, ) Lester H. Woolsey, Latv Clerk. Otis T. Cartwright. Fred K. Nielsen. Clinton R. Whitney. Joseph R. Baker. Stanley H. Udy. Bertin F. Toulottc. Henry G. Crocker. Donald A. de Lashmutt. John H. Prince. OFFICE OF THE LAW CLERK. Editing and indexing the laws, resolutions, public treaties, and proclamations for publication in the Statutes at Large. Henry L. Bryan, Law Clerk. Charles H. Miller, Assistant Law Clerk. UNITED STATES DIPLOMATIC SERVICE. 21 VII PRESENT DIPLOMATIC SERVICE OF THE UIMITED STATES. To what country ac- credited. Argentine Repub- lic. Austria-Hungary.. Name and rank. Belgium Bolivia .. Brazil ... Bulgaria Chile China Colombia ... Costa Rica. Cuba Denmark Dominican Re- public. Ecuador France .. John R. Carter, E. E. & M. P Robert Woods Rliss, Sec. of Leg Capt. Albert P. Niblack, Nav. Att ist Lieut. John S. Hammond, Mil. Att.... Richard C. Kerens," Amb. E. & P Joseph C. Grew,<-" Sec. of Emb Arthur Hugh Frazier,<i<- 2d Sec. of Emb... Com. Andrew T. Long, Nav. Att Maj. William H.Allaire, Mil. Att Larz Anderson, a E. E. & M. P U. Grant-Smith, Sec. of Leg Lt. Col. John S. Parke, Mil. Att Horace G. Knowles, E. E. & M. P Sec. of Leg... Irving B. Dudley, Amb. E. & P George B. Rives, Sec. of Emb 2d Sec. of Emb... Capt. Albert P. Niblack, Nav. Att John B. Jackson, E. E. & M. P.'/ Roland B. Harvey,'' Sec. of Leg. & C. G.. Henry P. Fletcher, E. E. & M. P Sec. of Leg... Capt. Albert P. Niblack, Nav. Att Lt. Com. Robert W. McNeely, Nav. Att... Asst. Nav. Const. James Reed, jr., Nav. Att.. William James Calhoun, E. E. & M. P Edward T. Williams, Sec. of Leg Charles D. Tenney, Chinese Sec George T. Summerlin, 2d Sec. of Leg Willys R. Peck, a/ Asst. Chinese Sec Harold O. Henry," Stud. Int : Horace Remillard, Stud. Int Crawford M. Bishop, Stud. Int John A. Bristow, Stud. Int Paul R. Josselyn, Stud. Int George F. Bickford, Stud. Int Charles P. McKiernan, Stud. Int Capt. John H. Shipley, Nav. Att Lt. Com. Frank B. L^pham, Nav. Att Lt. Com. Irving V. Gillis, Nav. Att Capt. James H. Reeves, Mil. Att ist Lt. Epaminondas L. Bigler, Att James T. DuBois, E. E. & M. P Sec. of Leg... Lewis Einstein, E. E. & M. P Gustavus L. Monroe, jr.,<-' Sec. of Leg Arthur M. Beaupre, E. E. & M. P Hugh S. Gibson,'' Sec. of Leg William K. Wallace. « 2d Sec. of Leg.. Maj. Henry A. Barber, Mil. Att Maurice Francis Egan, E. E. & M. P Norval Richards(jn,f Sec. of Leg ist Lt. William M. Colvin, Mil. .\tt William W. Russell, E. E. & M. P Francis Munroe Endicott,*; Sec. of Leg. & C. G. Evan E. Young, E. E. & JW. P Rutherfurd Bingham, ' Sec. of Leg Robert Bacon, Amb. E. & P Arthur Bailly-Blanchard, Sec. of Emb Sheldon Whitehouse," 2d Sec. of Emb. Warren D. Robbins, i 3d Sec. of Emb.. Com. Henry H. Hough, Nav. Att Maj. T. Bentley Mott, Mil. Att Buenos Aires Buenos Aires.... Buenos Aires.... Buenos Aires.... Vienna Vienna Vienna Rome Vienna Brussels Brussels Brussels La Paz La Paz Rio de Janeiro liio de Janeiro.. Rio de Janeiro.. Buenos Aires.... Bucharest Bucharest Santiago.. Where born. Whence ap- pointed. Md Mo Ind N. Y..'... Ireland. Mass.... Ger N. C Ark France . Pa Tenn .... Del Md N. V... Navy.. Army.. Mo Mass .. Pa Navy.. Army.. D. C... Pa Army.. Del Ohio. N. Y. Cal. Va.. Ind.. N.J. Md .. Pa... Navy. N.J... Md.... Pa Date of commission. Aug. 12, Aug. 4, June 18, May 13, Dec. 21, Jan. 27, Aug. ig, May 26, Sept. 16, Aug. 12, Aug. 4, May 13, June 24, 1911 1909 1910 1910 igog igii 1911 1909 1907 igir igog 1911 1910 Dec. i9,igo6 Jan. 3t,igii Santiago Buenos Aires.... Santiago Santiago Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Tokyo Peking Peking Peking Peking Bogota Bogota San Jose San Jose Habana Habana Habana Habana Copenhagen Copenhagen Stockholm Santo Domingo Santo Domingo. Quito Quito Paris Paris Paris Paris Paris Paris Ind N. C Ohio Pa Ohio Mass .... La Cliina .. France. Mass .... Md Iowa .... Iowa .... Wash.... Conn.... Iowa .... Ariz Pa Ala Ohio Pa Navy., Navy., Navy.. Ill Ohio... Mass .. La Cal.... R. I.... Mass .. Md Iowa ., Iowa .. Wash.. N. Y... Navy., Navy.. Navy.. Army.. Navy.. Pa June 18,1910 Aug. 12, 1911 June 24, igio Dec. 21,1909 June 18, May 5, May 5, Dec. 21, July 6, Mar. II, July 6, Nov. g, June 4, June 2, Apr. I, Apr. I, Apr. 20, Mar. 10, Mar. 10, Apr. 22, May s, May s, Feb. i5. May 26, Aug. 21, 1910 1911 1911 igog 1911 igo8 igir igo8 igo8 igog igio igio igio igii igii igio igii 1911 1907 igio igii N. Y. Miss. 111.... Cal... N. Y. Md... Pa.... Miss. Mo ... D. C. N. Y. N. Y... Miss... Ill Cal Colo.., Army., D. C... Miss... Army., D. C... Mass .. Ohio.. Mo.... Mass . La N. Y.. July 6,igii May m, igog Aug. 1^,1911 July 6,1911 July 6,igii Mar. 8, igog June 10, igo7 June 29,1911 May 22,1911 July 6,1911 July 6,1911 S. Dak... July 6,1911 D. C ! Mar. 2,1911 N. Y I Dec. 21, igog La Aug. 4, igog N. Y , Mar. 2,1911 N. Y I Mass . Miquel'n Navy. Va Army. Mar. 2,1911 Nov. S.igio Apr. 10, igog Com- pensa- tion. $ 1 2 , 000 2,625 i7>5oo 3,000 2,000 12,000 2,625 10,000 2,000 17.500 3,000 2,000 io,ooo 2 ,000 I 2 , 000 2,625 1 2 , 000 2,625 3,600 2,000 I ,000 1,000 I ,000 I ,000 1 ,000 I ,000 I ,000 10,000 2,000 10,000 2,000 I 2 , 000 2,625 1,800 I o , 000 2, 000 10,000 2,000 10,000 2,000 i7.5<50 3,000 2,000 1,200 12 UNITED STATES DIPLOMATIC SERVICE. DIPLOMATIC SERVICE— Continued. To what country ;ic- credited. Qerman Empire. Name and rank. Great Britain. Greece Guatemala Haiti Honduras.. Italy Japan Liberia Luxemburg Mexico Montenegro Morocco Netherlands Nicaragua.... John G. A. Leishman, Amb. E. & P Irwin H. Laughlin, Sec. of Emb Willing Spencer,'' zA Sec. of Enil) Perry Belden,i 3d Sec. of Emb Com. Arthur Bainbridge Hoff, Nav. Att.. Capt. Samuel G. Shartle, Mil. Att Whitelaw Raid, Amb. E. & P William Phillips, Sec. of Emb Leland Harrison," 2d Sec. of Emb Sheldon L. Crosby, * 3d Sec. of Emb Capt Edward Sirap.son, Nav. Att Maj. Stephen L'H. Slocum, Mil. Att George H. Moses, E. E. & M. P.'" Frederic Ogden de Billier,<-' Sec. of Leg... R. S. Reynolds Kitt," E. E. & M. P... Jordan Herbert Stabler, <? Sec. of Leg Maj. Wallis O. Clark, Mil. Alt Henry W. Furniss, E. E. & M. P Charles Dunning White, E. E. & M. P J. Butler Wright, <^ Sec. of Leg Thomas J. O'Brien, Amb. E. & P Charles S, Wilson, Sec. of Emb Ale.xander R.Magruder,uc2d Sec. of Emb. Com. Andrew T. Long, Nav. Att Maj. J. F. Reynolds Landis, Mil. Att Charles Page Bryan, Amb. E. & P Montgomery Schuyler, jr.. Sec. of Emb... Charles Campbell, jr.,'-' 2d Sec. of Emb.... Charles Jonathan Arnell,/ Japanese Sec. and Int. ..3d Sec. of Emb... John K. Caldwell,,/' Asst. Japanese Sec Raymond S. Curtice, Stud. Int Harold C. Huggins, Stud. Int Max D. Kirjassoff," Stud. Int Lewis V. Boyle, Stud. Int Capt. John H. Shipley, Nav. Att Lt. Col. Harry L. Hawthorne, Mil. Att... Maj. George H. R. Gosman, Att ist Lt. William T. Hoadley, Att ist Lt. Orlando C. Troxel, Att ist Lt. Charles Burnett, Att Lt. (junior grade) George E. Lake, Att... Lt. (junior grade) Fred F. Rogers, Att William D. Crum, Minister Resident & C. Q Richard C. Bundy,'- Sec. of Leg ist Lt. Benjamin O. Davis, Mil. Att Lloyd Bryce, E. E. & M. P. o Pa.xton Hibben, Sec. of Leg Henry Lane Wilson, Amb. E. & P Fred Morris Dearing, Sec. olEmb Nelson O'Shaughnessy, 2d Sec. of Emb.. Frank D. Arnold, c 3d Sec. of Emb Capt. Girard Sturtevant, Mil. Att George H. Moses, E. E. & M. P.'" Frederic Ogden de Billier.e Sec. of Leg.. Fred W. Carpenter, E. E. & M. P Cyrus F. Wicker,!' Sec. of Leg Lloyd Bryce, E. E. & M. P." Pa.xton Hibben, Sec. of Leg Com. .Arthur Bainbridge Hoff, Nav. Alt.... Elliott Northcott, E. E. & M. P Franklin Mott Gunther,c Sec. of Leg Berlin Berlin Berlin Berlin Berlin Berlin London London London London London London Athens Athens Guatemala Guatemala.... Guatemala .... Port au Prince.. Tegucigalpa Tegucigalpa. Rome Rome Rome Rome Rome Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Where born. Pa... Pa... Pa... N, V Whence ap- pointed. Pa. Pa. Pa. Date of commission. I'a Ohio..., Mass .., N. Y.... N. Y.... Aug. 12, Dec. 21, Aug. 19, N. Y Mar 31, N'iivy I Aug. 31, .■\riny | .'Vpr. 5, N. Y ! Mar. 8, Mass Sept. 25, Tokyo ...; Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Tokyo Monrovia Monrovia Monrovia The Hague The Hague Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Mexico Athens Athens Tangier Tangier The Hague The Hague Berlin Managua Managua Ohio Me N. Y France. Md Mass .... N. Y N. Y N. Y Mich .... Me France. N.C Pa Ill Conn.... Mo Aug. 16., Mar. 31, June I. Oct. 8, Apr. 5, July 28. Sept. 17. July 6, Army ] .^pr. 29, 111 N. Y... Navy., Army., N.H... D. C... Ill Md .... Ind..., N. J., VVvo., Nov. .;j, July 6, Aug. 4, Mich I Aug. 12, Ohio .... Conn .... Oreg.... Russia., Tenn ... Iowa .... Minn..., N. Y N. S Ill Tenn ... Ill Ill S. C Ohio.... D. C N. Y.... Ind Ind Mo N. Y Pa N. Y Me N. Y Minn ... Mich .... N. Y Ind Me .... Md Navy.. Army., Ill N. Y... Va Wash. Dec. 4 Apr. I Apr. I Mar. 10 June 26 Apr. 22 Nov. 16 Mar. 25 May 26 Mar. 25 Mar. 25 Apr. 13 Feb. 8 SC I June 13 Ky Pa Oreg .. Conn.. Cal Navy.. Army.. Army- Navy. Army.. Army.. Navy. Navy . Dec. 15 Mar. 2 May 26 Mar. 3 Aug. 12 Dec. 21 July 6 Sept. 7 iqil IQ09 1911 igio iqii 1909 1905 1909 1910 1910 1909 igio 1909 igio 1910 191 1 igio 1905 1911 1909 1911 1910 igii 1909 1908 1911 1909 1911 1909 Ohio... Army.. N. Y... Ind W. Va. N. v.... Mar. 31 Dec. 6 Aug. 12 Dec. 21 Wash j Dec. 21 Mo Aug. 12 N. Y Jan. 27 Pa Aug. 12 Army Aug. 21 N. H Apr. 5 D. C July 28 Cal June 2 N. Y June 24 N. Y Aug. 12 Ind Dec. 21 Navy j Sept. 6 W. Va...ljan. 9 Va i Jan. 27 1909 ,1910 1910 1911 igii igio 1909 1911 igio igii 1911 1910 1910 igio igio 1909 1911 igog iqog igio 1911 igio 1908 igog igio iqio Igio 1911 igog igii igii 1911 UNITED STATES DIPLOMATIC SERVICE. DIPLOMATIC service-Continued. To u luu counlry ac- credited. Name and rank. Att. Norway Laurits S. Swenson, E. E. & IW. P.. Charles B. Curtis/' Sec. of I.ec ist Lt. William .M. Colvin, I\Iil Panama H. Percival Dodge, E. E. & M. P William W. Andrews,'' Sec. of Leg Paraguay Nicolay A. Qrevstad," E. E. & M. P.P G. Cornell Tarler,<-' Sec. of Leg ist Lt. John S. Hammond, Mil. Att Persia Charles W. Russell, E. E. & M. P Edward Bell,' Sec. of Leg I John Tyler, Int Peru ' H. Clay Howard, E. E. & IW. P William P. Cresson,<" Sec. of Leg Portugal Edwin V. Morgan, E. E. & M. P George L. Lorillard. Sec. of Leg Roumania John B. Jackson, E. E. & M. P.'i Roland B. Harvey, c Sec. of Leg. & C. G. Russia Curtis Guild, Amb. E. & P George Post Wheeler, <" Sec. of Emb Alexander Benson, c 2d Sec. of Emb j Frederick A. Sterling, ' 3d Sec. of Emb i Com. Henry H. Hough, Nav. Att Capt. Nathan K. Averill, Mil. Att Salvador William Heimke," E. E. & JW. P Thos.Ewing Dabney.^-Sec.of Leg.& C. G Servia John B.Jackson, E. E. & M. P.? Roland B. Harvey, « Sec. of Leg. & C. G. Siam Hamilton King," E. E. & IW. P Sec. of Leg. & C. G.. Leng Hui, Int Spain Henry Clay Ide, E. E. & JW. P Gustave Scholle,'-' Sec. of Leg Capt. Cleveland C. Lansing, Mil. Att Sweden Charles H. Graves, E. E. & M. P Henry Coleman May,« Sec. of Leg rst Lt. William M. Colvin, Mil. Att Switzerland Henry S. Bontell, E. E. & M. P James G Bailey, Sec. of Leg Turkey William Woodville Rockhill, Amb. E. & P Hoffman Philip. Sec. of Emb John H. Gregory, jr.,c 2d Sec. of Emb William Walker Smith,' 3d Sec. of Emb. A. A. Gargiulo, Int Ralph F. Chesbrough, Stud. Int Ralph H. Bader, Stud. Int Leland B. Morris, Stud. Int i Frank B. Rairden," Stud. Int j George W. Young, Stud. Int Donald Nicolson," Stud. Int Maj. John R. M. Taylor, Mil. Att. Egypt Peter Augustus Jay, Agt. & CO Uruguay Nicolay A. Qrevstad," E. E. & M. P.P G. Cornell Tarler,c Sec. of Leg ist Lt. John S. Hammond, Mil. Att Venezuela John W. Garrett, E. E. & IW. P Jefferson Caffery, ' Sec. of Leg Residence. Christiania Christiania Stockholm Panama Panama Montevideo Montevideo Montevideo Teheran Teheran Teheran Lima Lima Lisbon Lisbon Bucharest Bucharest St. Petersburg St. Petersburg.... St. Petersburg... St. Petersburg... Paris St. Petersburg... San Salvador San Salvador Bucharest Bucharest Bangkok Bangkok Bangkok Madrid Madrid Madrid Stockholm Stockholm Stockholm Berne Berne Constantinople Constantinople.. Constantinople.. Constantinople.. Constantinople.. Constantinople.. Constantinople.. Constantinople- Constantinople.. Constantinople.. Constantinople.. Constantinople.. Cairo Montevideo Montevideo Montevideo Caracas Caracas Where Whence Date of Minn N. V Mo Mass Ohio Norway N. y N. Y W. Va... N. Y England Ky Del N. Y R. I N.J Md Mass N. Y Pa Minn Miquel'n Mich France .. La N.J Md Canada.. Minn..... I Apr. 27 N. Y Mar. 31 .'Vrm}- Mar. 17 Mass July 6 Oliio , Mar. 2 111 June 3'- N Y ! Aug. iq Army I Nov. 3 D. C... N. Y.... Persia . Ky Nev .... N. Y.... R. I N.J Md Dec; Mar. Siam Vt Cal N'. Y Mass Co\ Mo Mass Ky Pa D. C Fla Ky Turkey.. R.I Va Te.\- Java Iowa Scotland D. C R.I Norway N. Y N. Y Md La Jan. 18 Aug. 4 May 24 June 10 Aug. 12 June 24 Mass I Apr. 24 Wash Dec. 21 Pa Mar. 2 Tex Mar. 2 Navy Nov. 8 Army I Oct. 27 Kans ' Aug. 5 La ! Apr. 4 N.J Aug. 12 Md June 24 Mich Apr. 27 Siam Vt Minn Army Minn D. C Army Ill Ky D. C N. Y La Ohio Turkey.. Wis Va Pa N. Y Md Mass Army R.I Ill N. Y Army Md La Aug. 27 Apr. I Mar. 2 Sept. 6, Mar. 8 Aug. 4 Mar. 17 Apr. 24 Mar. 2 Apr. 24 June 24 Aug. 4 Mar. 31 July I Apr. I Apr. I Apr. I Mar. 10 Mar. 10 Mar. 10 Apr. 20 Dec. 2r June 30 Aug. 19 Nov. 3 Dec. IS Mar. 2 igii 1910 iqio igii igii 191 1 1911 1910 igog igii igii igog 1911 1908 igii 1910 igii igog igii 1911 1910 igio 1909 1910 1911 1910 1903 1901 1909 1911 igii 1905 igog 1910 igii 1911 igii igio igog 1910 1873 iqio igio igio 1911 1911 1911 igti 1909 igii igii igio igio igii Com- b°'-"- pofnTed. commission. ^^Pf_- 000 000 oco OOQ 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 500 000 200 000 000 000 000 000 000 500 000 625 000 000 000 500 000 000 200 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 500 OCO 000 24 CLASSIFICATION OF CONSULATES-GENERAL AND CONSULATES. VIIL-CLASSIFICATION OF COIMSUIiATES-OENERAK. AND CONSVIiATES. The act of May 1 1, 190S, amending the act for the reorganization of the consular service of the United States, approved April 5, 1906, provides: That the classification of consuls-general and consuls in section two of an Act entitled "An Act to provide for the reorganization of the consular service of the United States," approved April fifth, nineteen hundred and six, be, and the same is hereby, amended so as to read as follows: CONSULS-GENERAL. London, C^ass I. — Salary^ $12^000 {2 in aii). Paris. Berlin, Habana, Hamburg, Hongkong, -Salary, $SfiOO (6 in all). Rio de Janeiro, Shanghai. Calcutta, Cape Town, Class Iff.— Salary, $6,000 {Sin all). Constantinople, Mexico City, Montreal, Ottawa, Vienna, Yokohama. Antwerp, Barcelona, Brussels, Auckland, Beirut, Boma, Buenos Aires, Callao, Adis Ababa, Bogota, Budapest, Athens, Canton, Frankfort, Marseille, Coburg, Dresden, Genoa, Guayaquil, Halifax, Guatemala, Lisbon, Christiania, Class 11-^.— Salary, Sj^oo {12 in all). Moscow, Panama, Rotterdam, Class V. — Salary, $4,^00 (ly in all). Hankow, Mukden, Munich, Singapore. Vancouver, Class Vf.— Salary, $3,500 (9 in all). Monterey, Smyrna, VI f. — Salary, Sj,000 (j in all). Copenhagen. Seoul, Sydney (Australia), Tientsin. Winnipeg, Zurich. Stockholm, Tangier. CONSULS. Class f. — Salary, $S,ooo. Liverpool. Class ff. — .Salary, -$0,000. Manchester. Amsterdam, Bremen, Belfast, Amoy, Birmingham, Chefoo', Cienfuegos, Bahia, Bombay, Bordeaux, Colon, Dublin, Dundee, Class fff.— Salary, $5,000 (q in all). Dawson, Johannesburg, Havre, Kobe, Class f v.— Salary, $4,500 (14 in all). Foochow, Glasgow, Kingston (Jamaica), Newchwang, Nottingham, St. Gall, Santiago iCuba), Southampton, Class I''. — Salary, $4,000 (22 in all). Harbin, Para, Leipzig, Pernambuco, Milan, Plauen, Nanking, Reichenberg, Naples, Santos, Nuremberg. Stuttgart, Louren90 Marques, Lyon. Valparaiso, Veracruz. Toronto, Tsingtau, Victoria, Warsaw. CLASSIFICATION OF CONSULATES-GENERAL AND CONSULATES. 25 Class /v. — Salary, Ssjoo (j^ in all). Alexandria, Apia, Barmen, Barranquilla, Basel, Berne, Bluefields, Bradford, Chemnitz, Chungking, Cologne, Dalny, Durban, Edinburgh, Fiume, Geneva, Georgetown, Guadalajara, Mannheim, Montevideo. Nagasaki, Odessa, Palermo, Port Elizabeth, Prague, Quebec, Rangoon, Rheims, Rimouski, Rome, St. Petersburg, Saloniki, Sherbrooke, Vladivostok. Class VII. — Salary, $3,000 (jj in all). Aix la Chapelle, Aleppo, Barbados, Batavia, Belgrade, Burslem, Calais, Calgary, Carlsbad, Catania,* Colombo, Corinto, Dunfermline, Florence, Frontera, Ghent, Hamilton (Ontario), Hanover, Harput, Huddersfield, Iquique, Iquitos, Jerusalem, Karachi, Kehl, La Guaira, Leghorn, Liege, Madras, Malaga, Managua, Melbourne, Nantes, Nassau, Newcastle (England), Newcastle (N. S. W.), Port Antonio, Port au Prince, Progreso, Punta Arenas, Riga, St. John (N. B.), St. Michael's, St. Thomas (West Indies), Sandakan, San Jose (Costa Rica), Seville, Sheffield, Swansea, Sydney (Nova Scotia), Tabriz, Tampico, Tamsui, Trieste, Trinidad. Class VIII. — Salary, $2^00 {60 in all). Acapulco, Aden, Algiers, Antung, Batum, Belize, Bergen, Breslau, Brunswick, Cardiff, Chihuahua, Ciudad Juarez, Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, Cognac, Cork, Curasao, Erfurt, Gibraltar, Gothenburg, Hamilton (Bermuda), Hull, Jerez de la Frontera, Kingston (Ontario), Leeds, Limoges, Madrid, Magdeburg, Malta, Maracaibo, Martinique Matamoros, Mazatlan, Mersine, Nice, Nogales, Nuevo Laredo, Orillia, Owen Sound, Plymouth, Port Limon, Prescott, Puerto Cortes, Rosario, Roubaix, St. John's (N. F.), St. Etienne, San Luis Potosi, Sarnia, Sauk Ste. Marie, Stettin, Swatow, Tamatave, Tegucigalpa, Teneriffe, Trebizond, Tripoli (North Africa), Valencia, Windsor (Ontario), Yarmouth, Zanzibar. Class IX. — Salary, $2,000 (4j in all). Aguascalientes, Asuncion, Bagdad, Bristol, Campbellton, Cape Gracias a Dios, Cape Haitien, Cartagena, Ceiba, Charlottetown, Cornwall, Durango, Ensenada, Fernie, Fort Erie, Goree-Dakar, Grenoble, Guadeloupe, Hermosillo, Hobart, La Paz, Manzanillo, Maskat, Moncton, * By the .\ct of Congress approved February 3, Niagara Falls, Sierra Leone, Patras, Sivas, Port Louis, Stavanger, Puerto Cabello, Suva, Puerto Plata, Tahiti, Rouen, Tapachula, Saigon, Turin, St. John's (Quebec), Turks Island, St. Pierre, Venice. St. Stephen. Salina Cruz, Saltillo, igog, the Consulate at Messina was transferred to Catania. 26 CONSULAR DISTRICTS. IX.-COIVSU1.AR DISTRICTS. BRAZIL. Bahia. The States of Piaulii, Sergipe, and Bahia. Para. The States of Amazonas, Para, and Maranhuo. Pernambuco. The States Pernambuco, of Ceara, Rio Grande do Norte, Parahyba, and Alagoas. Rio de Janeiro. The States of Rio de Janeiro, Espirito Santo, Minas Geraes, Goyaz, and Matto Grosso. Santos. The States of Sao Paulo, Parana, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul. CHINA AND ADJACENT TERRITORY. \moy. That portion of the Province of Fukien comprised in the prefectures of Ting-chou-fu, Chang-chou-fu, aiul Ch'uan-chou-fu, and the independent subprefecture of Lung-yen-chou. Antung. ihis district corresponds to the intendency of the three Eartern Marches, and consists of that portion of the Prov- ince of Slienglving south and east of a hne starting from the sea westof Chuanghoting, thence north about 30 miles, thence northeast, crossing the Antung-Mukden Railway a little north of Feng-huan-cheng and continuing in the same direction to the boundary of Shengking and Kirin, thence following this boundary southeast to the Korean frontier. This will give to the consular district of Antung the following places opened to trade, viz: Feng-huan-cheng, Antung, and Tatungkou. Canton. The Provinces of Kuangsi and Yunnan and that por- tion of the Province of Kuangtung west of longitude 115°. Cbefoo. The Province of Shantung south of the Yellow River, exclusive of the German leased territory of Kiaochow. Chungking. The Provinces of Szechuen and Kueichou and all of Tibet south of the Kokonor region. Dalny. The Japanese leased territory of Kuantung. Foochow. The whole of the Province of Fukien except the four prefectures forming the consular district of Amoy. Hankow. The Province of Honan south of the Yellow River and tlie whole of the Provinces of Hupeh, Hunan, Ki- angsi, Shensi, Kansuh, the Kokonor region, Hsinchiang (Turkestan), and that portion of Mongolia not included in the Tientsin district. Harbin. The Province of Hei-lung-ch'iang and that part of the Province of Kirin lying north of the Cliinese Eastern Rail- way from Harbin to the Russian boundary on the east. It will include the following places opened to trade: Manchuria, Khailar, Tsitsihar, Aigun, Sansing, and Har- bin. Hongkong. The British colony of Hongkong. Mukden. All the remainder of the Province of Kirin and a ])or- tion of Shengking Province, bounded as follows: Beginning at the junction of the Chihli boundary with the Sira Muren and following that river to its ju'iclion with the Liao, but leaving the newly opened town of Tung- Chiang-tzu within the Newchvvang district; following tlie Liao until near the old town of Newchwang, thence south to the west of Hai-ch'eng, whence the line will follow the western border of the Japanese railway zone until north of Ta-Shih-Chiao, when it will cross to the eastern border of the railway zone, and follow this to the boundary of •.he neutral zone, thence east to the sea. CHINA AND ADJACENT TERRITORV-Continued. Mukden— Continued. Less that portion of the Province forming the Antung consular district. This will give to the consular district of Mukden the following places opened to trade: Kuanchengtzu (Cliang- chun), Kirin, Hunchun, Tiehling, Mukden, Liaoyang, Suifenho, and the four towns in the Chientao district, namely, I,ung-Ching-T'sun, Chii-Tzu-Chieh, Tou-tao- kou. and Pai-Ts'ao-kou. Nanking. The whole of the Province of Anhui and all of tlie Province of Kiangsu north of the Yangtze River, and two prefectures south of the same (Chiangning and Chui Kiang). Newchwang. All the remainder of the Province of Shenking includ- ing the following places open to trade: Tung-chiang-tzu, Fakumen, Hsinmintun, Yin-kow. Newchwang will also have jurisdiction over Shanhaikuan. Saigon. All of French Indo-China. Shanghai. The whole of the Province of Kiangsu with the excep- tion of that part which is included in the Nanking district, the Island of Tsungming, and the whole of the Province of Chekiang. Swatow. That portion of the Province of Kuangtung east of longitude 115°. Tientsin. The whole of the Provinces of Chihli and Shansi, and that portion of the Provinces of Honan and Shantung north of the Yellow River, together with all of Eastern Mongo- lia, including the Ordos country and the territory inhabited by the eastern and southern Khalkhas. Tsingtau. The German leased territory of Kiaochow. GERiVlANY. Aix la Chapelle. 