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2073	dbpedia	3	10	http://shanxi.chinadaily.com.cn/taiyuan/2022-04/01/c_729686.htm	en	Mi Fu			[ "http://subsites.chinadaily.com.cn/shanxi/taiyuan/att/3007.files/i/article-logo2.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "Taiyuan" ]	null	[]	2022-04-01T00:00:00	Mi Fu (1051-1107), born in Taiyuan in North China's Shanxi province, is a famous calligrapher, ink painter, calligraphy and painting theorist and scholar from the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127).	en			null	Mi Fu (1051-1107), born in Taiyuan in North China's Shanxi province, is a famous calligrapher, ink painter, calligraphy and painting theorist and scholar from the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127). Together with Cai Xiang, Su Shi and Huang Tingjian, Mi is considered one of the "four great calligraphers of the Song Dynasty (960-1279)". Mi's landscape paintings have a unique style, giving him the title of "father of Chinese impressionism". Mi once worked as a military senior official in Guilin, South China's Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region, in his twenties, which had a significant influence on his artistic evolution. He used different ink shades and large dots applied with a flat brush to render slowly flowing landscapes of rivers and clouds, pioneering an abstract style. He was also quite accomplished in calligraphy and was capable of various calligraphic styles. He was also adept at copying ancient calligraphy artworks that could pass as the real ones.
2073	dbpedia	1	48	https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/imperial-china/song-dynasty/a/an-introduction-to-the-song-dynasty-9601279	en	An Introduction to the Song dynasty (960–1279) (article)	https://cdn.kastatic.org…background-2.png	https://cdn.kastatic.org…background-2.png	[ "https://cdn.kastatic.org/images/google_classroom_color.png", "https://cdn.kastatic.org/images/avatars/svg/duskpin-sapling.svg", "https://cdn.kastatic.org/images/avatars/svg/blobby-green.svg", "https://cdn.kastatic.org/images/avatars/svg/robot_female_3.svg", "https://cdn.kastatic.org/images/avatars/svg/blob...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.	en	https://cdn.kastatic.org/images/favicon.ico?logo	Khan Academy	https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/imperial-china/song-dynasty/a/an-introduction-to-the-song-dynasty-9601279	Scholars often refer to the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) dynasties as the "medieval" period of China. The civilizations of the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) dynasties of China were among the most advanced civilizations in the world at the time. Discoveries in the realms of science, art, philosophy, and technology—combined with a curiosity about the world around them—provided the men and women of this period with a worldview and level of sophistication that in many ways were unrivaled until much later times, even in China itself. The Song dynasty was the second great "medieval" period of China. But unlike the Tang, it coexisted uneasily with powerful rivals to the north. These rivals were the Khitan Tartars of Manchuria and Mongolia, kept at bay only through costly bribes, and the Jurchen people of Central Asia, who were intent on conquering China but could not be influenced by payoffs. While the Song dynasty managed to recapture—and develop—much of the glory of the Tang, it did suffer a blow in 1127 when the Jurchen took the capital of Kaifeng, and sent the Song Chinese administration southward, to establish the Southern Song capital at Hangzhou, near modern Shanghai. Still the Northern Song (while it lasted) and the Southern Song (from 1127 until 1279) achieved incredible feats of learning, science, art, and philosophy. To the Chinese, the Song was a period certainly as great as the Tang. International trade and exchange of ideas continued to flourish, although (during the later Song) primarily through expanding networks of southern sea ports and ocean-going argosies. Song intellectuals reacted to the threatened existence of their dynasty by developing a defensive, inward-looking strategy: a belief that the Chinese and only the Chinese were capable of true greatness. Some closed their minds to the world outside China and set about the task of defining Chinese canons of proper behavior, government, and arts. Most Buddhist doctrines (judged to be non-Chinese) were largely purged during the Song, and the native Chinese philosophies of Confucianism (in particular) and Taoism saw a resurgence. In fact the great philosopher Zhu Xi taught hopeful students a new and “purer” version of Confucianism that came to be called “Neo-Confucianism.” This philosophy tried to recapture the Confucianism of the past, while integrating other philosophical ideas that had since come into existence. Neo-Confucianism taught people proper Chinese views of the cosmos and of behavior, and provided answers for other “big questions” of life. Most of its ideas and practices survive to the present day, and have also had a notable impact on later societies in Korea and Japan. During the Song, great advances were also made in science and technology. Hydraulic engineering, from canal and bridge building to the construction of enormous seafaring vessels, was perfected. Chemical science, pursued in the secret laboratories of Taoist scholars, helped to produce important compounds and chemicals, including gunpowder—and by the year 1000, bombs and grenades became available to Song armies. Biology too made enormous strides: famous physicians conducted well-documented experiments, and many of their efforts helped to codify and improve what was already known in the healing arts of acupuncture and traditional medicine. Perhaps the most significant advance, however, was the invention of movable type printing, achieved around the year 1040, four hundred years before Gutenburg’s printing innovations in Europe. Song printed editions of texts—previously transmitted as handwritten manuscripts—helped to spread literacy and knowledge throughout the realm. Many books survive to this day; they are technological marvels that are highly prized as some of the most beautiful books ever produced. Song dynasty artists explored new themes and techniques in painting and ceramics. The Song interest in science and minute observation of the world resulted, somewhat paradoxically, in large- scale grand landscape paintings that explore the world in fine detail. New glazes and porcelain techniques flourished. Song artists were interested in both the monumental and the delicate; in the functional and the mysterious, all of which they recognized as intrinsic natural phenomenon of the world. Ordinary and educated people alike were exposed to art and literature through the new invention of printing, which encouraged the development of drama and fiction. Creative pursuits were unified by a cultural inclination to connoisseurship: the wealthy and even not-so-wealthy shared an interest in art, literature, and science, and cultivated good taste in their patronage of the arts. The Song love of the refined extended to relics and antiques, which helped to foster the nascent science of archaeology, as well as the older art of forgery. Connoisseurs embraced even cuisine and gardening, which were transformed into gentlemanly concerns for the first time. As with the Tang, Song poetry is held in high esteem by the Chinese, but it is different from the Tang varieties. Whereas Tang poets tried to capture fleeting moments and transcendent thoughts, Song masters enjoyed using poetry to explore all aspects of the world around them, including the mundane. Song poetry is thus filled with interesting, sometime humorous, accounts of picnics, travel, wine drinking, and even such quotidian events as going to the dentist or suffering in the summer heat. Nothing was off limits to the writers of Song, and with printing freely available, everything seemed to get published. While the surviving poems of the Tang might number in the tens of thousands, no one has inventoried how many poems survive from the Song; they could number as many as half a million.
2073	dbpedia	0	3	https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mi_Fu	en	New World Encyclopedia	https://www.newworldency…avicon-32x32.png	https://www.newworldency…avicon-32x32.png	[ "https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/images/nwe_header.jpg", "https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/d/images/thumb/7/7c/Mi_Fei_001.jpg/240px-Mi_Fei_001.jpg", "https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/d/images/thumb/1/1d/Mi_Fu_Shu_Su_Tie.jpg/240px-Mi_Fu_Shu_Su_Tie.jpg", "https://static.newworldencyclopedia.org/ski...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	https://static.newworldencyclopedia.org/favicon.ico		https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mi_Fu	Names Chinese: 米黻 Pinyin: Mǐ Fú Zi: Yuán Zhāng (元章) Also known as: Madman Mi (米顛) Mi Fu (Chinese: 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051 – 1107), also known as Mi Fei (米芾), Pinyin Mi Fei, original name (Wade-Giles Romanization) Mi Fu, also called Yüan-chang, Hai-yüeh Wai-shih, or Hsiang–yang Man-shih, was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan, Shanxi (太原) during the Song Dynasty (宋朝). In painting, he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes, the "Mi Fu" style, which involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry followed the style of Li Bai (李白) and his calligraphy that of Wang Xizhi (王羲之). His uninhibited style made him disliked at the Song court. He is best known for his calligraphy, and he was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. While he acquired his style by emulating other calligraphers from earlier dynasties, his style was unique and distinct. Mi Fu was raised in the imperial court alongside the imperial family, and exhibited exceptional talent in poetry, calligraphy, and memorization. However, his eccentric behavior resulted in his being frequently moved from one official post to another. In 1081, Mi Fu met Su Shih, the great poet, calligrapher, and art theorist, and together they formed a circle of brilliant artists who emphasized personal expression over mere technical excellence. The poetry of Su Shih, the figure painting of Li Kung-lin, and the calligraphy of Mi Fu became standards against which artists would be judged for the next five hundred years. Life Mi Fu was born in 1051, to a family that had held high office in the early years of the Sung dynasty (960–1279). His mother was the wet nurse of the emperor Ying Tsung (reigned 1063/64–1067/68), and he was raised within the Imperial precincts, mixing freely with the Imperial family. According to tradition, he was a very smart boy with a great interest in arts and letters and an astonishing ability to memorize. At the age of six he could learn a hundred poems a day and after going over them again, he could recite them all. He showed a precocious talent for calligraphy and painting. He disliked the formal lessons in the Confucian classics, but displayed a quick understanding of learned argument and an aptitude for poetry. His mother served the wife of the Emperor Renzong of Song (仁宗), and Mi Fu began his career as Reviser of Books in the capital of Kaifeng. In 1103, he was appointed a doctor of philosophy and was briefly military governor of Wu-wei in the province of Anhwei. He returned to the capital in 1104, as Professor of Painting and Calligraphy, and presented the Emperor with a painting by his son, I Yu-jen. He then served as Secretary to the Board of Rites, before being appointed Military Governor of Huaiyang. These frequent changes of official position were a result of Mi Fu's sharp tongue and his open criticism of official ways. He is said to have been a very capable official, but unwilling to submit to conventional rules; and he manifested a spirit of independence which caused him serious difficulties. He died in Huaiyang, in Kiangsu Province, at the age of fifty-two, and was buried in Tan-t'u, in Kiangsu Province; his epitaph was written by Mi Yu-jen. Mi Fu was married and had five sons, of whom only the two eldest survived infancy, and eight daughters. His son, Mi Youren, also became a famous painter in his father's artistic style. Unlike his father, Mi Youren lived to be quite elderly, dying at the age of 79. Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric. At times, he was referred to as "Madman Mi" because he was obsessed with collecting stones. He declared one stone to be his brother, and would bow to his "brother" rock in a display of the filial devotion usually given to older brothers. He also was known as a heavy drinker. Mi Fu was very peculiar in his manners and the way he dressed. Wherever he went, he attracted a crowd. He was also very fond of cleanliness. He used to have water standing at his side when working, because he washed his face very often. He would never wash in a vessel that had been used by someone else or put on clothes that had been worn by another person. Mi Fu's passion was collecting old writings and paintings. As his family wealth was gradually lost on relatives, he continued to collect and made every possible sacrifice to get the samples he wanted. According to one anecdote, once when Mi Fu was out in a boat with his friends, he was shown a sample of Wang Xianzhi’s writing and became so excited that he threatened to jump overboard unless the owner made him a present of it, a request which, apparently, could not be refused. Gradually his collection became a big treasury, and his simple house a meeting place for the greatest scholars of the time. He inherited some of the calligraphies in his collection, but others were acquired. He also exchanged the poorer quality ones for better ones. He wrote: “When a man of today obtains such an old sample it seems to him as important as his life, which is ridiculous. It is in accordance with human nature, that things which satisfy the eye, when seen for a long time become boring; therefore they should be exchanged for fresh examples, which then appear double satisfying. That is the intelligent way of using pictures.” Mi Fu was fanatical in regard to safeguarding, cleaning, and exhibiting of his pictures. He arranged his collection in two parts, one of which was kept secret or only for a few selected friends and another which could be shown to ordinary visitors. Historical background After the rise of the landscape painting, the creative activity which followed was of a more general kind and subject matter included both profane and religious figures, birds, flowers, and bamboo, in addition to landscapes. The painters were mostly highly intellectual scholars. To most of these men, painting was not a professional occupation but only one of the means by which they expressed their intellectual reactions to life and nature in visible symbols. Poetry and illustrative writing were in a sense even more important to them than painting, and they made their living as more or less prominent government officials if they did not depend on family wealth. Though some of them were true masters of ink-painting as well as of calligraphy, they avoided the fame and position of professional artists and became known as “gentleman-painters.” Artistic occupations such as calligraphy and painting were, to these men, activities to be done during leisure time while resting from official duties or practical occupations. The foundation of their technical mastery was training in calligraphy, which allowed them to transmit their thoughts with the same easiness in symbols of nature as in conventional characters. Their art became a very intimate kind of expression, or idea-writing as it was called in later times. The beauty of this art was closely associated with the apparent ease with which it was produced, but which could not be achieved without intense training and deep thought. Mi Fu was one of the highly gifted gentleman-painters. He was not a poet or philosopher; nevertheless he was brilliant intellectually. His keen talent for artistic observation, together with a sense of humor and literary ability, established him prominently among Chinese art-historians; his contributions in this field are still highly valued, because they are based on what he had observed with his own eyes and not simply on what he had heard or learned from his forerunners. Mi Fu had he courage to express his own views, even when these were different from the prevailing ones or from official opinions. His notes about painting and calligraphy are of great interest to art historians, because they are spontaneous expressions of his own observations and independent ideas and help to characterize himself as well as the artists whose works he discusses. Art In 1081, Mi Fei met Su Shih, the great poet, calligrapher, and art theorist. This was the beginning of the formation of a circle of brilliant artists. Other members of this group were Li Kung-lin, painter and antiquarian; Huang T'ing-chien, poet and calligrapher; and Chao Ta-nien, painter and art collector. Su Shih's cousin, the bamboo painter Wen T'ung, who had died in 1079, was also a key figure through his art and his influence on Su Shih. Out of their association came the theory and practice of wen-jen-hua, or literati painting, which has continued until the present to be the most dynamic and creative branch of painting. In place of the long-dominant view that painting was a public art, subject to public standards, scholar-painters held to the view expressed by Li Kung-lin: "I paint, as the poet sings, to give expression to my nature and emotions, and that is all."[1] These eleventh century scholars rediscovered the T'ang poet Tu Fu, now universally regarded as "China's greatest poet," who had been largely ignored; and rescued Ku K'ai-chih and Wang Wei, the two greatest scholar-painters of earlier centuries, from obscurity and lifted them to the eminence they have ever since enjoyed. The poetry of Su Shih, the figure painting of Li Kung-lin, and the calligraphy of Mi Fei became standards against which artists would be judged for the next five hundred years. For these scholar-artists, the personal relationships within their artistic and intellectual circle were very important. Art was nothing without personality, not in the sense of deliberate eccentricity, but as an expression and development of innate qualities such as strength of character, will, honesty, creativity, mental curiosity, and integrity. In 1060, Su Shih had written a poem comparing paintings by Wu Taotzu and Wang Wei, in which he declared that Wu Tao-tzu could finally be judged only in terms of the craft of painting, while Wang Wei, in contrast, "was basically an old poet" who "sought meaning beyond the forms."[2] Mi Fei was highly critical of art that was technically excellent but divorced from personal expression. He described the work of the imperial academicians and professional painters, who commanded a large popular audience, as "fit only to defile the walls of a wine shop." He even accused the academy of murdering one of its members because he was too gifted and original. Mi Fei and his friends admired the "untrammeled" masters of the ninth and tenth centuries, who had broken every rule and defied every classical model in their quest for artistic freedom, but felt they were far too uncontrolled and eccentric to be emulated. Instead, they admired the "primitive" and forgotten masters of the orthodox heritage. To Mi Fu, the brush was not only the sword of his proud spirit but a magic stick, which brought life whenever he held it in his hands to write or paint. The two arts of calligraphy and painting were to him essentially one and the same. In painting, he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style, deemed the "Mi Fu" style, involved the use of large wet dots of ink, described as "Mi dots," applied with a flat brush. Starting with very pale ink, he began painting on a slightly wet paper, amassing clusters of shadowed forms, then adding darker ink gradually, building up amorphous, drifting mountain silhouettes bathed in wet, cloaking mist. The style is best seen in a large hanging scroll, the Tower of the Rising Clouds. On the painting is an inscription: "Heaven sends a timely rain; clouds issue from mountains and streams."