1. Regierungsbezirk of Ai.x la Chapelle (Rhine Prov- ince, Prussia). 2. Kreise of Cleve, Geldern, Miirs, Kempen, Crefeld city and townsliip, Miinchen-Gladbach city and township (Regierungsbezirk of Dlisseldorf, Rhine Province, Prus- sia I. Barmen. 1. Kreise of Rees, Dinslaken, Daisburg, Miihlheim, Essen city and township, Diisseldorf city and township, Mettmann, Solingen city and township, Grevenbroich, Neuss, Barmen, Elberfeld, Lennep, Remscheid, Ober- Hausen, and Rheydt (Regierungsbezirk of Diisseldorf, Rhine Province, Prussia). 2. Regierungsbezirke of Miinster and Arnsberg (Prov- ince of Westphalia, Prussia). Berlin. 1. Province of Brandenburg. 2. Kreise of Griinberg, Freystadt, Sagan, Sprottau, Rothenburg, Hoyerswerda, and Gcirlitz city and town- ship (Province of Silesia). Sorau (Consular Agency). 1. Kreise of Ziillichau, Krossen, West Sternberg, Guben city and township, Sorau, Kottbus city and township, Spremberg, Calau, Liibben, and Luckau. Kreis of the city of Frankfort a / O. (Regierungsbezirk of Frankfort, Province of Brandenburg). 2. Kreise of Griinberg, Freystadt, Sagan, Sprottau, Rothenburg, Hoyerswerda, and Goriitz city and town- ship (Province of Silesia). Bremen. 1. Free city of Bremen. 2. Grand l3uchy of Oldenburg, excepting principalities of Birkenfeld and LUbeck. 3. Regierungsbezirk of Aurich and Osnabriick (Prov- ince of Hanover). 4. Kreise of Syke, Diepholz, Sulingen, Hoya, Nienburg, Stolzenau (Regierungsbezirk of Hanover, Province of Hanover). CONSULAR DISTRICTS. GERMANY Continued. Bremen-Continued. 5. Kreise of BremerviJrde, Blumenthal, Osterholz, Zeven, Achim, Lehe, Geestemiinde, RotenburR, and Ver- den (Regierungsbezirk of Stade, Province of Hanover). 6. Helgoland. Brake (Consular Agency). Amter of Brake, Elsfleth, and Butjadingen (Grand Duchy of Oldenburg). BretnerJiaven (Consular Agency). 1. Amt of Bremerhaven (State of Bremen). 2. Kreise of Lehe and Geestemiinde (Regierungs- bezirk of Stade, Province of Hanover). Breslau. 1. Regierungsbezirk of Posen. 2. Province of Silesia, with the exception of the Kreise of Griinberg, Freystadt, Sagan, Sprottau, Rothenburg, Hoyerswerda, and Gorlitz city and township. Brunswick. 1. Kreise of Ulzen, Isenhagen. Gifhorn, and Liichow (Regierungsbezirk of Liineburg, Province of Hanover). 2. Kreise of Peine, Marienburg, Duderstadt, Zeller- feld, Goslar, Osterode, and Ilfeld (Regierungsbezirk of Hildesheim, Province of Hanover). 3. Duchy of Brunswick (Kreise of Brunswick, Wolf- enbiittel, Helmstedt, Blankenburg, Gandersheim, and Holzminden). 4. Kreise of Grafschaft Hohenstein. Worbis, Heiligen- stadt, Miihlhausen city and township (.Regierungsbezirk of Erfurt, Province of Sa.xony). 5. E.xclave of Volkenroda (Duchy of Sa.xe-Coburg- Gotha). 6. Kreise of Ebeleben and Sondershausen (Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen). Chemnitz. 1. Kreishauptmannschaft of Chemnitz. 2. Amtshauptmanschaft of Rochlitz (Regierungsbezirk of Leipzig, Kingdom of Sa.xony). Coburg. 1. Bezirksiimter of Ebern, Gerolzhofen, Hassfurt, Hof- heim, Kissingen, Kiinigshofen, Mellrichstadt, Xeustadt a;S., Schw-einfurt, with the chartered cities of Schwein- furt and Kissingen (Regierungsbezirk of Lower Fran- conia, Bavaria 1. 2. Bezirksiimter i and 2 of Bamberg, Berneck, Eber- mannstadt, Hof, Kronach, Kulmbach, Lichtenfels, Miinch- berg, Naila, Rehau, Stadtsteinach, Staffelstein, Teusch- nitz, with the chartered cities of Hof, Bamberg, and Kulm- bach (Regierungsbezirk of Upper Franconia, Bavaria). 3. Duchy of Sa.xe-Meiningen, e.xcepling Exclave of Camburg. 4. Exclave of Kranichfeld (Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach). 5. Kreise of Kiinigsee and Rudolstadt (Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt), 6. Kreis of Gehren (Principality of Schwarzburg-Son- dershausen) 7. V'erwaltungsbezirk of Dermbach (Grand Duchy of Saxe-Wei mar-Eisenach). 8. Kreise of Schleusingen, Ziegenriick (Regierungsbe- zirk of Erfurt. Province of Saxony, Prussia). g. Duchy of Saxe-Coburg. 10. Kreis of Schmalkalden (Regierungsbezirk of Cas- sel. Province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia). Sonneherg (Consular Agency). Sonneberg (Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen). Cologne. I. Regierungsbezirk of Cologne (Rliine Province, Prussia). 2 Regierungsbezirk of Coblenz (Rhine Province, Prus- sia), with exception of the Kreise of Wetzlar, Kreuznach, Zeli, and Simmern. 3. Regierungsbezirk of Treves (Rhine Province, Prus- sia). Dresden. Kreishauptmannschaften of Dresden and Bautzen (Kingdom of Saxony). Erfurt. 1. Duchy of Saxe-Gotha, with the exception of the Ex- clave of Volkenroda. 2. Verwaltungsbezirke of Eisenach, Apolda, and Wei- mar, with the exception of the E.xclave of Kranichfeld (Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach). GERMANY -Continued. Erfurt— Continued. 3. Kreise of Erfurt city and township, Langensalza, Weissensee (Regierungsbezirk of Erfurt, Province of Saxony, Prussia). 4. Kreis of Arnstadt (Principality of Schwarzburg- Sondershausen). 5. Kreis of Frankenhausen (Principality of Schwarz- burg-Rudolstadt). Frankfort-on-JVlain. 1. Regierungsbezirk of Cassel, excepting the Kreise of Rinteln and Schmalkalden (Province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia). 2. Kreise of Wetzlar, Kreuznach, Zell, and Simmern (Regierungsbezirk of Coblenz, Rhine Province, Prussia). 3. Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, with the excep- tion of the Kreise of Worms, Bensheim, Heppenheim, and Erbach. 4. Bezirksiimter of Briickenau, Millenberg, GemUnden, Hammelburg, Alzenau. .^schaffenburg, Lohr, Markthei- denfeld, Karlstadt, Obernburg, and the chartered city of Aschaffenburg (Regierungsbezirk of Lower Franconia, Bavaria). 5. Regierungsbezirk of Wiesbaden (Province of Hesse- Nassau, Prussia). 6. Kreise of Paderborn, Biiren, Warburg, Hoxter, and Wiedenbriick (Regierungsbezirk of Minden, Province of Westphalia, Prussia). 7. Principality of Waldeck. 8. Principality of Birkenfeld (Grand Duchy of Olden- burg). Casse! (Consular Agency). 1. Regierungsbezirk of Cassel, excepting the Kreise of Hanau city and township, Gelnhausen, Schliichtern, Schmalkalden, and Rinteln. 2. Kreis of Biedenkopf ( Regierungsbezirk of Wies- baden, Province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia). 3. Kreise of Paderborn, Biiren, Warburg, Hoxter, and Wiedenbriick (Regierungsbezirk of Minden, Prov- ince of Westphalia, Prussia). 4. Principality of Waldeck. Wiesbaden (Consular Agency). Kreise of Wiesbaden city and township, Oberwester- wald,Lrnterwesterwald,Unterlahn,Limburg, Oberlahn, St. Goarshausen, Rheingau, Untertaunus, and Wester- burg (Regierungsbezirk of Wie.sbaden, Province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia). Hamburg. 1. Province of Schleswig-Holstein. 2. Grand Ducfiy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. 3. Principality of Ratzeburg (Grand Duchy of Meck- lenburg-Strelitz ). 4. Free cities of Hamburg and Liibeck. 5. Principality of Liibeck (Grand Duchy of Oldenburg). 6. Kreise of Hadeln, Neuhaus, Kehdingen, Stade, and Jorck (Regierungsbezirk of Stade, Province of Hanover). 7. Harburg city and township, Kreise of Winsen, So!- tau, Liineburg city and township, Kreise of Bleckede and Dannenberg (Regierungsbezirk of Liineburg, Province of Hanover). Cuxhai'en (Consular Agency). Amt of Ritzebiittel (Hamburg), Kreise of Hadeln, Neuhaus, and Kehdingen (Regierungsbezirk of Stade, Province of Hanover). Kiel (Consular Agency). Kreise of Apenrade, Hadersleben, Sonderburg, Flensburg city and township. Kreise of Tondern, Hu- sum, Eiderstedt, Schleswig, Eckernfiirde, Rendsburg, Kiel, city district of Neumiinster, Kreise of PliJn and Oldenburg (Province of Schleswig-Holstein). Liiliec/i (Consular Agency). City of Liibeck and Principality of Liibeck (Grand Duchy of Oldenburg), Principality of Ratzeburg. Hanover. 1. Kreis of Neustadt a / R., Hanover city and township. Linden city and township, Kreise of Springe and Hameln (Regierungsbezirk of Hanover, Province of Hanover, Prussia). 2. Hildesheim city and township. Gronau, Alfeld, Ein- beck, L'slar, Northeim, Miinden, Giitringen city and town- ship (Regierungsbezirk of Hildesheim, Province of Han- over, Prussia). 3. Kreise of Fallingbostel, Celle city and township, Kreis of Burgdorf (Regierungsbezirk of Loneburg, Prov- ince of Hanover, Prussia). 28 CONSULAR DISTRICTS. GERMANY— Continued. Hanover — Continued. 4. Kreise of Minden, Liibbccke, Herford, Halle, and Bielefeld city and township (Regierungsbe/.irk of Minden, Province of VV'estjihalia, Prussia). 5. Principality of Lippe. 6. Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe. 7. Principality of Pyrmont. 8. Kreis of Rinteln (Regierungsbez.irk of Cassel, Prov- ince of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia). Kebl. 1. Amt of Rastatt and the Grand Duchy of Baden south of the Amt of Rastatt. 2. Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Alsace-Lorraine). Leipzig. 1. Kreishauptmannschafft of Leipzig, excepting the Amtshauptmannschaft of Rochlitz (Kingdom of Saxony). 2. Regierungsbezirk of Merseburg (Province of Sax- ony). 3. Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg. 4. Landratsamtsbezirk of Gera (Principality of Reuss, younger line). 5. Verwaltungsbezirk of Neustadt (Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach). 6. Exclave of Camburg of the Duchy of Saxe-Mein- ingen. Gera (Consular Agency). 1. Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg. 2. Landratsamtsbezirk of Gera (Principality of Reuss, younger line). 3. Verwaltungsbezirk of Neustadt (Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach). 4. Exclave of Camburg of the Duchy of Saxe-Min- ingen. Magdeburg. 1. Duchy of Anhalt. 2. Regierungsbezirk of Magdeburg (Province of Sax- ony). Mannheim. 1. .\mt of Ettlingen and the Grand Duchy of Baden north of the Amt of Ettlingen. 2. Kreise of Worms, Bensheim, Heppenheim, Erbach (Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt). 3. The Bavarian Palatinate. Neustadt-an-der-Hardt (Consular Agency). The Bavarian Palatinate, excepting the Bezirks- iimter of Frankenthal, Ludwigshafen, Speyer, and Germersheim. Munich. 1. Regierungsbezirke of Schwaben and Neuburg (Ba- varia). 2. Regierungsbezirk of Upper Bavaria (Bavaria). 3. Regierungsbezirk of Lower Bavaria (Bavaria). Nuremberg. 1. Regierungsbezirk of Middle Franconia (Bavaria). 2. Regierungsbezirk of Upper Palatinate (Bavaria). 3. Bezirksamter of Wiirzburg, Kitzingen, Ochsenfurt, and the chartered cities of Wiirzburg and Kitzingen (Regierungsbezirk of Lower Franconia, Bavaria). 4. Bezirksiimter of Hiichstadt, Forchheim, Pegnitz, Bayreuth, Wunsiedel, and the chartered cities of Forch- heim and Bayreuth (Regierungsbezirk of Upper Fran- conia, Bavaria). Plauen. 1. Kreishauptmannschaft of Zwickau (Kingdom of Saxony). 2. Principality of Reuss, older line. 3 Landratsamtbezirk of Schleiz (Principality of Reuss, younger line). Markneukirchen (Consular Agency). .. Southern half of the Amtshauptmannschaft of Olsnitz and southern third of the Amtshauptmann- schaft of Auerbach (Kingdom of Saxony). Stettin. 1. Province of Pomerania. 2. Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, excepting the Principality of Ratzeburg. 3. Regierungsbezirk of Bromberg (Province of Posen). 4. Province of West Prussia. 5. Province of East Prussia. GERMANY Continued. Stettin— Continued. Zirtwz/i' (Consular Agency). Province of West Prussia. Konigsberg {SloVi%\iX2i.x Agency). Province of East Prussia. Siuineiiiiinde (Consular Agency). Kreise of Usedom, Wollin, and Riigen (Province of Pomerania). Stuttgart. 1. The Kingdom of Wiirttemberg. 2. HohenzoUern Land. HUNGARY. Budapest. The Kingdom of Hungary, except Croatia and Slavonia. Fiume. The whole of Croatia and Slavonia. ITALY. Catania. The Provinces of Me.ssina, Catania, Siracusa, in the island'of Sicily, and the Department of Calabria. Florence. Department of Emilia and the Provinces of Florence and Arezzo in the Department of Tuscany. Genoa. Department of Liguria. Leghorn. Department of Tuscany, except the Provinces of Flor- ence and Arezzo. Milan. Department of Lombardy. Naples. The Departments of Campania, Apulia, and Potenza (Basilicata). Palermo. The island of Sicily, with the exception of the Prov- inces of Messina, Catania, and Siracusa. Rome. The Departments of Rome, Perugia (Umbria), Marches, Abruzzi e Molise, and the island of Sardinia. Turin. Department of Piedmont. Venice. Department of Venetia. RUSSIA. Batum. The Caucasus. Moscow. Governments of Moscow, Tver, Yaroslav, Smolensk, Vladimir, Nizhni Novgorod, Kazan, Ufa, Orenburg, Mo- hilev, Kaluga, Tula, Riazan, Tambov, Penza, Simbirsk, Samara, Tchernigov, Orel, Kursk, Voronesh, and Saratov. Odessa. Governments of Kherson, Bessarabia, Podolia, Kief, Poltava, Kharkov, Ekaterinoslav, Taurida, Don Cossacks district, and Astrakhan. Riga. Governments of Livonia, Couronia, Kovno, Vitebsk, and Vilna. St. Petersburg. Governments of St. Petersburg, Finland, Esthonia, Novgorod, Pskov, Olonetz, Archangel, Volgoda, Kos- troma, Viatka, and Perm. Warsaw. Governments of Poland, Grodno, Minsk, and Volhynia. TARIFF OF UNITED STATES CONSULAR FEES. 29 X TARIFF OF UNITED STATES CONSUI.AR FEES. [Revised to take effect November 1, 1906; amended by Executive order of June 7, 1909.] Tariff of fees prescribed by order of the President to be charged by consular officers of the United States. All consular charges must be in strict accordance with this tariff, and be collected in gold or its equivalent. No fee or compensation will be collected for any service not covered by this tariff. (The fees in this tariff are not prescribed for American vessels and seamen, because they are exempted by law from the payment of consular fees. Consular agents will make the fees in this tariff the basis of collection from the Treasury for services to such vessels. Foreign-built vessels, unregistered, owned by American citizens, are not exempt from the payment of the fees prescribed herein.) Nature of service. miscellaneous services. Certificate to invoice, including declaration, in triplicate or quadruplicate, covering either importations or transit shipments, including any additional declaration or certificate not otherwise provided for which is required by law or regulations for use in connection with the entry of the wares or the forwarding of the same in bond Invoice of returned American goods Extra certificates and declarations as above described, including immigrant's oath (Form No. 128) or declaration for books and household effects under fioo in value (Form No. 215), when issued without an invoice certificate, each Certificate to extra copies of invoices, each Certificate of disinfection, in triplicate or quadruplicate Landing certificate, including oaths of mas- ter and mate, and the complete execution of the certificate Sealing cars coming from Canada or Mex- ico, for each manifest in quintuplicate with the consul's certificate, including sealing of each car, vessel, bale, barrel, box, or package Issuing a passport — Form No. 9 — or extend- ing a passport Visaing a passport — Form No. 10 Visaing a Chinese passport or certificate Marriage certificate, in duplicate. Form No. For taking into possession the personal es- tate of any citizen who shall die within the limits of a consulate, inventorying, selling, and finally settling and preparing or transmitting, according to law, the bal- ance due thereon, $2 for each $100 of value or fraction thereof. If part of such estate shall be delivered over before final settle- ment, $1 for each $roo of value or fraction thereof to be charged on the part so deliv- ered over as is not in money, and $2 for each $100 of value or fraction thereof on the gross amount of the residue. If among the effects of the deceased are found cer- tificates of foreign stock, loans, or other property, $1 for each $100 of value or frac- tion thereof on the amount thereof. No charge will be made for placing the ofticial seal upon the personal property or effects of such deceased citizen, or for breaking or removing the seals. For each certificate of protection, semsar, or certificate of employment issued at Tan- gier SerTi'ces to Tessels ami seamen. 14. Bill of health, in duplicate* 15. Supplemental bill of health, cate* in dupli- I2.50 I .uo 1. 00 1. 00 2.50 2.50 5.00 2.50 Nature of service. Services to vessels and seamen — Continued. 16. For receiving and delivering ship's register and papers, including consular certificates, as prescribed in Forms Nos. 13 and 14, $1 for each 100 tons or fraction thereof, regis- tered measurement (net), of the vessel for which the service is performed, if under 1,000 tons: but for American vessels run- ning regularly by weekly or monthly trips, or otherwise, to or between foreign ports, this tonnage fee will not be charged for more than four trips in a year; and ton- nage fees shall not be exacted for any vessel touching at or near ports in Canada on her regular voyage from one port to another within the United States, unless some official service required by law shall be performed. 17. And for every additional 100 tons net or fraction thereof 18. Shipping or discharging seamen, including the certificates thereof attached to crew list and shipping articles and given to sea- men 19. Authentication of copies of protests or other •necessary documents for vessels or sea- men not otherwise provided for 20. Preparation and acknowledgment for ves- sels or seamen of any oath or declaration for which a form is given in the Consular Regulations, or a similar necessary serv- ice not otherwise provided for 21. Preparation and execution for vessels or seamen of any certificate for which a form is given in the Consular Regulations, or similar necessary service not otherwise provided for 22. Orders or letters for vessels or seamen for which forms are given in the Consular Regulations, or other similar necessary service not otherwise provided for 23. Recording, when necessary, for vessels or seamen any document covered by the pro- visions of the Consular Regulations, for every hundred words or fraction thereof.. 24. Noting marine protest — Form No. 37 25. Extending marine protest — Form No. 38 If it exceed two hundred words, for every additional one hundred words 26. Protest of master against charterers or freighters — Form No. 39 27. Clearance when issued by the consul, as at free ports 28. Attending an appraisement of vessel's goods or effects, for each day's attendance 29. Attending sale of vessel's goods, for each day's attendance during which the sale continues 30. Attendance at a shipwreck, or for the pur- pose of assisting a ship in distress, or of saving wrecked goods or property, over and above traveling expenses, whenever the consul's interposition is required by the parties interested, for each day Fee. $0.50 2.00 3.00 ■ 50 2.00 2.00 5.00 5.00 * Foreign war vessels are exempt from the payment of fees for bills of health. COMPENSATION OF CONSULAR AGENTS. TARIFF OF UNITED STATES CONSULAR FEES Continued. Nature of service. Notarial and other services. 