[3] His poetry followed the style of Li Bai (李白) and his calligraphy that of Wang Xizhi (王羲之). His uninhibited style made him disliked at the Song court. Mi Fu has been admired by later critics as one of the most important representatives of the "Southern School" of landscape painting. Most of the paintings attributed to him represent a rather definite type or pictorial style which existed also in later centuries, but unfortunately it cannot be determined to what extent they are Mi Fu's own creations. The general characteristics of his style are known, but it is not possible to be sure that the paintings ascribed to him represent the rhythm and spirit of his individual brush work, as is possible with the authentic samples of his calligraphy, which still exist. Therefore, he is remembered more as a skilled calligraphist, and for his influence as a critic and writer on art, rather than as a skilled landscape painter. Mi Fu was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. His style arises from that of calligraphers in earlier dynasties, but with a unique mark of his own. He was among those for whom writing, or calligraphy, was intimately connected with the composition of poetry or sketching. It required an alertness of mind and spirit, which he thought was best achieved through the enjoyment of wine, through which he reached a state of excitement rather than drunkenness. A friend of Mi Fu, Su Shi admired him and wrote that his brush was like a sharp sword handled skillfully in fight, or a bow which could shoot an arrow a thousand li, piercing anything that might be in its way. “It was the highest perfection of the art of calligraphy,” he wrote. Other critics claimed that only Mi Fu could imitate the style of the great calligraphists of the Six Dynasties. Mi Fu seems to have been an excellent imitator; some of these imitations were so good that they were taken for the originals. Mi Fu's son also testified that his father always kept some calligraphic masterpiece of the Tang or the Qin period in his desk as a model. At night he would place it in a box at the side of his pillow. According to some writings, Mi Fu did most of his paintings during the last seven years of his life, and he himself wrote that “he chose as his models the most ancient masters and painted guided by his own genius and not by any teacher, and thus represented the loyal men of antiquity.” The pictures which still pass under the name of Mi Fu represent ranges of wooded hills or cone-shaped mountain peaks rising out of layers of woolly mist. At their feet may be water, and closer towards the foreground, clusters of dark trees. One of the best known examples of this kind of Mi style is the small picture in the Palace Museum known as Spring Mountains and Pine-Trees. It is the size of a large album-leaf, but at the top of the picture is added a poem said to be by the emperor Emperor Gaozong of Song. The mountains and the trees rise above a layer of thick mist that fills the valley; they are painted in dark ink tones with a slight addition of color in a plumelike manner that hides their structure; it is the mist that is really alive. In spite of the striking contrast between the dark and the light tones, the general effect of the picture is dull, which may be the result of wear and retouching. Among the pictures which are attributed to Mi Fu, there are apparently imitations, painted in a similar manner with a broad and soft brush. They may be from Southern Song period, or possibly from the Yuan period, when some of the leading painters freely utilized the manner of Mi for expressing their own ideas. The majority are probably from the later part of Ming period, when a cult of Mi Fu followers that viewed him as the most important representative of the "Southern School" began. Mi Fu himself had seen many imitations, perhaps even of his own works, and he saw how wealthy amateurs spent their money on great names rather than on original works of art. He wrote: “They place their pictures in brocade bags and provide them with jade rollers as if they were very wonderful treasures, but when they open them one cannot but break out into laughter.” Mi Fu's own manner of painting has been characterized by writers who knew it through their own observation or through hearsay. It is said that he always painted on paper which had not been prepared with gum or alum (alauns); and never on silk or on the wall. In addition, he did not necessarily use the brush in painting with ink; sometimes he used paper sticks or sugar cane from which the juice had been extracted, or a calyx (kauss) of the lotus. Though Mi Fu was principally a landscape painter, he also did portraits and figure paintings of an old fashioned type. Nevertheless, he must have spent more time studying samples of ancient calligraphy and painting than producing pictures of his own. His book on History of Painting contains practical hints as to the proper way of collecting, preserving, cleaning and mounting pictures. Mi Fu was no doubt an excellent connoisseur who recognized quality in art. In spite of his rebellious spirit, his fundamental attitude was fairly conventional. He appreciated some of the well-recognized classics among the ancient masters and had little use for any of the contemporary painters. He sometimes had difficulty in admitting the values of others, and found more pleasure in making sharp and sarcastic remarks than in expressing his thoughts in a just and balanced way. Landscape painting was, to Mi Fu, superior to every other kind of painting; revealing his limitations and romantic flight: “The study of Buddhist paintings implies some moral advice; they are of a superior kind. Then follow the landscapes, then pictures of bamboo, trees, walls and stones, and then come pictures of flowers and grass. As to pictures of men and women, birds and animals, they are for the amusement of the gentry and do not belong to the class of pure art treasures.” Notes References ISBN links support NWE through referral fees
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2073	dbpedia	1	64	http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/east-asian-art/chinese-painters.htm	en	Chinese Painters, Artists: History, Biographies			[ "http://assets.pinterest.com/images/PinExt.png", "http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/images-history/chinese-herding.jpg", "http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/images/facebookimage.jpg", "http://www.google.com/images/icons/ui/gprofile_button-16.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "Chinese Painters", "History of Painting in China", "Periods/Movements", "Artists of Tang", "Song", "Yuan", "Ming", "Qing Dynasties" ]	null	[]	null	Chinese Painters: History, Biographies, Painting Styles and Extant Works: Painting in Ancient China, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, Qing Dynasties				null	Period of Disunity (221-589 CE) Gu Kaizhi (c.344-c.406) Born in Jiangsu province. One of the earliest important painters of antiquity known by name. He is known primarily as a figure painter and the source of one of the two principal styles of figure painting (the source of the other being Wu Daozi). By the ninth century, Gu's style was characterised as exhibiting fine continuous line, with a sensitive rendering of character. The most famous painting attributed to him, a hand-scroll entitled The Admonitiom of the Court Instructress, in the British Museum, is probably a close copy of sixth-century provenance. Other paintings linked with his name include various copies of the Nymph of the Luo River. Lu Tanwei (flourished 465-72) Was active in the reign of Mingdi of the Song (465-72). Though not one of his fine art paintings has survived it has been argued that the brick reliefs portraying The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove and Rong Qiqi, found in royal tombs of the Southern Dynasties at Nanjing and in Danyang county, Jiangsu province, may well be based on his work. Zhang Sengyou (flourished 500-50) Official in the Southern Dynasties under the Liang dynasty. Comparing his figure style with that of other early masters, Zhang Yanyuan wrote that Zhang Sengyou obtained the flesh, Lu Tanwei the bone, and Gu Kaizhi the spirit of their subjects. He painted religious and figural subjects on the walls of Buddhist and Daoist temples, and also landscapes. The Five Planets and Twenty-eight Constellations, Osaka Municipal Museum, Japan, a copy possibly made after a Tang composition, is the only surviving work associated with his name. For the history and development of painting in China, please see: Chinese Art Timeline (c.18,000 BCE - present). Tang dynasty (618-906) Yan Liben (d.673) Official who became Prime Minister under the Emperor Gaozong (649-83). As the leading figure painter of the seventh century, he is recorded as having portrayed dignitaries and tribute bearers who visited Chang'an, the Tang capital. He also helped to design the mausoleum of the Emperor Taizong (d.649), at Zhaoling, including portraits of the emperor's six favourite war steeds, which survive in the form of bas-relief sculptures. Portraits of Thirteen Emperors, a hand-scroll in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, is the finest surviving example of his portrait art. Li Sixun (651-716) Relative of the imperial family who held high positions at court. He and his son Li Zhaodao are known for their colourful 'blue and green' landscape painting, using azurite blue, malachite green and gold. Retrospectively, Li Sixun was considered to be the founder of the Northern school of Chinese painting, as defined by Dong Qichang. Although no original works survive, the painting of Tang Ming Huang's Flight to Shu, NPM, Taipei, affords a fine example of Tang composition in the 'blue and green' manner, with tall mountains and distant plains glimpsed through narrow defiles. Weichi Yiseng (flourished late 7th-early 8th century) Member of the royal house of Khotan. His figure scyle was characterised by agitated draperies. A handscroll of figures in the Berenson collection, Villa I Tatti, Settignano, Italy, is associated with his name. Wang Wei (699-759) The most famous poet and painter of Tang Dynasty art, he is named by Dong Qichang as the source of the Southern school of painting. An official as well as an ardent Buddhist, he painted both Buddhist and Daoist subjects and retired to his escape at Wangchuan Villa. Here he apparently painted landscapes using the technical innovation of ink wash or broken ink, pomo. Although no paintings of his have survived in the original, Portrait of the Scholar Fu Sheng, Osaka, and Clearing after Snow on the River, Ogawa collection, Kyoto, are both associated with his name. For a guide to the aesthetic principles behind traditional painting in China, see: Traditional Chinese Art: Characteristics. Wu Daozi (flourished 710-760) Considered one of China's greatest figure painters, his style contrasts that of Gu Kaizhi. He is said to have used an impetuous brush-stroke, with thick and thin lines of uneven width and broken outlines, scattering dots and strokes to create a three-dimensional effect. Wu served as a court painter during the reign of Xuanzong (712-56). He travelled a lot and executed wall paintings in many Buddhist and Daoist temples in Chang'an and Luoyang. He is also famous as a landscape painter, but his work now survives only in rubbings from engraved stones, such as The Black Warrior (Tortoise and Snake). Han Gan (c.715-781) Famous painter of horses and grooms, he was summoned by Emperor Xuanzong (712-56) to paint the imperial horses. Shining White in the Night, a portrait of one of these, formerly in the collection of Sir Percival David, is his most reliably attributed work, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Zhang Yanyuan (b.815) Wrote Lidai minghuaji (A Record of the Famous Painters of all the Dynasties) in 847 after the destruction of many Buddhist temples and their wall paintings in the religious persecution (842-5) of the Huichang reign. This work is the most important source of information on early painting and theory in China. Guanxiu (832-912) Monk painter, famous above all for his craggy representation of Buddhist arhats, preserved in Japan and attributed to him. For the influence of Tang painters on the culture of Korea, please see: Korean Art (c.3,000 BCE onwards). Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907-60) Jing Hao (c.870-925) Landscape painter and the author of a famous treatise on painting, Bifaji. Travellers in a Snowy Landscape (excavated from a tomb), is one of his works. (Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City). Guan Tong (flourished c.907-23) After the fall of the Tang dynasty he became a subject of the later Liang dynasty (907-23), which ruled north China, and was admired, along with Fan Kuan and Li Cheng, as one of the three greatest landscape painters of the tenth century. Jing Hao was his teacher early in his career. In his later years he painted with a relatively free, unlaboured and sketchy brushwork. Waiting for the Ferry, NPM, Taipei. Li Cheng (919-67) One of the most influential masters of the Five Dynasties and early Northern Song, known for his wintry landscapes, especially for his leafless trees. He is said to have used ink very sparingly. He came from a family of scholar-officials and was himself a scholar. Probably no original works by him survive, but Lonely Monastery amid Clearing Peaks, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, is a fine Northern Song painting attributed to him. Dong Yuan (d.962) From Nanjing, Jiangsu province. His fame rests on his landscapes, which greatly influenced the leading masters of the late Yuan period (fourteenth century). He was later named as the leading master of Dong Qichang's Southern school of landscape painting. He and his follower Juran painted river landscapes textured with long, soft, earthy brushstrokes, his mountain slopes gently rounded and piled with boulders, moist and misty like the actual landscapes of the Jiangnan (lower Yangzi) region where he worked. Attributed paintings include Xiao and Xiang Rivers, Gugong, Beijing, and Wintry Forests and Lake Shores, Kurokawa Institute, Hyogo, Japan. Shi Ke (d.975) Famous for his humorous subjects and wall paintings. Ordered by the Emperor Taizu to paint Buddhist and Daoist figures in the Xiangguo monastery in the capital, Kaifeng. Two Patriarchs Harmonising their Minds, Tokyo National Museum, though possibly a later copy, is the oldest extant example of Chan (Zen) painting with garments portrayed by rough brushwork and faces delineated in fine detail. Juran (flourished 960-85) Monk painter and follower of Dong Yuan , using similar 'hemp-fibre' strokes, interspersed with rounded 'alum-head' boulders. Seeking the Dao in the Autumn Mountains and Xiao Yi Seizing the Lanting, NPM, Taipei; Buddhist Monastery on a Mountainside, Cleveland Museum, Ohio. The British Museum has an impressive landscape hanging scroll bearing his name but actually a twentieth-century forgery by Zhang Dagian (Chang Dai-ch'ien). Works by Unknown Painters: Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The British Museum has a large collection of anonymous Buddhist manuscripts, textiles and paintings which were discovered in cave 17 at the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas, Dunhuang, Gansu province, in the closing years of the nineteenth century. Marc Aurel Stein, the first Westerner to visit the site after the discovery, collected some five hundred drawings, paintings and prints and over ten thousand manuscript scrolls from this cave. About two hundred of the paintings and prints are in the British Museum, the remainder in New Delhi, and the manuscripts in the British Library. Other paintings from the same source are in the Pelliot collection in the Musee Guimet, Paris, and further manuscripts in the Bibliothegue Nationale, Paris. The paintings, on silk, hemp cloth or paper, include votive paintings dedicated by lay Buddhists, as well as large compositions depicting the Pure Lands or paradises in which they hoped to be reborn. The British Museum also has a number of other anonymous religious paintings, mainly of Buddhist and occasionally of Daoist figures. Among them, The Thirteenth Arhat, Ingada (1345), and Four Arhats and Attendants (Ming dynasty, fifteenth century) are both single examples from sets of paintings of arhats or luohans, guardians of the Buddhist law often represented in China in groups of sixteen, eighteen or five hundred. NOTE: For more about the painters of India, see the following: Classical Indian Painting (Up to 1150 CE) Ajanta, Bagh, Sigiriya, Badami, Panamalai, Sittanavasal, Tanjore, and Polotmaruva schools of painting, and more. Post-Classical Indian Painting (14th-16th Century) Gujarat illuminations, Hindu art in Orissa, and more. Mughal Painting (16th-19th Century) Babur, Akbar, Jahangir and Aurengzeb painters, and more. Rajput Painting (16th-19th Century) Rajastan, Mewar, Malva, Bundi, Kishangar painters, and more. Song Dynasty (960-1270) Fan Kuan (c.960-1030) Born Huayuan, Shaanxi province. Famous for austere and grand landscapes. Together with Li Cheng, he developed the so-called monumental style of landscape. He was known for his 'raindrop' surface modelling strokes (cun). He chose to live in a barren, mountainous area in Taihua in the Zhongnan mountains. Surviving works include Travellers among Streams and Mountains, NPM, Taipei. Yan Wengui (967-1044) Born Wuxing, Zhejiang province. Academy painter under the third Song emperor. His style was as monumental as that of his contemporary Fan Kuan, with a show of profusion and turbulence in his paintings. Works include Temples among Streams and Mountains, NPM, Taipei; River and Mountains with Temples, hand-scroll, Osaka City Museum, Japan. Xu Daoning (c.970-1051) From Chang'an, Shaanxi province. Like Guo Xi, he was a follower of Li Cheng and regarded very highly by his contemporaries. His Fishing in a Mountain Stream, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, is a majestic handscroll with fishermen and travellers, a roadside inn and secluded pavilions, all dwarfed by an outlandish series of precipirous cliffs and stark mountain ranges. Guo Xi (c.1020-c.1090) One of the top painters during the era of Song Dynasty Art (960-1279), he was born in northern Henan province. According to his contemporaries, he was a skilful landscape painter in the Imperial Academy. He was also the author of an essay entitled 'Lofty Message of Forests and Streams', an exceedingly valuable source of information on Song attitudes to landscape and techniques of composition and brushwork. He painted landscapes after the style of Li Cheng, using texture strokes and ink wash to create the illusion of space and distance, with more complex compositions than those of earlier painters such as Fan Kuan. Mountains were the dominant elements of his compositions, changing in appearance according to the seasons; his paintings display atmospheric effects which would be further developed by the Southern Song painters. Early Spring, NPM, Taipei, is an impressive hanging scroll on silk, signed and dated 1072. Su Shi (1036-1101) Famous statesman, poet, calligrapher, art critic and painter of bamboo, also known as Su Dongpo. With those in his circle, such as the bamboo painter Wen Tong and the calligrapher Huang Tingjian, he established the concept of wenrenhua, that is, painting by literati, arguing that painting could share the values and status of poetry. In his view, 'natural genius and originality' were more important than form-likeness in painting. He held official posts but was also banished several times during his career. None of his paintings survive, but Dry Tree, Bamboo and Stone, Shanghai Museum, is attributed to him and provides clues to his subject matter and manner. Many examples of his calligraphy are still extant. Li Gonglin/ Li Longmian (c.1049-1106) Born Shucheng, Anhui province. Most famous figure painter of the Northern Song period. He painted in baimiao (outline drawing), a fine linear style derived from Gu Kaizhi, associated with historical themes and Buddhist divinities, and also in the Wu Daozi tradition with short and lively, fluctuating brushwork. He was also appreciated as a painter of horses and landscapes. Thus, Li was the firstr artist to transmit the styles of several past masters rather than that of just one, establishing classic standards in each genre. Five Tribute Horses and Grooms (present whereabouts unknown) was the finest example of his work; Metamorphoses of Heavenly Beings, British Museum, is a close copy of his style, perhaps early Ming in date. Li Tang (c. 1050-1130) Born Sancheng, northern Henan province. Academy painter under the Song Emperor Huizong of the Northern Song in the capital Bianliang (present-day Kaifeng) and then under Gaozong of the Southern Song at Lin'an (present-day Hangzhou). As a transitional painter, his landscapes include subjects on a smaller scale than those of the great Northern Song masters, and his techniques innovate the axe-cut stroke produced with a slanting brush. Extant works include Autumn and Winter Landscapes, Koto-in, Daitoku-ji, Kyoto; Whispering Pines in the Gorges, dated 1120, NPM, Taipei; Gathering Herbs, Gugong, Beijing. Mi Fu (1051-1107) Born Hubei province. An intellectual as well as a painter and calligrapher, and also known for his critical connoisseurship of paintings and calligraphy. He was the author of Huashi (The History of Painting). He painted foliage with large, wet dots and rocks with soft modelling. Only Verdant Mountains with Pine Trees, NPM, Taipei, is extant; more works survive by his son Mi Youren (1086-1165). Zhao Danian/ Zhao Lingrang (flourished c. 1080-1100) Descendant of the Song royal family and collector of ancient paintings. His paintings are more intimate than those of most of his Northern Song contemporaries, being on a small scale, with a simplicity of design and a new realism. Extant work: River Village in Clear Summer, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Huizong (1082-1135) Effectively the last Northern Song emperor (ruled 1101-25) before both he and his successor were captured and exiled. He was an aesthete and eminent calligrapher and painter, specialising in birds and floral still life painting. He surrounded himself with the court artists of the Academy of painting and took an active part in supervising them, neglecting state affairs. Paintings include Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (copied from the Tang dynasty artist Zhang Xuan); Listening to the Qin, Gugong, Beijing; Gardenia and Lichi with Birds, British Museum a handscroll, attributed to him but probably by a court artist, showing the colourful and close description of nature so valued at his court, and signed with the imperial cipher. Ma Hezhi (flourished c.1131-62) From Zhejiang province. Official at the court of the Southern Song Emperor Gaozong, who commissioned him to illustrate the Confucian classic Shijing (Book of Songs) as patt of a series of paintings with themes proving the legitimacy of his rule, in the face of the occupation of north China by the Jin. Illustrations to the Odes of Chen (British Museum) is one of the finest surviving examples of this series with ten scenes accompanied by the appropriate odes in the calligraphy of Emperor Gaozong. Two of the odes from this scroll were reproduced by Dong Qichang as models of Gaozong's writing; on some of the series the calligraphy was actually written by a court calligrapher (though attributed to the emperor himself). Ma used the so-called 'orchid leaf' and 'grasshopper-waist' style of fluctuating brushwork to depict the reverence necessary for such a canonised work of literature, transforming the fluctuating drapery lines of the Tang painter Wu Daozi. Zhang Zeduan (flourished early twelfth century) From Shandong province. A colophon on his sole surviving work informs us that he was a member of the Hanlin Academy, specialising in buildings, boats, carriages and bridges, etc. His extant masterpiece is the handscroll Going up the River on Qingming Day, Gugong, Beijing, a celebration of the varied and busy scenes in and around the capital of the Notthern Song, painted shortly before the city was captured by the Jin in 1126. Xia Gui (flourished 1180-1224) Painter, at the Hangzhou Academy, of landscapes, and Buddhist and Daoist figures. He later retired from court life to a Chan (Zen) Buddhist temple. He was a younger contemporary of Ma Yuan. Extant works include Twelve Views from a Thatched Cottage, handscroll, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City; River Landscape in Rain and Wind, fan painting, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Ma Yuan (flourished 1190-1225) Fourth generation of a famous family at the Academy of painting and himself a foremost Southern Song painter, strongly influenced by Li Tang. The soft scenery around Hangzhou, conducive to intimate landscape scenes, encouraged painters to turn away from the monumental Northern Song landscape style. The Academy painters Ma Yuan and Xia Gui, often referred to as the Ma-Xia school, used ink washes to create effects of light and mist, employing a 'one-corner' type of composition. Their style was to influence the court painters of the early Ming dynasty, such as Li Zai, when Chinese rule was re-established after the fall of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. Works include Banquet by Lantern Light, NPM, Taipei; Bare Willows and Distant Mountains, fan painting, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Composing Poetry on a Spring Outing, hand-scroll, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City. Liang Kai (early 13th century) From Shandong province. Noted for his figures, landscapes, and Daoist and Buddhist subjects. 'Painter in attendance' at Hangzhou (Southern Song capital) painting academy, from 1201. Extant works: Sakyamuni Leaving the Mountains, Shima Euiuichi collection, Tokyo; The Supreme Daoist Master Holding Court, Wango Weng collection, a detailed outline sketch for a wall painting in a Daoist temple; The Sixth Patriarch Chopping Bamboo, Tokyo National Museum, a fine example of Chan subjects that became popular in Japan as Zen painting; The Poet Li Taibo, NPM, Taipei, a masterpiece of economy in brushwork. Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) Qian Xuan (c.1235-1301) Born Wuxing, Zhejiang province. Gained the jinshi (doctoral) degree in the Jing-ding reign (1260-4) and was learned in literature and music; he never served the Mongol regime. Closely followed by Zhao Mengfu, he was the first to practise a deliberate archaism, especially in landscape. Dwelling in the Mountains, Gugong, Beijing, is in the 'blue and green' style. His flower paintings are finely detailed but with a certain blandness, shared by his calligraphy, usually inscribed on the same paper as the painting itself. Extant works: Young Noble on a Horse, British Museum; Pear Blossoms (formerly Sir Percival David collection), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Early Autumn, Detroit Institute of Art, Michigan. Zhao Mengfu (1254-1322) Relation of the Song dynastic royal family who nevertheless took office under the Yuan dynasty, for which he was much criticised. He was the foremost calligrapher and painter from the era of Yuan Dynasty art (1279-1368). In painting he followed the lead of Qian Xuan in cultivating the 'spirit of antiguity', but his art could only have been possible at this time. For instance, Autumn Colours at the Qiao and Hua Mountains, NPM, Taipei, was painted for a friend who, because of the Jin rule of north China in the Southern Song period, had never been able to travel to his native district. The Mind Landscape of Xie Youyu, Princeton Art Museum, New Jersey, reflects Zhao's own ambivalent position by portraying a 4th-century scholar-recluse who served at court yet preserved the purity of his mind. The Water Village, dated 1302, Gugong, Beijing, exhibits the unified ground plane and simplified brushwork that would be emulated by late Yuan masters of landscape. Ren Renfa (1255-1328) From Songjiang, Jiangsu province. Bureaucrat and painter of horses and landscapes. His inscription on Fat and Lean Horses, Gugong, Beijing, likens the two horses to different types of official, one who grows fat in office, the other who gives his all to serve the people. Huang Gongwang (1269-1354) Born Jiangsu province. One of the four masters of the late Yuan. Along with Wu Zhen, Ni Zan and Wang Meng, he pioneered a landscape style that was to inspire countless variations by later painters, bringing landscape wholly within the repertoire of the scholar-painter or wenren. Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains, dated 1350, NPM, Taipei, is his most famous work, displaying a limited range of motifs to create a monumental composition of rivers, forests and mountain ranges of unlimited scope. Wu Zhen (1280-1354) Another of the four masters of the late Yuan. His landscape paintings are, like those of Huang Gongwang, in the tradition of Juran and Dong Yuan. They show the use of a well-soaked brush and deliberate, rounded strokes and dots. The NPM, Taipei, has a number of his paintings including Twin Junipers, The Central Mountain and Stalks of Bamboo beside a Rock. Ni Zan (1301-74) Third of the four masters of the late Yuan. Also a poet, calligrapher and landscape painter. From a wealthy family in Jiangsu province, he gave up his fortune to lead a simple life on a boat. He is famous for his dry ink brushwork executed with a slanted brush, and for his sparse dots of intense black. The Rongxi Studio, dated 1372, NPM, Taipei, and Autumn Clearing over a Fishing Lodge, Shanghai Museum, both exhibit his favourite subject, a small pavilion with bare trees, and favourite compositional scheme, with foreground rocks, a stretch of water and distant hills. Wang Meng (1308-85) Grandson of Zhao Mengfu, from Zhejiang province, surviving briefly into the Ming dynasty and dying in prison. A landscape painter in the style of Dong Yuan and Juran, and one of the four masters of the late Yuan, his main contribution to Yuan painting is the portrayal of mountains as colossal features, exuberant, executed with an extremely varied and rich repertoire of brush techniques, in contrast to the spare and dry style of Ni Zan. His Qingbian Mountains, dated 1366, is in Shanghai Museum; Dwelling in Summer Mountains, at Gugong, Beijing. Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) Dai Jin (1388-1462) From Qiantang (Hangzhou). Modelled his landscape style on that of Ma Yuan and Xia Gui of the Southern Song. In the Xuande reign (1426-35) he served for a short time at court. Despite the overtones of the Academy style, his brushwork is distinctively free and lively. Surviving paintings include: Fishermen on a River, Freer Gallery, Washington DC; Returning Late from a Springtime Walk, NPM, Taipei. Shen Zhou (1427-1509) Earliest and leading master of the Wu school. He preferred to live in retirement in Suzhou than to serve at the Ming court. A talented calligrapher and poet, as well as a painter, he used the brush styles of the late Yuan landscape paintets as vehicles for his own expression, being especially at home with that of Wu Zhen, while also striving to emulate the economy of Ni Zan's brushwork. Besides landscapes, he is known for his figure drawing from life, such as the Album of Plants, Animals and Insects (sixteen leaves), dated 1494, PM, Taipei. Misty River and Layered Ranges, Liaoning Museum, is a handscroll in the grand Song manner; Lofty Mount Lu, 1467, NPM, Taipei, has all the density and richness of texture associated with Wang Meng . At other times, Shen Zhou's depiction of actual places has a refreshing simplicity, capturing essential features with a minimum of detail. Peach Blossom Valley (attributed), British Museum provides some idea of his brushwork and large calligraphy modelled on the style of the Northern Song calligrapher Huang Tingjian. Wu Wei (1459-1508) Worked in Jiangxia, Hubei province (where he may have moved from Hunan). His patron in Nanjing, the Duke of Chengguo, was a great collector in whose collections Wu studied the refined baimiao ink mono-chrome, linear figure style of Li Gonglin which is apparent in many of Wu's early paintings such as the handscroll, The Iron Flute, 1484, Shanghai Museum. Serving at court in the Hongzhi reign (1488-1505), his version of the Ma-Xia style of landscape painting found favour, and became popular, making him a leading master of the Zhe school. His mature style was characterised by swift, even brash, brushwork later much criticised by Dong Qichang. The Pleasures of Fishing, Gugong, Beijing, is a fine example of his mature style. The British Museum has several paintings acquired when Wu Wei's work was not highly regarded by Chinese collectors, the most important being the handscroll, Strolling Entertainers, and Lady Laoyu with the Luan Phoenix. Tang Yin (1470-1523) From Suzhou, Jiangsu province. Pupil of Zhou Chen (d.1536) who also taught Qiu Ying. Tang Yin was befriended by the father of Wen Zhengming and moved among Suzhou's literary circles. He was renowned for his portraits of women and for impressive landscapes inscribed with poems in his distinctive hand. See Thatched Cottage at West Mountain, British Museum. Wen Zhengming (1470-1559) From Suzhou, Jiangsu province. One of the greatest Ming painters and calligraphers, and the most important painter of the Wu school after his teacher Shen Zhou. He served briefly at court after unsuccessfully attempting the tightly constrained state examinations ten times. As a calligrapher, he was egually at home with running script in large or over-sized characters and with precise small regular script. In painting he was equally versatile, bringing finer detailing and a lyrical use of colour to Shen Zhou's landscape style and depicting also figures, ink bamboo and other literati subjecrs. His followers of the Wu school in the 16th century included several members of his own family. See: Washing the Feet in the Sword Pool, British Museum; Wintry Trees, British Museum; A Thousand Cliffs Vying in Splendour, NPM, Taipei; A Myriad Valleys Competing in Flow, Nanjing Museum. Qiu Ying (c.1494-1552) Born Taicang, Jiangsu province, and lived in Suzhou. Named with Shen Zhou, Wen Zhengming and Tang Yin as one of rhe Four Masters of Suzhou, he was a professional painter and pupil of Zhou Chen, as well as being at home with literati painters. He was a brilliant figure painter and equally skilled in landscapes in the archaic 'blue and green' manner, on account of which many later imitations of this style are signed with his name. The different aspects of his art are illustrated by Zhao Mengfu Writing the Sutra in Exchange for a Cup of Tea, Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio; Passing a Summer Day in the Shade of Banana Palms, NPM, Taipei; and Saying Farewell at Xunyang, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City. Lu Zhi (1496-1576) Born Suzhou, Jiangsu province. Landscape painrer and poet, follower of Wen Zhengming. He apparently never held office and eventually retired to a mountain retreat on Mount Zhixing, near Suzhou, where he continued to paint. In his landscapes of the Suzhou region, Ni Zan was evidently an inspirarion to Lu Zhi who emulated his angular, faceted forms and dry brushwork, often adding a pale vermilion or pale green. See; Huqiu Shan Tu (Tiger Hill), Gugong, Beijing; Landscape in the Style of Ni Zan, Brirish Museum. Jiang Song (c.1500) From Nanjing. Zhe school painter who captured in his landscape paintings 'all the mists of Yiangnan'. Like other Zhe school painters, he was out of favour with collectors in the Qing dynasty and Taking a Lute to Visit a Friend, British Museum had the original signature and seals removed, and a label added attributing it to Xu Daoning of the Song dynasty; but the ink wash foliage of the foreground trees, and other details, are unmistakably those of Jiang Song. Xu Wei (1521-93) One of the greatest painters during the era of Ming Dynasty art, born in Shanyin, Zhejiang province. Poet and calligrapher who excelled at plants and flowers in a free or even wild ink wash manner, which was to be a major influence on the painting of Bada Shanren. Ink Flowers, long handscroll on paper, Nanjing Museum, is one of his major works, culminating in a magnificent stand of banana palms. Ding Yunpeng (1547-1621) Born Xiuning, Anhui province. Ding was a professional painter of landscapes, figures and particularly Buddhist and Daoist subjects. The God of Literature, 1596, British Museum is an example of his refined and detailed figure painting in ink monochrome; his paintings in colour are equally accomplished. The wood block-printed book, Chengshi Moyuan, contains some notable designs for ink cakes. Imitations of his work are fairly common among Buddhist and Daoist figure subjects. Dong Qichang (1555-1636) Born Yiangsu province. The dominant figure of Chinese painting in the late Ming and thereafter. Beginning with the study of calligraphy, he went on to search for and analyse the surviving masterpieces of Song and Yuan painting, with the aim of restoring ancient values to the painting of his own day. Clarity of composition, clear outlines and appropriate motifs were of the greatest importance to him. In the course of authenticating old paintings, he wrote extensively and proposed the theory of the Northern and Southern schools. According to his theory, literati painters should follow the Southern school exclusively, relying on brushwork and eschewing excessive detail or painterly effects. He was followed by Wang Shimin, who executed a large album of reduced copies of Song and Yuan paintings in his own collection under Dong's guidance, and by other painters of the Orthodox school, such as Wang Jian, Wang Hui and Wang Yuangi. The short handscroll, Rivers and Mountains on a Clear Autumn Day, after the Yuan painter Huang Gongwang, Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio, is a fine example of his style and approach to past masters. The British Museum has a Landscape and a hand-scroll (attributed) of studies of rocks and trees, with notes written beside them. Cui Zizhong (c.1594-1644) Major figure painter of the late Ming dynasty, usually paired with Chen Hong-shou - ('Cui in the north and Chen in the south'). Cui was an independent artist following no particular school; a solitary and aloof character, somewhat of a recluse who eventually starved himself to death rather than ask for help. He was probably a member of a Daoist sect and painted many scenes from Buddhist and Daoist literature and legends. His figures often refer to antique models and he concentrated on eccentric archaisms in an original way. See: Xu jingyang Ascending to Heaven, NPM, Taipei. Xiao Yuncong (1596-1673) From Anhui province. The first of the Masters of Xin-an, and an yimin or 'left-over' subject after the fall of the Ming dynasty. The early Qing monk painter Hongren , another of the Anhui masters, was his pupil. Works include: Reading in Snowy Mountains, Gugong, Beijing; Frosty Woods, handscroll, British Museum. Xiang Shengmo (1597-1658) Born Yiaxing, Zhejiang province. Son of the great collector Xiang Yuanbian (1525-90), his paintings exhibit rather precisely delineated features and elegant colour in both landscapes and flower paintings. his Reading in the Autumn Woods, dated 1623-4, is in the British Museum. Chen Hongshou (1599-1652) From Zhuji, near Shaoxing in Zhejiang province. On failing the official examinations, he began to concentrate on his painting in order to earn a living. Early on he developed a distinctive style and a creative transformation of the past that would identify him as an artist worthy of notice. His figure paintings were based on archaistic paintings of historical or Buddhist subjeCts. He was paired from his stay in Beijing (1640-3) with the artist Cui Zizhong ('Cui in the north and Chen in the south'). He was best known as a painter of figures working in the fine linear style of the 4th-century master Gu Kaizhi, but he also painted landscapes and designed wood-cut illustrations and playing cards. His Female Immortals is at Gugong, Beijing. In the British Museum, besides several attributed works, there is a fine album leaf, Landscape, datable and a large hanging scroll, Chrysanthemums. Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) Wang Shimin (1592-1680) Born Jiangsu province. Because he himself had a large collection of old masters, Wang Shimin was the best placed of the Orthodox masters to put the theories of Dong Qichang into practice. He did so in a famous album of exact copies, in reduced size, entitled Within the Small See the Large, NPM, Taipei, for which Dong wrote the title and inscriptions. In his own landscape paintings, Wang Shimin's preferred style is derived from that of the Yuan master Wang Meng. The British Museum's Landscape, dated 1654, is inspired by the brush manner of another Yuan master, Huang Gongwang. Wang Jian (1598-1677) Born Jiangsu province. The second of the Four Wangs in the group of six Orthodox masters, specialising like Wang Shimin in landscapes after Song and Yuan masters. Landscape after Juran, British Museum exemplifies how the Orthodox masters used ancient styles and motifs (here those of the 10th-century master Juran), to produce variations in their own distinctive hands. Hongren (1610-64) From Anhui province. One of the Four Monk painters (with Bada Shanren, Kuncan and Daoji), a Ming loyalist who became a monk when the Ming dynasty collapsed. He was the first painter to display a distinctive Anhui style, and was especially fond of painting Mount Huang, one of China's most spectacular mountains. The album by him in the Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, features individual landscape elements each labelled with a single character. The Coming of Autumn, Ching Yuan Chai collection, China, shows the same precision in a complete landscape composition. Kuncan/ Shi Qi (1612-73) Born Hunan province. Individualist and one of the Four Monk painters (with Hongren, Bada Shanren and Daoji). He early became a Chan (Zen) Buddhist monk and eventually abbot of a monastery near Nanjing. His paintings are characterised by crowded and restless compositions in which the landscape is broken up into numerous mountain ridges, valleys and rocky outcrops. His brushwork has a dry earthy quality which is frequently enriched by coloured washes. Autumn and Winter, two album leaves, British Museum were done for a friend, Cheng Zhengkui, in 1666 and are among his finest works. Spring and Summer, completing the set of four, are now in the Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio, and the Museum fur Ostasiatische Kunst, Berlin, respectively. Gong Xian (c.1618-89) One of the Eight Masters of Nanjing, and an yimin or left-over subject of the Ming dynasty, who belonged to a restoration society and subsequently became a recluse. In his rather sombre landscape paintings he merged ink washes with 'piled ink' or layers of brushwork, creating a monumental effect. A Thousand Peaks and a Myriad Ravines, c.1670, Drenowatz collection, Rietberg Museum, Zurich, shows him at his most claustrophobic; the British Museum has a more open Lake View. Bada Shanren/ Zhu Da (1626-1705) Another of the Four Monk painters and a major figure in Qing Dynasty art (1644-1911). He was a scion of the Ming royal house and hence another an yimin or left-over subject when the Ming dynasty fell in 1644. His early paintings include albums of flowets and rocks, with recondite poems, and are signed with a variety of obscure names. Later he used quizzical depictions of birds and fish to allude to his distress under Manchu rule, also painting lotuses with broken stems, and ink landscapes. The British Museum has a hanging scroll, Rocks and Wutong Seeds and a small Landscape. Wang Hui (1632-1717) The most versatile of the Orthodox painters, coached and encouraged, even to the point of passing off his paintings as Song or Yuan originals, by Wang Shimin and Wang Jian. At court in the 1690s he was in charge of producing the series of massive handscrolls describing the Kangxi emperor's Tours of the South. The British Museum has only a small fan painting of his, but the anonymous handscroll, Snow Landscape, bearing the signature of Fan Kuan, is perhaps close to Wang Hui's oeuvre. Wu Li (1632-1718) Born in Jiangsu province. Friend and contemporary of Wang Hui and one of the leading Orthodox painters of the early Qing. Together with Wang Hui he was instructed by Wang Jian and Wang Shimin and through them became acquainted with and influenced by the landscapes of the Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty, particularly Wang Meng. His orthodoxy was shown in his admiration for the ancient masters, yet he believed in manipulating the styles of the Song and Yuan masters to create an intensely personal style. Wu's paintings were much admired by his contemporaries. He eventually became a Jesuit priest in 1688 after which time he apparently painted relatively little. His Pine Wind from Myriad Valleys is in Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio. Yun Shouping (1633-90) Flower and landscape painter, friend and near contemporary of Wang Hui, and linked with the Four Wangs and Wu Li as an Orthodox master. Deferring to Wang Hui in landscape, he is known chiefly for his paintings of flowers in the 'boneless' technique. Daoji/ Shitao (1642-1707) Descendant of the Ming imperial family. The fall of the Ming dynasty left him a wanderer, and he is known as one of the Four Monk painters (with Hongren, Kuncan and Bada Shanren). His Huayulu is one of the most important of Chinese writings on painting, which he discusses from his concept of 'the single brushstroke'. In the same work, he strenuously defends his own originality: 'the beards and eyebrows of the ancients do not grow on my face'. His handscroll painting in the Suzhou Museum, Ten Thousand Ugly Ink Dots, bears an inscription in which he declares his purpose to shock the past masters such as Mi Fu. Many of his paintings, such as Eight Views of the South, Brirish Museum, are closely linked with his own wanderings in early life; they are frequently complemented with his calligraphy in different styles to match the brushwork of the paintings. Wang Yuanqi (1642-1715) Born Jiangsu province. Grandson of Wang Shimin. Landscape painter, youngest and arguably the most original of the Four Wangs. Perhaps his greatest work is the large coloured recreation of the handscroll, Wang Chuan Villa, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, a long-lost masterpiece of the Tang poet and painter Wang Wei, then, as now, known only from a rubbing and late copies. Shangguan Zhou (1665-1750) Born Changting, Fujian province. Primarily a painter of somewhat rustic figures and landscapes, exemplified by the handscroll in the British Museum, The Fisherman's Paradise. Huang Shen was his pupil. Leng Mei (c.1677-1742) Born in Jiaozhou, Shandong province. Professional court painter, specialising in figure painting. He is associated with the Jesuit painter Giuseppe Castiglione (known in China as Lang Shining), and introduced him to Chinese painting. His Wutong Shuangtu Tu (Two Rabbits Beneath a Wutong Tree) is at Gugong, Beijing. Paintings in the British Museum include: Portrait of a Lady; Manchu Official at the Door of his Library. Hua Yan (1682-1765) From Fujian province. Poet and calligrapher as well as painter, noted for his lively and meticulous renderings of birds, but also skilled at figures and landscapes. The Red Bird, Elliort collection, Princeton Art Museum, New Jersey; Mynah Birds and Squirrel, Freer Gallery, Washington DC. Gao Fenghan (1683-1748) Born Jiaoxian, Shandong province. Known early on in life for his poetry. He had an official career but never rose very high in rank. His right arm became paralysed in 1737 and thereafter he painted with his left hand. The British Museum has a fine set of fan paintings of landscapes and flowers, all painted before this event and an album of Flower Paintings after Designs from the Ten Bamboo Studio. Zou Yigui (1686-1772) Court painter under the Qianlong emperor (ruled 1736-96) who commissioned him to paint a pictorial colophon, Pine and Juniper Trees, British Museum at the end of the Gu Kaizhi handscroll, The Admonitions of the Court Instructress, regarded as the most valuable painting in the whole of the Palace collection, being installed by the emperor with just three others in a separate pavilion in the Forbidden City. Though now separately mounted, it came to the British Museum with Gu's painting, and also bears the Qianlong emperor's seals. Huang Shen (1687-1766) Born Yangzhou, Jiangsu province. Pupil of Shangguan Zhou, and one of the Yangzhou Eccentrics. He painted figures and landscapes with lengthy inscriptions in a distinctive cursive hand. Surviving works include: Laozi (Ning Qi) and His Ox, and The Nine Dragons Rapids. Lang Shining/ Giuseppe Castiglione (1688-1768) Born Milan, Italy. Castiglione became a Jesuit priest in 1707. He arrived in Macao in 1715 and then went to Beijing where he remained until his death. There he became part of the group of Western advisers at the Chinese imperial court. He painted for three emperors, Kangxi, Yong-zheng and Qianlong, and also trained Chinese artists in Western techniques. Of all the missionary arrists who worked for the Qing emperors, Castiglione was pre-eminent. His paintings combined traditional Chinese watercolour techniques with the Western use of linear perspective and chiaroscuro. He excelled in religious painting, portraiture and the painting of animals, flowers and landscapes. See: Ten Horses and Nine Dogs, NPM, Taipei. Yuan Jiang (c.1690-1724) Born Yangzhou, Jiangsu province. Specialised, like Yuan Yao and Li Yin, in large landscapes, often with prominent architectural features, and composed in a grand manner reminiscent of the monumental landscape style of the Five Dynasties and Song. However, his brushwork, especially in the outlines of rock forms, betrays mannered forms that cannot be mistaken for Song work. Penglai, Island of the Immortals, dated 1723, British Museum is a typical example of his treatment of legendary subjects. Zheng Xie (1693-1765) Born Yangzhou. Famous for paintings of subjects such as orchids and bamboo, interspersed with calligraphy in which the characters often display unusual variations. Orchids on Rocks, Crawford collection, New York. The British Museum has a handscroll, Chrysanthemums, Bamboo and Epidendrum, attributed to him. Luo Ping (1733-99) Born Yangzhou, Jiangsu province. Called himself the 'Monk of the Flowery Temple'. He is regarded as one of the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou and became a student of Jin Nong, another of the Eight Eccentrics. He travelled to Beijing, acquiring many patrons along the way, and was also a good calligrapher and seal carver. He painted many portraits and one of his famous works is Guiqu Tu (a series of paintings of ghosts and spirits). Paintings in the British Museum: Portraits of the Poets Wang Shizhen and Zhu Yizun; Monk under a Palm Tree. Tang Yifen (1778-1853) Born Wujin, Jiangsu province. Tang's style belongs to that of those who in the 19th century were still followers of the Orthodox tradition of the 17th Century. The subject matter of the garden was a popular one in China, where the garden was seen as a microcosm of the larger landscape, and the British Museum has a large handscroll entitled The Garden of Delight with many contemporary colophons. Ju Lian (1824-1904) Born Guangdong province. Influenced by the Jiangsu painters such as Song Guangbao and Meng Jinyi who had come to Guangdong co teach painting, Ju Lian and his cousin Ju Chao became masters in the painting of flowers, insects and plants. Ju Lian was especially prolific in painting landscapes and figures. He and his cousin improved on the style of painting known as 'boneless': by sprinkling a white powder on to coloured areas they produced a bright and somewhat glossy surface (zhuangfen) and by dripping water on to applied colours while they were still wet they created subtle tonal gradations (zhuangfei). See: Flowers, Hong Kong Museum of Art, Hong Kong. Zhao Zhiqian (1829-84) Born Zhejiang province. Famous seal carver, poet and calligrapher. Also established himself through his flower paintings as one of the foremost painters of the 19th century. NOTE: See also the two great Japanese Ukiyo-e artists from the Tokugawa Shogunate of the Edo Period in Japan: Hokusai (1760-1849) and Hiroshige (1797-1858). Famous Modern Chinese Artists Here is a selected list of important twentieth-century Chinese artists from the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the West. Qi Baishi (1863-1957) Born Hunan province. Began life as a carpenter, and became a prolific painter of flowers, shrimps, crabs, insects and birds. As he remained in China after 1950 and painted everyday subjects, adding his own calligraphy and seals also carved by himself, he became the best-known painter of the mid-twentieth century. The British Museum has a fine study of Bodhidharma in a red robe, as well as flower paintings from his hand. Gao Jianfu (1879-1951) Born Panyu, Guangdong province. Together with Gao Qifeng and Chen Shuren (1883-1949), was one of the three founders of the Lingnan school in Guangdong province. They were all influenced by earlier Qing painters such as Ju Lian, Ju Chao and Meng Jinyi, and all three also studied in Japan from 1906 to 1911, returning to participate in the revolution. They pioneered a new Chinese movement in painting whereby they advocated the use of Western perspective and chiaroscuro, and Japanese brush technigues, while still employing Chinese traditional ink and colour. Their pupils include Zhao Shao'ang and Li Xiongcai. Sepia, Hong Kong Museum of Art, Hong Kong. Gao Qifeng (1889-1933) Born Panyu, Guangdong province. The brother of Gao Jianfu. He studied art in Japan and learned painting from his brother, with whom he formed part of the Lingnan school. See: Cockerel and Hen under a Begonia Tree, Hong Kong Museum of Art, Hong Kong. Zhu Qizhan (b.1892) Born Taicang, Jiangsu province. Member of the Shanghai Painting Academy. As a student Zhu studied Western oil painting and later concentrated on traditional Chinese styles. He paints landscapes and flowers in the bold brush style of Shanghai painters of the 19th and 20th centuries. Many of his landscapes are distinguished by the use of vivid colour. Xu Beihong (1895-1953) Born Jiangsu province. Major figure in the modernisation of Chinese art. He visited Europe and Japan and held a series of key teaching positions where he advocated the study of realism. The theme for which he is best known in the West is horses, whose spirited movements he captured through rapid and abbreviated brushwork and ink washes. In China, his horses became a symbol of the indomitable national spirit. See: Two Horses, British Museum. Pu Xinyu (1896-1963) Born Beijing. A descendant of the Daoguang emperor, he received a classical education and a traditional training in Chinese painting. His paintings are based on the literati landscape tradition of the late Ming and early Qing but he also studied the work of the Song landscape masters. In 1949 he moved to Taiwan, and during the 1950s was regarded as the island's leading painter. He had many students, including Jiang Zhaoshen (b.1925). Pan Tianshou (1897-1971) Born Ninghai district, Zhejiang province. Received no formal training in painting or calligraphy but learned from painting manuals such as the Qing dynasty work, the Mustard Seed Garden Manual of Painting. In 1923 he went to Shanghai and taught at the Shanghai art college, and his works were influenced by masters of the Shanghai school. His painting followed traditional styles of landscape and bird and flower painting. Zhang Daqian (1899-1983) Born Sichuan province. Versatile master of painting and assiduous collector, who courted controversy in his personal life through his many forgeries of some of the most famous painters of the past, particularly of the individualist 17th-century painter Daoji/Shitao. Two years spent at Dunhuang in the 1940s left him with a deep appreciation of bright colour and a lifelong interest in figure painting. One of his best-known forgeries is the large landscape, Dense Forests and Layered Peaks by the Monk Juran from Zhongling, signed as Juran, in the British Museum. Another BM Landscape illustrates the more abstract style of his late years, when he lived in Brazil and California. Lin Fengmian (1900-91) Studied in France, returned to China but finally settled in Hong Kong. He wrote extensively on painting, trying to synthesise and harmonise the different qualities of Chinese and Western art. He painted mainly single figures in a sguare format adapted for framing rather than in the traditional Chinese scroll format. Fu Baoshi (1904-65) Born Jiangxi province. Educated in China and Japan. He was a calligrapher of note and also cut seals. As a teacher he wrote several books on painting and is regarded as one of the last great literati painters. Mountain Landscape, British Museum and Scholars Suffering from Hardship were both painted during the war years, when he was living in Sichuan province. Wang Jiqian/ C.C. Wang (b.1907) Born in Jiangsu province. Connoisseur, collector and well-known landscape painter who has lived in New York since 1950. He has formed the extensive Bamboo Studio collection, some of which is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New Yotk. Odes of the State of Chen by Ma Hezhi was acquired from his collection by the British Museum. Li Keran (1907-89) Born Jiangsu province. Born into rural poverty, he painted water buffalo and herd boys in his early years. His later paintings were generally in black ink, an intensely inked surface becoming one of his trade-marks, as well as an innovative use of deeply saturated ink and colour. He was originally a leading exponent of traditional landscape painting, re-establishing the style within the Communist theoretical framework. In the 1960s he developed his own landscape style, adapting Western, conventional perspective. See: Landscape in Colours and Landscape Based on Chairman Mao's Poem, both in the Drenowatz collection, Rietberg Museum, Zurich, Switzerland. Lui Shoukun (1919-75) Born Guangzhou, China, but emigrated to Hong Kong in 1948. He was a Chan (Zen) Buddhist adherent and painted in many styles including those of the classical past. He was influenced by Western art, including Cubism, and had a number of followers such as Irene Chou (born 1924). Wu Guanzhong (b.1919) Born Jiangsu province. Studied figurative oil painting in China and then in Paris from 1947 to 1950. On his return to China he took up landscape painting. He sought to find common ground between Chinese and Western techniques, using both line and colour, often with descriptive details, to ensure that a Chinese viewer would recognise the subject matter of more abstract works. In 1990 he turned once more to life studies, with a hint of landscape in the setting. The British Museum has a large horizontal format painting, Paradise for Small Birds. Liu Guosong (b.1932) Born Shandong province. An early advocate of anti-traditionalism, aspiring to be a painter in the Western tradition. He attained his maturity in Taiwan and found solutions blending Eastern and Western traditions and incorporating contemporary subjects such as space travel. He modelled his work after Matisse and Picasso, and was also influenced by Klee, De Kooning and Rothko. He has sometimes used a special coarse fibre paper and an ink-laden brush, tearing fibres from the surface after painting to enhance the calligraphic effect. He Huaishuo (b.1941) Writer, and pupil of Fu Baoshi. Studied painting in Guangzhou. He believes in communicating emotion through his paintings, and in covering the whole picture surface, in contrast to traditional Chinese paintings where a balance of solids and voids is sought. Famous Contemporary Chinese Artists Among the many talented painters and sculptors from the People's Republic of China, involved in contemporary art, watch out for the following. See also: Top 200 Contemporary Artists. Zhang Xiaogang (b.1958) Number 5 in the 2008 list of the World's Top contemporary artists, Zhang Xiaogang is noted for his surrealist paintings, influenced by Salvador Dali, as well as his Bloodline series of paintings, featuring formal monochrome portraits of Chinese subjects. In 2006, a 1993 painting by Zhang Xiaogang featuring blank-faced family members from the mid-1960s was sold for $2.3 million. Zeng Fanzhi (b.1964) Number 6 in the list of the World's Top contemporary artists, Zeng Fanzhi is noted for his figurative works employing a combination of expressionism and realism, as well as his sequence of ironic Great Man paintings, which includes Lenin, Mao, and Karl Marx among others. Yue Minjun (b.1962) Number 7 in the list of the World's Top contemporary artists, Yue Minjun is a major member of the Chinese "cynical realist" school - one of the avant-garde contemporary art movements in China - noted for his bizarre and distinctive series of doppelgänger painters. Wang Guangyi (b.1957) Number 9 in the list of the World's Top contemporary artists, the "political pop" artist Wang Guangyi combines popular consumer logos with the style and aesthetic of communist agitprop propaganda posters. Liu Xiaodong (b.1963) From Liaoning. Contemporary fine art painter and photographer. Has generated auction sales (2007-8) in excess of £10.5 million. Cai Guo-Qiang (b.1957) Performance artist specialising in explosive events. Has generated art sales (2007-8) in excess of £10 million. Yan Pei-Ming (b.1960) Shanghai portraitist. Has sold works for more than £9.5 million (2007-8). Chen Yifei (b.1946) Contemporary Chinese painter from Zhejing, responsible for art sales at auction of over £9.5 million (2007-8). Fang Lijun (b.1963) Contemporary Chinese painter from Hebei, one of the leading members of the Cynical Realism movement. Has sold paintings worth more than £9 million (2007-8). Liu Ye (b.1964) Avant-garde Chinese artist, responsible for art sales at auction of over £8.5 million (2007-8). Zhou Chunya (b.1955) Sichuan Portrait painter. Has sold works worth more than £8 million (2007-8). Note: The British Museum has an active acquisition policy in collecting modern art by Chinese artists, aiming eventually to assemble a collection representative of all the major twentieth-century painting movements in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan and elsewhere. Apart from the paintings mentioned above, the British Museum also has works by these 20th-century artists: Jia Youfu, Nie Ou, Wu Changshi, Xiong Hai, Yang Yan-ping and Zhu Xiuli from the People's Republic of China, and Jiang Zhaoshen and Yu Peng from Taiwan. Acknowledgements: We gratefully acknowledge the use of appendix material from The British Museum Book of Chinese Art (2007) edited by Jessica Rawson (British Museum Press): an absolutely essential work of scholarly reference for any student of painting, sculpture, ceramic pottery, calligraphy and decorative art from ancient China. We strongly recommend it.