31. Administering' an oath and certificate there- of* 32. Administering oath and preparing passport application 33. Acltnowledgment of a deed or power of at- torney, or similar service, including one or more signatures, with certificate thereof, for each copy 34. Administering any and all oaths required to be made by pensioners and their witnesses in the execution of their pension vouchers, or by persons presenting claims for pen- sions or increase of pensions and their witnesses, or certifying to the competency of a local official before whom the same were executed 35. Acknowledgments connected with the trans- fer of United States bonds 36. Administering oaths to or taking acknowl- edgments of officials or employees of the United States Government, in connection with their official business or accounts 37. For rendering notarial services to officials of foreign governments who render gra- tuitously reciprocal courtesiesto American diplomatic and consular officers 38. Certifying to official character of a foreign notary or other official 39. For taking depositions, executing commis- sions or letters rogatory, where the record of testimony, including caption and cer- tificate, does not exceed 500 words For each additional 100 words or fraction thereof The foregoing fee shall cover the adminis- tration of tlie oath and all services of the consul as commissioner, but shall not in- clude services of clerk, stenographer or typewriter, which shall be additional at the rate prescribed herein for copying. No fee. No fee. No fee. 10.00 •50 41. 44 Nature of service. Notarial and other services — Continued. 40. Copies (carbon copies to be charged for at the same rate as originals): For the first hundred words or fraction... For every additional hundred words or less Translations; for every one hundred words or fraction 42. Additional fee for all services contemplated by fees numbered 31, 32, 33, 38, 39 when rendered elsewhere than at the consular office at the request of the interested par- ties, for each hour or fraction thereof In connection with any service rendered out- side of the consular office at the request of private individuals, the exact amount of the expenses actually and necessarily in- curred by the person rendering the service shall be collected from the persons for whom the service is performed in addition to the fee or fees prescribed therefor and a note of the amount shall be made on the margin of the fee book and fee return opposite the entry of the service and fee: but no amount in excess of the fee or fees prescribed and such actual and necessary expenses shall be charged or accepted. 43. Recording unofficial documents in consul. ite upon request: For the first hundred words or fraction... For every additional hundred words or less Any and all services indicated in the above tariff and performed upon written orders of the Department of State for the official use of the Government of the United States Fee. $0.50 No fee. * Executive order of December 21, igofi. prescribes that no fee shall be charged for the affidavit of temporary stay of owner of sealskin garment entering the United States from Canada. XI.-COIVIPEIVSAXIOX OF COIVSULAR AGEIMTS. The act for the reoganization of the consular service of the United Stales, approved April 5, 1906, provides: "Sec. 8. That all fees, official or unofficial, received by any officer in the consular service for services rendered in connection with the duties of his office or as a consular officer, including fees for notarial services, and fees for taking depositions, executing commissions or letters rogatory, settling estates, receiving or paying out moneys, caring for or disposing of property, shall be accounted for and paid into the Treasury of the United States, and the sole and only compensation of such officers shall be by salaries fixed by law; but this shall not apply to consular agents, who shall be paid by one half of the fees received in their offices, up to a maximum sum of one thou- sand dollars in any one year, the other half being accounted for and paid into the Treasury of the United States. And vice-consuls-general, deputy consuls-general, vice-consuls, and deputy consuls, in addition to such compensation as they may be entitled to receive as consuls or clerks, may receive such portions of the salaries of the consul-general or consuls for whom they act as shall be provided by regulation." UNITED STATES CONSULAR SERVICE, 31 XII PKESEI\T COIVSU1.AK SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES. CONSULS-GENERAL AT LARGE. Name. Where born. Whence appointed. Date of commission. Salary. George H. Murphy N. C N. C. For North America, including Mexico, and the Bermudas Fleming D.Cheshire N. Y N, V. For eastern Asia, including- the Straits Settlements, Australia, Oceanica, and the islands of the Pacific. 1 Charles C. Eberhardt i Kans ! Kans . For South America, Central America, the West Indies, and | Curacao. Alfred L. M.Gottschalk '> N. Y N. Y.. For European Russia, the Ballcan States, Greece, Asia Minor Persia, India (as far as the western frontier of the Straits Settle- ments), and Africa. Heaton W. Harris & Ohio.. For Europe, excepting European Russia, the Balkan States, and Greece. May 23,1906 May 24,1906 Jan. i2,igio Mar. 16,1908 Ohio I J^n. 25,igog $5 , 000 S,ooo 5,000 o- UNITED STATES CONSULAR SERVICE. ABYSSINIA— BRAZIL. Name and title. ABYSSINIA. Adis Ababa j iC. G.. Do Guy R. Love V. & D. C. G.. Ohio. Where born. Whence ap- pointed. Date of commission. Salary. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Buenos Aires Richard M. Bartleman C. G.. Do Ross J. HazeUine,6r..V. & D. C. G.. Do Eli Taylor D. C. G.. Do j Ross J. Hazekineff C. A.. Rosario ! Robert T. Crane C. Do Thomas B. Van Home, V. & D. C. Saiifa Fc. : George C. Norniati Agt.. Mass , Ind.... N. Y.. Ind... Md.... Ohio.. Ohio Dec. 21 .iq Mass Jan. ii.igog Ind Aug. 15,1911 N. Y Oct. 4,1910 Ind [ Mar. 3,1909 Md i Aug. 19,1911 Ohio [ Oct. 15,1910 Argen...| Dec. 24,1910 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Budapest, Hungary Paul Nash C. G.. Do Frank E. Mallett...V. & D. C. G.. Do : Hugh Kemeny D. C. G.. Carlsbad, Austria Will L. Lowrie '' C. Do Robert C. Boesel V. & D. C..' Fiume, Hungary Clarence Rice Slocum C. N. Y Do I Attilio J. Clementi V. & D. C. Prague, Austria Joseph I. Brittain h C. Do Arnold Weissberger" V.&D.C Reichenberg, Austria William J.Pike'' C Do Joseph P. Burg V. & D. C. Trieste, Austria Ralph J.Tottenf' C. Do Orestes De Martini V. C. Do Vincent Bures D. C. Vienna, Austria j Charles Denby e C. G.. Do Robt.W.Heingartner. V.&D.C.G..; BELGIUM. Antwerp Henry W. Diederich C. G. Do Harry Tuck Sherman.. V.&D.C.G. Brussels Ethelbert Watts & C. G. Do CharlesRoyNasmith.. V.&D.C.G. Ghent , Henry Abert Johnson C. Do Julius A. Van Hee V. & D. C Liege Alexander Heingartner'' C. Do Alexander P. Cruger..V, &. D. C. BRAZIL. Bahia I Southard P.Warner C. Do ! Omar E, Mueller V. & D. C. Para George H. Pickerellb C. Do Julius Weinberger" V. & D. C. Do j William R. Cox D. C. Manaos I John H. Hamilton Agt. Maranltno /oa/fm'fii M. A . dos Santos Agt. Pernambuco P. Merrill Griffith?' C. Do j Enrique Bachilleres V. & D. C. Ceara | Antonio E. da Frotn Agt. Macrio George Sim Jtson Agt. Natal Henry J. Green -Agt. RIo de Janeiro Julius G. Lay C. G. Do Joseph J. Slechta....V. & D. C. G. Do Frank G. Lewis D. C. G. I'ictoria Jean Zinzen Agt. Santos Jay White C. Do j William H. Lawrence V. C. Po I James W. Reeves V. & D. C. N. Y N. Y June 1,1908 Mass Me Aug. 10,1906 Hung ... Hung ... July 25,1910 Mich Ill May 31, 1909 Ohio Ohio Oct. 11,1910 N. Y N. Y |une 10,1908 Hung Hung..;.. Sept. 2,1909 Pa Ohio Mar. 30,1907 Austria.. N. Y Jan. 17,1903 Pa Pa June 24, igio Pa N- V Tenn Tenn Aug. 23, 1911 N. Y N. Y May 23,1907 Austria.. Austria.. May 23, 1907 Ind Ind May 17,1909 Ohio Ohio Feb. 27, 1907 Pa D. C Me June 22,igo6 May 10,1907 Me Pa Pa Apr. 25,1907 N. Y N. Y May 29,1911 D. C D. C Aug. ig, 1911 Ind Iowa Feb. 1 , 1900 N. Y Ohio Aug. 19, 1911 Te.x N. Y Sept. 23, 1907 D. C Md Aug. 27, 1909 Ohio Ohio Sept. 14, 1909 Ohio Ohio May 29,1906 Hun N. Y Dec. 18,1908 England Brazil ... May 5,1906 Cal N. Y Oct. 2,1905 Brazil ... Brazil ... Oct. 17,1908 Ohio Ohio Jan. 10,1910 Argen ... Brazil ... May 24,1902 Brazil ... Brazil ... June 17,1897 Scotland Brazil... Feb. 21,1908 N. Y N. Y Apr. 4,1904 D. C D. C May 2,1910 Wis S. Dak... July 31,1908 Mass R.I Feb. 24,1911 Belgium Brazil... Mar. 29,1890 Mich Mich Aug. 27,1909 Ill Ill Mar. II, 1901 Jan. 21,1910 Pa Pa $3,500 Fees, year ending June 30, 1910. 1,000 2,500 1 ' ^' 6,000 .S , .Soo 5.500 3,000 3,000 4,000 4,000 $1 ,355-00 191-50 4,000 285.50 224.00 52-50 8,000 877.00 4,000 UNITED STATES CONSULAR SERVICE. BRAZIL— CHINA. Place. Rio Grande doSuL. S(io Paula Name and title. Jorge Vereker Ag^t.. William E. Lee Agt. CHILE. Iquique Do A nto/agasta Rea Hanna <^ C. Edward E. Muecke V. & D. C. Peter H. Speedie Agt. Arica \ Tonuis Bradley Agt. Punta Arenas | Charles L. Lathamd .C. Do Valparaiso Do Caldera Cog H i til bo Talcaliuano CHINA. Amoy .. Do Do Harold Edward Stubbs, V. & D. C. Alfred A. Winslow ?' C. Charles F. Baker V. & D. C. John Thomas Rlorong. Agt. A ndreiv Kerr Agt. Joseph O. Smith Agt. Julean H. Arnold C. Charles F. Brissel V. & D. C. Charles F. Brissel Mar. Antung Adolph A. Williamson!/ C. Canton Leo Allen Bergholz C. G. Do Do Do Do Cbefoo Do Do Do 'Fsinan/n Chungking Do Hamilton Butler !7...V. & D. C. G. Joseph X. Strand. ...V. & D. C. G. Horace J. Dickinson Mar. Hamilton Butlers' Int. John Fowler C. Mahlon Fay Perkinsf/..V. & D. C. Frederic A. Boardman Mar. Mahlon Fay Perkins? Int. Agt. E. Carleton Baker'' C. V. & D. C. Foochow C. Do Do Hankow Thomas P. Thompson. .V. & D. C. Thomas P. Thompson Mar. Roger S. Greene C. Q. Do Nelson T. Johnson O.X . & D. C. G. Do I Mar. Do , Nelson T. Johnsons' Int. Harbin | Lester IWaynard'' C. Mukden ! Fred D. Fisher C. G. Do , j Myrl S. Myers? V. & D. C. G. Do I M. G. Faulkner Mar.- Do I Myrl S. Myers? Int. Nanking Wilbur T. Gracey C. Do Alvin W. Gilbert V. & D. C. Newchwang William P. Kent f C. Do Clarence E. Sargenf-.V. & D. C. Do ' Clarence E. Sargent" Mar. Shanghai Amos P. Wilder c C. G. Do W. Roderick Dorsey..V.& D.C.G. Do J. Paul Jameson ?...¥. & D. C. G.. Do Frank W. Hadley? V. C. G.. Do Thaddeus C. White D. C. G.. Do John K. Davisn D. C. G.. Do Esson M. Gale? D. C. G.. Do George C. Hanson D. C. G.. Do Thaddeus C. White '..Mar.. Do ! Frank W. Hadley? Int.. Do I J. Paul Jameson? Int.. Do I Esson M. Gale? Int.. Do 1 George C. Hanson Stud. Int., S 1564 3 Where born. Brazil ... P. R Ill Cal England England N. C Ind Ky Cal Scotland R. I Cal..., N. Y.. N. Y.. D. C. Vt Me.... Cal.... Ark.... Me N. Y.. Mass . Ohio.. Mass.. Cal. Mass . D. C. D. C... Cal Oreg.. Pa Mo Pa Mass .• la Va Japan Japan Me Md D. C... Kans .. N. Y..., China Mich ... Conn .. N. Y.... Kans .. B.C.. Mich .. Conn .. Whence ap- pointed. Brazil ... Brazil ... Cal.... Oreg. Chile. Chile. N. C. Chile. Ind.... Okla.. Chile. Chile. Chile. Cal.... N.J.... N.J.... D. C. N. Y.. N. Y.. Cal.... Ark.... N. Y.. Mass . Cal.... Conn. Cal.... Date of commission. Aug. 28,1897 June 18,1908 Aug. Mar. Sept. June Aug. Feb. June Nov. July Sept. Sept. 15,1907 13,1909 7,1911 30, 1906 19,1911 24, 1911 22, 1906 21,1908 27,1908 26,1898 27,189s Cal. N. Y.. N. Y.. Mass , Okla . Okla . Cal... Oreg. Pa Mo.... Pa Mass . Nebr. Va Cal... Cal.... Wis... Md.... Pa Cal.... N. Y.. Ohio.. Mich . Conn N. Y.. Cal.... Pa Mich. Conn May I, Apr. 29, Apr. 29, Aug. 19, May 25, Dec. 30, Aug. 23, July 6, Dec. 30, June 10, May 25, July 6, July 25, 1910 1910 1911 1906 1910 igii 1909 igio 1908 1911 igii 1911 Aug. 19, tgii Jan. 21,1911 Jan. 21,1911 Aug. 19,1911 July 30,1910 July 30, Aug. 19, Aug. 27, July 25, Mar. 27, July 25, Apr. IS, July 7, May 2, Oct. 17, Apr. 29, May 17, June 25, Apr. 25, Apr. 9, Apr. 22, Apr. 14, Feb. 10, Sept. 7, July 30, Apr. 9, Nov. I, Mar. 1, June 12, 1910 1911 1909 1911 1908 1911 1910 1910 igio 1910 igog igog 1908 igio 1909 igog igio 1911 191 1 igo8 1909 igog igii igog Salary. Fees, year ending June 30, igio. 3,000 4.500 1,000 2,500 5>5oo 1,000 1,500 4.500 1,000 1,500 3.500 4.500 1,000 4.500 750 1,500 4,000 4.500 1,000 1,650 4,000 1,000 8,000 1,000 2,500 1,650 1,500 1,000 $161.50 100.46 846.50 99-5° 35- 00 260.00 195-00 UNITED STATES CONSULAR SERVICE. CHINA— DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. Place. Name and title. Where born. Whence ap- pointed. Date of commission. Ohio I Ohio June 24,1910 Ohio Ohio ' Aug. 27,1909 Swatow Charles L. L. Williams!/ C. Tientsin Samuel S. Knabenshue C. 0. Do Raymond P. Tenney,fV.& D. CO.. i China Mass : Sept. 6,1911 Oo Charles Henry Williams.. D.C.G..' China.... N. Y Aug.24,1910 Do Charles Henry Williams Mar.. China...., N. Y Dec. 21,1908 Do Raymond P. Tenney,".. Stud. Int..' China Mass June 2,1909 Salary. COLOMBIA. Barranquilla Isaac A. Manning'' C. Ind. Do Call Honda Medellin Santa Maria. Bogota Cartagena Ore.. Albro L. Burnell V. & D. C. Edward H. Mason Agt.. John Oiven Agt.. Silas H. IVrisht Agt.. William A. Trout Agt. CO.. Graham H. Kemper^ C. ! W. Va Aug. 19,1911 Me Me j Dec. 18,1907 111 : 111 Nov. 18,1910 Wales .. N. Y Ill Colom . Mich.... Ind Do William B.MacMaster.nV.&D.C. COSTA RICA. Colom ... N. Y. Port Limon Chester Donaldson h C Do ' Henry O. Easton V.& D. C. Pa San Jose Samuel T. Lee'^i C. England Do Punt a A I CUBA. Edgar J. Hitchcock V. & D. C.-l 111 Leon A. Alari;uez Agt.. Trinidad ClenJuegos Max J. Baehr"'' C. Do Buenaventura Carbo....V. & D.C.. Caibarien ' /'. />'. Andt-rsonip) Agt.. Nuevitas i Dean R. Wood Agt.. Sagua la Grande ! Johti F. Jovain) Agt.. Habana James Linn Rodgers C. G.. Do : Joseph A. Springer.. Y. & D. C. G.. Do j Henry P. Starrett D. C. G.. Cardenas i Pedro M. Mederosi") Agt.. Alfred Heydrich (»') Agt.. I'ervie P. Sutherland Agt.. Ross E. Holaday C. Henry M. Wolcott V. & D. C. George Bayliss{n) Agt.. A rthur Field Lindley Agt.. Francis B. Bertoi(n) Agt.. Mafanzas Nui-7'a Gerona, Isle of Fines. Santiago de Cuba Do Antilla Baracoa Manzanillo DENMARK AND DOMINIONS. Copenhagen Do Do St. Thomas, West Indies. Do .S7. Ch ristia nsied. Island. Fredericksted y St. Croix Island. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. Puerto Plata Do Monte Christi. Samana Edward D. Winslow' C. G.. Victor Juhler V. & D. C. G.. A.xcl Permin D. C. G.. Christopher H. Payne '' C De Witt W. Perdue V. & D. C. Andreui J. Blackwood Agt.. Robert L. Merwin Agt.. Ger Cuba Sweden. N. Y Cuba Ohio Me Mass Cuba Cuba Mich Ohio Vt England N. Y Cuba Ky.... N. Y. N. Y. Pa.... July 28, 1903 Apr. 16,1908 Aug. 10, 1900 Aug. 19,1911 July 18,1908 Nov. 25,1905 Sept. 30, 1905 Mich ' May 31,1909 Cal... C. R. Nebr. N. Y.. Pa N. Y.. N. Y.. Ohio.. Me .... Me .... Conn. N. Y.. Minn . Ohio.. N. Y.. Cal.... N. Y.. N. Y.. Oct. Apr. 8, 1909 7,1904 June 6, Apr. 2 , June 9, June 25, May 9, Apr. IS, June 23, Oct. 3, Sept. 3, July 22, July 6 June 6, June 9, Jan. 29, Dec. 3 Mar. 16. 1902 1907 1903 1908 1903 1907 1902 1907 1907 190s 1910 1902 1906 1907 1904 190S 111 Ill AuL Ohio Ohio ' Dec. $2,500 5. SCO Den Den Va ' W. Va... Va W. Va... Me.... W.I N. Y. Conn . Charles M. Hathaway' C. N. Y Pa. Jose Maria Esteva V. & D. C D. R.. Isaac T. Petit Agt.. St. Tho.. D. R.. Federico Laviple Agt.. Cuba D. R. Dec. May July Jan. 19,1911 3.1909 3.1909 I , 1903 7,1911 31.1893 Apr. 12, iQoi Aug. 19,1911 Dec. 21,1909 May 27,1895 Oct. 26,1904 Fees, year ending June 30, 1910. 1,000 1,000 3.S00 2,000 8,000 I28.00 12.00 30.00 618.00 753-00 790.50 760.00 1,230.00 1 , 2 1 7 . 50 ! , 069 . 00 453-50 822.50 200.25 179.00 UNITED STATES CONSULAR SERVICE. 35 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC— FRANCE AND DOMINIONS. Santo Domingo . Do Do Azuii ... Macoris Sanchez ECUADOR. Quayaqull Do Bah ill lie Caragnez Esineraldas Mania Name and title. Francis Munroe Endicott 'i^C. G.. Frank Bohr V. & D. C. G.. Frank Bohr C. A.. John Hardy {n) Agt.. Rudolf Schumacher Agt.. J. Enrique Leroux Agt.. Herman R. Dietrich CO.. Robert B. Jones" V. C. G.. A Iberto Santos Agt.. George D. Median Agt.. Max Voelcker Agt.. Where born. Salawo J"''-^^ ^- Hanley.jr Agt.. FRANCE AND DOMINIONS. Albert W. Robert fi C. Rene L. J. Boisson V. & D. C. Albert H. Elford. Agt. Alfred K. Moe & C. John Douglas Wise V. & D. C.. Frederic E. Gibert Agt.. James B. Milner& C. Wm. McKone Milner..V. & D. C. Willi am Jl'hittnan Agt.. George H. Jackson b C. ...V. & D. C. C. Charles P. H. Nasonb C.. Thomas AV. Murton V. & D. C. Frederick T. F. Dumontd C. Joseph O. Florandin...V. & D. C. Havre James E. Dunning'' C. Do I John Preston Beecher..V. & D. C. Cherbourg I A ngiiste La>iicce Agt.. Algiers, Algeria Do Oran Bordeaux Do Biarritz Calais Do Boulogne-sur-mer Cognac Do Elisee Jouard" Goree-Dakar, Senegal Grenoble Do Guadeloupe, West Indies Do N. Y Kans Kans England Gar D. R Mo Canada.. Ecuador Pa France.. Ill Eugene L. Beiislen<? C. V. C. Carl Bailey Hursta C. Thomas NicoU Browne, V. & D. C. Nicolas Chapuis Agt.. Alphonse Gaulin C. G.. Do Paul H. Cram V. & D. C. G.. Limoges .. Do .. Lyon Do .. Dijon . Marseille . Do Bastia, Corsica Cette Toulon Tunis, Tunis Martinique, West Indies. Do Nantes Allan Macfarlane D. C. G.. Simon Datniani (") Agt.. Carl D. Hagelin Agt.. Francis M. Mansfield. Agt.. Augusie J. Proux. Agt.. Thomas R. Wallace'' C. Jacques D. Schnegg V. & D. C. Louis Goldschmidt'i ''.....• C. Do Hiram D. Bennett V. C. Angers i Paul Rigault Agt.. Brest I Alfred Pitel Agt.. Nice William Dulany Hunter C. Do I Harry A. Lyons V. & D. C. Paris Frank H. Mason C. G.. Do Dean B. Mason V. & D. C. G., Do Hanson C. Co.xe D. C. G.. Do Barlley F. Yost" D. C. G.. Do ; Dean B. Mason C. A.. Do ' BartleyF. Yost'* C. A.. Rheims William Bardel «'' C. Do ' Walter Stanford V. & D. C. N. Y France.. England N. Y Pa N. Y Ind Ind England Mass France .. Mass England N.J St. Bart.. Me N. Y France .. Canada.. Ger Conn France .. R.I Me England Corsica.. Sweden.. Mass France . Pa France. France. N. Y France . France. D. C Whence ap- pointed. Mass . Kans . Kans. Mass.. D. R.. D. R.. Mo N.J Ecuador N. Y Ecuador 111 Fla Algeria. Algeria. N. J Va N. Y Ind Ind France. Conn.... N. Y Pa France. Pa Guad.... Me N. Y France. Mass .... Date of commission. July 6,1911 Aug. 28,1911 June 24,1908 Aug. 11,1885 May 2,1910 Aug. 29,1908 Apr. 2,1903 June 2,1902 Sept. 10,1900 Feb. 19,1908 Sept. 19,1907 Apr. IS, 1911 Salary. $4 . 500 May 31 Mar. 21 Nov. 7 Mar. 3 Apr. 5 May I Mar. i,i8g8 Dec. 8,1908 Oct. 21 June 10 June 17 1909 1910 1906 1909 1907 IQOS .1903 July 5' Jan. 24, Aug. 19, Oct. II. May 31, Sept. 22. Jan. 6, Apr. 2, 1901 1902 1911 1901 1909 1899 1911 igo6 Ohio Ohio Md Switz Ohio Switz Ger England D. C N. Y N. Y R.I Me France . U. S France. N. Y Tunis.... Iowa .... Mart .... N. H France . France . France . Minn.... Ohio Ohio N. Y Kans.... Ohio Kans .... N. Y France . Dec. 14, Sept. 6, July 10, May 31, Apr. 15, Feb. 6, Dec. 30, Dec. 20, July 2, Dec. 6, June 24, Jime 12, Oct. 13, Dec. 23, Aug. 7, Apr. 25, M;ir.'3o, June 8, Mar. 8, July 7, July 18, Apr. 20, '■June 8, Jrne 24, June 10, July 29, 1910 1893 1906 1909 1909 1903 18S6 1901 1909 1906 1910 1903 1904 188s 191 1 igio 1907 1904 1909 2,500 3,000 1,200 3i5oo Fees, year ending June 30, 1910. f I, 200. 00 693.00 ii433-50 I , oog . 00 012.09 457-54 502.38 416 4,000 383 8n 3,000 35° 50 2,500 2, 000 ' 2,000 5,000 656.00 100.00 I , 009 . 00 . 542.50 64.50 852.99 1,166.47 UNITED STATES CONSULAR SERVICE. FRANCE AND DOMINIONS— GERMAN EMPIRE. Place. Name and title. Roubaix Joseph E. Haven 6 C. Do ! Richard Barnard Haven, V.&D.C Do ; Alfred C. Harrison D. C. Cau.hy- Dunkirk Lille Hans Dietiker Agt.. Benja min Mo7-el Agt. Cliristopker J . King. Agt. Rouen Charles A. Holder^ C. Where born. Whence ap- pointed. Date of commission. Do .... A miens.. Judd B. Hastings V. & D. C. Charles Tassencourt Agt.. Dieppe Walter P. S. Paltner-Saniborne., ■ Agt. Hubert Q.Baughf/" C. Mil
|
|||||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 97
|
https://dokumen.pub/dissolution-the-crisis-of-communism-and-the-end-of-east-germany-course-booknbsped-9781400822256.html
|
en
|
Dissolution: The Crisis of Communism and the End of East Germany [Course Book ed.] 9781400822256
|
[
"https://dokumen.pub/dokumenpub/assets/img/dokumenpub_logo.png",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/bowling-for-communism-urban-ingenuity-at-the-end-of-east-germany-9781501751684.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/exit-voice-dynamics-and-the-collapse-of-east-germany-the-crisis-of-leninism-and-the-revolution-of-1989-9780822387923.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/end-game-the-1989-revolution-in-east-germany-9781800736221.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/germany-and-the-diplomacy-of-the-financial-crisis-1931-9780674352506.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-dissolution-of-the-medieval-outlook.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/children-of-ezekiel-aliens-ufos-the-crisis-of-race-and-the-advent-of-end-time-9780822396291.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-shape-of-populism-serbia-before-the-dissolution-of-yugoslavia.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-abc-of-communism.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/east-asia-and-the-global-crisis-9780415508063.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/communism-in-germany-the-communist-conspiracy-on-the-eve-of-the-1933-national-revolution-9780939482221-0939482223.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/dissolution-the-crisis-of-communism-and-the-end-of-east-germany-course-booknbsped-9781400822256.jpg",
"https://dokumen.pub/dokumenpub/assets/img/dokumenpub_logo.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
Against the backdrop of one of the great transformations of our century, the sudden and unexpected fall of communism as...
|
en
|
dokumen.pub
|
https://dokumen.pub/dissolution-the-crisis-of-communism-and-the-end-of-east-germany-course-booknbsped-9781400822256.html
|
Table of contents :
Contents
Preface
Chapter One. Losing Faith
Chapter Two. The Economic Collapse
Chapter Three. The Autumn Upheaval
Chapter Four. Protagonists of the Transition
Chapter Five. Unification
Chapter Six. Anschluss and Melancholy
Epilogue. Wrapped Reichstag, 1995
Notes
A Note on Sources
Index
Citation preview
|
|||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 34
|
http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/
|
en
|
Zwickauer Mulde River
|
http://www.mulderadweg.info/fileadmin/tmpl_mulde/images/favicon.ico
|
http://www.mulderadweg.info/fileadmin/tmpl_mulde/images/favicon.ico
|
[
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/tmpl_mulde/images/logo.png",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/tmpl/images/flags/de.png",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/tmpl/images/flags/cs.png",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/tmpl/images/flags/en.png",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/_banner_/abschnitte/Abschnitte_01.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/_banner_/abschnitte/Abschnitte_01.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/_banner_/abschnitte/Abschnitte_02.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/_banner_/abschnitte/Abschnitte_03.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/_banner_/abschnitte/Abschnitte_04.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/_banner_/abschnitte/Abschnitte_05.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/_processed_/csm_Schloss_Hinterglauchau_02_27a6b45a49.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/_processed_/csm_Glauchau_01_adfe3f998c.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/_processed_/csm_Soernzig_RochlitzerBerg_01_b2e54e73c6.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/_processed_/csm_Waldenburg_Schloss_02_e0ef1c8ea1.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/_migrated/pics/eu_flagge_150d488133.gif",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/_migrated/pics/eplr_logo_b3882e0dea.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/_migrated/pics/sachsen01_39aa569f99.jpg",
"http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/fileadmin/user_upload/mulderadweg/background/standard.jpg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2018-05-24T15:57:38+02:00
|
en
|
/fileadmin/tmpl_mulde/images/favicon.ico
|
http://www.mulderadweg.info/en/other-sections/zwickauer-mulde/
|
The Zwickauer Mulde arises east of Schoeneck in Vogtland and has two source rivers: the Red Mulde and the White Mulde. Both source rivers empty into the Muldenberg valley dammed reservoir after approx. 3 km. The Zwickauer Mulde emerges from this reservoir and flows mostly northeast through the forested region of Vogtland and Erzgebirge, until it empties into the largest reservoir in Saxony, the Eibenstock dam.
From Eibenstock the Zwickauer Mulde flows to Aue, where it merges with the Schwarzwasser River. The combined river, still called the Zwickauer Mulde, then curves to the northwest in the direction of Zwickau, the fourth largest city in Saxony, from which it takes its name. Near Zwickau the Zwickauer Mulde leaves the Erzgebirge, and near Wechselburg, the Chemnitz, a large tributary, empties into the Zwickauer Mulde.
Finally, after about 165 km, in Sermuth, a district of Colditz, the Zwickauer Mulde joins the Freiberger Mulde to become the Mulde River.
Along the Zwickauer Mulde River, upland fields of meadow and lower wetlands with unique flora and fauna have been preserved. The towns and villages along the river course provide insight into the remarkable history and culture of Saxony. Old town centers and castles, historical palaces, and museums attract tourists.
There are no signs at the beginning of the cycling route along the Zwickauer Mulde near Schoeneck. Here you go over forest paths and roads, also through quiet and moderately busy streets. The new well-developed section in Erzgebirge between Wolfsgrün (near Eibenstock) and Aue has a length of 12 km and offers connecting routes to the nearby towns. Direction signs point you farther along the river 100 km as far as Sermuth.
Places along the way:
Schöneck: www.stadt-schoeneck.de
Muldenhammer with Morgenröthe-Rautenkranz: www.gemeinde-muldenhammer.de
Schönheide: www.gemeinde-schoenheide.de
Eibenstock with Neidhardtsthal, Wolfsgrün, Blauenthal and Sosa: www.eibenstock.de
Zschorlau: www.zschorlau-info.de
Bockau: www.bockau.de
Lauter-Bernsbach: www.lauter-bernsbach.de
Aue: www.aue.de
Bad Schlema: www.kurort-schlema.de
Hartenstein: www.stadt-hartenstein.de
Wilkau-Haßlau: www.wilkau-hasslau.de
Zwickau: www.zwickau.de
Glauchau: www.glauchau.de
Waldenburg: www.waldenburg.de
Penig: www.stadt-penig.de
Lunzenau: www.lunzenau.de
Wechselburg: www.wechselburg.de
Rochlitz: www.rochlitz.de
Colditz: www.colditz.de
Colditz / OT Sermuth: www.colditz.de
|
||||
7126
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 20
|
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/35092.html.images
|
en
|
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume IX Slice II
|
[
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img140.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img143a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img143b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img144.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img148a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img148b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img148c.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img148d.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img149a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img149b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img149c.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img149d.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img149e.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img150a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img150b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img150c.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img151a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img151b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img151c.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img152a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img152b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img152c.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img152f.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img152d.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img152e.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img153a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img153b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img153c.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img154.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img155a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img155b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img155c.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img157.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img176a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img176b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img177a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img177b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img177c.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img178a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img178b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img179a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img179b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img194a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img194b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img195.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img196.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img198.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img203a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img203b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img204a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img204b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img206a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img206b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img207a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img207b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img207c.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img208.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img211.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img212.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img213.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img214.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img216.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img217.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img219.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img227a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img227b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img229a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img229b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img229c.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img231.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img234.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img235a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img235b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img235c.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img235d.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img236.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img239a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img239b.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img239c.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img240a.jpg",
"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/images/img240b.jpg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"(E. A. S.*)",
"(J. A. F.)",
"(W. C. D. W.)",
"(A. W. H.*)",
"(W. G. M.)",
"(I. A.)",
"(W. A. B. C.)",
"(R. W.*)",
"(A. W. R.)",
"(R. A. S. M.)"
] |
2011-01-27T00:00:00
|
en
|
https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/35092/pg35092-images.html
|
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Ehud" to "Electroscope"
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Ehud" to "Electroscope"
Author: Various
Release date: January 27, 2011 [eBook #35092]
Most recently updated: January 7, 2021
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "EHUD" TO "ELECTROSCOPE" ***
Transcriber’s note: A few typographical errors have been corrected. They appear in the text like this, and the explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will display an unaccented version.
Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME IX SLICE II
Ehud to Electroscope
Articles in This Slice
EHUD ELBERFELD EIBENSTOCK ELBEUF EICHBERG, JULIUS ELBING EICHENDORFF, JOSEPH, FREIHERR VON ELBOW EICHHORN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED ELBURZ EICHHORN, KARL FRIEDRICH ELCHE EICHSTÄTT ELCHINGEN EICHWALD, KARL EDUARD VON ELDAD BEN MAḤLI EIDER (river of Prussia) ELDER (ruler or officer) EIDER (duck) ELDER (shrubs and trees) EIFEL ELDON, JOHN SCOTT EIFFEL TOWER EL DORADO EILDON HILLS ELDUAYEN, JOSÉ DE EILENBURG ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE EINBECK ELEATIC SCHOOL EINDHOVEN ELECAMPANE EINHARD ELECTION (politics) EINHORN, DAVID ELECTION (English law choice) EINSIEDELN ELECTORAL COMMISSION EISENACH ELECTORS EISENBERG ELECTRA EISENERZ ELECTRICAL MACHINE EISLEBEN ELECTRIC EEL EISTEDDFOD ELECTRICITY EJECTMENT ELECTRICITY SUPPLY EKATERINBURG ELECTRIC WAVES EKATERINODAR ELECTROCHEMISTRY EKATERINOSLAV (government of Russia) ELECTROCUTION EKATERINOSLAV (town of Russia) ELECTROKINETICS EKHOF, KONRAD ELECTROLIER EKRON ELECTROLYSIS ELABUGA ELECTROMAGNETISM ELAM ELECTROMETALLURGY ELAND ELECTROMETER ELASTICITY ELECTRON ELATERITE ELECTROPHORUS ELATERIUM ELECTROPLATING ELBA ELECTROSCOPE ELBE
131
EHUD , in the Bible, a “judge” who delivered Israel from the Moabites (Judg. iii. 12-30). He was sent from Ephraim to bear tribute to Eglon king of Moab, who had crossed over the Jordan and seized the district around Jericho. Being, like the Benjamites, left-handed (cf. xx. 16), he was able to conceal a dagger and strike down the king before his intentions were suspected. He locked Eglon in his chamber and escaped. The men from Mt Ephraim collected under his leadership and by seizing the fords of the Jordan were able to cut off the Moabites. He is called the son of Gera a Benjamite, but since both Ehud and Gera are tribal names (2 Sam. xvi. 5, 1 Chron. viii. 3, 5 sq.) it has been thought that this notice is not genuine. The tribe of Benjamin rarely appears in the old history of the Hebrews before the time of Saul. See further Benjamin; Judges.
EIBENSTOCK , a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, near the Mulde, on the borders of Bohemia, 17 m. by rail S.S.E. of Zwickau. Pop. (1905) 7460. It is a principal seat of the tambour embroidery which was introduced in 1775 by Clara Angermann. It possesses chemical and tobacco manufactories, and tin and iron works. It has also a large cattle market. Eibenstock, together with Schwarzenberg, was acquired by purchase in 1533 by Saxony and was granted municipal rights in the following year.
EICHBERG, JULIUS (1824-1893), German musical composer, was born at Düsseldorf on the 13th of June 1824. When he was nineteen he entered the Brussels Conservatoire, where he took first prizes for violin-playing and composition. For eleven years he occupied the post of professor in the Conservatoire of Geneva. In 1857 he went to the United States, staying two years in New York and then proceeding to Boston, where he became director of the orchestra at the Boston Museum. In 1867 he founded the Boston Conservatory of Music. Eichberg published several educational works on music; and his four operettas, The Doctor of Alcantara, The Rose of Tyrol, The Two Cadis and A Night in Rome, were highly popular. He died in Boston on the 18th of January 1893.
EICHENDORFF, JOSEPH, FREIHERR VON (1788-1857), German poet and romance-writer, was born at Lubowitz, near Ratibor, in Silesia, on the 10th of March 1788. He studied law at Halle and Heidelberg from 1805 to 1808. After a visit to Paris he went to Vienna, where he resided until 1813, when he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer in the famous Lützow corps. When peace was concluded in 1815, he left the army, and in the following year he was appointed to a judicial office at Breslau. He subsequently held similar offices at Danzig, Königsberg and Berlin. Retiring from public service in 1844, he lived successively in Danzig, Vienna, Dresden and Berlin. He died at Neisse on the 26th of November 1857. Eichendorff was one of the most distinguished of the later members of the German romantic school. His genius was essentially lyrical. Thus he is most successful in his shorter romances and dramas, where constructive power is least called for. His first work, written in 1811, was a romance, Ahnung und Gegenwart (1815). This was followed at short intervals by several others, among which the foremost place is by general consent assigned to Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts (1826), which has often been reprinted. Of his dramas may be mentioned Ezzelin von Romano (1828); and Der letzte Held von Marienburg (1830), both tragedies; and a comedy, Die Freier (1833). He also translated several of Calderon’s religious dramas (Geistliche Schauspiele, 1846). It is, however, through his lyrics (Gedichte, first collected 1837) that Eichendorff is best known; he is the greatest lyric poet of the romantic movement. No one has given more beautiful expression than he to the poetry of a wandering life; often, again, his lyrics are exquisite word pictures interpreting the mystic meaning of the moods of nature, as in Nachts, or the old-time mystery which yet haunts the twilight forests and feudal castles of Germany, as in the dramatic lyric Waldesgespräch or Auf einer Burg. Their language is simple and musical, which makes them very suitable for singing, and they have been often set, notably by Schubert and Schumann.
In the later years of his life Eichendorff published several works on subjects in literary history and criticism such as Über die ethische und religiöse Bedeutung der neuen romantischen Poesie in Deutschland (1847), Der deutsche Roman des 18. Jahrhunderts in seinem Verhältniss zum Christenthum (1851), and Geschichte der poetischen Litteratur Deutschlands (1856), but the value of these works is impaired by the author’s reactionary standpoint. An edition of his collected works in six volumes, appeared at Leipzig in 1870.
EICHHORN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1752-1827), German theologian, was born at Dörrenzimmern, in the principality of Hohenlohe-Oehringen, on the 16th of October 1752. He was educated at the state school in Weikersheim, where his father was superintendent, at the gymnasium at Heilbronn and at the university of Göttingen (1770-1774), studying under J.D. Michaelis. In 1774 he received the rectorship of the gymnasium at Ohrdruf, in the duchy of Gotha, and in the following year was made professor of Oriental languages at Jena. On the death of Michaelis in 1788 he was elected professor ordinarius at Göttingen, where he lectured not only on Oriental languages and on the exegesis of the Old and New Testaments, but also on political history. His health was shattered in 1825, but he continued his lectures until attacked by fever on the 14th of June 1827. He died on the 27th of that month. Eichhorn has been called “the founder of modern Old Testament criticism.” He first properly recognized its scope and problems, and began many of its most important discussions. “My greatest trouble,” he says in the preface to the second edition of his Einleitung, “I had to bestow on a hitherto unworked field—on the investigation of the inner nature of the Old Testament with the help of the Higher Criticism (not a new name to any humanist).” His investigations led him to the conclusion that “most of the writings of the Hebrews have passed through several hands.” He took for granted that all the so-called supernatural facts relating to the Old and New Testaments were explicable on natural principles. He sought to judge them from the standpoint of the ancient world, and to account for them by the superstitious beliefs which were then generally in vogue. He did not perceive in the biblical books any religious ideas of much importance for modern times; they interested him merely historically and for the light they cast upon antiquity. He regarded many books of the Old Testament as spurious, questioned the genuineness of 2 Peter and Jude, denied the Pauline authorship of Timothy and Titus, 132 and suggested that the canonical gospels were based upon various translations and editions of a primary Aramaic gospel. He did not appreciate as sufficiently as David Strauss and the Tübingen critics the difficulties which a natural theory has to surmount, nor did he support his conclusions by such elaborate discussions as they deemed necessary.
EICHHORN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1781-1854), German jurist, son of the preceding, was born at Jena on the 20th of November 1781. He entered the university of Göttingen in 1797. In 1805 he obtained the professorship of law at Frankfort-on-Oder, holding it till 1811, when he accepted the same chair at Berlin. On the call to arms in 1813 he became a captain of horse, and received at the end of the war the decoration of the Iron Cross. In 1817 he was offered the chair of law at Göttingen, and, preferring it to the Berlin professorship, taught there with great success till ill-health compelled him to resign in 1828. His successor in the Berlin chair having died in 1832, he again entered on its duties, but resigned two years afterwards. In 1832 he also received an appointment in the ministry of foreign affairs, which, with his labours on many state committees and his legal researches and writings, occupied him till his death at Cologne on the 4th of July 1854. Eichhorn is regarded as one of the principal authorities on German constitutional law. His chief work is Deutsche Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte (Göttingen, 1808-1823, 5th ed. 1843-1844). In company with Savigny and J.F.L. Göschen he founded the Zeitschrift für geschichtliche Rechtswissenschaft. He was the author besides of Einleitung in das deutsche Privatrecht mit Einschluss des Lehnrechts (Gött., 1823) and the Grundsätze des Kirchenrechts der Katholischen und der Evangelischen Religionspartei in Deutschland, 2 Bde. (ib., 1831-1833).
EICHSTÄTT, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, in the deep and romantic valley of the Altmühl, 35 m. S. of Nuremberg, on the railway to Ingolstadt and Munich. Pop. (1905) 7701. The town, with its numerous spires and remains of medieval fortifications, is very picturesque. It has an Evangelical and seven Roman Catholic churches, among the latter the cathedral of St Wilibald (first bishop of Eichstätt),—with the tomb of the saint and numerous pictures and relics,—the church of St Walpurgis, sister of Wilibald, whose remains rest in the choir, and the Capuchin church, a copy of the Holy Sepulchre. Of its secular buildings the most noticeable are the town hall and the Leuchtenberg palace, once the residence of the prince bishops and later of the dukes of Leuchtenberg (now occupied by the court of justice of the district), with beautiful grounds. The Wilibaldsburg, built on a neighbouring hill in the 14th century by Bishop Bertold of Hohenzollern, was long the residence of the prince bishops of Eichstätt, and now contains an historical museum. There are an episcopal lyceum, a clerical seminary, a classical and a modern school, and numerous religious houses. The industries of the town include bootmaking, brewing and the production of lithographic stones.
Eichstätt (Lat. Aureatum or Rubilocus) was originally a Roman station which, after the foundation of the bishopric by Boniface in 745, developed into a considerable town, which was surrounded with walls in 908. The bishops of Eichstätt were princes of the Empire, subject to the spiritual jurisdiction of the archbishops of Mainz, and ruled over considerable territories in the Circle of Franconia. In 1802 the see was secularized and incorporated in Bavaria. In 1817 it was given, with the duchy of Leuchtenberg, as a mediatized domain under the Bavarian crown, by the king of Bavaria to his son-in-law Eugène de Beauharnais, ex-viceroy of Italy, henceforth styled duke of Leuchtenberg. In 1855 it reverted to the Bavarian crown.
EICHWALD, KARL EDUARD VON (1795-1876), Russian geologist and physician, was born at Mitau in Courland on the 4th of July 1795. He became doctor of medicine and professor of zoology in Kazañ in 1823; four years later professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at Vilna; in 1838 professor of zoology, mineralogy and medicine at St Petersburg; and finally professor of palaeontology in the institute of mines in that city. He travelled much in the Russian empire, and was a keen observer of its natural history and geology. He died at St Petersburg on the 10th of November 1876. His published works include Reise auf dem Caspischen Meere und in den Caucasus, 2 vols. (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1834-1838); Die Urwelt Russlands (St Petersburg, 1840-1845); Lethaea Rossica, ou paléontologie de la Russie, 3 vols. (Stuttgart, 1852-1868), with Atlases.
EIDER, a river of Prussia, in the province of Schleswig-Holstein. It rises to the south of Kiel, in Lake Redder, flows first north, then west (with wide-sweeping curves), and after a course of 117 m. enters the North Sea at Tönning. It is navigable up to Rendsburg, and is embanked through the marshes across which it runs in its lower course. Since the reign of Charlemagne, the Eider (originally Ägyr Dör—Neptune’s gate) was known as Romani terminus imperii and was recognized as the boundary of the Empire in 1027 by the emperor Conrad II., the founder of the Salian dynasty. In the controversy arising out of the Schleswig-Holstein Question, which culminated in the war of Austria and Prussia against Denmark in 1864, the Eider gave its name to the “Eider Danes,” the intransigeant Danish party which maintained that Schleswig (Sonderjylland, South Jutland) was by nature and historical tradition an integral part of Denmark. The Eider Canal (Eider-Kanal), which was constructed between 1777 and 1784, leaves the Eider at the point where the river turns to the west and enters the Bay of Kiel at Holtenau. It was hampered by six sluices, but was used annually by some 4000 vessels, and until its conversion in 1887-1895 into the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal afforded the only direct connexion between the North Sea and the Baltic.
EIDER (Icelandic, Ædur), a large marine duck, the Somateria mollissima of ornithologists, famous for its down, which, from its extreme lightness and elasticity, is in great request for filling bed-coverlets. This bird generally frequents low rocky islets near the coast, and in Iceland and Norway has long been afforded every encouragement and protection, a fine being inflicted for killing it during the breeding-season, or even for firing a gun near its haunts, while artificial nesting-places are in many localities contrived for its further accommodation. From the care thus taken of it in those countries it has become exceedingly tame at its chief resorts, which are strictly regarded as property, and the taking of eggs or down from them, except by authorized persons, is severely punished by law. In appearance the eider is somewhat clumsy, though it flies fast and dives admirably. The female is of a dark reddish-brown colour barred with brownish-black. The adult male in spring is conspicuous by his pied plumage of velvet-black beneath, and white above: a patch of shining sea-green on his head is only seen on close inspection. This plumage he is considered not to acquire until his third year, being when young almost exactly like the female, and it is certain that the birds which have not attained their full dress remain in flocks by themselves without going to the breeding-stations. The nest is generally in some convenient corner among large stones, hollowed in the soil, and furnished with a few bits of dry grass, seaweed or heather. By the time that the full number of eggs (which rarely if ever exceeds five) is laid the down is added. Generally the eggs and down are 133 taken at intervals of a few days by the owners of the “eider-fold,” and the birds are thus kept depositing both during the whole season; but some experience is needed to ensure the greatest profit from each commodity. Every duck is ultimately allowed to hatch an egg or two to keep up the stock, and the down of the last nest is gathered after the birds have left the spot. The story of the drake’s furnishing down, after the duck’s supply is exhausted is a fiction. He never goes near the nest. The eggs have a strong flavour, but are much relished by both Icelanders and Norwegians. In the Old World the eider breeds in suitable localities from Spitsbergen to the Farne Islands off the coast of Northumberland—where it is known as St Cuthbert’s duck. Its food consists of marine animals (molluscs and crustaceans), and hence the young are not easily reared in captivity. The eider of the New World differs somewhat, and has been described as a distinct species (S. dresseri). Though much diminished in numbers by persecution, it is still abundant on the coast of Newfoundland and thence northward. In Greenland also eiders are very plentiful, and it is supposed that three-fourths of the supply of down sent to Copenhagen comes from that country. The limits of the eider’s northern range are not known, but the Arctic expedition of 1875 did not meet with it after leaving the Danish settlements, and its place was taken by an allied species, the king-duck (S. spectabilis), a very beautiful bird which sometimes appears on the British coast. The female greatly resembles that of the eider, but the male has a black chevron on his chin and a bright orange prominence on his forehead, which last seems to have given the species its English name. On the west coast of North America the eider is represented by a species (S. v-nigrum) with a like chevron, but otherwise resembling the Atlantic bird. In the same waters two other fine species are also found (S. fischeri and S. stelleri), one of which (the latter) also inhabits the Arctic coast of Russia and East Finmark and has twice reached England. The Labrador duck (S. labradoria), now extinct, also belongs to this group.