2073	dbpedia	0	28	https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/History/hiindexen.htm	en	Vocabulary of Chinese Traditional Art			[ "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Chines1.gif", "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Home.h2.gif", "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Home.h3.gif", "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Home.h4.gif", "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Ho...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null	Xuan Paper Name of a kind of rice paper made in China. It was first produced in Xuanzhou (now the Jing County of East China's, Anhui Province), hence the name of Xuan paper. The bark of Pteroceltis tatarinowii and straw are the main raw materials for producing Xuan paper. After maceration, the fibers are treated with lime, exposed to sunlight, bleached, and washed with starch. Prized xuan papers are cast by hand. They are fine, soft, resistant to insect damage, and their pure white color lasts long to retard absorption of the ink, they may be treated with alum. Where not otherwise indicated, the Chinese papers used for prints and paintings in the exhibition are on a variety of xuan paper. Bamboo Slip Tablets or slips made from bamboo (or wood) for writing in ancient China. It¡¯s called slip if it¡¯s made from bamboo, and called tablet if it¡¯s made from wood. Slit used to be the general name, but now it¡¯s often called bamboo slip. The writing tools of bamboo slip were Chinese brush and ink, and only one line of text can be handwritten on each slip. An article often included many slips. Upon the finish, the slips were bound by strings and rolled up for storage. These rolls were the earliest form of Chinese books. Wooden tablet was often used for short essays. Bamboo slip was invented in Western Zhou, and was widely accepted during Spring and Autumn Period and Warring Period. Around 4th century, with the popularization of paper, the status of bamboo slips was eventually replaced. Du Fu (712~770) Du Fu was a prominent Chinese poet of the Tang Dynasty. His courtesy name was Zi Mei, and he called himself ¡°Shao Ling countryside aged¡±, ¡°Du Shao Ling¡±, ¡°Du Gong Bu¡±, etc. Du Fu¡¯s own greatest ambition was to help his country by becoming a successful civil servant, but he proved unable to make the necessary accommodations. He only served in some low-level position, such as the military adviser in a regional governor's headquarters and concurrently assistant secretary in the Board of Works (Gong Bu). His life, like the whole country, was devastated by the An Lushan Rebellion of 755, and the last 15 years of his life were a time of almost constant unrest. Initially little known, his works came to be hugely influential in both Chinese and Japanese culture. Of his poetic writing, nearly fifteen hundred poems written by Du Fu have been handed down over the ages, most of which expressed a sincere and broad concern for humanity. He also possesses a remarkable power of description, with which he vividly presents human affairs and natural scenery. Thus the afterworld gave him the name of Poet-Historian and the Poet-Sage. Emperor Huizong of Song (1082~1135) Emperor of Northern Song Dynasty. Painter. Calligrapher. The eleventh son of the Emperor Shenzong of Song. The brother of the Emperor Zhezong of Song. After the death of Zhezong, Huizong¡¯s mother made him the eighth emperor of Song Dynasty (r. 1100~1125). During his reign, Huizong devoted himself into art more than into governing the empire. He was an accomplished painter, calligrapher and art supporter. When Jin Dynasty declared war on Song in 1126, Huizong lost it and had to escape. In 1127, Huizong, his son Emperor Qinzong, as well as the entire imperial court and harem were captured by the Jin in the Jingkang Incident. Nine years later he died in captivity at the age of 54. His tomb is 35 miles away from Shaoxing county in Zhejiang province. Cui Bai (11th century c.) Chinese painter in the Northern Song dynasty. Cui Bai was active during the reign of the Emperor Shenzong of Song. Appreciated by Shenzong, he became a Yixue (ÒÕÑ§, a title in the Imperial Art Academy, lower than painter-in-attendance) and later panter-in-attendance in the Imperial Art Academy. Cui Bai was good at flower-and-bird painting, as well as Buddhism mural painting. He broke the court tradition created by Huang Quan and his son in the early period of Song dynasty, who had founded the standard to paint flower and bird in a luxuary way, and originated a new style in the Imperial Art Academy. His works include ¡°Shuangxi Tu¡± (¡¶Ë«Ï²Í¼¡·, Double Happiness), ¡°Hanque Tu¡± (¡¶º®È¸Í¼¡·, Sparrow in Cold Days), and ¡°Zhu¡¯ou Tu¡±(¡¶ÖñÅ¸Í¼¡·, Bamboo and Gull), etc. Fan Kuan (early 11th century c.) Fan Kuan is known to be one of the leading figures in the Northern Song Landscape tradition and one of the most appreciated landscape artists in traditional China. According to Chinese art history, he was born at the end of Five Dynasties, and still alive during Tianren years of the reign of Emperor Renzong of Song (1023~1031). His courtesy name is Zhongli, but because of his nature of lenience and magnanimous, people of his time called him ¡°Kuan¡±, which means wide. Then he named himself ¡°Kuan¡± too. In the record of Xuanhe Hua Pu (¡¶ÐûºÍ»Æ×¡·, ¡°Xuanhe Painting List, a catalogue made of Emperor Huizong¡¯s collection, compiled by court connoisseurs during his reign in Song dynasty), Fan Kuan¡¯s characteristics was also mentioned. The List said Fan ¡°had a style of ancient times; behaved wild; loved alcohol; and never restrained by convention or propriety¡±. Fan Kuan created imaginary landscapes that were different and unique while preserving the internal order and ideal balance of nature. Ma Yuan (1140~1225) One of Four Masters in Southern Song Dynasty, courtesy name Yaofu, and pseudonym Qinshan, Ma Yuan was born in Hezhong (today¡¯s Yongji county in Shanxi province), and moved to Qiantang (today¡¯s Hangzhou in Zhejiang province). He represented the fourth generation in a tradition of painters spanning five generations, beginning with his great-grandfather, Ma Fen, and ending with his son, Ma Lin, all of whom served the Sung emperors as court painters-in-attendance. Although the family tradition doubtless had strong influence on Ma Yuan's development as a painter, he was also indebted to the great northern landscape and figure master Li Tang. Ma Yuan's art at its best is a masterpiece of understatement and evocative suggestion. His typical compositions, featuring the extensive use of swirling mist and empty spaces, with only a few sharply etched forms dramatically silhouetted against the whiteness, lent him the sobriquet "One-corner Ma." Li Song (1166~1243) A native of Qiantang, was a prominent painter of the Southern Song dynasty. Li Song was a talented carpenter before the court painter Li Xun adopted him. He served as a Painter-in-Attendance during the reign of Emperor Gaozong, Ningzong and Lizong of Song. Li was good at Daoist and Buddhist figure, as his foster father Li Xun, he was especially gifted in architecture paintings. The Palace Museum in Beijing collected his painting Puppet Play of a Skeleton. In this painting the expression of figures were well presented. He used the outlining method of nail head and mouse tail to paint the drapes of clothes, and straight lines were often used, which was fine but powerful. And his Flower Basket shows different levels of all the flowers, just like real ones. Zhu Da (1626~1705) Chinese painter and poet. A descendant of the imperial Zhu family of the Ming dynasty and a leading artist of the early Qing period, Zhu Da grew up in Nanchang in Jiangxi province. His connections with the previous dynasty led him to become a monk after the Manchu conquest of China in 1644. Zhu Da had many pseudonyms, but his favorite should be Bada Shanren, which means mountain man of eight masters. Zhu Da adopted and developed the technique of Chen Chun and Xu Wei to paint flowers, birds and landscapes in a style of freehand brushwork, and he went even further - his paintings were in a distinctive and highly dramatic calligraphic style. In a way of symbolization and metaphor, he exaggerated flowers and birds, fishes and insects in his paintings, even gave them a human expression of white eyes (supercilious look). This showed the painter¡¯s own feelings. His bitter experiences of social turmoil and his hatred for the Qing rulers helped to shape his distinctive style. Zhu Da's style exerted a great influence on later artists, such as the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou. Shi Tao (1642~1707) Original name Zhu Ruoji. Chinese painter and theoretician who was, with Zhu Da, one of the most famous Four Monks in the early Qing dynasty. Shi Tao¡¯s paintings were famous and popular when he was alive. He traveled a lot and learned from the nature itself. Before he began painting a sketch of sceneries, he had seen thousands of mountains (this is one of his famous opinions). His work has a freshness inspired not by masters of the past but by an unfettered imagination, with brush techniques that were free and unconventional, and with an ingenious composition. Shitao's independent spirit is also found within his theoretical writings, such as the Kugua Heshang Yulu (¡¶¿à¹ÏºÍÉÐÓïÂ¼¡·, ¡°Comments on Painting by Monk of Bitter Melon¡±). Gu Hongzhong (910~980, or 937~975) Gu Hongzhong was a painter during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. He was from southern China, and served as painter-in-attendance in southern Tang during the reign of Li Jing and Li Yu. He excelled at figure painting. ¡°Han Xizai Ye Yan Tu¡± (¡¶º«ÎõÔØÒ¹ÑçÍ¼¡·, Han Xizai Gives A Night Banquet) was his most famous painting. It¡¯s a wide known work of high classical Chinese art. And it¡¯s also the only work we can see today by Gu Hongzhong. Lou Rui (6th century c.) Lou Rui, a Xianbei native, was a relative of Emperor Shizu of Northern Qi, whose wife¡¯s brother Lou Zhuang was Lou Rui¡¯s father. Lou Rui was buried in 570 at Guo village in Taiyuan, Shanxi province. Since its discovery and excavation from 1980 to 1982, the tomb, with its underground structure decorated with mural paintings, has constituted a corpus of the most reliable data for an accurate assessment of the art, music, costume, court life and rites in the Northern Qi dynasty. Zhao Mengfu (1254~1322) A native of Huzhou, ZheJiang province. His courtesy name was Zi Ang and his pseudonyms was Taoist Xuesong (Pine Snow Taoist). Zhao Mengfu was a descendent of Song imperial family, but he also served the Yuan dynasty as one of the highest Han officials (regular official, not a court painter). He was a famous calligraphy and adept in many styles of calligraphy, such as seal character, official script, running script and the cursive hand, and he also created his own style, Zhaoti. He excelled at painting too, especially in ink bamboo, flowers and birds. His wife, Guan Daosheng was also talented in painting and calligraphy. The Xuesong Zhai Ji (¡¶ËÉÑ©Õ«¼¯¡·, ¡°Collected Essays from Pine Snow Studio¡±) was written by Zhao. Pop Art The term first appeared in Britain during the 1950s and referred to the interest of a number of artists in the images of mass media, advertising, comics and consumer products. The 1950s were a period of optimism in Britain following the end of war-time rationing, and a consumer boom took place. Influenced by the art seen in Eduardo Paolozzi's 1953 exhibition Parallel between Art and Life at the Institute for Contemporary Arts, and by American artists such as Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg, British artists such as Richard Hamilton and the Independent Group aimed at broadening taste into more popular, less academic art. Hamilton helped organize the ¡°Man, Machine, and Motion¡± exhibition in 1955, and ¡°This is Tomorrow¡± with its landmark image Just What is it that makes today's home so different, so appealing? (1956). Pop Art therefore coincided with the youth and pop music phenomenon of the 1950s and '60s, and became very much a part of the image of fashionable, 'swinging' London. Peter Blake, for example, designed album covers for Elvis Presley and the Beatles and placed film stars such as Brigitte Bardot in his pictures in the same way that Warhol was immortalizing Marilyn Monroe in the USA. Pop art came in a number of waves, but all its adherents - Joe Trilson, Richard Smith, Peter Phillips, David Hockney and R.B. Kitaj - shared some interest in the urban, consumer, modern experience. Zhang Xuan (8th c.) A native of Jingzhao (today¡¯s Xi¡¯an in Shanxi province) in Tang dynasty. In 723 AD during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, he became a court painter with Yang Sheng and Yang Ning. Zhang Xuan was famous for his figure paintings, especially his paintings of noble lady, noble child, baby, and horse. He and Zhou Fang were the most outstanding figure painters in Tang dynasty. Xie He (479~502) Painter, art historian in Southern Qi and Liang of Southern dynasties. He excelled at genre painting and figure painting. His most famous work was a book, the Gu Hua Pin Lu (¡¶¹Å»Æ·Â¼¡·, Classified Record of Ancient Painters), which is also the oldest painting treatise in Chinese history. In this book Xie made comments on the important painters during 3rd to 4th century. Xie He is best known for his Six Cannons of painting which became a central theory in the history of Chinese painting. In this theory Xie He deals with all the major aspects of the art of painting according to importance. Six Cannons The Six Cannons were introduced by Xie He in his Gu Hua Pin Lu (¡¶¹Å»Æ·Â¼¡·, Classified Record of Ancient Painters). They may be paraphrased as: first vivid spiritual consonance; second structural use of the brush; third proper representation and fidelity to object; fourth specific coloring of different objects; fifth proper planning of composition; and sixth transmission of the past and copying. Theory of Relativity The theory of relativity refers specifically to two theories: Albert Einstein's special relativity and general relativity. Special relativity is a theory of the structure of spacetime. General relativity is a theory of gravitation. Relativity and quantum physics touch the very basis of physical reality, altering our commonsense notions of space and time, cause and effect. Classical Physics is convenient in studying bodies of ordinary dimensions but not in other cases. For bodies of astronomical dimensions, the use of Relativity is required as well as that of Quantum Mechanics is required for bodies of atomic dimensions. The theory of relativity changed the ¡°comment sense¡± toward space and time by its new contents of ¡°relativity of simultaneity¡±, ¡°four-dimensional space-time¡±, and ¡°curve space¡±, etc. Quantum Theory The modern world of physics is notably founded on two tested and demonstrably sound theories of general relativity and quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics is a fundamental branch of physics with wide applications in both experimental and theoretical physics. The effects of quantum mechanics are typically not observable on macroscopic scales, but become evident at the atomic and subatomic level. Quantum theory generalizes all classical theories, including mechanics and electromagnetism, and provides accurate descriptions for many previously unexplained phenomena such as black body radiation and stable electron orbits. It is the underlying mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, solid-state physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, computational chemistry, quantum chemistry, particle physics, and nuclear physics. Heisenberg (1901~1976) Werner Karl Heisenberg was a celebrated German physicist and Nobel laureate, one of the founders of quantum mechanics, and acknowledged to be one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century. He was born in W¨¹rzburg, Germany and died in Munich. Heisenberg was the head of German nuclear energy project, though the nature of this project, and his work in this capacity, has been heavily debated. He is most well-known for discovering one of the central principles of modern physics, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Ren Bonian (1840~1896) Ren Bonian (Ren Yi) was an outstanding painting in modern China. Born in Zhejiang and lived in Shanghai, he was active in the Haishang Painting School (º£ÉÏ»ÅÉ) which fused popular and traditional styles. He is also sometimes referred to as one of and the best of the "Four Rens"(four modern painters in Shanghai who shared a same family name Ren). Wu Changshuo (1844~1927) Wu Changshuo was born in Anji, Zhejiang Province, and died in Shanghai. He settled in Suzhou in his twenties, where he founded the Xiling Seal Engravers Society, an artists' association with a focus on the craft of seal carving. As a leading figure in the Haishang Painting School during the early 20th century, he was largely responsible for rejuvenating the genre of bird-and-flower painting by introducing an expressive, individualistic style more generally associated with literati painting. He began his artistic career with the traditional study of literature and ancient inscriptions before moving to calligraphy. He wrote Fou Lu Ji (¡¶ó¾Â®¼¯¡·, ¡°Works from My Cottage Fou Lu¡±) and Fou Lu Yin Cun (¡¶ó¾Â®Ó¡´æ¡·, ¡°Seals Colleted in My Cottage Fou Lu¡±) , etc. His famous paintings include ¡°Tianzhu Huahui¡± (ÌìÖñ»¨»Ü, Geranium Flower), ¡°Zi Teng Tu¡± (×ÏÌÙÍ¼, Purple Bine), ¡°Mo He Tu¡±( Ä«ºÉÍ¼, Water Lily of Ink), and ¡°Xin Hua Tu¡± (ÐÓ»¨Í¼, Apricot Blossom), etc. Huang Binhong (1865~1955) Modern art historian and literati painter. He used to edit literary and art journals and taught at fine arts colleges in Shanghai for nearly 30 years. Huang experimented with traditional techniques for the use of ink, including shading and layering. He achieved an effect of ¡°dark, dense, thick, and heavy¡± in his landscapes. Huang was the author of Huangshan Huajia Yuanliu Kao (¡¶»ÆÉ½»¼ÒÔ´Á÷¿¼¡·, ¡°Research the Headstream of Paintings in Yellow Mountain¡±), Hong Lu Hua Tan (¡¶ºçÂ®»Ì¸¡·, ¡°Essays of Paintings from My Cottage of Hong¡±), Gu Hua Wei (¡¶¹Å»Î¢¡·, ¡°About Ancient Paintings¡±), Jinshi Shuhua Bian (¡¶½ðÊ¯Êé»±à¡·, ¡°Knowledge of Painting, Inscription Painting and Calligraphy¡±), and Hua Fa Yao Zhi (¡¶»·¨ÒªÖ¼¡·, ¡°Principles and Methods of Paintings¡±), etc. Liu Haisu (1896~1994) Painter and art educator Li Haisu was born in Wujin, Jiangsu province. He founded Shanghai Art Academy in 1912, which is the first modern art academy, the first coeducation school and the first art school allowed nude models in China. He traveled to Japan and Europe many times to study western art. His works can be found in a number of albums, including Huangshan (¡¶»ÆÉ½¡·, ¡°Yellow Mountain¡±), Haisu Guo Hua (¡¶º£ËÚ¹ú»¡·, ¡°Chinese Paintings by Haisu¡±), Haisu Laoren Shuhua Ji (¡¶º£ËÚÀÏÈËÊé»¼¯¡·, ¡°Old Man Haisu¡¯s Calligraphy and Painting¡±). His theoretical writings include Biography of Millet, and The Six Cannons in Chinese Painting, etc. Shi Lu (1919~1982) Originally known as Feng Ya-heng, Shi created his artistic pseudonym by combining those of two heroes of cultural iconoclasm, the seventeenth century individualist painter Shitao and the twentieth century writer Lu Xun. For the same reason, he changed his name to Shi Lu (representing Shi Tao and Lu Xun). Adept in Chinese painting and plate drawing, he was the representative of the Chang¡¯an School of Painting. Zhu Qizhan (1892~1996) Born in Taicang in Jiangsu province, Zhu Qizhan started to copy ancient Chinese painting at the age of eight. When he at middle age he traveled to Japan twice where he studied Western-style oil, but after 1950s, he turned his interest to Chinese paintings. He excelled at landscape, flower, especially orchid, bamboo and stone. Lin Fengmian (1900~1991) Lin Fengmian is a famous modern painter and art educator who successfully combined Chinese and Western painting skills. He was born in Meixian County, Guangdong Province. At the age of 19, he went to France to learn oil painting, doing part-time work to support his study. In 1925 he came back to China to work as principal of the Beiping State Vocational Art School. In the late 1920s, invited by Cai Yuanpei, he became principal of the Hangzhou Vocational Art School (now the China Academy of Art). In 1978, he settled in Hong Kong. His solo exhibition was successfully held in Paris in 1979. Lin was good at the painting of noble ladies, characters of Beijing opera, scenery of fishing villages, female body, still life and landscapes. Pan Tianshou (1897~1971) Chinese painter, fine arts educationist, theorist of fine arts, calligraphist and seal cutting artist. From 1923, Pan started to teach in Shanghai Art School, New China Art School, Xihu Art School. The next year he went to Japan with Lin Fengmian to investigate Japanese art education. In 1944 he became the principal of the National Arts Vocational School. After the foundation of People¡¯s Republic of China, Pan took the positions of president of Zhejiang Fine Arts Academy and vice president of China Federation of Literary and Art Circles, etc. Books written by Pan Tianshou include The History of Chinese Painting, Tingtiange Huatan Suibi (¡¶ÌýÌì¸ó»Ì¸Ëæ±Ê¡·, ¡°Essays of Painting from Tingtian Attic, Tingtiange was the name of his studio), etc. Li Keran (1907~1989) Li Keran was born in Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province. He was a famous painter and art educator in modern China. He developed a personal style of landscape painting that was based upon the western technique of light and shade. His famous paintings include ¡°Apricot Blossom with Spring Rain in South China¡± (ÐÓ»¨´ºÓê½ÄÏ), ¡°Morning Fog in Mountain Town¡± (É½³Ç³¯Îí), ¡°Watching Mountains¡± (¿´É½Í¼), etc. Fu Baoshi (1904~1964) Chinese painter. Having studied in Japan, he travelled all over China to paint landscape, forming his own style based on traditional artistry. He also wrote Research on the History of Chinese Ancient Landscape Paintings, Techniques of Chinese Landscape Painting and Figure Painting, and Theories of Chinese Painting, etc. Li Kuchan (1898~1983) Li Kuchan¡¯s given name was Ying, and his courtesy name was Kuchan (which means bitter Zen). He combined western techniques and spirituality in sculpture and painting into his Chinese painting teaching, and he himself was excelled at great freehand style of flower-and-bird painting. His representative works include ¡°Orchid and Bamboo¡± (À¼Öñ), ¡°Eagle's Eyes Guarding