(A. N.)
EIFEL, a district of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, between the Rhine, the Moselle and the frontier of the grand duchy of Luxemburg. It is a hilly region, most elevated in the eastern part (Hohe Eifel), where there are several points from 2000 up to 2410 ft. above sea-level. In the west is the Schneifels or Schnee-Eifel; and the southern part, where the most picturesque scenery and chief geological interest is found, is called the Vorder Eifel.
The Eifel is an ancient massif of folded Devonian rocks upon the margins of which, near Hillesheim and towards Bitburg and Trier, rest unconformably the nearly undisturbed sandstones, marls and limestones of the Trias. On the southern border, at Wittlich, the terrestrial deposits of the Permian Rothliegende are also met with. The slates and sandstones of the Lower Devonian form by far the greater part of the region; but folded amongst these, in a series of troughs running from south-west to north-east lie the fossiliferous limestones of the Middle Devonian, and occasionally, as for example near Büdesheim, a few small patches of the Upper Devonian. Upon the ancient floor of folded Devonian strata stand numerous small volcanic cones, many of which, though long extinct, are still very perfect in form. The precise age of the eruptions is uncertain. The only sign of any remaining volcanic activity is the emission in many places of carbon dioxide and of heated waters. There is no historic or legendary record of any eruption, but nevertheless the eruptions must have continued to a very recent geological period. The lavas of Papenkaule are clearly posterior to the excavation of the valley of the Kyll, and an outflow of basalt has forced the Uess to seek a new course. The volcanic rocks occur both as tuffs and as lava-flows. They are chiefly leucite and nepheline rocks, such as leucitite, leucitophyre and nephelinite, but basalt and trachyte also occur. The leucite lavas of Niedermendig contain haüyne in abundance. The most extensive and continuous area of volcanic rocks is that surrounding the Laacher See and extending eastwards to Neuwied and Coblenz and even beyond the Rhine.
The numerous so-called crater-lakes or maare of the Eifel present several features of interest. They do not, as a rule, lie in true craters at the summit of volcanic cones, but rather in hollows which have been formed by explosions. The most remarkable group is that of Daun, where the three depressions of Gemünd, Weinfeld and Schalkenmehren have been hollowed out in the Lower Devonian strata. The first of these shows no sign of either lavas or scoriae, but volcanic rocks occur on the margins of the other two. The two largest lakes in the Eifel region, however, are the Laacher See in the hills west of Andernach on the Rhine, and the Pulvermaar S.E. of the Daun group, with its shores of peculiar volcanic sand, which also appears in its waters as a black powder (pulver).
EIFFEL TOWER. Erected for the exposition of 1889, the Eiffel Tower, in the Champ de Mars, Paris, is by far the highest artificial structure in the world, and its height of 300 metres (984 ft.) surpasses that of the obelisk at Washington by 429 ft., and that of St Paul’s cathedral by 580 ft. Its framework is composed essentially of four uprights, which rise from the corners of a square measuring 100 metres on the side; thus the area it covers at its base is nearly 2½ acres. These uprights are supported on huge piers of masonry and concrete, the foundations for which were carried down, by the aid of iron caissons and compressed air, to a depth of about 15 metres on the side next the Seine, and about 9 metres on the other side. At first they curve upwards at an angle of 54°; then they gradually become straighter, until they unite in a single shaft rather more than half-way up. The first platform, at a height of 57 metres, has an area of 5860 sq. yds., and is reached either by staircases or lifts. The next, accessible by lifts only, is 115 metres up, and has an area of 32 sq. yds; while the third, at 276, supports a pavilion capable of holding 800 persons. Nearly 25 metres higher up still is the lantern, with a gallery 5 metres in diameter. The work of building this structure, which is mainly composed of iron lattice-work, was begun on the 28th of January 1887, and the full height was reached on the 13th of March 1889. Besides being one of the sights of Paris, to which visitors resort in order to enjoy the extensive view that can be had from its higher galleries on a clear day, the tower is used to some extent for scientific and semi-scientific purposes; thus meteorological observations are carried on. The engineer under whose direction the tower was constructed was Alexandre Gustave Eiffel (born at Dijon on the 15th of December 1832), who had already had a wide experience in the construction of large metal bridges, and who designed the huge sluices for the Panama Canal, when it was under the French company.
EILDON HILLS, a group of three conical hills, of volcanic origin, in Roxburghshire, Scotland, 1 m. S. by E. of Melrose, about equidistant from Melrose and St Boswells stations on the North British railway. They were once known as Eldune—the Eldunum of Simeon of Durham (fl. 1130)—probably derived from the Gaelic aill, “rock,” and dun, “hill”; but the name is also said to be a corruption of the Cymric moeldun, “bald hill.” The northern peak is 1327 ft. high, the central 1385 ft. and the southern 1216 ft. Whether or not the Roman station of Trimontium was situated here is matter of controversy. According to General William Roy (1726-1790) Trimontium—so called, according to this theory, from the triple Eildon heights—was Old Melrose; other authorities incline to place the station on the northern shore of the Solway Firth. The Eildons have been the subject of much legendary lore. Michael Scot (1175-1234), acting as a confederate of the Evil One (so the fable runs) cleft Eildon Hill, then a single cone, into the three existing peaks. Another legend states that Arthur and his knights sleep in a vault beneath the Eildons. A third legend centres in Thomas of Erceldoune. The Eildon Tree Stone, a large moss-covered boulder, lying on the high road as it bends towards the west within 2 m. of Melrose, marks the spot where the Fairy Queen led him into her realms in the heart of the hills. Other places associated with this legend may still be identified. Huntly Banks, where “true Thomas” lay and watched the queen’s approach, is half a mile west of the Eildon Tree Stone, and on the 134 west side of the hills is Bogle Burn, a streamlet that feeds the Tweed and probably derives its name from his ghostly visitor. Here, too, is Rhymer’s glen, although the name was invented by Sir Walter Scott, who added the dell to his Abbotsford estate. Bowden, to the south of the hills, was the birthplace of the poets Thomas Aird (1802-1876) and James Thomson, and its parish church contains the burial-place of the dukes of Roxburghe. Eildon Hall is a seat of the duke of Buccleuch.
EILENBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, on an island formed by the Mulde, 31 m. E. from Halle, at the junction of the railways Halle-Cottbus and Leipzig-Eilenburg. Pop. (1905) 15,145. There are three churches, two Evangelical and one Roman Catholic. The industries of the town include the manufacture of chemicals, cloth, quilting, calico, cigars and agricultural implements, bleaching, dyeing, basket-making, carriage-building and trade in cattle. In the neighbourhood is the iron foundry of Erwinhof. Opposite the town, on the steep left bank of the Mulde, is the castle from which it derives its name, the original seat of the noble family of Eulenburg. This castle (Ilburg) is mentioned in records of the reigns of Henry the Fowler as an important outpost against the Sorbs and Wends. The town itself, originally called Mildenau, is of great antiquity. It is first mentioned as a town in 981, when it belonged to the house of Wettin and was the chief town of the East Mark. In 1386 it was incorporated in the margraviate of Meissen. In 1815 it passed to Prussia.
EINBECK, or Eimbeck, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, on the Ilm, 50 m. by rail S. of Hanover. Pop. (1905) 8709. It is an old-fashioned town with many quaint wooden houses, notable among them the “Northeimhaus,” a beautiful specimen of medieval architecture. There are several churches, among them the Alexanderkirche, containing the tombs of the princes of Grubenhagen, and a synagogue. The schools include a Realgymnasium (i.e. predominantly for “modern” subjects), technical schools for the advanced study of machine-making, for weaving and for the textile industries, a preparatory training-college and a police school. The industries include brewing, weaving and the manufacture of cloth, carpets, tobacco, sugar, leather-grease, toys and roofing-felt.
Einbeck grew up originally round the monastery of St Alexander (founded 1080), famous for its relic of the True Blood. It is first recorded as a town in 1274, and in the 14th century was the seat of the princes of Grubenhagen, a branch of the ducal house of Brunswick. The town subsequently joined the Hanseatic League. In the 15th century it became famous for its beer (“Eimbecker,” whence the familiar “Bock”). In 1540 the Reformation was introduced by Duke Philip of Brunswick-Saltzderhelden (d. 1551), with the death of whose son Philip II. (1596) the Grubenhagen line became extinct. In 1626, during the Thirty Years’ War, Einbeck was taken by Pappenheim and in October 1641 by Piccolomini. In 1643 it was evacuated by the Imperialists. In 1761 its walls were razed by the French.
EINDHOVEN, a town in the province of North Brabant, Holland, and a railway junction 8 m. by rail W. by S. of Helmond. Pop. (1900) 4730. Like Tilburg and Helmond it has developed in modern times into a flourishing industrial centre, having linen, woollen, cotton, tobacco and cigar, matches, &c., factories and several breweries.
EINHARD (c. 770-840), the friend and biographer of Charlemagne; he is also called Einhartus, Ainhardus or Heinhardus, in some of the early manuscripts. About the 10th century the name was altered into Agenardus, and then to Eginhardus, or Eginhartus, but, although these variations were largely used in the English and French languages, the form Einhardus, or Einhartus, is unquestionably the right one.
According to the statement of Walafrid Strabo, Einhard was born in the district which is watered by the river Main, and his birth has been fixed at about 770. His parents were of noble birth, and were probably named Einhart and Engilfrit; and their son was educated in the monastery of Fulda, where he was certainly residing in 788 and in 791. Owing to his intelligence and ability he was transferred, not later than 796, from Fulda to the palace of Charlemagne by abbot Baugulf; and he soon became very intimate with the king and his family, and undertook various important duties, one writer calling him domesticus palatii regalis. He was a member of the group of scholars who gathered around Charlemagne and was entrusted with the charge of the public buildings, receiving, according to a fashion then prevalent, the scriptural name of Bezaleel (Exodus xxxi. 2 and xxxv. 30-35) owing to his artistic skill. It has been supposed that he was responsible for the erection of the basilica at Aix-la-Chapelle, where he resided with the emperor, and the other buildings mentioned in chapter xvii. of his Vita Karoli Magni, but there is no express statement to this effect. In 806 Charlemagne sent him to Rome to obtain the signature of Pope Leo III. to a will which he had made concerning the division of his empire; and it was possibly owing to Einhard’s influence that in 813, after the death of his two elder sons, the emperor made his remaining son, Louis, a partner with himself in the imperial dignity. When Louis became sole emperor in 814 he retained his father’s minister in his former position; then in 817 made him tutor to his son, Lothair, afterwards the emperor Lothair I.; and showed him many other marks of favour. Einhard married Emma, or Imma, a sister of Bernharius, bishop of Worms, and a tradition of the 12th century represented this lady as a daughter of Charlemagne, and invented a romantic story with regard to the courtship which deserves to be noticed as it frequently appears in literature. Einhard is said to have visited the emperor’s daughter regularly and secretly, and on one occasion a fall of snow made it impossible for him to walk away without leaving footprints, which would lead to his detection. This risk, however, was obviated by the foresight of Emma, who carried her lover across the courtyard of the palace; a scene which was witnessed by Charlemagne, who next morning narrated the occurrence to his counsellors, and asked for their advice. Very severe punishments were suggested for the clandestine lover, but the emperor rewarded the devotion of the pair by consenting to their marriage. This story is, of course, improbable, and is further discredited by the fact that Einhard does not mention Emma among the number of Charlemagne’s children. Moreover, a similar story has been told of a daughter of the emperor Henry III. It is uncertain whether Einhard had any children. He addressed a letter to a person named Vussin, whom he calls fili and mi nate, but, as Vussin is not mentioned in documents in which his interests as Einhard’s son would have been concerned, it is possible that he was only a young man in whom he took a special interest. In January 815 the emperor Louis I. bestowed on Einhard and his wife the domains of Michelstadt and Mulinheim in the Odenwald, and in the charter conveying these lands he is called simply Einhardus, but, in a document dated the 2nd of June of the same year, he is referred to as abbot. After this time he is mentioned as head of several monasteries: St Peter, Mount Blandin and St Bavon at Ghent, St Servais at Maastricht, St Cloud near Paris, and Fontenelle near Rouen, and he also had charge of the church of St John the Baptist at Pavia.
During the quarrels which took place between Louis I. and his sons, in consequence of the emperor’s second marriage, Einhard’s efforts were directed to making peace, but after a time he grew tired of the troubles and intrigues of court life. In 818 he had given his estate at Michelstadt to the abbey of Lorsch, but he retained Mulinheim, where about 827 he founded an abbey and erected a church, to which he transported some relics of St Peter and St Marcellinus, which he had procured from Rome. To Mulinheim, which was afterwards called Seligenstadt, he finally retired in 830. His wife, who had been his constant helper, and whom he had not put away on becoming an abbot, died in 836, and after receiving a visit from the emperor, Einhard died on the 14th of March 840. He was buried at Seligenstadt, and his epitaph was written by Hrabanus Maurus. Einhard 135 was a man of very short stature, a feature on which Alcuin wrote an epigram. Consequently he was called Nardulus, a diminutive form of Einhardus, and his great industry and activity caused him to be likened to an ant. He was also a man of learning and culture. Reaping the benefits of the revival of learning brought about by Charlemagne, he was on intimate terms with Alcuin, was well versed in Latin literature, and knew some Greek. His most famous work is his Vita Karoli Magni, to which a prologue was added by Walafrid Strabo. Written in imitation of the De vitis Caesarum of Suetonius, this is the best contemporary account of the life of Charlemagne, and could only have been written by one who was very intimate with the emperor and his court. It is, moreover, a work of some artistic merit, although not free from inaccuracies. It was written before 821, and having been very popular during the middle ages, was first printed at Cologne in 1521. G.H. Pertz collated more than sixty manuscripts for his edition of 1829, and others have since come to light. Other works by Einhard are: Epistolae, which are of considerable importance for the history of the times; Historia translationis beatorum Christi martyrum Marcellini et Petri, which gives a curious account of how the bones of these martyrs were stolen and conveyed to Seligenstadt, and what miracles they wrought; and De adoranda cruce, a treatise which has only recently come to light, and which has been published by E. Dümmler in the Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde, Band xi. (Hanover, 1886). It has been asserted that Einhard was the author of some of the Frankish annals, and especially of part of the annals of Lorsch (Annales Laurissenses majores), and part of the annals of Fulda (Annales Fuldenses). Much discussion has taken place on this question, and several of the most eminent of German historians, Ranke among them, have taken part therein, but no certain decision has been reached.
(A. W. H.*)
EINHORN, DAVID (1809-1879), leader of the Jewish reform movement in the United States of America, was born in Bavaria. He was a supporter of the principles of Abraham Geiger (q.v.), and while still in Germany advocated the introduction of prayers in the vernacular, the exclusion of nationalistic hopes from the synagogue service, and other ritual modifications. In 1855 he migrated to America, where he became the acknowledged leader of reform, and laid the foundation of the régime under which the mass of American Jews (excepting the newly arrived Russians) now worship. In 1858 he published his revised prayer book, which has formed the model for all subsequent revisions. In 1861 he strongly supported the anti-slavery party, and was forced to leave Baltimore where he then ministered. He continued his work first in Philadelphia and later in New York.
(I. A.)
EINSIEDELN, the most populous town in the Swiss canton of Schwyz. It is built on the right bank of the Alpbach (an affluent of the Sihl), at a height of 2908 ft. above the sea-level on a rather bare moorland, and by rail is 25 m. S.E. of Zürich, or by a round-about railway route about 38 m. north of Schwyz, with which it communicates directly over the Hacken Pass (4649 ft.) or the Holzegg Pass (4616 ft.). In 1900 the population was 8496, all (save 75) Romanists and all (save 111) German-speaking. The town is entirely dependent on the great Benedictine abbey that rises slightly above it to the east. Close to its present site Meinrad, a hermit, was murdered in 861 by two robbers, whose crime was made known by Meinrad’s two pet ravens. Early in the 10th century Benno, a hermit, rebuilt the holy man’s cell, but the abbey proper was not founded till about 934, the church having been consecrated (it is said by Christ Himself) in 948. In 1274 the dignity of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire was confirmed by the emperor to the reigning abbot. Originally under the protection of the counts of Rapperswil (to which town on the lake of Zürich the old pilgrims’ way still leads over the Etzel Pass, 3146 ft., with its chapel and inn), this position passed by marriage with their heiress in 1295 to the Laufenburg or cadet line of the Habsburgs, but from 1386 was permanently occupied by Schwyz. A black wooden image of the Virgin and the fame of St Meinrad caused the throngs of pilgrims to resort to Einsiedeln in the middle ages, and even now it is much frequented, particularly about the 14th of September. The existing buildings date from the 18th century only, while the treasury and the library still contain many precious objects, despite the sack by the French in 1798. There are now about 100 fully professed monks, who direct several educational institutions. The Black Virgin has a special chapel in the stately church. Zwingli was the parish priest of Einsiedeln 1516-1518 (before he became a Protestant), while near the town Paracelsus (1493-1541), the celebrated philosopher, was born.
(W. A. B. C.)
EISENACH, a town of Germany, second capital of the grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, lies at the north-west foot of the Thuringian forest, at the confluence of the Nesse and Hörsel, 32 m. by rail W. from Erfurt. Pop. (1905) 35,123. The town mainly consists of a long street, running from east to west. Off this are the market square, containing the grand-ducal palace, built in 1742, where the duchess Hélène of Orleans long resided, the town-hall, and the late Gothic St Georgenkirche; and the square on which stands the Nikolaikirche, a fine Romanesque building, built about 1150 and restored in 1887. Noteworthy are also the Klemda, a small castle dating from 1260; the Lutherhaus, in which the reformer stayed with the Cotta family in 1498; the house in which Sebastian Bach was born, and that (now a museum) in which Fritz Reuter lived (1863-1874). There are monuments to the two former in the town, while the resting-place of the latter in the cemetery is marked by a less pretentious memorial. Eisenach has a school of forestry, a school of design, a classical school (Gymnasium) and modern school (Realgymnasium), a deaf and dumb school, a teachers’ seminary, a theatre and a Wagner museum. The most important industries of the town are worsted-spinning, carriage and wagon building, and the making of colours and pottery. Among others are the manufacture of cigars, cement pipes, iron-ware and machines, alabaster ware, shoes, leather, &c., cabinet-making, brewing, granite quarrying and working, tile-making, and saw- and corn-milling.
The natural beauty of its surroundings and the extensive forests of the district have of late years attracted many summer residents. Magnificently situated on a precipitous hill, 600 ft. above the town to the south, is the historic Wartburg (q.v.), the ancient castle of the landgraves of Thuringia, famous as the scene of the contest of Minnesingers immortalized in Wagner’s Tannhäuser, and as the place where Luther, on his return from the diet of Worms in 1521, was kept in hiding and made his translation of the Bible. On a high rock adjacent to the Wartburg are the ruins of the castle of Mädelstein.
Eisenach (Isenacum) was founded in 1070 by Louis II. the Springer, landgrave of Thuringia, and its history during the middle ages was closely bound up with that of the Wartburg, the seat of the landgraves. The Klemda, mentioned above, was built by Sophia (d. 1284), daughter of the landgrave Louis IV., and wife of Duke Henry II. of Brabant, to defend the town against Henry III., margrave of Meissen, during the succession contest that followed the extinction of the male line of the Thuringian landgraves in 1247. The principality of Eisenach fell to the Saxon house of Wettin in 1440, and in the partition of 1485 formed part of the territories given to the Ernestine line. It was a separate Saxon duchy from 1596 to 1638, from 1640 136 to 1644, and again from 1662 to 1741, when it finally fell to Saxe-Weimar. The town of Eisenach, by reason of its associations, has been a favourite centre for the religious propaganda of Evangelical Germany, and since 1852 it has been the scene of the annual conference of the German Evangelical Church, known as the Eisenach conference.
EISENBERG (Isenberg), a town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, on a plateau between the rivers Saale and Elster, 20 m. S.W. from Zeitz, and connected with the railway Leipzig-Gera by a branch to Crossen. Pop. (1905) 8824. It possesses an old castle, several churches and monuments to Duke Christian of Saxe-Eisenberg (d. 1707), Bismarck, and the philosopher Karl Christian Friedrich Krause (q.v.). Its principal industries are weaving, and the manufacture of machines, ovens, furniture, pianos, porcelain and sausages.
EISENERZ (“Iron ore”), a market-place and old mining town in Styria, Austria, 68 m. N.W. of Graz by rail. Pop. (1900) 6494. It is situated in a deep valley, dominated on the east by the Pfaffenstein (6140 ft.), on the west by the Kaiserschild (6830 ft.), and on the south by the Erzberg (5030 ft.). It has an interesting example of a medieval fortified church, a Gothic edifice founded by Rudolph of Habsburg in the 13th century and rebuilt in the 16th. The Erzberg or Ore Mountain furnishes such rich ore that it is quarried in the open air like stone, in the summer months. There is documentary evidence of the mines having been worked as far back as the 12th century. They afford employment to two or three thousand hands in summer and about half as many in winter, and yield some 800,000 tons of iron per annum. Eisenerz is connected with the mines by the Erzberg railway, a bold piece of engineering work, 14 m. long, constructed on the Abt’s rack-and-pinion system. It passes through some beautiful scenery, and descends to Vordernberg (pop. 3111), an important centre of the iron trade situated on the south side of the Erzberg. Eisenerz possesses, in addition, twenty-five furnaces, which produce iron, and particularly steel, of exceptional excellence. A few miles to the N.W. of Eisenerz lies the castle of Leopoldstein, and near it the beautiful Leopoldsteiner Lake. This lake, with its dark-green water, situated at an altitude of 2028 ft., and surrounded on all sides by high peaks, is not big, but is very deep, having a depth of 520 ft.
EISLEBEN (Lat. Islebia), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, 24 m. W. by N. from Halle, on the railway to Nordhausen and Cassel. Pop. (1905) 23,898. It is divided into an old and a new town (Altstadt and Neustadt). Among its principal buildings are the church of St Andrew (Andreaskirche), which contains numerous monuments of the counts of Mansfeld; the church of St Peter and St Paul (Peter-Paulkirche), containing the font in which Luther was baptized; the royal gymnasium (classical school), founded by Luther shortly before his death in 1546; and the hospital. Eisleben is celebrated as the place where Luther was born and died. The house in which he was born was burned in 1689, but was rebuilt in 1693 as a free school for orphans. This school fell into decay under the régime of the kingdom of Westphalia, but was restored in 1817 by King Frederick William III. of Prussia, who, in 1819, transferred it to a new building behind the old house. The house in which Luther died was restored towards the end of the 19th century, and his death chamber is still preserved. A bronze statue of Luther by Rudolf Siemering (1835-1905) was unveiled in 1883. Eisleben has long been the centre of an important mining district (Luther was a miner’s son), the principal products being silver and copper. It possesses smelting works and a school of mining.
The earliest record of Eisleben is dated 974. In 1045, at which time it belonged to the counts of Mansfeld, it received the right to hold markets, coin money, and levy tolls. From 1531 to 1710 it was the seat of the cadet line of the counts of Mansfeld-Eisleben. After the extinction of the main line of the counts of Mansfeld, Eisleben fell to Saxony, and, in the partition of Saxony by the congress of Vienna in 1815, was assigned to Prussia.
EISTEDDFOD (plural Eisteddfodau), the national bardic congress of Wales, the objects of which are to encourage bardism and music and the general literature of the Welsh, to maintain the Welsh language and customs of the country, and to foster and cultivate a patriotic spirit amongst the people. This institution, so peculiar to Wales, is of very ancient origin.1 The term Eisteddfod, however, which means “a session” or “sitting,” was probably not applied to bardic congresses before the 12th century.
The Eisteddfod in its present character appears to have originated in the time of Owain ap Maxen Wledig, who at the close of the 4th century was elected to the chief sovereignty of the Britons on the departure of the Romans. It was at this time, or soon afterwards, that the laws and usages of the Gorsedd were codified and remodelled, and its motto of “Y gwir yn erbyn y byd” (The truth against the world) given to it. “Chairs” (with which the Eisteddfod as a national institution is now inseparably connected) were also established, or rather perhaps resuscitated, about the same time. The chair was a kind of convention where disciples were trained, and bardic matters discussed preparatory to the great Gorsedd, each chair having a distinctive motto. There are now existing four chairs in Wales,—namely, the “royal” chair of Powys, whose motto is “A laddo a leddir” (He that slayeth shall be slain); that of Gwent and Glamorgan, whose motto is “Duw a phob daioni” (God and all goodness); that of Dyfed, whose motto is “Calon wrth galon” (Heart with heart); and that of Gwynedd, or North Wales, whose motto is “Iesu,” or “O Iesu! na’d gamwaith” (Jesus, or Oh Jesus! suffer not iniquity).