China¡± (ÈºÓ¥Í¼), ¡°Perching¡±, ¡°Fully Blossoming Water Lily¡± (Ê¢ºÉ), etc. Huang Zhou (1925~1997) Artist, collector of traditional Chinese paintings, and a social activist. Entrusted by the Ministry of Culture, Huang founded the Research Institute of Traditional Chinese Painting and became its deputy director. He was also successively in the positions of director of Chinese Artists Association, member of the standing committee of CPPCC, and curator of Yanhuang Art Gallery. Cheng Shifa (1921~2006) Born in Songjiang, Shanghai, Cheng was good at comic works, illustration drawing, new-year picture, landscapes painting, flower-and-bird painting, and figure painting. Marx (1818~1883) Karl Marx was the founder of Marxism, the organizer and leader of the First International, and the Great Teacher of the proletariat and the working people in the world. Romain Rolland (1866¡«1944) French writer. Romain Rolland's most famous work is Jean Christophe, a partly autobiographical novel, which also won him the 1915 Nobel Prize. The Sword of Damocles In Greek mythology, Damocles was courtier at the court of Dionysius I. He so persistently praised the power and happiness of Dionysius that the tyrant, in order to show the precariousness of rank and power, gave a banquet and had a sword suspended above the head of Damocles by a single hair. Hence the expression ¡°the sword of Damocles¡± to mean an ever-present peril. Zhong Yong (or Doctrine of the Mean) The essence of Zhong Yong rooted in the Doctrine of the Mean in Confucianism. Doctrine of the Mean was one of the Four Books, and it also refers to a way of living. Not like most people understand today, Zhong Yong does not equal to indifference or mediocrity. It¡¯s about cultivation of human nature, including the way of learning, ¡°To this attainment there are requisite the extensive study of what is good, accurate inquiry about it, careful reflection on it, the clear discrimination of it, and the earnest practice of it. Moderation is the process of eliminating or lessening extremes¡±; and the duties of universal obligation are five, ¡°the duties are those between sovereign and minister, between father and son, between husband and wife, between elder brother and younger, and those belonging to the intercourse of friends¡±; and the virtues wherewith they are practiced are three, ¡°Knowledge, magnanimity, and energy¡±(the quotations follow James Legge¡¯s translation in 1893). The highest goal of cultivation of Zhong Yong is the most entire sincerity. Chang'e Chang'e is the subject of several legends in Chinese mythology. She was Hou Yi¡¯s wife. Chang¡¯e stole and ate Hou Yi¡¯s elixir, then flew to moon. She had to live on Moon forever. Nv Wa A goddess in Chinese mythology. In some legends, Nv Wa created human beings from mud. In some other legends Nv Wa married to Fu Xi, her brother, and gave birth to human beings. Another legend tells how she patched up the sky. One day, there was a hole in the sky and it caused a flood. Nv Wa melted together various kinds of colored stones and with the molten mixture she patched up the sky. Human beings were protected. There are many legends about Nv Wa, which are well known until today. Mawangdui Located in the eastern suburbs of Chansha, Hunan Province, the Mawangdui Han Dynasty Tombs were uncovered in 1972 and excavated from 1972 to 1974. Mawangdui is the tombs of a man named Li Cang and his wife and son, who lived in the State of Changsha, Western Han Dynasty (206BC-8AD). The three tombs contained the remains of the Marquis Dai (tomb no.2), his wife (tomb no.1) and his son (tomb no.3), and their most prized possessions. The articles excavated from the tombs have been highly important in researching this very wealthy and sophisticated Western Han culture. Gu Kaizhi (346~407) Gu Kaizhi was a celebrated painter and art theorist in Eastern Jin dynasty. According to historical records he was born in Wuxi, Jiangsu province and first painted at Nanjing in 364. In 366 he became an officer (Da Sima Canjun). Later he was promoted to royal officer (Sanji Changshi). He was also a talented poet and calligrapher. He wrote three books about painting theory: On Painting (¡¶ÂÛ»¡·), Introduction of Famous Paintings of Wei and Jin Dynasties (¡¶Îº½úÊ¤Á÷»ÔÞ¡·) and Painting Yuntai Mountain (¡¶»ÔÆÌ¨É½¼Ç¡·). He wrote: "In figure paintings the clothes and the appearances were not very important. The eyes were the spirit and the decisive factor." Gu's art is known today through copies of three silk handscroll paintings attributed to him: ¡°Nv Shi Zhen Tu¡± (Å®Ê·óðÍ¼, Admonitions of the Instructress to the Court Ladies), ¡°Luo Shen Fu Tu¡± (ÂåÉñ¸³Í¼ , Nymph of the Luo River) , and ¡°Lienv Renzhi Tu¡± (ÁÐÅ®ÈÊÖÇÍ¼ , Wise and Benevolent Women). Zong Bing (375~443) Zong Bing, painter and art theorist made important contributions to Chinese art theory especially in developing Gu Kaizhi's theory of spirit and form and clarifying and tackling issues of perspective and composition. In the field of theory Zong Bing promoted a view that saw landscape painting as a spiritual domain that enables humans to dwell in. His theory can be found in his essay Introduction to Painting Landscapes. Zong Bing was famous for his landscape paintings. Xie He, an art theorist in Southern Qi, said Zong¡¯s painting was ¡°not accurate but its atmosphere worth recommend¡±. His famous paintings include ¡°Kongzi Dizi Xiang¡± (¿××ÓµÜ×ÓÏñ , Portraits of Confucius¡¯ Students), ¡°Yingchuan Xianxian Tu¡± (ò£´¨ÏÈÏÍÍ¼ , Saints in Ying Chuan), ¡°Zhou Li Tu¡± (ÖÜÀñÍ¼ , Rites of the Zhou), ¡°Qiu Shan Tu¡± (ÇïÉ½Í¼, Autumn Mountains), and ¡°Lijia Yiwu Tu¡± (Àñ¼ÎÒØÎÝÍ¼ , Lijia Cottage), etc. He was also a wonderful qin player, finishing the editing of an ancient music book Jin Shi Nong (¡¶½ðÊ¯Åª¡·). Jing Hao (9th century~early 10th century c.) Jing Hao was an important landscape painter and essayist of the Five Dynasties (907-960) period. Jing spent much of his life in retirement as a farmer in the Taihang Mountains of Shanxi province. In his art, Jing followed the court painters of the Tang dynasty in emphasizing the singular grandeur of the landscape. According to his essay Bifa Ji (¡¶±Ê·¨¼Ç¡·, ¡°On Brushstrokes¡±), Taihang Mountain was so beautiful that he brought papers and ink brushes into it and painted day after day. Not until he painted thousands of landscapes, he could not grasp the mountain¡¯s spirit. Jing Hao was the first great figure to adequately depict the characteristic landscape of the north, because he always observed and learnt from the nature. Mi Fu (1051~1107) Mi Fu was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan, Shanxi during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the ¡°Mi Fu Style¡± and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. He is best known for his calligraphy, and he was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. As a personality Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric. At times they even deemed him ¡°Madman Mi¡±. He also was known as a heavy drinker. Su Shi (1037~1101) Su Shi was a writer, poet, artist, calligrapher, pharmacologist, and statesman of the Northern Song Dynasty. His courtesy name was Zizhan and his pseudonym was Dongpo Jushi (Resident of Dongpo), and he is often referred to as Su Dongpo. Su Shi was born in Meishan, near Mount Emei in what is now Sichuan province. His brother Su Zhe and his father Su Xun were both famous literati and they were called The Three Sus. Su was among the earliest to advocate the scholar painting and later founded Huzhou School. Su's poem was teemed with exaggerated metaphors. A small group of them represented the sufferings of the people, scolding governors' dissipation and debauchery. His poems exerted great influence on literature of later generations. As to ci (lyrics), Su Shi and Xin Qiji were called Su-Xin for their ci were both of powerful and freestyle. They brought new atmosphere to the circle of ci and broke the monopoly of restrained style. Another of his contribution to ci was that he liberated ci from music. From then on, ci became an independent lyric. Wang Wei (701~761) Wang Wei sometimes titled the Poet Buddha, was a Tang Dynasty Chinese poet, musician, painter and statesman. His courtesy name was Mojie, and was from Hedong, the Yellow River area in southwestern Shanxi. He is best known for his poems, which addressed the illusory nature of beauty and the physical world. As well as being a poet, Wang Wei was a painter of some note and the delicate, atmospheric nature of his art is reflected in his poetry. None of his original paintings survive, but copies of works attributed to him are also landscapes with similar qualities. He influenced what became known as the Southern school of Chinese landscape art, which was characterised by strong brushstrokes contrasted with light ink washes. In his later years, he lived at Wangchuan at Lantian, southeast of Chang'an. Guo Xi (1020~1109) Born in Wen county in present day Henan province, Guo Xi is not only one of the greatest landscape artists, but also one of the most influential art theorists in the Northern Song dynasty. Although his style can be traced back to Tang dynasty¡¯s famous Li Cheng, he experimented with a variety of different styles. Being a prominent member of the Imperial Academy of Painting GuoXi¡¯s art ornamented large parts of the imperial palace' especially during the reign of emperor Shenzong who admired his work. Lin Quan Gao Zhi (¡¶ÁÖÈª¸ßÖÂ¡·, Collection of Hermit in Woods and Spring), written by Guo Xi, is an important work of aesthetic ideology in Chinese painting. It provides a deep analysis and research on Guo Xi¡¯s key aesthetic ideology ¡°Beyond Nature¡±. Guo Xi developed a strategy of depicting multiple perspectives called "the angle of totality." And his theory of ¡°Three Distances¡± shows that Chinese landscape painting has entered a more mature stage. His important masterpieces include ¡°Zao Chun¡± (Ôç´º, Early Spring), ¡°Keshi Pingyuan Tu¡± (ñ½Ê¯Æ½Ô¶Í¼, Old Trees, Level Distance), ¡°Guanshan Chunxue Tu¡± (¹ØÉ½´ºÑ©Í¼), Spring Snow in Guan Mountain) and ¡°Yougu¡± (ÓÄ¹È, Quiet Valley), etc. Qian Xuan (1235~1301) Qian Xuan was a Song loyalist painter from Zhejiang and most of his life was lived in early Yuan Dynasty. He started as an aspiring scholar-official during the Southern Song. When the Mongol Yuan took over China in 1276 he effectively gave up the idea of officialdom. Like many of his compatriots, he turned to artistic pursuits to support himself. He was accomplished in painting of ancient figure, landscape, fur-and-feather, calligraphy, and flower-and-bird. In the field of landscape painting, his theory and practice of returning the old tradition and innovation in visual structure inspired many literati painters of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. Ni Zan (1301~1374) Ni Zan is considered to be one of the four "Late Yuan" masters. He was born into a wealthy family in Wuxi, which could afford him to be educated despite the unavailability of high-paying governmental jobs that traditionally were the reward for a rigorous Confucian education. So he can choose not to serve the foreign Mongol dynasty of the Yuan and lived a life of retirement and scholarship of his whole life. He called himself ¡°Lazy Zan¡±, or ¡°Pedantic Ni¡±. As a sticker of cleanliness, Ni washed and cleaned his clothes several times a day, and even washed the trees around his house. He was part of a movement that radically altered the traditional conceptions of Chinese painting. Their paintings depicted representations of natural settings that were highly localized, portraying personally valued vistas that reflected their individual feelings. His works include ¡°Yuhou Konglin¡± (Óêºó¿ÕÁÖ , The Empty Woods after Rain), ¡°Wuzhu Xiaoshi¡± (ÎàÖñÐãÊ¯ , Bamboo and Rocks), etc. Dong Qichang (1555~1636) Chinese painter, calligrapher, connoisseur, theoretician, collector and high official in late Ming Dynasty. Born in Huating (today¡¯s Songjiang in Shanghai), Dong¡¯s courtesy name was Xuanzai or Yuanzai, and his pseudonym was Si Bai and Xiangguang Jushi. He was the main representative of Huating School. Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou is the name for a group of eight Chinese painters in the Qing dynasty known for rejecting the orthodox ideas about painting in favor of a style deemed expressive and individualist. They all gathered in Yangzhou, a business center in China at that time. The term was also used not only for geographic reason, it also because they each had strong personalities at variance with the conventions of their own time. Most of them were from impoverished or troubled backgrounds. Still the term is, generally, more a statement about their style rather than being a judgment of them as personally being among history's noted eccentrics. The group includes Jin Nong, Huang Shen, Gao Xiang, Li Fangying, Li Shan, Luo Ping, and Wang Shishen. Other artists, such as Gao Fenghan, Bian Shoumin, Min Zhen, and Hua Yan, are sometimes included. Their style was influenced by Chen Chun, Xu Wei, Zhu Da, Shi Tao, and Gao Qipei, etc. Eight Masters from Nanjing The Eight Masters of Nanjing (Nanjing¡¯s old name was Jinling) were a group of 17th century Chinese painters living in Nanjing. The most prominent of them was Gong Xian. The famous painters in this group included Gong Xian, Fan Qi, Ye Xin, Zou Che, Gao Cen, Hu Cao, Wu Hong, and Xie Sun. The style of their paintings was different. Wilhelm Worringer (1881¡«1965) Wilhelm Worringer was a German art historian. He is known in connection with expressionism. His best-known works are Abstraction and Empathy in 1908, which was his doctoral thesis, and Form in Gothic published in 1911. After World War I, Worringer became a professor in Bonn University, where he wrote Egyptian Art and Greek and Gothic Art. He moved to Konigsberg in 1928 and to East Germany in 1945. He was a professor in Halle University when this country was under the control of Soviet Union. In 1950 he settled in Munich and lived there until his death. Worringer was influential because he saw abstract as being in no way inferior to "realist" art, and worthy of respect in its own right. This was critical justification for the increased use of abstraction in pre-war European art. Kang Youwei (1858¡«1927) Kang Youwei, born in Foshan, Guangdong, was a famous scholar, noted calligrapher and political reformist in Chinese modern history. Kang came from a wealthy family of scholar-officials. He was a strong believer in constitutional monarchy and wanted to remodel the country after Meiji Japan. He was an important leader of a campaign to modernize China now known as the Reform Movement of 1898 (or Hundred Days' Reform). After the reform failed Kang fled to Japan, where with his student Liang he organized the Protect the Emperor Society. He returned China in 1914, after the Qing Dynasty fell and the Republic of China was established. Gong Xian (1618~1689) A painter in Qing dynasty. His courtesy names included Bian Qian, Ye Yi, Qi Xian, and his pseudonyms were Ban Mu (half acre) and Chai Zhangren (old man of firewood). He was born in Kunshan in Jiangsu province and later moved to Nanjing. One of the Eight Masters from Nanjing. Chen Duxiu (1879¡«1942) A founder of the Chinese Communist Party and a major leader in developing the cultural basis of revolution in China. Chen Duxiu was born in the city of Anqing in Anhui province. He moved to Shanghai in 1900 and Japan in 1901. It was in Japan where Chen became influenced by western socialism and the growing Chinese dissident movement. During this time, Chen became an increasingly influential activist in the revolutionary movement against foreign imperialism, the Qing government, and Yuan Shikai. In 1915, he chiefly edited the magazine Youth (renamed as New Youth the next year), which started the prelude of New Culture Campaign. In 1916, he was employed to take charge of the science of arts in Peking University, where he initiated the magazine of Weekly Review with Li Dazhao two years later. Since then, he directly devoted himself into the struggle of patriotic movement. He was one of the prominent leaders of the May Fourth Movement of 1919. In the summer of 1920, he set up the first communism group in Shanghai with the help of the Communist International. From the first session to the fifth session of the national congress of CPC, he was elected the head of communist party. Lv Zheng (1896~1989) Lv Zheng went to Japan to study art at 20. Being angry at Japanese invasion in China, he returned China soon. In 1918, Lv went to Nanjing to assist Ouyang Jingwu to found the Cheen Institute of Inner Learning (Ö§ÄÇÄÚÑ§Ôº), an institute of Chinese Buddhism. Lv Zheng was proficient in languages associated with Buddhism, including Japanese, Sanskrit, Pali and Tibetan, etc, and was one of the most accomplished Buddhism researchers in China. Lu Xun (1881¡«1936) Lu Xun is a famous writer, thinker, and revolutionist of the 20th century in China. Born in Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, Lu Xun was first named Zhou Zhangshu and later renamed Shuren, literally, ¡°to nurture a person¡±. In 1904, he went to Japan to pursue a Western medical degree at Sendai Medical School, where, however, he found it was more important to cure his compatriots' spiritual ills rather their physical diseases. He decided to be a wrtier. In 1918, Lu Xun used his pen name for the first time and published the first major baihua short story, ¡°A Madman's Diary¡±, in the magazine New Youth. It immediately established him as one of the most influential leading writers of his day. Both his first short story collection Call to Arms (published in 1923) and the second collection Wandering (published in 1926) won him a reputation of one of the founders of Chinese Modern Literature. Although highly sympathetic of the Chinese Communist movement, Lu Xun himself never joined the Chinese Communist Party despite being a staunch socialist as he professed in his works. Xu Beihong (1895¡«1953) Xu Beihong (born in Yixing, Jiangsu) was a modern Chinese painter, art educator and art theorist. Considered a modern master in China, he merged Western techniques with classic Chinese approaches. From the beginning of 1919, Xu studied western art overseas in Paris, Berlin and Belgium. In 1927 he came back to China and taught art in several academies. After the foundation of People¡¯s Republic of China, he became president of the Central Academy of Fine Arts and chairman of the Chinese Artists Association. Xu stuck to a way of realism, and his famous paintings include ¡°Tianheng Wubaishi¡± (ÌïºáÎå°ÙÊ¿, Tianheng and Five Hundred Brave Men), ¡°Yugong Yishan¡± (ÓÞ¹«ÒÆÉ½, Foolish Old Man Removing a Mountain), etc. ¡°Refugees¡± ¡°Refugees¡±(ink and colour on paper, 200 X 2600 cm) is the representing work painted by Jiang Zhaohe, who started the creation of ¡°Refugees¡± at the Japanese occupied areas in Beiping in 1941. It vividly describes a hundred refugees trying to escape from the bombing in the war. Qi Baishi (1864¡«1957) Qi Baishi was a Chinese painter. Born to a peasant from Xiangtan, Hunan, Qi became a carpenter at 14. He learned to paint by himself firstly, then studied literature, seal carving, calligraphy and painting from local literati Chen Shaoran and Hu Qinyuan. In the following years he could make a living by selling paintings and seal carving. After he turned 40, he traveled five times to visit famous sceneries in China. He is most noted for his whimsical, often playful style of ink and wash works. All of his works show no western influences, which was unique and different from most artists at his time. At the age of 90, he was honored as "People's Artist" by the Chinese Ministry of Culture, and was selected chairman of the Chinese Artists' Association. In 1956 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by the United Nations and later, after his death, was listed as a world cultural celebrity. Hui Shouping (1633~1690) Born in Wujing in Jiangsu province, painter Hui Shouping was one of the Six Masters in Early Qing dynasty, which included Wu Li and the Four Wangs too. Among the Six, only Hui Shouping excelled at both landscape and flower-and-bird. His renovation in flower-and-bird painting won him the reputation of important flower-and-bird painter in early Qing dynasty. ¡¡ Yi Yuan Lun Hua (On Paintings by Yi Yuan) Yi Yuan Lun Hua (ÒÃÔ°ÂÛ» , On Paintings by Yi Yuan) is an essays collection written by Song Nian. Song Nian¡¯s courtesy name was Xiao Meng, and his pseudonym was Yi Yuan. He founded the Painting Association of Zhenliu in Ji¡¯nan during the reign of emperor Guangxu. The lectures he wrote for the association was collected, named Yi Yuan Lun Hua. Xinhai Revolution The Xinhai Revolution, named for the Chinese year of Xinhai (1911), was the overthrow of China's ruling Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. The revolution began with the armed Wuchang Uprising and the spread of republican insurrection through the southern provinces, and culminated in the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor after lengthy negotiations between rival Imperial and Republican regimes based in Beijing and Nanjing respectively. Led by Sun Zhongshan, the Revolution inaugurated a period