The first Eisteddfod of which any account seems to have descended to us was one held on the banks of the Conway in the 6th century, under the auspices of Maelgwn Gwynedd, prince of North Wales. Maelgwn on this occasion, in order to prove the superiority of vocal song over instrumental music, is recorded to have offered a reward to such bards and minstrels as should swim over the Conway. There were several competitors, but on their arrival on the opposite shore the harpers found themselves unable to play owing to the injury their harps had sustained from the water, while the bards were in as good tune as ever. King Cadwaladr also presided at an Eisteddfod about the middle of the 7th century.
Griffith ap Cynan, prince of North Wales, who had been born in Ireland, brought with him from that country many Irish musicians, who greatly improved the music of Wales. During his long reign of 56 years he offered great encouragement to bards, harpers and minstrels, and framed a code of laws for their better regulation. He held an Eisteddfod about the beginning of the 12th century at Caerwys in Flintshire, “to which there repaired all the musicians of Wales, and some also from England and Scotland.” For many years afterwards the Eisteddfod appears to have been held triennially, and to have enforced the rigid observance of the enactments of Griffith ap Cynan. The places at which it was generally held were Aberffraw, formerly the royal seat of the princes of North Wales; Dynevor, the royal castle of the princes of South Wales; and Mathrafal, the royal palace of the princes of Powys: and in later times 137 Caerwys in Flintshire received that honourable distinction, it having been the princely residence of Llewelyn the Last. Some of these Eisteddfodau were conducted in a style of great magnificence, under the patronage of the native princes. At Christmas 1107 Cadwgan, the son of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn, prince of Powys, held an Eisteddfod in Cardigan Castle, to which he invited the bards, harpers and minstrels, “the best to be found in all Wales”; and “he gave them chairs and subjects of emulation according to the custom of the feasts of King Arthur.” In 1176 Rhys ab Gruffydd, prince of South Wales, held an Eisteddfod in the same castle on a scale of still greater magnificence, it having been proclaimed, we are told, a year before it took place, “over Wales, England, Scotland, Ireland and many other countries.”
On the annexation of Wales to England, Edward I. deemed it politic to sanction the bardic Eisteddfod by his famous statute of Rhuddlan. In the reign of Edward III. Ifor Hael, a South Wales chieftain, held one at his mansion. Another was held in 1451, with the permission of the king, by Griffith ab Nicholas at Carmarthen, in princely style, where Dafydd ab Edmund, an eminent poet, signalized himself by his wonderful powers of versification in the Welsh metres, and whence “he carried home on his shoulders the silver chair” which he had fairly won. Several Eisteddfodau, were held, one at least by royal mandate, in the reign of Henry VII. In 1523 one was held at Caerwys before the chamberlain of North Wales and others, by virtue of a commission issued by Henry VIII. In the course of time, through relaxation of bardic discipline, the profession was assumed by unqualified persons, to the great detriment of the regular bards. Accordingly in 1567 Queen Elizabeth issued a commission for holding an Eisteddfod at Caerwys in the following year, which was duly held, when degrees were conferred on 55 candidates, including 20 harpers. From the terms of the royal proclamation we find that it was then customary to bestow “a silver harp” on the chief of the faculty of musicians, as it had been usual to reward the chief bard with “a silver chair.” This was the last Eisteddfod appointed by royal commission, but several others of some importance were held during the 16th and 17th centuries, under the patronage of the earl of Pembroke, Sir Richard Neville, and other influential persons. Amongst these the last of any particular note was one held in Bewper Castle, Glamorgan, by Sir Richard Basset in 1681.
During the succeeding 130 years Welsh nationality was at its lowest ebb, and no general Eisteddfod on a large scale appears to have been held until 1819, though several small ones were held under the auspices of the Gwyneddigion Society, established in 1771,—the most important being those at Corwen (1789), St Asaph (1790) and Caerwys (1798).
At the close of the Napoleonic wars, however, there was a general revival of Welsh nationality, and numerous Welsh literary societies were established throughout Wales, and in the principal English towns. A large Eisteddfod was held under distinguished patronage at Carmarthen in 1819, and from that time to the present they have been held (together with numerous local Eisteddfodau), almost without intermission, annually. The Eisteddfod at Llangollen in 1858 is memorable for its archaic character, and the attempts then made to revive the ancient ceremonies, and restore the ancient vestments of druids, bards and ovates.
To constitute a provincial Eisteddfod it is necessary that it should be proclaimed by a graduated bard of a Gorsedd a year and a day before it takes place. A local one may be held without such a proclamation. A provincial Eisteddfod generally lasts three, sometimes four days. A president and a conductor are appointed for each day. The proceedings commence with a Gorsedd meeting, opened with sound of trumpet and other ceremonies, at which candidates come forward and receive bardic degrees after satisfying the presiding bard as to their fitness. At the subsequent meetings the president gives a brief address; the bards follow with poetical addresses; adjudications are made, and prizes and medals with suitable devices are given to the successful competitors for poetical, musical and prose compositions, for the best choral and solo singing, and singing with the harp or “Pennillion singing”2 as it is called, for the best playing on the harp or stringed or wind instruments, as well as occasionally for the best specimens of handicraft and art. In the evening of each day a concert is given, generally attended by very large numbers. The great day of the Eisteddfod is the “chair” day—usually the third or last day—the grand event of the Eisteddfod being the adjudication on the chair subject, and the chairing and investiture of the fortunate winner. This is the highest object of a Welsh bard’s ambition. The ceremony is an imposing one, and is performed with sound of trumpet. (See also the articles Bard, Celt: Celtic Literature, and Wales.)
(R. W.*)
EJECTMENT (Lat. e, out, and jacere, to throw), in English law, an action for the recovery of the possession of land, together with damages for the wrongful withholding thereof. In the old classifications of actions, as real or personal, this was known as a mixed action, because its object was twofold, viz. to recover both the realty and personal damages. It should be noted that the term “ejectment” applies in law to distinct classes of proceedings—ejectments as between rival claimants to land, and ejectments as between those who hold, or have held, the relation of landlord and tenant. Under the Rules of the Supreme Court, actions in England for the recovery of land are commenced and proceed in the same manner as ordinary actions. But the historical interest attaching to the action of ejectment is so great as to render some account of it necessary.
The form of the action as it prevailed in the English courts down to the Common Law Procedure Act 1852 was a series of fictions, among the most remarkable to be found in the entire body of English law. A, the person claiming title to land, delivered to B, the person in possession, a declaration in ejectment in which C and D, fictitious persons, were plaintiff and defendant. C stated that A had devised the land to him for a term of years, and that he had been ousted by D. A notice signed by D informed B of the proceedings, and advised him to apply to be made defendant in D’s place, as he, D, having no title, did not intend to defend the suit. If B did not so apply, judgment was given against D, and possession of the lands was given to A. But if B did apply, the Court allowed him to defend the action only on condition that he admitted the three fictitious averments—the lease, the entry and the ouster—which, together with title, were the four things necessary to maintain an action of ejectment. This having been arranged the action proceeded, B being made defendant instead of D. The names used for the fictitious parties were John Doe, plaintiff, and Richard Roe, defendant, who was called “the casual ejector.” The explanation of these mysterious fictions is this. The writ de ejectione firmae was invented about the beginning of the reign of Edward III. as a remedy to a lessee for years who had been ousted of his term. It was a writ of trespass, and carried damages, but in the time of Henry VII., if not before that date, the courts of common law added thereto a species of remedy neither warranted by the original writ nor demanded by the declaration, viz. a judgment to recover so much of the term as was still to run, and a writ of possession thereupon. The next step was to extend the remedy—limited originally to leaseholds—to cases of disputed title to freeholds. This was done indirectly by the claimant entering on the land and there making a lease for a term of years to another person; for it was only a term that could be recovered by the action, and to create a term required actual possession in the granter. The lessee remained on the land, and the next person who entered even by chance was accounted an ejector of the lessee, who then served upon him a writ of trespass and ejectment. The case then went to trial as on a 138 common action of trespass; and the claimant’s title, being the real foundation of the lessee’s right, was thus indirectly determined. These proceedings might take place without the knowledge of the person really in possession; and to prevent the abuse of the action a rule was laid down that the plaintiff in ejectment must give notice to the party in possession, who might then come in and defend the action. When the action came into general use as a mode of trying the title to freeholds, the actual entry, lease and ouster which were necessary to found the action were attended with much inconvenience, and accordingly Lord Chief Justice Rolle during the Protectorate (c. 1657) substituted for them the fictitious averments already described. The action of ejectment is now only a curiosity of legal history. Its fictitious suitors were swept away by the Common Law Procedure Act of 1852. A form of writ was prescribed, in which the person in possession of the disputed premises by name and all persons entitled to defend the possession were informed that the plaintiff claimed to be entitled to possession, and required to appear in court to defend the possession of the property or such part of it as they should think fit. In the form of the writ and in some other respects ejectment still differed from other actions. But, as already mentioned, it has now been assimilated (under the name of action for the recovery of lands) to ordinary actions by the Rules of the Supreme Court. It is commenced by writ of summons, and—subject to the rules as to summary judgments (v. inf.)—proceeds along the usual course of pleadings and trial to judgment; but is subject to one special rule, viz: that except by leave of the Court or a judge the only claims which may be joined with one for recovery of land are claims in respect of arrears of rent or double value for holding over, or mesne profits (i.e. the value of the land during the period of illegal possession), or damages for breach of a contract under which the premises are held or for any wrong or injury to the premises claimed (R.S.C., O. xviii. r. 2). These claims were formerly recoverable by an independent action.
With regard to actions for the recovery of land—apart from the relationship of landlord and tenant—the only point that need be noted is the presumption of law in favour of the actual possessor of the land in dispute. Where the action is brought by a landlord against his tenant, there is of course no presumption against the landlord’s title arising from the tenant’s possession. By the Common Law Procedure Act 1852 (ss. 210-212) special provision was made for the prompt recovery of demised premises where half a year’s rent was in arrear and the landlord was entitled to re-enter for non-payment. These provisions are still in force, but advantage is now more generally taken of the summary judgment procedure introduced by the Rules of the Supreme Court (Order 3, r. 6.). This procedure may be adopted when (a) the tenant’s term has expired, (b) or has been duly determined by notice to quit, or (c) has become liable to forfeiture for non-payment of rent, and applies not only to the tenant but to persons claiming under him. The writ is specially endorsed with the plaintiff’s claim to recover the land with or without rent or mesne profits, and summary judgment obtained if no substantial defence is disclosed. Where an action to recover land is brought against the tenant by a person claiming adversely to the landlord, the tenant is bound, under penalty of forfeiting the value of three years’ improved or rack rent of the premises, to give notice to the landlord in order that he may appear and defend his title. Actions for the recovery of land, other than land belonging to spiritual corporations and to the crown, are barred in 12 years (Real Property Limitation Acts 1833 (s. 29) and 1874 (s. 1). A landlord can recover possession in the county court (i.) by an action for the recovery of possession, where neither the value of the premises nor the rent exceeds £100 a year, and the tenant is holding over (County Courts Acts of 1888, s. 138, and 1903, s. 3); (ii.) by “an action of ejectment,” where (a) the value or rent of the premises does not exceed £100, (b) half a year’s rent is in arrear, and (c) no sufficient distress (see Rent) is to be found on the premises (Act of 1888, s. 139; Act of 1903, s. 3; County Court Rules 1903, Ord. v. rule 3). Where a tenant at a rent not exceeding £20 a year of premises at will, or for a term not exceeding 7 years, refuses nor neglects, on the determination or expiration of his interest, to deliver up possession, such possession may be recovered by proceedings before justices under the Small Tenements Recovery Act 1838, an enactment which has been extended to the recovery of allotments. Under the Distress for Rent Act 1737, and the Deserted Tenements Act 1817, a landlord can have himself put by the order of two justices into premises deserted by the tenant where half a year’s rent is owing and no sufficient distress can be found.
In Ireland, the practice with regard to the recovery of land is regulated by the Rules of the Supreme Court 1891, made under the Judicature (Ireland) Act 1877; and resembles that of England. Possession may be recovered summarily by a special indorsement of the writ, as in England; and there are analogous provisions with regard to the recovery of small tenements (see Land Act, 1860 ss. 84 and 89). The law with regard to the ejectment or eviction of tenants is consolidated by the Land Act 1860. (See ss. 52-66, 68-71, and further under Landlord and Tenant.)
In Scotland, the recovery of land is effected by an action of “removing” or summary ejection. In the case of a tenant “warning” is necessary unless he is bound by his lease to remove without warning. In the case of possessors without title, or a title merely precarious, no warning is needed. A summary process of removing from small holdings is provided for by Sheriff Courts (Scotland) Acts of 1838 and 1851.
In the United States, the old English action of ejectment was adopted to a very limited extent, and where it was so adopted has often been superseded, as in Connecticut, by a single action for all cases of ouster, disseisin or ejectment. In this action, known as an action of disseisin or ejectment, both possession of the land and damages may be recovered. In some of the states a tenant against whom an action of ejectment is brought by a stranger is bound under a penalty, as in England, to give notice of the claim to the landlord in order that he may appear and defend his title.
In French law the landlord’s claim for rent is fairly secured by the hypothec, and by summary powers which exist for the seizure of the effects of defaulting tenants. Eviction or annulment of a lease can only be obtained through the judicial tribunals. The Civil Code deals with the position of a tenant in case of the sale of the property leased. If the lease is by authentic act (acte authentique) or has an ascertained date, the purchaser cannot evict the tenant unless a right to do so was reserved on the lease (art. 1743), and then only on payment of an indemnity (arts. 1744-1747). If the lease is not by authentic act, or has not an ascertained date, the purchaser is not liable for indemnity (art. 1750). The tenant of rural lands is bound to give the landlord notice of acts of usurpation (art. 1768). There are analogous provisions in the Civil Codes of Belgium (arts. 1743 et seq.), Holland (arts. 1613, 1614), Portugal (art. 1572); and see the German Civil Code (arts. 535 et seq.). In many of the colonies there are statutory provisions for the recovery of land or premises on the lines of English law (cf. Ontario, Rev. Stats. 1897, c. 170. ss. 19 et seq.; Manitoba, Rev. Stats. 1902, c. 1903). In others (e.g. New Zealand, Act. No. 55 of 1893, ss. 175-187; British Columbia, Revised Statutes, 1897, c. 182: Cyprus, Ord. 15 of 1895) there has been legislation similar to the Small Tenements Recovery Act 1838.
(A. W. R.)
EKATERINBURG, a town of Russia, in the government of Perm, 311 m. by rail S.E. of the town of Perm, on the Iset river, near the E. foot of the Ural Mountains, in 56° 49′ N. and 139 60° 35′ E., at an altitude of 870 ft. above sea-level. It is the most important town of the Urals. Pop. (1860) 19,830; (1897) 55,488. The streets are broad and regular, and several of the houses of palatial proportions. In 1834 Ekaterinburg was made the see of a suffragan bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church. There are two cathedrals—St Catherine’s, founded in 1758, and that of the Epiphany, in 1774—and a museum of natural history, opened in 1853. Ekaterinburg is the seat of the central mining administration of the Ural region, and has a chemical laboratory for the assay of gold, a mining school, the Ural Society of Naturalists, and a magnetic and meteorological observatory. Besides the government mint for copper coinage, which dates from 1735, the government engineering works, and the imperial factory for the cutting and polishing of malachite, jasper, marble, porphyry and other ornamental stones, the industrial establishments comprise candle, paper, soap and machinery works, flour and woollen mills, and tanneries. There is a lively trade in cattle, cereals, iron, woollen and silk goods, and colonial products; and two important fairs are held annually. Nearly forty gold and platinum mines, over thirty iron-works, and numerous other factories are scattered over the district, while wheels, travelling boxes, hardware, boots and so forth are extensively made in the villages. Ekaterinburg took its origin from the mining establishments founded by Peter the Great in 1721, and received its name in honour of his wife, Catherine I. Its development was greatly promoted in 1763 by the diversion of the Siberian highway from Verkhoturye to this place.
EKATERINODAR, a town of South Russia, chief town of the province of Kubañ, on the right bank of the river Kubañ, 85 m. E.N.E. of Novo-rossiysk on the railway to Rostov-on-Don, and in 45° 3′ N. and 38° 50′ E. It is badly built, on a swampy site exposed to the inundations of the river; and its houses, with few exceptions, are slight structures of wood and plaster. Founded by Catherine II. in 1794 on the site of an old town called Tmutarakan, as a small fort and Cossack settlement, its population grew from 9620 in 1860 to 65,697 in 1897. It has various technical schools, an experimental fruit-farm, a military hospital, and a natural history museum. A considerable trade is carried on, especially in cereals.
EKATERINOSLAV, a government of south Russia, having the governments of Poltava and Kharkov on the N., the territory of the Don Cossacks on the E., the Sea of Azov and Taurida on the S., and Kherson on the W. Area, 24,478 sq. m. Its surface is undulating steppe, sloping gently south and north, with a few hills reaching 1200 ft. in the N.E., where a slight swelling (the Don Hills) compels the Don to make a great curve eastwards. Another chain of hills, to which the eastward bend of the Dnieper is due, rises in the west. These hills have a crystalline core (granites, syenites and diorites), while the surface strata belong to the Carboniferous, Permian, Cretaceous and Tertiary formations. The government is rich in minerals, especially in coal—the mines lie in the middle of the Donets coalfield—iron ores, fireclay and rock-salt, and every year the mining output increases in quantity, especially of coal and iron. Granite, limestone, grindstone, slate, with graphite, manganese and mercury are found. The government is drained by the Dnieper, the Don and their tributaries (e.g. the Donets and Volchya) and by several affluents (e.g. the Kalmius) of the Sea of Azov. The soil is the fertile black earth, but the crops occasionally suffer from drought, the average annual rainfall being only 15 in. Forests are scarce. Pop. (1860) 1,138,750; (1897) 2,118,946, chiefly Little Russians, with Great Russians, Greeks (48,740), Germans (80,979), Rumanians and a few gypsies. Jews constitute 4.7% of the population. The estimated population in 1906 was 2,708,700.
Wheat and other cereals are extensively grown; other noteworthy crops are potatoes, tobacco and grapes. Nearly 40,000 persons find occupation in factories, the most important being iron-works and agricultural machinery works, though there are also tobacco, glass, soap and candle factories, potteries, tanneries and breweries. In the districts of Mariupol the making of agricultural implements and machinery is carried on extensively as a domestic industry in the villages. Bees are kept in very considerable numbers. Fishing employs many persons in the Don and the Dnieper. Cereals are exported in large quantities via the Dnieper, the Sevastopol railway, and the port of Mariupol. The chief towns of the eight districts, with their populations in 1897, are Ekaterinoslav (135,552 inhabitants in 1900), Alexandrovsk (28,434), Bakhmut (30,585), Mariupol (31,772), Novomoskovsk (12,862), Pavlograd (17,188), Slavyanoserbsk (3120), and Verkhne-dnyeprovsk (11,607).
EKATERINOSLAV, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the right bank of the Dnieper above the rapids, 673 m. by rail S.S.W. of Moscow, in 48° 21′ N. and 35° 4′ E., at an altitude of 210 ft. Pop. (1861) 18,881, without suburbs; (1900) 135,552. If the suburb of Novyikoindak be included, the town extends for upwards of 4 m. along the river. The oldest part lies very low and is much exposed to floods. Contiguous to the towns on the N.W. is the royal village of Novyimaidani or the New Factories. The bishop’s palace, mining academy, archaeological museum and library are the principal public buildings. The house now occupied by the Nobles Club was formerly inhabited by the author and statesman Potemkin. Ekaterinoslav is a rapidly growing city, with a number of technical schools, and is an important depot for timber floated down the Dnieper, and also for cereals. Its iron-works, flour-mills and agricultural machinery works give occupation to over 5000 persons. In fact since 1895 the city has become the centre of numerous Franco-Belgian industrial undertakings. In addition to the branches just mentioned, there are tobacco factories and breweries. Considerable trade is carried on in cattle, cereals, horses and wool, there being three annual fairs. On the site of the city there formerly stood the Polish castle of Koindak, built in 1635, and destroyed by the Cossacks. The existing city was founded by Potemkin in 1786, and in the following year Catherine II. laid the foundation-stone of the cathedral, though it was not actually built until 1830-1835. On the south side of it is a bronze statue of the empress, put up in 1846. Paul I. changed the name of the city to Novo-rossiysk, but the original name was restored in 1802.
EKHOF, KONRAD (1720-1778), German actor, was born in Hamburg on the 12th of August 1720. In 1739 he became a member of Johann Friedrich Schönemann’s (1704-1782) company in Lüneburg, and made his first appearance there on the 15th of January 1740 as Xiphares in Racine’s Mithridate. From 1751 the Schönemann company performed mainly in Hamburg and at Schwerin, where Duke Christian Louis II. of Mecklenburg-Schwerin made them comedians to the court. During this period Ekhof founded a theatrical academy, which, though short-lived, was of great importance in helping to raise the standard of German acting and the status of German actors. In 1757 Ekhof left Schönemann to join Franz Schuch’s company at Danzig; but he soon returned to Hamburg, where, in conjunction with two other actors, he succeeded Schönemann in the direction of the company. He resigned this position, however, in favour of H.G. Koch, with whom he acted until 1764, when he joined K.E. Ackermann’s company. In 1767 was founded the National Theatre at Hamburg, made famous by Lessing’s Hamburgische Dramaturgie, and Ekhof was the leading member of the company. After the failure of the enterprise Ekhof was for a time in Weimar, and ultimately became co-director of the new court theatre at Gotha. This, the first permanently established theatre in Germany, was opened on the 2nd of October 1775. Ekhof’s reputation was now at its height; Goethe called him the only German tragic actor; and in 1777 he acted with Goethe and Duke Charles Augustus at a private performance at Weimar, dining afterwards with the poet at the ducal table. He died on the 16th of June 1778. His versatility may be judged from the fact that in the comedies of Goldoni and Molière he was no less successful than in the tragedies of Lessing and Shakespeare. He was regarded by his contemporaries as an unsurpassed exponent of naturalness on the stage; and in this respect he has been not unfairly compared with Garrick. His fame, however, was rapidly eclipsed by that of Friedrich U.L. 140 Schröder. His literary efforts were chiefly confined to translations from French authors.
EKRON (better, as in the Septuagint and Josephus, Accaron, Ἀκκαρών), a royal city of the Philistines commonly identified with the modern Syrian village of ‘Aḳir, 5 m. from Ramleh, on the southern slope of a low ridge separating the plain of Philistia from Sharon. It lay inland and off the main line of traffic. Though included by the Israelites within the limits of the tribe of Judah, and mentioned in Judges xix. as one of the cities of Dan, it was in Philistine possession in the days of Samuel, and apparently maintained its independence. According to the narrative of the Hebrew text, here differing from the Greek text and Josephus (which read Askelon), it was the last town to which the ark was transferred before its restoration to the Israelites. Its maintenance of a sanctuary of Baal Zebub is mentioned in 2 Kings i. From Assyrian inscriptions it has been gathered that Padi, king of Ekron, was for a time the vassal of Hezekiah of Judah, but regained his independence when the latter was hard pressed by Sennacherib. A notice of its history in 147 B.C. is found in 1 Macc. x. 89; after the fall of Jerusalem A.D. 70 it was settled by Jews. At the time of the crusades it was still a large village. Recently a Jewish agricultural colony has been settled there. The houses are built of mud, and in the absence of visible remains of antiquity, the identification of the site is questionable. The neighbourhood is fertile.
(R. A. S. M.)
ELABUGA, a town of Russia, in the government of Vyatka, on the Kama river, 201 m. by steamboat down the Volga from Kazan and then up the Kama. It has flour-mills, and carries on a brisk trade in exporting corn. Pop. (1897) 9776.
The famous Ananiynskiy Mogilnik (burial-place) is on the right bank of the Kama, 3 m. above the town. It was discovered in 1858, was excavated by Alabin, Lerch and Nevostruyev, and has since supplied extremely valuable collections belonging to the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages. It consisted of a mound, about 500 ft. in circumference, adorned with decorated stones (which have disappeared), and contained an inner wall, 65 ft. in circumference, made of uncemented stone flags. Nearly fifty skeletons were discovered, mostly lying upon charred logs, surrounded with cinerary urns filled with partially burned bones. A great variety of bronze decorations and glazed clay pearls were strewn round the skeletons. The knives, daggers and arrowpoints are of slate, bronze and iron, the last two being very rough imitations of stone implements. One of the flags bore the image of a man, without moustaches or beard, dressed in a costume and helmet recalling those of the Circassians.