of struggle over China's eventual constitutional form, which saw two brief monarchical restorations and successive periods of political fragmentation before the Republic's final establishment. Leaving the brilliant impression on China modern history, the Xinhai Revolution is a great piece of political affair, which is the first time to flag Democracy republic on China. It overthrew the Qing dynasty and founded the Republic of China. This emancipated the people from the rule of the feudal system. May Fourth Movement The May Fourth Movement takes its name from the massive popular protest that took place on May 4th 1919 in Beijing, China. It was an anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement in early modern China, and it marked the upsurge of Chinese nationalism, and a re-evaluation of Chinese culture. Science and democracy became the code words of the movement. The May Fourth Movement came out from the New Culture Movement. Taiji First mentioned in the Book of Change, Taiji (or Taichi) is an important concept in Chinese history of thought. It was a state primeval chaos before birth of the world and before the world split into Yin and Yang (Two Aspects). Taiji was said to be the primary of the universe. The Book of Change The Book of Change (¡¶ÖÜÒ×¡·) is a Chinese classical book in Zhou dynasty. Its Chinese name is Zhou Yi (¡¶ÖÜÒ×¡·), or Yi (¡¶Ò×¡·), or Yi Jing (¡¶Ò×¾¡·). ¡°Yi¡± means change. As the result of ancient Chinese intelligence, the book was about the essence and laws of the universe. Its influence on Chinese culture lasted for thousands of years. Heidegger (1889¡«1976) Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher. His thinking has contributed to such diverse fields as phenomenology, existentialism, hermeneutics, political theory, psychology, theology, and postmodernism. His main concern was ontology or the study of being. His best-known work is Being and Time. Chen Shizeng (1876 ~1923) Courtesy name Chengke. A critic, painter, and educator of early 20th-century China. His brother is famous Chinese historian Chen Yinke. In 1902 Chen went to Japan to study natural history. In 1913 Chen went to Beijing and became an editor in Ministry of Education the next year. He published a very inspiring essay called ¡°The Value of Literati Paintings¡± in 1921, pointing out the relationship between literati paintings and traditional Chinese philosophy. He said that each scholar painting had a special meaning behind. Li Bai (701~762) Li Bai was a Chinese poet. Li Bai is often regarded, along with Du Fu, as one of the two greatest poets in China's literary history. Approximately 1,100 of his poems remain today. Li Bai is best known for the extravagant imagination and striking imagery in his poetry, as well as for his great love for liquor. Li Bai is considered as the foremost romantic poet after Qu Yuan. And he is one of the most renowned and admired poets in China. Li Gonglin (1049-1106) Gonglin, courtesy name Li Boshi, pseudonym Longmian Jushi (Resident of Sleeping Dragon), was a Chinese painter, civil officer and archaeologist in the Northern Song Dynasty. He became famous for his paintings of horses, then he turned to Buddhism and Taoism religious painting, as well as portrait and landscape painting. His painting style was attributed to the style of Gu Kaizhi and Wu Taozi, developing their technique of line drawing. ¡°Lin Weiyan Mufang Tu¡± (ÁÙÎ¤ÙÈÄÁ·ÅÍ¼ , Painting after Wei Yan's Pasturing Horses) is his most famous painting. Liang Kai (early 13th century c.) Liang Kai was a Chinese artist who studied with, and then excelled, his master, Jia Shigu. In 1210, he was awarded the rank of Painter-in-Attendance at court, but he refused it. Instead, calling himself "Madman Liang", he spent his life drinking and painting. Eventually, he retired and became a Zen monk. Famous for his figure painting, Liang is credited with inventing the Zen school of Chinese art. He managed to capture figures¡¯ essences by simplicity and understatement of the work. Simplicity means the fundamental lines of a figure. His style influenced many painters in Ming and Qing dynasties even modern China. His famous paintings include ¡°Liuzu Zhuozhu Tu¡±, (Áù×æí½ÖñÍ¼, The Sixth Patriarch (Hui Neng) Chopping the Bamboo), ¡°Bagaoseng Gushi Tu¡± (°Ë¸ßÉ®¹ÊÊÂÍ¼ , Painting of the Eight Monks), and ¡°Pomo Xianren Tu¡± (ÆÃÄ«ÏÉÈËÍ¼ , Immortal in Splashed Ink). Mu Xi (13th century c.) Surname Li, Buddhist name Fachang, and hao, Mu Xi was a native of Sichuan Province. His year of birth is unknown. He was a monk and a painter from the late-Song to early-Yuan periods. He was skilled at painting Bodhisattvas, figures, birds and flowers, wild beasts (dragons, tigers, monkeys and cranes), landscapes and vegetation. His brush stroke was executed freely with both meticulous brushwork and free sketch painting, which resulted in mixed reviews from his successors. The aura rendered by his brush invokes the realm of Zen. Most of his works are now found in Japan and are widely appreciated. Chen Banding (1877¡ª1970) Real name Chen Nian, courtesy name Banding, Chen was adept in idea-sketch painting of flowers, landscapes and human figures. His technique was influenced by Wu Changshuo. Li Yu (1611¡«1679) Li Yu was born in Lanxi in Jiangsu province. Courtesy names Lihong and Zefan, Pseudonym Li Wong. Li Yu's plays and drama theory are his biggest accomplishments. Ten of his plays remain, including Bi Mu Yu (¡¶±ÈÄ¿Óã¡·, ¡±Flatfish¡±) and Feng Zheng Wu (¡¶·çóÝÎó¡·, ¡°Errors Caused by the Kite¡±). In his book Xian Qing Ou Ji (¡¶ÏÐÇéÅ¼¼Ä¡·, ¡°Occasional Notes with Leisure Motions¡±), he divulges useful information pertaining to cooking, architecture, collections and planting. He also wrote a book of short stories called Shi¡¯er Lou (¡¶Ê®¶þÂ¥¡·, ¡°Twelve Towers¡±). Li Tang (1050~1130 c.) Li Tang was born in Henan province in the town of Sancheng. He lived in the latter part of the eleventh century and into the first half of the twelfth, flourishing as a painter principally between the years 1100 and 1130. Li T'ang spent most of his life in the capital at Kaifeng, where he was an important member of the Imperial Painting Academy and a friend of Emperor Huizong. Li Tang painted traditional Song landscapes, but is best known for his droll, rustic genre scenes, and for his precise paintings of water buffaloes, executed in fine line and showing both movement and character. When the Mongols invaded northern China in 1122, and the Emperor was taken prisoner, Li Tang, then over seventy-five years old, moved south to Hangzhou to teach in the New Academy there. He brought with him the disciplined Song style of brushwork. ¡°Ru Niu Tu¡± (ÈéÅ£Í¼, Child on Buffalo), ¡°Cai Wei Tu¡± (²ÉÞ±Í¼, Pick the Rosebush), ¡°Wanhe Songfeng Tu¡± (ÍòÛÖËÉ·çÍ¼, Whispering Pines in the Mountains) are some of his most famous works. Jian Jiang (1610-1664) Jian Jiang was from She county of Anhui province and a member of the Anhui or Xin'an school of painting in Qing dynasty. His original name was Jiang Tao. He is noted for painting Mount Huangshan. After the fall of the Ming dynasty he became a monk, Budhhistic monastic name Hong Ren. This makes him one of the "Four Monks" along with Zhu Da, Shi Tao, and Kun Can. Four Wangs The Four Wangs were four Chinese landscape painters in the 17th century, all called Wang. They were Wang Shimin (1592-1680), Wang Jian (1598-1677), Wang Hui (1632-1717) and Wang Yuanqi (1642-1715). They were fervent followers of Dong Qichang of the late Ming. The Four Wangs are grouped together for two main reasons. They were all related by blood or in student-teacher relations, working in the same period at the end of the Ming and beginning of the Qing. The second reason is their artistic tendencies and the fact that they belonged to the same tradition and shared the same beliefs concerning art. It can be said that the Four Wangs stressed the importance of technique of brush and ink application and meticulous copying of ancient forms. Zhang Yanyuan (c. 815~?) Zhang Yanyuan, courtesy name Aibin, was a Chinese art historian, scholar, calligrapher and painter of the late Tang Dynasty. He was born to a high ranking family in present-day Yuncheng, Shanxi. Zhang wrote several works about art and calligraphy, among them Fashu Yaolu (¡¶·¨ÊéÒªÂ¼¡·, "Compendium of Calligraphy"), a collection of poems on color paper, and Lidai Minghua Ji (¡¶Àú´úÃû»¼Ç¡·, "Famous Paintings through History") - a general arts book, about the famous historical paintings. Zhang created his own style of art history writing, combining historical facts and art critic. His book also described the painter's lives thoroughly, including biography and works. Fang Xun (1736~1799) Courtesy name Landi or Lanru, pseudonym Lanshi, Lanru, Lansheng, Changqing and Yu¡¯er Nongxiang, Fang Xun was born in Shimen, Zhejiang province. He was said an impetuous and upright person, as unsophisticated as monk. Fang was good at poem, calligraphy and painting. As a painter he was on a par with Xi Gang, called Fang and Xi by their contemporaries. Zou Yigui (1686~1772) Chinese poet, literati, calligrapher and painter from Qing dynasty in the 18th century. He was a student of Hui Shouping, and as his teacher, Zou also excelled at flower painting in bright colours. In his book Xiaoshan Huapu (¡¶Ð¡É½»¨Æ×¡·, ¡°Painting Manual of Xiaoshan¡±), Zou elaborated on techniques of flower painting, composition, coloring, staining, methods to paint trees and rocks, shading, painters, schools of painters, pigments, framing, and papers, in which he said: ¡°Western painters are good at delineating, so their paintings, regardless of distance and light, faithfully represent the real objects. All the figures, houses and trees that are drawn have shadows. The colors and techniques of painting used by them are completely different from those in Chinese painting. The compositions range from wide to narrow, and can be measured by triangle. Palaces, rooms and walls in the paintings are so vivid that the audience may wish to enter them. If learners learn from their craft, they can get some inspiration. But western paintings have no brushwork at all, so in spite of their technical dexterity, they cannot be classified as artworks as such.¡± Wanmu Caotang Canghua Mu (Catalogue of Painting Collection in Ten Thousand Vegetation Pavilion) Wanmu Caotang Canghua Mu (¡¶ÍòÄ¾²ÝÌÃ²Ø»Ä¿¡·, Catalogue of Painting Collection in Ten Thousand Vegetation Pavilion), accomplished in 1917, was one of Kang Youwei (1858~1927)¡¯s signature works. It consists of a foreword and after word, and discusses art from different historical periods. Kang Youwei clearly states his view of reforming Chinese painting in the foreword. Even though this compilation is titled as a list of paintings, its critical writings make up most of the volume. It is a work of art theory by Kang Youwei, coupled with his theories on calligraphy compiled in Guangyizhou Shuangji (¡¶¹ãÒÕÖÛË«é®¡·). An acclaimed calligrapher and art collector; Kang Youwei was deeply perplexed by the fate of Chinese panting in the modern period and showed deep concern for its fate. In compiling this collection, he was motivated by his study and reflections on the history of Chinese art in order to refresh the waning of art theory from the late-Ming to Qing period. Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty The Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty is a name used to collectively describe the four Chinese painters Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, Ni Zan, Wang Meng active in the Yuan Dynasty. Wang Shizhen said in his Yiyuan Zhiyan (¡¶ÒÕÔ·Ø´ÑÔ¡·, Comments On Art), that the Four Masteres were Zhao Mengfu, Wuzhen, Huang Gongwang and Wang Meng, but it was not widely accepted. They worked during the Yuan period and were revered during the Ming Dynasty and later periods as major exponents of the tradition of literati painting, which was concerned more with individual expression and learning than with outward representation and immediate visual appeal. They were all natives in Southern China, all were good at ink landscapes, and all were influenced by Zhao Mengfu. The Four Masters were noted for their lofty personal and aesthetic ideals, the art of landscape painting shifted from an emphasis on close representation of nature to a personal expression of nature's qualities. They spurred experimentation with novel brushstroke techniques, with a new attention to the vocabulary of brush manipulation. Xu Wei (1521~1593) Xu Wei was a Ming Chinese painter, poet and dramatist famed for his artistic expressiveness. His courtesy names were Wenqing and then Wenchang. His various pseudonyms were Tianchi Shanren (The Mountain-man of the Heavenly Pond), Qingteng Jushi (Resident of the Green Vine House) and Shutian Shuiyue (The Water and Moon of the Bureau's Farm). Revolutionary for its time, his painting style influenced and inspired countless subsequent painters, such as Zhu Da, the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou, and the modern masters Wu Changshuo and Qi Baishi. Xu Wei can be considered as the founder of modern painting in China. In addition Xu was a relatively unknown playwright, authoring four plays. Xu Wei was also a poet in his style of considerable note. His works today available are Xu Wenchang Quanji (¡¶ÐìÎÄ³¤È«¼¯¡·, ¡°Xu Wenchang¡¯s Collected Works); Xu Wenchang Yicao (¡¶ÐìÎÄ³¤Øý²Ý¡·, ¡°Xu Wenchang¡¯s Cursive Scripts); and Si Sheng Yuan (¡¶ËÄÉùÔ³¡·, ¡°The Four Shrieks of the Ape¡±), a poetic drama of Yuan style; Nanci Xulu (¡¶ÄÏ´ÊÐðÂ¼¡·, ¡°Account of the Southern Style of Drama¡±), a book of drama theory. Xu Wei¡¯s influence continues to exert itself. Four Monks The Four Monks were four famous monk painters in early Qing dynasty. They are Bada Shanren (Zhu Da), Shi Tao (Zhu Ruoji), Hong Ren (Jian Jiang) and Kun Can (Shi Xi), who lived in late Ming dynasty and early Qing dynasty. Out of them, Bada Shanren and Shi Tao were from royal family of Ming dynasty. The four monks painted in reaction to conservative trends where artists were preoccupied with reproducing landscapes of old masters in highly ornamental and somewhat rigid styles. The attack against conventions is at the same time a political protest against the occupation of China by the foreign Manchu rulers and the dissatisfaction with a new reality imposed on the locals. This explains why the Four Monks preferred to turn their back on society and avoid collaborating with the aggressive Qing rulers. Their interests in painting came partly from a desire to escape from the mundane world by inosculating themselves with nature. Their love for landscapes and flower-and-bird paintings also suggests the bittersweet nostalgia underlying their mutual resentment of the political situation of the time. Rock Painting Rock painting is the general term including colored drawing, line carving and relief sculpture on the wall of caves, cliffs or isolated rocks. Rock Painting was found in many places around the world. China is the earliest country that found and recorded Rock Painting. Wide in distribution and large in number, China became an important component of world's Rock Painting. Rock paintings located in eighteen provinces and more than one hundred cities in China. Among them nearly 30 locations, including the Yin Mountain (ÒõÉ½) in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Helan Mountain (ºØÀ¼É½) in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Hei Mountain (ºÚÉ½) in Gansu province, Altai Mountain (°¢¶ûÌ©É½) in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Jiangjun Cliff (½«¾üÑÂ) in Jiangsu province, Cangyuan (²×Ô´) in Yunnan province and Zuoyou River in Guangxi province are the most important. According to its area, content and style, Chinese rock painting falls into three schools -- the northeast, the southwest, and the southeast. Northern Chinese Rock Paintings are mainly grinding and carving about grazine, hunting and animals in a realistic style. Rock Paintings of southwest school are often representing religious activities and painted in red. As to Rock Paintings found in coastal area of southeast China, most are about sailing and represented in abstract designs by chiseling and carving. Totem A totem is any entity which watches over or assists a group of people, such as a family, clan or tribe. It derived from the root-oode-in the Ojibwe language, which referred to something kinship-related, c.f. odoodem, ¡°his totem¡±. The word root ¡°odoo¡± represents the blood relation between brothers and sisters of a same mother, who are forbidden to marry each other. In 1971, a British merchant translated ¡°odoodem¡± into ¡°totem¡±. Although the term is of Ojibwa origin, ¡°totemism¡±, which was derived from totem, is not limited to Native American Indians. Similar totemism-like beliefs have been historically found throughout much of the world. Yan Fu, a scholar in modern China, was the first person introduced this word to China. He said: ¡°Totem, a religious belief of foreign groups, is usually used to differ one group from others¡±. That is, the totem is usually an animal or other naturalistic figure that spiritually represents a group of related people such as a clan. Bronze Wares Chinese Bronze history started beside the Yellow river. Bronze utensils were found from the relics of Longshan culture and Qijia culture in the Late Neolithic Age. Bronze was a kind of alloy, made of red copper and tin. The percentage of copper and tin of the alloy was different for different utilities, which was the so-called ¡°Six Metallic Components¡± in Kao Gong Ji (¡¶ÖÜÀñ¡¤¿¼¹¤¼Ç¡·, an old book in ancient China). In the late Shang dynasty Chinese had used Bronze wares in almost every important aspects in their lifes, including sacrificial vessel, music instruments, weapons, chariots utilities and tools. During Xia, Shang and Zhou pieriod, bronze was prevailing in handicraft production, so this period is called Bronze Age. Qu Yuan (ca. 339 BC~278 BC) Qu Yuan was a loyal minister in the government of the state of Chu. The Chu king, however, fell under the influence of other corrupt, jealous ministers who slandered Qu Yuan, and then banished him. In Qu Yuan¡¯s exile, he collected many legends and folk odes, and produced some of the greatest poetry in Chinese literature while expressing his fervent love for his state and his deepest concern for its future. In 278 BC, after learning of the capture of his country's capital, Ying, by the state of Qin, Qu Yuan waded into the Miluo river. holding a great rock in order to commit ritual suicide as a form of protest against the corruption of the era. Popular legend has it that villagers carried Zongzi (glutinous rice dumpling) and put them into the river in order to keep fish and evil spirits away from his body. The act gradually became the cultural tradition of dragon boat racing, which is held on the anniversary of his death every year (the fifth day of the fifth month of the Chinese lunar calendar), called Duan Wu festival. Qu Yuan is generally recognised as the first great Chinese poet with record. He initiated the style of Sao, which is named after his work Li Sao (¡¶ÀëÉ§¡·), in which he abandoned the classic four-character verses used in poems and adopted verses with varying lengths, which gives the poem more rhythm and latitude in expression. Qu Yuan¡¯s most important works include Li Sao, Jiu Zhang (¡¶¾ÅÕÂ¡·), Jiu Ge (¡¶¾Å¸è¡·), and Tian Wen (¡¶ÌìÎÊ¡·). Qu Yuan is also regarded as one of the most prominent figures of Romanticism in Chinese literature, and his masterpieces influenced some of the greatest Romanticist poets in Tang Dynasty such as Li Bai and Du Fu. Other than his literary influence, Qu Yuan is also held as the earliest patriotic poet in China history. His political idealism and patriotism have served as the model for Chinese intellectuals to this day. Dragon and Phoenix Human Figure Painting on Silk In February1949 the painting was unearthed in a tomb of the Chu Kingdom near Changsha in Hunan Province. It¡¯s the earliest traditional Chinese painting found so far. The painting was executed about 2,300 years ago on a piece of white silk used as a banner in traditional Chinese funerals. It is the profile of a noble woman dressed in a garment with full sleeves and a long skirt. She has her palms together, as if praying. On her top and her right side are a phoenix and a dragon. It¡¯s said that the woman in the picture was a portrayal of the one buried in the tomb, and the phoenix and dragon are leading her up to heaven. In 1973 another silk painting was found in the tomb of the Chu Kingdom, called ¡°Driving Dragon Painting¡±. ¡°The Dragon and Phoenix Human Figure Painting on Silk¡± and the ¡°Driving Dragon Painting¡± show us the painting styles in the Warring States Period. Kongzi Jiayu Kongzi Jiayu (¡¶¿××Ó¼ÒÓï¡·, The School Sayings of Confucius), or Jiayu, is an early Han period collection of parables centering around Confucius and his disciples, laying stress upon his teachings about ethical human conduct. Annotated by the late Han scholar Wang Su, it¡¯s one of Confucian classical books. Ma Duanlin, a scholar in Yuan dynasty, quoted Wang Su¡¯s note in his Wenxian Tongkao - Section Jingji Kao (¡¶ÎÄÏ×Í¨¿¼.