ELAM, the name given in the Bible to the province of Persia called Susiana by the classical geographers, from Susa or Shushan its capital. In one passage, however (Ezra iv. 9), it is confined to Elymais, the north-western part of the province, and its inhabitants distinguished from those of Shushan, which elsewhere (Dan. viii. 2) is placed in Elam. Strabo (xv. 3. 12, &c.) makes Susiana a part of Persia proper, but a comparison of his account with those of Ptolemy (vi. 3. 1, &c.) and other writers would limit it to the mountainous district to the east of Babylonia, lying between the Oroatis and the Tigris, and stretching from India to the Persian Gulf. Along with this mountainous district went a fertile low tract of country on the western side, which also included the marshes at the mouths of the Euphrates and Tigris and the north-eastern coast land of the Gulf. This low tract, though producing large quantities of grain, was intensely hot in summer; the high regions, however, were cool and well watered.
The whole country was occupied by a variety of tribes, speaking agglutinative dialects for the most part, though the western districts were occupied by Semites. Strabo (xi. 13. 3, 6), quoting from Nearchus, seems to include the Susians under the Elymaeans, whom he associates with the Uxii, and places on the frontiers of Persia and Susa; but Pliny more correctly makes the Eulaeus the boundary between Susiana and Elymais (N.H. vi. 29-31). The Uxii are described as a robber tribe in the mountains adjacent to Media, and their name is apparently to be identified with the title given to the whole of Susiana in the Persian cuneiform inscriptions, Uwaja, i.e. “Aborigines.” Uwaja is probably the origin of the modern Khuzistan, though Mordtmann would derive the latter from “a sugar-reed.” Immediately bordering on the Persians were the Amardians or Mardians, as well as the people of Khapirti (Khatamti, according to Scheil), the name given to Susiana in the Neo-Susian texts. Khapirti appears as Apir in the inscriptions of Mal-Amir, which fix the locality of the district. Passing over the Messabatae, who inhabited a valley which may perhaps be the modern Māh-Sabadan, as well as the level district of Yamutbal or Yatbur which separated Elam from Babylonia, and the smaller districts of Characene, Cabandene, Corbiana and Gabiene mentioned by classical authors, we come to the fourth principal tribe of Susiana, the Cissii (Aesch. Pers. 16; Strabo xv. 3. 2) or Cossaei (Strabo xi. 5. 6, xvi. 11. 17; Arr. Ind. 40; Polyb. v. 54, &c.), the Kassi of the cuneiform inscriptions. So important were they, that the whole of Susiana was sometimes called Cissia after them, as by Herodotus (iii. 91, v. 49, &c.). In fact Susiana was only a late name for the country, dating from the time when Susa had been made a capital of the Persian empire. In the Sumerian texts of Babylonia it was called Numma, “the Highlands,” of which Elamtu or Elamu, “Elam,” was the Semitic translation. Apart from Susa, the most important part of the country was Anzan (Anshan, contracted Assan), where the native population maintained itself unaffected by Semitic intrusion. The exact position of Anzan is still disputed, but it probably included originally the site of Susa and was distinguished from it only when Susa became the seat of a Semitic government. In the lexical tablets Anzan is given as the equivalent of Elamtu, and the native kings entitle themselves kings of “Anzan and Susa,” as well as “princes of the Khapirti.”
The principal mountains of Elam were on the north, called Charbanus and Cambalidus by Pliny (vi. 27, 31), and belonging to the Parachoathras chain. There were numerous rivers flowing into either the Tigris or the Persian Gulf. The most important were the Ulai or Eulaeus (Kūran) with its tributary the Pasitigris, the Choaspes (Kerkhah), the Coprates (river of Diz called Ititē in the inscriptions), the Hedyphon or Hedypnus (Jerrāhi), and the Croatis (Hindyan), besides the monumental Surappi and Ukni, perhaps to be identified with the Hedyphon and Oroatis, which fell into the sea in the marshy region at the mouth of the Tigris. Shushan or Susa, the capital now marked by the mounds of Shush, stood near the junction of the Choaspes and Eulaeus (see Susa); and Badaca, Madaktu in the inscriptions, lay between the Shapur and the river of Diz. Among the other chief cities mentioned in the inscriptions may be named Naditu, Khaltemas, Din-sar, Bubilu, Bit-imbi, Khidalu and Nagitu on the sea-coast. Here, in fact, lay some of the oldest and wealthiest towns, the sites of which have, however, been removed inland by the silting up of the shore. J. de Morgan’s excavations at Susa have thrown a flood of light on the early history of Elam and its relations to Babylon. The earliest settlement there goes back to neolithic times, but it was already a fortified city when Elam was conquered by Sargon of Akkad (3800 B.C.) and Susa became the seat of a Babylonian viceroy. From this time onward for many centuries it continued under Semitic suzerainty, its high-priests, also called “Chief Envoys of Elam, Sippara and Susa,” bearing sometimes Semitic, sometimes native “Anzanite” names. One of the kings of the dynasty of Ur built at Susa. Before the rise of the First Dynasty of Babylon, however, Elam had recovered its independence, and in 2280 B.C. the Elamite king Kutur-Nakhkhunte made a raid in Babylonia and carried away from Erech the image of the goddess Nanā. The monuments of many of his successors have been discovered by de Morgan and their inscriptions deciphered by v. Scheil. One of them was defeated by Ammi-zadoq 141 of Babylonia (c. 2100 B.C.); another would have been the Chedor-laomer (Kutur-Lagamar) of Genesis xiv. One of the greatest builders among them was Untas-Gal (the pronunciation of the second element in the name is uncertain). About 1330 B.C. Khurba-tila was captured by Kuri-galzu III., the Kassite king of Babylonia, but a later prince Kidin-Khutrutas avenged his defeat, and Sutruk-Nakhkhunte (1220 B.C.) carried fire and sword through Babylonia, slew its king Zamama-sum-iddin and carried away a stela of Naram-Sin and the famous code of laws of Khammurabi from Sippara, as well as a stela of Manistusu from Akkuttum or Akkad. He also conquered the land of Asnunnak and carried off from Padan a stela belonging to a refugee from Malatia. He was succeeded by his son who was followed on the throne by his brother, one of the great builders of Elam. In 750 B.C. Umbadara was king of Elam; Khumban-igas was his successor in 742 B.C. In 720 B.C. the latter prince met the Assyrians under Sargon at Dur-ili in Yamutbal, and though Sargon claims a victory the result was that Babylonia recovered its independence under Merodach-baladan and the Assyrian forces were driven north. From this time forward it was against Assyria instead of Babylonia that Elam found itself compelled to exert its strength, and Elamite policy was directed towards fomenting revolt in Babylonia and assisting the Babylonians in their struggle with Assyria. In 716 B.C. Khumban-igas died and was followed by his nephew, Sutruk-Nakhkhunte. He failed to make head against the Assyrians; the frontier cities were taken by Sargon and Merodach-baladan was left to his fate. A few years later (704 B.C.) the combined forces of Elam and Babylonia were overthrown at Kis, and in the following year the Kassites were reduced to subjection. The Elamite king was dethroned and imprisoned in 700 B.C. by his brother Khallusu, who six years later marched into Babylonia, captured the son of Sennacherib, whom his father had placed there as king, and raised a nominee of his own, Nergal-yusezib, to the throne. Khallusu was murdered in 694 B.C., after seeing the maritime part of his dominions invaded by the Assyrians. His successor Kudur-Nakhkhunte invaded Babylonia; he was repulsed, however, by Sennacherib, 34 of his cities were destroyed, and he himself fled from Madaktu to Khidalu. The result was a revolt in which he was killed after a reign of ten months. His brother Umman-menan at once collected allies and prepared for resistance to the Assyrians. But the terrible defeat at Khalulē broke his power; he was attacked by paralysis shortly afterwards, and Khumba-Khaldas II. followed him on the throne (689 B.C.). The new king endeavoured to gain Assyrian favour by putting to death the son of Merodach-baladan, but was himself murdered by his brothers Urtaki and Teumman (681 B.C.), the first of whom seized the crown. On his death Teumman succeeded and almost immediately provoked a quarrel with Assur-bani-pal by demanding the surrender of his nephews who had taken refuge at the Assyrian court. The Assyrians pursued the Elamite army to Susa, where a battle was fought on the banks of the Eulaeus, in which the Elamites were defeated, Teumman captured and slain, and Umman-igas, the son of Urtaki, made king, his younger brother Tammaritu being given the district of Khidalu. Umman-igas afterwards assisted in the revolt of Babylonia under Samas-sum-yukin, but his nephew, a second Tammaritu, raised a rebellion against him, defeated him in battle, cut off his head and seized the crown. Tammaritu marched to Babylonia; while there, his officer Inda-bigas made himself master of Susa and drove Tammaritu to the coast whence he fled to Assur-bani-pal. Inda-bigas was himself overthrown and slain by a new pretender, Khumba-Khaldas III., who was opposed, however, by three other rivals, two of whom maintained themselves in the mountains until the Assyrian conquest of the country, when Tammaritu was first restored and then imprisoned, Elam being utterly devastated. The return of Khumba-Khaldas led to a fresh Assyrian invasion; the Elamite king fled from Madaktu to Dur-undasi; Susa and other cities were taken, and the Elamite army almost exterminated on the banks of the Ititē. The whole country was reduced to a desert, Susa was plundered and razed to the ground, the royal sepulchres were desecrated, and the images of the gods and of 32 kings “in silver, gold, bronze and alabaster,” were carried away. All this must have happened about 640 B.C. After the fall of the Assyrian empire Elam was occupied by the Persian Teispes, the forefather of Cyrus, who, accordingly, like his immediate successors, is called in the inscriptions “king of Anzan.” Susa once more became a capital, and on the establishment of the Persian empire remained one of the three seats of government, its language, the Neo-Susian, ranking with the Persian of Persepolis and the Semitic of Babylon as an official tongue. In the reign of Darius, however, the Susianians attempted to revolt, first under Assina or Atrina, the son of Umbadara, and later under Martiya, the son of Issainsakria, who called himself Immanes; but they gradually became completely Aryanized, and their agglutinative dialects were supplanted by the Aryan Persian from the south-east.
Elam, “the land of the cedar-forest,” with its enchanted trees, figured largely in Babylonian mythology, and one of the adventures of the hero Gilgamesh was the destruction of the tyrant Khumbaba who dwelt in the midst of it. A list of the Elamite deities is given by Assur-bani-pal; at the head of them was In-Susinak, “the lord of the Susians,”—a title which went back to the age of Babylonian suzerainty,—whose image and oracle were hidden from the eyes of the profane. Nakhkhunte, according to Scheil, was the Sun-goddess, and Lagamar, whose name enters into that of Chedor-laomer, was borrowed from Semitic Babylonia.
(A. H. S.)
ELAND (= elk), the Dutch name for the largest of the South African antelopes (Taurotragus oryx), a species near akin to the kudu, but with horns present in both sexes, and their spiral much closer, being in fact screw-like instead of corkscrew-like. There is also a large dewlap, while old bulls have a thick forelock. In the typical southern form the body-colour is wholly pale fawn, but north of the Orange river the body is marked by narrow vertical white lines, this race being known as T. oryx livingstonei. In Senegambia the genus is represented by T. derbianus, a much larger animal, with a dark neck; while in the Bahr-el-Ghazal district there is a gigantic local race of this species (T. derbianus giganteus).
(R. L.*)
ELASTICITY. 1. Elasticity is the property of recovery of an original size or shape. A body of which the size, or shape, or both size and shape, have been altered by the application of forces may, and generally does, tend to return to its previous size and shape when the forces cease to act. Bodies which exhibit this tendency are said to be elastic (from Greek, ἐλαύνειν, to drive). All bodies are more or less elastic as regards size; and all solid bodies are more or less elastic as regards shape. For example: gas contained in a vessel, which is closed by a piston, can be compressed by additional pressure applied to the piston; but, when the additional pressure is removed, the gas expands and drives the piston outwards. For a second example: a steel bar hanging vertically, and loaded with one ton for each square inch of its sectional area, will have its length increased by about seven one-hundred-thousandths of itself, and its sectional area diminished by about half as much; and it will spring back to its original length and sectional area when the load is gradually removed. Such changes of size and shape in bodies subjected to forces, and the recovery of the original size and shape when the forces cease to act, become conspicuous when the bodies have the forms of thin wires or planks; and these properties of bodies in such forms are utilized in the construction of spring balances, carriage springs, buffers and so on.
It is a familiar fact that the hair-spring of a watch can be coiled and uncoiled millions of times a year for several years without losing its elasticity; yet the same spring can have its shape permanently altered by forces which are much greater than those to which it is subjected in the motion of the watch. The incompleteness of the recovery from the effects of great forces is as important a fact as the practical completeness of the recovery from the effects of comparatively small forces. 142 The fact is referred to in the distinction between “perfect” and “imperfect” elasticity; and the limitation which must be imposed upon the forces in order that the elasticity may be perfect leads to the investigation of “limits of elasticity” (see §§ 31, 32 below). Steel pianoforte wire is perfectly elastic within rather wide limits, glass within rather narrow limits; building stone, cement and cast iron appear not to be perfectly elastic within any limits, however narrow. When the limits of elasticity are not exceeded no injury is done to a material or structure by the action of the forces. The strength or weakness of a material, and the safety or insecurity of a structure, are thus closely related to the elasticity of the material and to the change of size or shape of the structure when subjected to forces. The “science of elasticity” is occupied with the more abstract side of this relation, viz. with the effects that are produced in a body of definite size, shape and constitution by definite forces; the “science of the strength of materials” is occupied with the more concrete side, viz. with the application of the results obtained in the science of elasticity to practical questions of strength and safety (see Strength of Materials).
2. Stress.—Every body that we know anything about is always under the action of forces. Every body upon which we can experiment is subject to the force of gravity, and must, for the purpose of experiment, be supported by other forces. Such forces are usually applied by way of pressure upon a portion of the surface of the body; and such pressure is exerted by another body in contact with the first. The supported body exerts an equal and opposite pressure upon the supporting body across the portion of surface which is common to the two. The same thing is true of two portions of the same body. If, for example, we consider the two portions into which a body is divided by a (geometrical) horizontal plane, we conclude that the lower portion supports the upper portion by pressure across the plane, and the upper portion presses downwards upon the lower portion with an equal pressure. The pressure is still exerted when the plane is not horizontal, and its direction may be obliquely inclined to, or tangential to, the plane. A more precise meaning is given to “pressure” below. It is important to distinguish between the two classes of forces: forces such as the force of gravity, which act all through a body, and forces such as pressure applied over a surface. The former are named “body forces” or “volume forces,” and the latter “surface tractions.” The action between two portions of a body separated by a geometrical surface is of the nature of surface traction. Body forces are ultimately, when the volumes upon which they act are small enough, proportional to the volumes; surface tractions, on the other hand, are ultimately, when the surfaces across which they act are small enough, proportional to these surfaces. Surface tractions are always exerted by one body upon another, or by one part of a body upon another part, across a surface of contact; and a surface traction is always to be regarded as one aspect of a “stress,” that is to say of a pair of equal and opposite forces; for an equal traction is always exerted by the second body, or part, upon the first across the surface.
3. The proper method of estimating and specifying stress is a matter of importance, and its character is necessarily mathematical. The magnitudes of the surface tractions which compose a stress are estimated as so much force (in dynes or tons) per unit of area (per sq. cm. or per sq. in.). The traction across an assigned plane at an assigned point is measured by the mathematical limit of the fraction F/S, where F denotes the numerical measure of the force exerted across a small portion of the plane containing the point, and S denotes the numerical measure of the area of this portion, and the limit is taken by diminishing S indefinitely. The traction may act as “tension,” as it does in the case of a horizontal section of a bar supported at its upper end and hanging vertically, or as “pressure,” as it does in the case of a horizontal section of a block resting on a horizontal plane, or again it may act obliquely or even tangentially to the separating plane. Normal tractions are reckoned as positive when they are tensions, negative when they are pressures. Tangential tractions are often called “shears” (see § 7 below). Oblique tractions can always be resolved, by the vector law, into normal and tangential tractions. In a fluid at rest the traction across any plane at any point is normal to the plane, and acts as pressure. For the complete specification of the “state of stress” at any point of a body, we should require to know the normal and tangential components of the traction across every plane drawn through the point. Fortunately this requirement can be very much simplified (see §§ 6, 7 below).
4. In general let ν denote the direction of the normal drawn in a specified sense to a plane drawn through a point O of a body; and let Tν denote the traction exerted across the plane, at the point O, by the portion of the body towards which ν is drawn upon the remaining portion. Then Tν is a vector quantity, which has a definite magnitude (estimated as above by the limit of a fraction of the form F/S) and a definite direction. It can be specified completely by its components Xν, Yν, Zν, referred to fixed rectangular axes of x, y, z. When the direction of ν is that of the axis of x, in the positive sense, the components are denoted by Xx, Yx, Zx; and a similar notation is used when the direction of ν is that of y or z, the suffix x being replaced by y or z.
5. Every body about which we know anything is always in a state of stress, that is to say there are always internal forces acting between the parts of the body, and these forces are exerted as surface tractions across geometrical surfaces drawn in the body. The body, and each part of the body, moves under the action of all the forces (body forces and surface tractions) which are exerted upon it; or remains at rest if these forces are in equilibrium. This result is expressed analytically by means of certain equations—the “equations of motion” or “equations of equilibrium” of the body.
143
Fig. 2.
7. A state of stress in which the traction across any plane of a set of parallel planes is normal to the plane, and that across any perpendicular plane vanishes, is described as a state of “simple tension” (“simple pressure” if the traction is negative). A state of stress in which the traction across any plane is normal to the plane, and the traction is the same for all planes passing through any point, is described as a state of “uniform tension” (“uniform pressure” if the traction is negative). Sometimes the phrases “isotropic tension” and “hydrostatic pressure” are used instead of “uniform” tension or pressure. The distinction between the two states, simple tension and uniform tension, is illustrated in fig. 1.
A state of stress in which there is purely tangential traction on a plane, and no normal traction on any perpendicular plane, is described as a state of “shearing stress.” The result (2) of § 6 shows that tangential tractions occur in pairs. If, at any point, there is tangential traction, in any direction, on a plane parallel to this direction, and if we draw through the point a plane at right angles to the direction of this traction, and therefore containing the normal to the first plane, then there is equal tangential traction on this second plane in the directi
|
|||||||
877
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 7
|
https://www.amazon.com/Chico-Hamilton-Trio-CHICO-HAMILTON/dp/B0010T4C68
|
en
|
Amazon.com
|
[
"https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/captcha/fmvtfjch/Captcha_qalbjtuikh.jpg",
"https://fls-na.amazon.com/1/oc-csi/1/OP/requestId=YY3T10BZ1K9D70T8GJDK&js=0"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
en
| null |
Enter the characters you see below
Sorry, we just need to make sure you're not a robot. For best results, please make sure your browser is accepting cookies.
|
|||||||
877
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 14
|
https://www.last.fm/music/Chico%2BHamilton
|
en
|
Chico Hamilton music, videos, stats, and photos
|
[
"https://www.last.fm/static/images/defaults/player_default_album.430223706b14.png",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/05e8d7b885e52857b5b0ee8bf149c0af.jpg",
"https://img.youtube.com/vi/YWC7NeP7rDc/0.jpg",
"https://www.last.fm/static/images/dummy_user1_48@2x.55894782493f.png",
"https://www.last.fm/static/images/dummy_user2_48@2x.f6167a344161.png",
"https://www.last.fm/static/images/dummy_user3_48@2x.328e35aa45e7.png",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/300x300/5f5dfadcc6ec40549db8c4c525bad211.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/300x300/1c0e6d21bcf94499958be8999cf6e595.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/300x300/1fc2adb77cd7cf02a6f822ebe7829277.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/64s/aaaa3366cdf74c13931766c93f5db9dd.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/64s/3913d74bc70a57730ece7ee27a91d518.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/64s/4b80a5a2c3ac2995e029a3260bf907eb.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/64s/aaaa3366cdf74c13931766c93f5db9dd.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/64s/383586780e95d89819702b1db26bab58.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/64s/3913d74bc70a57730ece7ee27a91d518.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/64s/7ff23527c6d2eb2407c8a8dd69e8df7d.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/64s/4ef88e3b4ecf4aefb4500bc2ea7a6b51.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/64s/54a26bcc4ead4ab7b0b6492b552e73b7.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/64s/3913d74bc70a57730ece7ee27a91d518.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/300x300/3030c3b8e0027d289fd675451e28268d.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/300x300/383586780e95d89819702b1db26bab58.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/300x300/4b80a5a2c3ac2995e029a3260bf907eb.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/300x300/3913d74bc70a57730ece7ee27a91d518.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/db6c1a9d2882cea814157029a52d4df5",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/fca9b97f64168c885e1de8798ab28040",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/7fcdb0290c036833bfa6b3a7c07d66c8",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/af3c46f313664613872a20f1dfa69b73",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/99cd321a1666c992ec6766bfef4e5796",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/29965fb5e7d042a3b360da0829393e02",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/84c2c927d7e2449ebf65c8a0ed370d56",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/f8ea5e8a01d540b499f04668755b73f2",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/c2ac35f9fcbc27105373c0c9608257d3",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/95da728764784fc3a592ed25c03d2fdc",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/db6c1a9d2882cea814157029a52d4df5",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/fca9b97f64168c885e1de8798ab28040",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/7fcdb0290c036833bfa6b3a7c07d66c8",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/af3c46f313664613872a20f1dfa69b73",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/99cd321a1666c992ec6766bfef4e5796",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/29965fb5e7d042a3b360da0829393e02",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/84c2c927d7e2449ebf65c8a0ed370d56",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/f8ea5e8a01d540b499f04668755b73f2",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/c2ac35f9fcbc27105373c0c9608257d3",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/avatar170s/95da728764784fc3a592ed25c03d2fdc",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/300x300/5f5dfadcc6ec40549db8c4c525bad211.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/300x300/1c0e6d21bcf94499958be8999cf6e595.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/300x300/1fc2adb77cd7cf02a6f822ebe7829277.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/300x300/0c50ded057474217aa488efbc38caa31.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/300x300/2ebcd4f0abd44d87bf65d54e0f31bd18.jpg",
"https://lastfm.freetls.fastly.net/i/u/300x300/5bbeeb0009f64f5d8edd0f16a490ae4f.jpg",
"https://www.last.fm/static/images/footer_logo@2x.49ca51948b0a.png"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2024-02-10T00:00:00
|
Listen to music from Chico Hamilton like Monday Monday, Gengis & more. Find the latest tracks, albums, and images from Chico Hamilton.
|
en
|
Last.fm
|
https://www.last.fm/music/Chico%2BHamilton
|
112 103 117 114 123 81 71 78 82 100 119 102 122 133 111 143 143 116 129 103 99 102 100 131 140 82 85 78 81 74 87 86 104 121 95 103 94 110 104 106 106 97 80 107 103 102 97 87 91 95 84 97 114 112 126 125 110 121 129 140 158 150 133 131 129 149 127 152 149 125 130 131 128 122 136 142 135 116 131 122 121 123 113 119 152 148 142 145 138 125 91 89 119 139 129 125 123 114 98 99 111 106 131 121 141 149 156 143 175 166 155 159 134 126 158 143 148 160 146 150 134 156 169 166 165 153 130 138 160 155 172 180 203 172 158 209 233 124 116 112 85 84 108 105 114 91 120 131 131 119 119 97 102 119 105 92 115 146 117 100 107 94 98 108 124 108 86 95 88 94 72 93 119 121 118 127 125 122 117 104 85 112 103 117 114 123 81 71 78 82 100 119 102 122 133 111 143 143 116 129 103 99 102 100 131 140 82 85 78 81 74 87 86 104 121 95 103 94 110 104 106 106 97 80 107 103 102 97 87 91 95 84 97 114 112 126 125 110 121 129 140 158 150 133 131 129 149 127 152 149 125 130 131 128 122 136 142 135 116 131 122 121 123 113 119 152 148 142 145 138 125 91 89 119 139 129 125 123 114 98 99 111 106 131 121 141 149 156 143 175 166 155 159 134 126 158 143 148 160 146 150 169 166 165 153 130 138 160 155 172 180 203 172 158 209 233 124 116 112 85 84 91 120 131 131 119 119 97 102 119 105 92 115 146 117 100 107 94 98 108 124 108 86 95 88 94 72 93 119 121 118 127 125 122 117 104 85
|
|||||
877
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 16
|
https://open.spotify.com/album/1S6E3brkqhENRa4Gh4tiSc
|
en
|
Trio!
|
https://i.scdn.co/image/ab67616d0000b2737712404ecb83464221aa87d5
|
https://i.scdn.co/image/ab67616d0000b2737712404ecb83464221aa87d5
|
[] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
1993-12-31T00:00:00
|
Listen to Trio! on Spotify · Album · Chico Hamilton · 1993 · 9 songs
|
en
|
Spotify
|
https://open.spotify.com/album/1S6E3brkqhENRa4Gh4tiSc
| ||||
877
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 43
|
https://www.washingtoninformer.com/jazz-drummer-chico-hamilton-passes-away-at-92/
|
en
|
Jazz Drummer Chico Hamilton Passes Away at 92
|
[
"https://i0.wp.com/www.washingtoninformer.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/1-Logo-Red-on-White.png?fit=1024%2C1024&ssl=1",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/c38b1e278d1becb99325849c9af3dc5f?s=80&d=mm&r=g",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.washingtoninformer.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/211e3d37d8ba3a27440f6a7067005b85.jpg?fit=512%2C383&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.washingtoninformer.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Informer_logo_new3.png?resize=250%2C93&ssl=1",
"https://i1.wp.com/www.washingtoninformer.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/211e3d37d8ba3a27440f6a7067005b85.jpg?resize=512%2C383&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.washingtoninformer.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/8-22-2024-Informer-Edition-1.jpg?fit=780%2C886&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.washingtoninformer.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/2024-Back-To-School-Supplement-1.jpg?fit=1650%2C1875&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.washingtoninformer.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/washington-informer-charities.jpg?fit=780%2C551&ssl=1",
"https://i0.wp.com/www.washingtoninformer.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/1-Logo-Red-on-White.png?fit=1024%2C1024&ssl=1"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"Washington Informer"
] |
2013-11-29T20:03:18+00:00
|
CHARLES J. GANS, Associated Press NEW YORK (AP) — Foreststorn “Chico” Hamilton, an influential jazz drummer and bandleader who was an architect of the West Coast cool jazz style and was known for discovering young talent, has died. He was 92. His publicist, April Thibeault, said Hamilton died Monday night of natural causes at his […]
|
en
|
The Washington Informer
|
https://www.washingtoninformer.com/jazz-drummer-chico-hamilton-passes-away-at-92/
|
NEW YORK (AP) — Foreststorn “Chico” Hamilton, an influential jazz drummer and bandleader who was an architect of the West Coast cool jazz style and was known for discovering young talent, has died. He was 92.
His publicist, April Thibeault, said Hamilton died Monday night of natural causes at his home in New York.
A National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Master who was saluted as a Living Jazz Legend by the Kennedy Center, Hamilton recorded more than 60 albums as a bandleader, beginning in the 1950s, and also appeared in and scored films.
He continued playing into his 90s and recorded an album “Inquiring Minds” last month with his Euphoria ensemble scheduled for release in early 2014.
Some of the future jazz stars nurtured in his bands included guitarists Jim Hall, Gabor Szabo and Larry Coryell, saxophonists Eric Dolphy and Charles Lloyd, and bassist Ron Carter.
Born in 1921 in Los Angeles, Hamilton performed in a high school jazz band that included saxophonist Dexter Gordon, bassist Charles Mingus and other classmates destined to become jazz greats. He told jazz writer Marc Myers that he believes he acquired the name Chico because “I was always a small dude.”
He worked as a sideman in the 1940s with Slim Gaillard, Lionel Hampton, Count Basie and others. He toured with singer Lena Horne from 1948-55, and between tours did studio work and played with bands in Los Angeles.
That’s where he hooked up with baritone saxophonist Gerry Mulligan in 1952. Hamilton’s subtle, creative drum playing was a key component of Mulligan’s groundbreaking piano-less quartet featuring trumpeter Chet Baker that was pivotal in the creation of the mellower, more lyrical West Coast cool jazz sound. Hamilton’s understated, seductive approach to the drums contrasted with the driving, hard-bop style typified by East Coast drummer Art Blakey.
“I’ve always seen the drums as a melodic instrument, not a percussive one,” Hamilton told Myers in 2009. “I developed a touch. It may not be as loud but it’s mine.”
Among those inspired by Hamilton was Rolling Stones drummer Charlie Watts, who as a teenager heard a recording by Mulligan’s quartet.
“As it happened, Chico Hamilton was playing drums on the first record I bought,” Watts said in a Los Angeles Times interview. “I can’t really explain how the music made me feel. It was just something with the sound of the brushes. But I just fell in love with it.”
Watts later was interviewed for the 1994 documentary “Chico Hamilton: Dancing to a Different Drummer” and made a guest appearance on Hamilton’s 2001 album “Foreststorn.”
In 1955, Hamilton began his career as a bandleader. He recorded his first album as a leader for the Pacific Jazz label in a trio with bassist George Duvivier and guitarist Howard Roberts that was noteworthy because all three musicians played as soloists rather than strictly as rhythm section players.
Later that year, he formed an unusually instrumented chamber jazz quintet — which included cellist Fred Katz, flutist Buddy Collette and guitarist Hall — that became one of the most influential West Coast jazz bands and gained national prominence.
The group — with flutist Paul Horn and guitarist John Pisano — made a cameo appearance in the 1957 Burt Lancaster-Tony Curtis film, “Sweet Smell of Success.” Hamilton’s band — with Dolphy on flute — gave a memorable performance in the 1960 Newport Jazz Festival documentary “Jazz on a Summer’s Day.” He later revamped the band’s sound, replacing the cellist with a trombonist, to give it a bluesier, more hard-edged sound, recording albums for the Impulse, Columbia and Soul Jazz labels.
In the mid-1960s, Hamilton formed a company to score films and commercials. He wrote the music for the 1967 movie “Repulsion,” director Roman Polanski’s first English-language film, and also composed the theme for the TV cartoon series “The Gerald McBoing-Boing Show.”
In 1987, Hamilton was a founding member of the jazz faculty at the New School University, where his students included John Popper of Blues Traveler and Eric Schenkman of The Spin Doctors. That same year he formed a new band called Euphoria that toured and recorded extensively for the independent Joyous Shout! label, including releasing four new albums to celebrate his 85th birthday in 2006.
Hamilton is survived by his daughter, Denise; his brother Don; one granddaughter and two great-granddaughters. His wife, Helen, and his brother, Bernie, an actor who played the police captain in the TV series “Starsky and Hutch,” both died in 2008.
|
|||||
877
|
dbpedia
|
0
| 55
|
https://www.allaboutjazz.com/news/chico-hamilton-at-strollers/
|
en
|
Jazz news: Chico Hamilton: At Strollers
|
[
"https://www.allaboutjazz.com/images/navbar/hamburger.svg",
"https://www.allaboutjazz.com/images/navbar/search.png",
"https://www.allaboutjazz.com/images/navbar/calendar.svg",
"https://www.allaboutjazz.com/images/logo/aajyellow.png",
"https://www.allaboutjazz.com/images/navbar/aajpro.png",
"https://www.allaboutjazz.com/images/navbar/profile.svg",
"https://www.allaboutjazz.com/images/navbar/heart-icon.svg",
"https://www.allaboutjazz.com/images/nXy69d2A.png",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/logo/1024pxMarcMyers.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/coverart/large/bb533bd07667ec86ad3f97c8afa31cd8.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/profile/musician/db607c553690dc5ce0b3e504eba0eac2.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/images/ads/showcase/orderitem-12879-1158651757.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/coverart/large/ff7245c8094331e3531ae9857f503952.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/coverart/large/20f9efef7a542d33ea5bdaff5319cea9.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/coverart/large/1cbcec5efad78d5c9033f37a16552cc3.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/images/ads/orderitem-12983-1867967442.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/coverart/large/08bad6f376671d3e8769ba951d558f9d.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/737c2238417d8f0999759c5fb20f1478.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/3e963598a165c00a7a3b7c45381cbea5.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/76e4d8b72c88cdd8778ea21b99736969.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/1fe58bfdb2ff926b4bb43c28bc969fa8.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/30207575f484b4994e90b58c0f28718f.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/82c9ddee22de8d27bfe652d329b0720d.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/e593ddc7f2c73006be829e45717d6b72.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/48a9a0a12c60a05dc69b86648bd97131.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/e593ddc7f2c73006be829e45717d6b72.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/67cf7f4ae150bee31f9edb0c2a79859f.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/f948a22c05fd3b5a1b029bc2f9548926.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/5b43ba28e162151b7b42ecffa7bacd32.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/news/309e32ad29e2d66c139acdd504283148.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/060cae6dc65af964d39834e4c58b9b5c.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/84193f4fccb1ac8ef5393ccca30848ef.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/a_medium/9ddb298004422b07d60579120201c4c7.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/2010/54fea723532450e028b77f0301843128.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/2010/4f7ac776c5f2ba41d169307a2efc4f59.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/2010/598646e153085a14b57f368868677468.jpg",
"https://s3.amazonaws.com/allaboutjazz/photos/news/megaphoneman2015b.jpg",
"https://www.allaboutjazz.com/images/logo/AAJyellow.png",
"https://www.allaboutjazz.com/images/logo/JNYyellow.png"
] |
[
"https://www.youtube.com/embed/z4y_9jxwRfA"
] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[
"MARC MYERS >",
"Marc Myers",
"All About Jazz"
] |
1970-01-01T00:00:00
|
Jazz news: Chico Hamilton: At Strollers. Posted in “Video / DVD” column. Published: September 3, 2019 @ All About Jazz
|
en
|
https://www.allaboutjazz.com/icon/favicon.ico
|
All About Jazz
|
https://www.allaboutjazz.com/news/chico-hamilton-at-strollers/
|
Home » Jazz News » Video / DVD
|
||||
877
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 57
|
https://www.murodoclasirock.com/2024/08/i-teoremi-1972.html
|
en
|
Muro do Classic Rock: I Teoremi (1972)
|
[
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEg5AsZCafSdw1NBDmZcVyY2CnNBhRJ2a-MNPZsgvKpaDMpPAmnqCz4pd_bsjzdSNV-_NZnLzAStyqdbqy6E2h9-XsGuQquHRnekpnORJfo7BPB5J2SF_BKBdOzB-QHGfzqkZShL45lge-yeF9hSz5KMJWm9ET7abRkHDjyQ58X_4u4HKqx_qQNI6cLa=s808",
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9kqU35dit8KpH4T0T7VMPjL3PRtUjCnfMbJoROmvWTQcHbI7sigZBd_Vgfl0QVQgsQGCPjzBJTAhw6YKThpNK63h6rITu2J41Q-STpTmwqJPGDfeIxGr3QX8yU2sAZ-IS2mIdQCwjVnRLp4-64k7efd0A5SrAPMtb4e118fu7h1POMmmLg36LIlalkZc/s16000/I%20Teoremi%20%20Front.jpg",
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBrxgkb_r08cTE6m22fBig29jZz8lWbEcJEVKM8wP5IpB-vfj6yWZ9wuAWlB6I3Hlcccu9gK8BDsD7BcW4TLTmshvINiwqHo2w_Y3ILGu4gZGdB0WYJd-pFN95AmI82iWbNGLR7TRDiQU0xd_Qqj28EcW3Y9DtMd0-Qwv4Vc2xagQrMxyHfBymN4sfczE/s16000/I%20Teoremi%20%20Back.jpg",
"https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-g5NeToLiby4/YUywEFIQDdI/AAAAAAAAD1k/hfu6rq_XhhoJ1NboKpE97ovXmCXOPNhlQCLcBGAsYHQ/s0/Senha%2B2.jpg",
"https://resources.blogblog.com/img/icon18_edit_allbkg.gif",
"https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-eOMrZFyec4Y/YQp0A9wgRNI/AAAAAAAAB28/_e9OyaKuBrwSeEAybwlBiX_lptDEbbpKACLcBGAsYHQ/s185/banner.gif",
"https://counter8.optistats.ovh/private/webcontadores.php?c=r3yqqubzkxdx9pfhxymljz4buht76e8b",
"https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-6WXo-AYkYs8/YQqT1XflGsI/AAAAAAAAB4M/a_GESrvCoaMWnRKHv0jQ-OduSdFAG9mIwCLcBGAsYHQ/s185/Senha%2B1.jpg",
"https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-q0oL5rOsGA8/YQks83dAiTI/AAAAAAAABJ0/ojrHGEAbGhwjnHhbfkh-GdAEij_l6y-XwCLcBGAsYHQ/s249/Pedidos.jpg",
"https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-GImI7fcdFG8/YQqTwHmyeUI/AAAAAAAAB4I/dQq5wT9nEo0cmTMCqyu9W81Z69m53bE8ACLcBGAsYHQ/s185/Senha%2B1.jpg",
"https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-vpSNMJVvdYg/YQkpLCLVScI/AAAAAAAABJc/qGtzzOasXXYaNOmEuRubgxS_UiziT40xwCLcBGAsYHQ/s185/R%25C3%25A1dio%2Bno%2BMundo%2Bdo%2BRock.jpg",
"https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hglWq9zrRM8/YQkpXGpm4BI/AAAAAAAABJk/d2CZVrn96VIuUlN6E0VoOjmWkkqpj6vKQCLcBGAsYHQ/s200/26941777_934124586738610_815098584_o.jpg",
"https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-3X9mv4nCncQ/YZeX_1-nRUI/AAAAAAAAK7w/qlTW8iVvXq4M2M4D0C0t7e3RZapNmUAbgCLcBGAsYHQ/s200/WhatsApp%2BImage%2B2021-11-16%2Bat%2B13.36.29.jpeg",
"https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-3uFiEKtsGro/YZzX4lCy8dI/AAAAAAAAK8A/qkDr-iEcqzALXUcd_bHmjre1gWF9Kxu_gCLcBGAsYHQ/s200/pxIwf.jpg",
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgvHFoTAj1NEmp5keqQD6_mJqHL5ae9n5nuz4AVYtKHjv7l6jKmjfT89UF1-1keWbI0RQH-T6MWySN9XPuQ7uNkvPwiYoT8UwVQorfBiT8hhUkcd9JZEkQEzYr54B6XaIGlT3HcvUv-GQztZJbbG-AEPK6k1t2H6wku0tPUQFF2LsEiLnOEfCDzqg7-=s185",
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUU08RUoZCNqdXt7_9HaqDfFQrglM-otGuddCr9tW6s8cKHVp5ypgP1XP2w_qLIbZEIs5-PKLUx0_O2_k-zYnQ8ngpIt_2U0BJll8AmKxptLSXAC9GjpOHeNTsvvpE7Erz3GIjcfQG9xMMthF9OFg7a_lmZDSY5JVKuY-yHbmtEdDrRF1htoiVU9w3oXQ/w72-h72-p-k-no-nu/1.png",
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjviyERf6KtUA4ZjyLk_mCj43IqAmXdkB-OnT0LwWZg8NKAkNFR18G_8kuTXklNKiE59tQoWfMsGZSBfRK4GYDNpvOrhm3NFOhWdYcGxqKdsLEBw2KUxieuXhBTGOXq54LQm_4MWIqikoh706xpuX2vIsZd4bFnInzdSlO8_kicFQUc4s8nrhbYYJuU=w72-h72-p-k-no-nu",
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiiU75cNkT6sXTRXIy3VKQGa5kl3j2c5eThX3Xs-p7XukT0NDay6qwxHXxGXD0LXn6Ro4EOG6BMdO0vWuZgF013Pet7Em2MQb_LpNH9Po5bTmYAtoxvJ3J_kUOzrju-yJ9VWzO6EjuoK-kwEUWs6i1kY4Qd-zlVHgKLdn4BAcTieYQG6FZUemO7QwlG=w72-h72-p-k-no-nu",
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEghAi8vB4DnztVHikiJ9aqRRe8fV-dhJ3JBodNTU5QlXrKetiUtyna4RLiyDTwUrTXegNtXwUNasGzY5B04HEDY0YEaVmUbyKDnH1qaCe2Pk3yir4Vu8FuiwWydqTeuhqqzdhR-Ml5VxEJVbkNCdnCifUWlpmsEjCKIkNbLUjn1Tuch5YMoqVYRfiZb=w72-h72-p-k-no-nu",
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgHeYDUudSL6NU9q3quieQ4osqu_m4Na3M_jDiM1CCFeTejxugTEQljl8URVBQO-Xbp5A1N8wkbj6v3QSb-3V_niYeasXCPro2K4DhX3C9NgzkMZVOIXp0hUB5H0Xwxp7HyKXycMay8msCQyDNMWh24XmIyHUHcvrafgw5yJfK6du8opRoS2rtXQKCU=w72-h72-p-k-no-nu",
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSL0dmVtkKMll2v9_7YKUsdDxZOPn8ySk2fu_gQ3LsmrolZf_zvSUgOpf5HXBU7oJkMv8sT8s795PLRD8O6ot7bxGsTPNzsf9_Ujlifl_NpTzrDnkjYWps4mW1YrzUx24c3YVuW209FvausxiUBlIuLXo6gZZ3dZ_CT6mpo1_SB_2xvA5RWtRD_M5o77o/w72-h72-p-k-no-nu/Capa.jpg",
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEid4ICCHJymqzypj1cmQ0tpxqLJa-DCi15sWmlpRmh0g-PDXmpHEV7Fg3Tj0uVZnUOoJN-52rFc_QrHnrxZepEnegQyR3SQyZHaT0Q3zfb8ynOK1PkJZD5LDpiAi8lJcpoRtnVZ0wCBuGvRJNhBIPdwcUTeZrIZQftcfw0LKv-eUPBntqafVC7Qk2FQ/w72-h72-p-k-no-nu/Capa.jpg",
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjUsz9b2U5E2lKr4Oz4ABcFZxhx5TwcThsUC2ix2T8Mry7A0Z58a5f5XLDG6YDnX-tJee11mCwP06CNGGP2AL1slSdggFu6Y1bAwZI2V8lr_6_mZlrI2-UJyq_cuxGSVp9DWRxOvKE8z11XsuLAnTtZtzc1tKA1GD2h6loZpQHlziaBoKqDu0rGFzhS=w72-h72-p-k-no-nu",
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgWzCANgXwIPJt93ou2oIaOAkNm5R_6O9YKjy-tmK7ud0v36n-XmW4x04bTZ-cQyvEyn5Y5U70oATjs3GnCsFfwUAsS3kFfCWOZr-xtQPJODT_CrBSy36vSOPfbC9CNlGlEOFWpEYzQTxwyhv2XfhEZk5c4-r6caPSyqhj9M0s_Yw63hg4kBrLrFj95=w72-h72-p-k-no-nu",
"https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2DjvwWEYLZLrzpdKT2VgkZT16wcfzAWYA_wXYd6SPVvIeH6XnLNudEauPH1Zip0dQqwH8-6yIhLzPmpjeFSjhEUAgQZfW8Kqdj7BCSeicAgbnKketOuhLk31H6nv3AmOnrASf5CRcujjoQa28OW1gob4ri4rPKdh1_th-58bAzaj2sy2ubnfQp_QtGn8/w72-h72-p-k-no-nu/Capa.jpg"
] |
[] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] | null |
I Teoremi foi um grupo de rock italiano do início dos anos 70. Em 1972, a banda lançou um álbum homônimo e um single, seus únicos registro...
|
https://www.murodoclasirock.com/favicon.ico
|
https://www.murodoclasirock.com/2024/08/i-teoremi-1972.html
| |||||||
877
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 35
|
https://www.artsjournal.com/jazzbeyondjazz/2017/02/spring-break-with-budapest-jazz-photos.html
|
en
|
Spring break with Budapest jazz, photos
|
http://www.artsjournal.com/jazzbeyondjazz/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/20170203_JSC_Jazzonance_c_Posztos_Janos_Mupa_002.jpg
|
http://www.artsjournal.com/jazzbeyondjazz/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/20170203_JSC_Jazzonance_c_Posztos_Janos_Mupa_002.jpg
|
[
"http://www.artsjournal.com/jazzbeyondjazz/wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/anajblog.png",
"https://www.artsjournal.com/jazzbeyondjazz/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/20170203_JSC_Jazzonance_c_Posztos_Janos_Mupa_002.jpg",
"https://www.artsjournal.com/jazzbeyondjazz/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/JazzonanceExhibition-JazzShowcaseBudapest_2017_1-300x200.jpg",
"https://www.artsjournal.com/jazzbeyondjazz/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/BudapestJazzonance_2017-wider-300x200.jpg",
"https://www.artsjournal.com/jazzbeyondjazz/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/FabianHarcsaGajer-GalaConcert-JazzshowcaseBudapest_2017-300x200.jpg",
"https://www.artsjournal.com/jazzbeyondjazz/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/MuhalRichardAbrams-SaalfeldenAustria_2012-200x300.jpg",
"https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/6697a3143257ba6c00efab8bdb714512?s=125&d=mm&r=g",
"http://www.artsjournal.com/jazzbeyondjazz/essentials.button.forjbj.png"
] |
[
"https://www.youtube.com/embed/Aa4BJN43s1Q?version=3&rel=1&showsearch=0&showinfo=1&iv_load_policy=1&fs=1&hl=en-US&autohide=2&wmode=transparent"
] |
[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2017-02-21T19:52:00+00:00
|
I went to Budapest for spring break — to introduce a photo exhibit by my Transylvanian-born friend  Sánta István Csaba and help jury the 10th annual Müpa Budapest Jazz Showcase/Talent E…
|
en
|
Jazz Beyond Jazz
|
https://www.artsjournal.com/jazzbeyondjazz/2017/02/spring-break-with-budapest-jazz-photos.html
|
I went to Budapest for spring break — to introduce a photo exhibit by my Transylvanian-born friend  Sánta István Csaba and help jury the 10th annual Müpa Budapest Jazz Showcase/Talent Exchange, held in the modernist musem and multi-theater complex on the east bank of the icy Danube Feb 3 – 5.
As I wrote in my  DownBeat article, the sound of the 12 sets I heard was jazz as we think of it now — virtuosic horns, piano/keyboards and/or guitar, upright or electric basses and drums; vocalists singing standards, spicing up r&b grooves, toying with electronics; popular rhythms addressed through personal perspectives.
There was a faint aura of the music of the Roma — gypsies — in the air, emanating not only from the quartets led by pianist Gyula Balogh and drummer Toni Snétberger, with members from that community. It was hard to define — no overt Django Reinhardt, figurations or repertoire, but a tinge of darkness and interiority in those bands, and what I imagined was witchy wailing by singer Petra Kész with her performance art-like trio Cymbal Rush (video of that show below).
Still, as in the Saturday night jam session at the Budapest Jazz Club – a very cool hangout which advertised Jeff “Tain” Watts, Joe Lovano and Steve Coleman as coming attractions supplementing local groups, the vibe was familiar from my travels in Armenia, the Azores, Berlin, Cuba, Denmark, Gambia, Italy, St. Petersberg, Tampere, Trinidad, Ukraine as well as the States. Whatever a community’s resources, there are commonalities in the jazz world everywhere, this capital of Central Europe most definitely included.
The singing in English, allusions to Monk (as I took the approach of alto saxophonist Gábor Baris’s Version), reverence for Coltrane (especially by alto/soprano saxist Tamás Ludányi) and interest in Herbie Hancock bleeding over to pop stars such as J Dilla (by drummer David Hodek, grooving with American pianist Paul Cornish and bassist Joshua Crumbly) and Betty Wright (smoldering singer Janka Vörös’ finale), with Santa’s 2.5 x 2 meter closeups of U.S. jazz masters on the walls  –“Jazzonance” was Müpa’s exhibit title  — and companionable journo/jurists from Sofia, Slovenia, London, plus Budapest-based freelancer Kornél Zipernovszky and the generously great Hungarian guitarist Gyula Babos – let me feel almost at home, while refreshed by particular differences.
Such as the architecture — 19th and 20th century glories, variously preserved, restored or abandoned. Proud museums, palaces and six-story apartment buildings with ground-floor retail shops and cafés, on concentric circular boulevards. The Gellert Hill Cave, thermal baths and church in St. Ivan’s grottos. Trams running up each side of the river, the Danube’s bridges rebuilt since Nazi destruction in WWII. The old market, stalls hung with paprika-colored sausages, an instructive display of wild mushrooms tucked in a corner.  The Castle District of hilly Buda, overlooking the plain of Pest.
All contrasting with but complementary to the Jazz Showcase/Talent Exchange (wherein some of the Hungarians travel to perform at London’s 606 Club, and others are booked into events via the Hungarian Jazz Federation, part of the European Jazz Network). Müpa’s decade-old program struck me as an effort rooted in an artistically sophisticated city, one cognizant of its complex, conflicted past and evidently eager to thrive in the present, the better for whatever’s to come.
As usual, creative music with drive and feeling seems to well up as a significant if not essential ingredient in a culture, with such ambitions embraced towards those very ends. The basics of individual expression amid group collaborations performed for the entertainment and enlightenment of general audiences have been well established here. The integration of attractive, useful ideas coming from myriad sources is, at least superficially, high. I had just a quick visit, and no doubt experienced a mere slip of what’s happening in Budapest. But I liked what I heard and saw.
howardmandel.com
Subscribe by Email or RSS
All JBJ posts
|