¾¼®¿¼¡·, Critical Examinations of Documents-Study of Classics), ¡°Kongzi Jiayu is the dialogues between the nobles, Confucius and his seventy-two disciples. The disciples wrote down what they talked. The important sayings were collected and named as Lunyu (¡¶ÂÛÓï¡·, Analects), and the rest were collected and named as Kongzi Jiayu.¡± It means this book is a complement of the Confucian Analects Lunyu. Qin Shihuang (259 BC~210 BC) Qin Shihuang (ÇØÊ¼»Ê), personal name Ying Zheng, was the king of the Chinese State of Qin from 247 BCE to 221 BCE, he absorbed States Han, Zhao, Wei, Chu, Yan, and Qi, and then became the first emperor of a unified China, known as Qin Dynasty, from 221 BCE to 210 BCE, ruling under the name Shihuang (the First Emperor). Emperor Wu of Han (156 BC~87 BC) Emperor Wu of Han, personal name Liu Che, was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty in China, ruling from 141 BC to 87 BC. Emperor Wu is best remembered for the vast territorial expansion that occurred under his reign, as well as the strong and centralized Confucian state he organized. He is cited in Chinese history as one of the greatest emperors. As a military campaigner, Emperor Wu led Han China through its greatest expansion ¡ª at its height, the Empire's borders spanned from the modern Kyrgyzstan in the west, to the northern Korea in the northeast, and to northern Vietnam in the south. While establishing an autocratic and centralized state, Emperor Wu adopted the principles of Confucianism as the state philosophy and code of ethics for his empire and started a school to teach future administrators the Confucian classics. These reforms would have an enduring effect throughout the existence of imperial China and an enormous influence on neighbouring civilizations. The ¡°Han¡± in ¡°The Prosperous Han and Tang Dynasties (ººÌÆÊ¢ÊÀ)¡± just means the period during Emperor Wu of Han¡¯s reign. Huo Qubing (140 BC~117 BC) Huo Qubing was a famous general of the western Han dynasty under Emperor Wu. A nephew of another famous Han general Wei Qing, Huo Qubing exhibited outstanding military talent as a teenager. He defeats the Xiongnu troops four times in his life. As a result, he gained great favour with the Emperor. Huo Qubing died at the early age of 24 due to a plague. Cao¡¯s Clothing as Water It¡¯s a saying to describe Cao Zhongda¡¯s outlining method of the drapes of ancient clothes. Cao Zhongda, a Northern Qi painter from the Central Asian kingdom of Cao, was famous for his Buddhist paintings as the ¡°Cao style¡±, characterized by closely pleated garments clinging to the body as though they had just emerged from water. It¡¯s the ¡°Cao¡¯s Clothing of Water¡±. ¡°Cao¡¯s Style¡± is the style of the earliest centuries of Buddhism art reached China and mixed with Chinese art. Wang Wei (415~453) Wang Wei, a landscape painter in Liu Song of Southern Dynasty. In his essay On Paintings (¡¶Ðð»¡·), Wang Wei pointed out the difference between landscape painting and map, and emphasized the importance of concinnity and emotion in landscape painting. His theory of ¡°please one¡¯s spirit¡± showed that he realized how nature and landscapes could cultivate mankind. ¡°Luo Shen Fu Tu¡± (ÂåÉñ¸³Í¼ , Nymph of the Luo River) ¡°The Nymph of the Luo River¡± was painted by Gu Kaizhi, an established painter during the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Painting ¡°Nymph of the Luo River¡± survives in three copies dating to the Song dynasty. It illustrates a poem Ode to The Nymph of the Luo River (¡¶ÂåÉñ¸³¡·) written by Cao Zhi. The painting depicts the meeting between Cao Zhi and the Nymph of the Luo River at Luo River, vividly capturing the mood of their first meeting and eventual separation. The painter emphasized the tension between figures not by their expressions, but mainly by the composition of figures, stones, mountains and trees. The Emperor Taizong of Tang (599~649) Emperor Taizong of Tang, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. As he encouraged his father, Li Yuan (later Emperor Gaozu) to rise against Sui Dynasty rule at Taiyuan in 617 and subsequently defeated several of his most important rivals, he was ceremonially regarded as a cofounder of the dynasty along with Emperor Gaozu. He is typically considered one of the greatest, if not the greatest, emperor in all of Chinese history. Throughout the rest of Chinese history, Emperor Taizong's reign was regarded as the exemplary model against which all other emperors were measured, and his "Reign of Zhen'guan" (Õê¹ÛÖ®ÖÎ) was considered a golden age of Chinese history and required study for future crown princes. During his reign, Tang China flourished economically and militarily, and after his death, Tang China still enjoyed the peace and prosperity for more than a hundred years. Yan Liben (c.600~673) Yan Liben was a Chinese painter and government official (the Prime Minister of the Right) of the early Tang Dynasty. He excelled at figure painting, especially nobles, officials and court figures deprived from history. His notable works include the ¡°Eighteen Scholars Served in Qin¡± (¡¶ÇØ¸®Ê®°ËÑ§Ê¿¡·), ¡°Portraits at Lingyan Pavilion¡± (¡¶ÁèÑÌ¸ó¶þÊ®ËÄ¹¦³¼Ïñ¡·), ¡°Duty Tribute¡± (¡¶Ö°¹±Í¼¡·), and ¡°Officials of Yonghui¡± (¡¶ÓÀ»Õ³¯³¼Í¼¡·), etc. The copy of his ¡°Emperor Taizong Receiving the Tibetan Envoy¡± (¡¶²½éýÍ¼¡·) and ¡°Portraits of Chinese Emperors¡± (¡¶Àú´úµÛÍõÍ¼¡·) are survived. His works were highly regarded in Chinese art history. Wu Daozi (c. 690~758) Wu Daozi was a Chinese artist of the Tang Dynasty, famous for initiating a new style of religious painting, which was called ¡°Wu Style¡±. ¡°Wu Style¡± by Wu Daozi and ¡°Cao Style¡± by Cao Zhongda were both very influential in early Chinese figure painting, whose difference were often described as ¡°Wu¡¯s Belt as Wind, Cao¡¯s Clothing as Water¡±. The influence of his religious painting style can be seen even after Yuan and Ming dynasty, and the modern artisan painters regarded him as their ancestor. Wu Daozi was called The Sage of Chinese Painting. Li Zhaodao (c. 670~730) Li Zhaodao, as his father Li Sixun, was also famous for his landscape paintings. The ¡°Emperor Ming Huang¡¯s Journey to Shu¡±, attributed to Li Zhaodao, possibly a 10th-11th-century copy, described the journey of the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang to Sichuan escaping from The An Shi Rebellion. It is a representative work of Chinese early blue and green landscape painting. Han Gan (c. 706~783) Chinese famous painter in Tang dynasty. Coming from a poor family, Han Gan was recognized by Wang Wei, a prominent poet, who sponsored Han in learning arts. Chen Hong and Cao Ba were both his teachers. Han became a painter-in-attendance during the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang¡¯s reign. Han painted many portraits and Buddhism themed paintings, but he is most widely remembered for his paintings of horses. He was reputed to be able to not only portray the physical body of the horse, but also its spirit. Han Gan¡¯s works include the famous painting "Night-Shining White", portrait of a favorite steed of Emperor Xuanzong. Mo Gao Ku Located near the historic junction of the Northern and Southern Silk Roads, Dunhuang was a town of military importance from China to western world in ancient days. . In 366 A.D. a monk named Yuezun had a vision of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. Now there are 492 caves kept, in which there are more than 2400 sculptures and 450 thousands square meters of mural paintings. Mo Gao Ku is the most important cave temple in China. The caves show an uninterrupted history of Chinese painting, over a period of nearly a thousand years from Northern dynasties. An Shi Rebellion The An Shi Rebellion took place in China during the Tang Dynasty, from 755 to 763. An Lushan was a general of Sodgian-Turkic ancestry (i.e., non-Han). He was appointed by the Xuanzong emperor to be commander (½Ú¶ÈÊ¹) of three garrisons in the north¡ªPinglu, Fanyang and Hedong. In effect, An was given control over the entire area north of the lower reaches of the Yellow River. With such power and land in his control, An Lushan committed a revolt. When An Lushan 's forces went near Chang¡¯an, seeing the imminent threat to the capital, Emperor Xuanzong fled to Sichuan with his household. On the way, at Mawei Inn in Shaanxi, Xuanzong's bodyguard troops demanded the death of Yang Guozhong and his cousin Lady Yang. With the army on the verge of mutiny, the Emperor had no choice but to agree, ordering the execution of Yang Guozhong and the suicide of Lady Yang. Meanwhile, the crown prince Li Heng, now called Suzong, fled in the other direction to Lingzhou and was then proclaimed emperor. The new Imperial forces recaptured both Chang'an and Luoyang, and were helped by internal dissent in the newly-formed dynasty. An Lushan was killed by his son, An Qingxu, not long after his ascent to the throne. His son was then killed by a subordinate, general Shi Siming. Shi Siming was killed in turn by his son, Shi Chaoyi. Finally, after Luoyang was taken by the Tang forces for the second time, Shi Chaoyi committed suicide (in 763), thus ending the 8 year long rebellion. Guan Xiu (832~912) Guan Xiu, a monk painter at the end of Tang dynasty and the beginning of Five Dynasties, was orphaned and became a monk at the age of seven. He was known for his skill at painting and calligraphy, as well as for his poetry. His most famous paintings are the portraits of arhats and disciples of Sakyamuni, for example, ¡°The Sixteen Arhats¡± (¡¶Ê®ÁùÂÞººÍ¼¡·). The Buddhism figures in his painting are often with thick eyebrows and big eyes, high cheekbones and long nose, which gave them a look of foreigners and Buddhist. The following Buddhism painters often based their portrayals of the arhats on Guan Xiu's paintings. Shi Ke (active in Five dynasties) Shi Ke was a painter at the end of Five dynasties and the beginning of Song dynasty. His most famous survived work is ¡°Erzu Tiaoxin Tu¡±(¡¶¶þ×æµ÷ÐÄÍ¼¡·, Two Minds in Harmony). Guan Tong (active in Five dynasties) Jing Hao and Guan Tong are the two representative artists of the northern school of landscape painting, the two were also known as Jing-Guan. Apart from leading the same school of art they both found the turmoil in the north of China too much to bear and fled to the remote mountain areas to live in relative solitude. Guan Tong took Jing Hao¡¯s art and went even further when he beautifully reflected the changes that take place throughout the year as the seasons transform nature. He depicted the characterizing features of the different seasons and the effects of nature's changes on the human spirit. This cyclical feature is central in the philosophy and practice of Chinese medicine and Chinese thought in general. Like Jing Hao he represents the Northern School and uses techniques representative of this school, namely, Axe-cut Shading. His famous works include ¡°Shanxi Daidu Tu¡± (¡¶É½Ïª´ý¶ÉÍ¼¡·, Across A Mountain Stream) and ¡°Guanshan Xinglv Tu¡± (¡¶¹ØÉ½ÐÐÂÃÍ¼¡·, Travel in Mountain Guan) Dong Yuan (c. 934~c. 962) Dong Yuan as a Chinese painter. He was born in Zhongling. Dong Yuan was active in the Southern Tang Kingdom of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. He was from Nanjing in the Jiangsu province, which was a center for culture and the arts. He and his student Ju Ran were the founders of the southern school of landscape painting, and with Jing Hao and Guan Tong of the northern school they constituted the four seminal painters of that time. Although Dong Yuan became to represent the subtleness of the south and the monochrome style of landscape painting, he also painted in the early style known as Blue and Green Landscape Painting, done in the tradition of the famous Li Sixun. However, he added to the number of techniques, including more sophisticated perspective, use of pointillism and crosshatching to build up vivid effect. ¡°The Xiao and Xiang Rivers¡± (¡¶äìÏæÍ¼¡·), one of his best-known paintings, demonstrates these techniques, and his sense of composition. Ju Ran (active in Five dynasties) Ju Ran, a monk painter in Five dynasties, was one of the representative painters of the southern school landscapes. He followed Dong Yuan¡¯s style but went further. Ju Ran's new approach introduces new possibilities and ways of using a Chinese brush, bringing inspiration to painters of later dynasties. His famous paintings include ¡°Wanhe Songfeng Tu¡± (¡¶ÍòÛÖËÉ·çÍ¼¡·, the Pine-Soughing Valleys), etc. Huang Quan (?~965) Born in Chengdu, Huang Quan was comprehensive in different types of drawing, and chosen to be a court drawer in west Shu when he was only 17. He is famous for exquisite sketching and lifelike paintings. The depicted birds in his paintings were full-fledged and flowers looked luxurious under the bush. ¡°Xiesheng Zhenqin Tu¡± (¡¶Ð´ÉúÕäÇÝÍ¼¡·, Studies from Nature: Birds and Insects) Sketch of Rare Bird Scroll -- a piece handed down from Huang -- vividly depicts many kinds of birds. Xu Xi (active in Five dynasties) Xu Xi lived during the Five Dynasties, and was never involved in politics. Xu did not seek fame or wealth -- he just concentrated on painting. He admired the country lifestyle, choosing wild birds and village plants as the theme of his art. Xu used thick strokes and ink, drew branches and leaves plainly, and used a slight hint of color so it would not impair the ink. His works were full of natural and wild interest. ¡°Snow Covers Bamboo¡± was one of Xu's works that was handed down in history. Zhao Kuangyin (927~976) Zhao Kuangyin, Emperor Taizu of Song, was the founder of the Song Dynasty of China, reigning from 960 to 976. He established the core Song Ancestor Rules and Policy for the future emperors. He was remembered for, but not limited to, his reform of the examination system whereby entry to the bureaucracy favored individuals who demonstrated academic ability rather than by birth. He also created academies that allowed a great deal of freedom of discussion and thought, which facilitated the growth of scientific advance, economic reforms as well as achievements in arts and literature. He is perhaps best known for weakening the military and so preventing anyone else rising to power as he did. Zhang Zeduan (1085~1145) Zhang Zeduan, alias Zheng Dao, was a famous Chinese painter during the twelfth century, during the transitional period from the Northern Song to the Southern Song Dynasty. He was a native of Dongwu (present Zhucheng, Shandong). There is evidence that he was a court painter of the Northern Song Dynasty, and that in the aftermath of that dynasty's fall, his paintings were criticisms of the new dynasty. Zhang Zeduan's most famous painting is ¡°Qingming Shanghe Tu¡± (¡¶ÇåÃ÷ÉÏºÓÍ¼¡·, Along the River During Qing Ming Festival), a wide handscroll which depicts life in a city. This painting was made famous throughout China. In terms of historical significance, Zhang's original painting reveals much about life in China during the 12th century. Its myriad depictions of different people interacting with one another reveals the nuances of class structure and the many hardships of urban life as well. It also displays accurate depictions of technological practices found in Song China. Wang Ximeng (active in Northern Song) Wang Ximeng's ¡°Qianli Jiangshan Tu¡± (¡¶Ç§Àï½É½Í¼¡·, A Thousand Li of River and Mountain) is a breathtakingly beautiful blue-and-green landscape panorama painted for the emperor Huizong. Wang was a brilliant young artist who arrived at court in his teens and unfortunately died only a few years later. The young man received the gift of direct instruction in the art of painting from Huizong, and the present picture must have been something like a graduate-examination. It bears a remark by the prime minister, Cai Jing, which provides the only information known about Wang Ximeng. As painted under Huizong's instructions, Wang Ximeng's landscape combines classical roots in the blue-and-green tradition, elegant and realistic drawing, and a glowing, golden atmosphere that is a kind of visual poetry. Xia Gui (c. 1195~1224) Xia Gui, Chinese painter of the Song Dynasty, who was one of the great masters of the Southern Song landscape style. He was active in the imperial painting academy at Hangzhou during the reign of Emperor Ningzong of Song. Along with his celebrated contemporary artist Ma Yuan, he broke with the elaborate ornamental style of the period to cultivate a simpler, more emotional mode. Xia¡¯s landscapes, characterized by asymmetrical composition¡ªpainting only one corner out of four¡ªreduced human figures and buildings to minor accents. He was especially noted for his brilliant ink technique, in which extremely subtle, graded ink washes and overlapping brushstrokes created complex atmospheric effects of mist, sky, and infinity. In his ¡°Xishan Qingyuan Tu¡± (¡¶ÏªÉ½ÇåÔ¶Í¼¡·, Clear View of Streams and Mountains), a 9-m (30-ft) hand scroll, the panoramic sweep of landscape contains a full use of his varied brushwork. Along with Ma Yuan, he gave his name to the succeeding Ma and Xia School of landscape painting. Mi Youren (1086~1165, or 1074~1153) Mi Youren, son of the famous Song dynasty literati painter Mi Fu, was also a painter. The father and son created a new style of landscape painting called ¡°Mi Style¡±, which described mysterious mountains covering mist and fog, by a method of simple brushstroke and lighten ink. They sought after pure nature, and showed a typical taste of literati¡¯s. ¡°Xiaoxiang Qiguan Tu¡± (¡¶äìÏæÆæ¹ÛÍ¼¡·, Spectacular Views of the Xiao and Xiang Rivers) is Mi Youren¡¯s work. Ren Renfa (1254~1327) Ren Renfa was an expert of irrigation works, artist, and a government official in Yuan dynasty. He led the construction of the dams of Wusong river, Tonghui river, Huidong river, Yellow river, Lian Lake, and some sea dams. In his spare time, Ren also drew some outstanding paintings of horses and figures. His style is similar to the artists of the Tang Dynasty and Li Gongling in Song Dynasty. His paintings of horses are comparable to those by Zhao Mengfu. Gao Kegong (1248~1310) Painter and Ministry of Justice in Yuan dynasty. Gao Kegong was a Hui Nationality (Uygur). He was good at landscape painting and ink bamboo painting. Huang Gongwang (1269~1354) Huang Gongwang was a painter and calligrapher from Jiangsu in Yuan dynasty. He is the oldest of the "Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty". After serving as an official he acted as a Taoist priest. He spent his last years in the Fu-ch'un mountains near Hangzhou devoting himself to Taoism. In art he rejected the landscape conventions of his era's Academy, but is regarded as one of the great literati painters. He had two styles. One was dependent on the use of purple and the other preferred black ink. Like all other Chinese scholar-officials of his era he was also a poet. His most famous work is ¡°Fuchun Shanju Tu¡± (¡¶¸»´ºÉ½¾ÓÍ¼¡·, Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains, c. 1350). Wu Zhen (1280~1354) Painter Wu Zhen was one of the ¡°Four Masters of Yuan Dynasty¡±. He followed the Dong Yuan, Ju Ran school of painting. Following along with trends of the time, Wu's works tended less toward naturalism (ie. painting exactly what the eye sees) and more toward abstraction, focusing on dynamic balance of elements, and personifying nature. From his ¡°Yufu Tu¡± (¡¶Óæ¸¸Í¼¡·, Hermit Fisherman) we can see his style. Wang Meng (c. 1308~1385) Wang Meng, a grandson of Zhao Mengfu, was born in Huzhou (now known as Wuxing), Zhejiang. He was the youngest of the ¡°Four Masters in Yuan Dynasty¡±, and the least famous in his own time. Nevertheless, his style greatly influenced later Chinese Painting. In contrast to the relatively spare style of his compatriots, his ropy brushstrokes piled one on the other to produce masses of texture combined in dense and involved patterns. His most famous works include ¡°Qingbian Yinju Tu¡± (¡¶Çà±åÒþ¾ÓÍ¼¡·, Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains), etc. Zhu Yuanzhang (1328~1398) The founder of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, also known by his reign name "Hung-wu" (literally means "Vast Military"), came from a poor peasant family. He was orphaned at the age of 16 and then entered a Buddhist monastery, but left it in 1352 to join a band of rebels, of which he became leader. By 1382 he had ended Mongol rule and unified all China. His reign was marked by the consolidation of imperial power, agrarian reconstruction, and intimidation of the landed and scholarly elite, a reflection of his commoner roots. Through the case of Hu Wei-yong, the case of Lanyu (Blue Jade), and many times of literary inquisition, Zhu Yuanzhang killed almost all his co-founders of Ming dynasty. After his death, he was buried in Xiaoling Tomb in Nanjing, and was given the posthumous name ¡°Emperor Gao¡±, which literally means Emperor Tall. As historian Ebrey puts it "Seldom has the course of Chinese history been influenced by a single personality as much as it was by the founder of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang." Jinyi Wei (Secret Service of the Ming Emperors) The Jinyi Wei, literally "Brocade-Clad Guard", was the secret service of the Ming emperors. Originally a 500-man organization set up in 1382 by Emperor Hongwu (Zhu Yuanzhang) to be his personal bodyguards, it was soon entrusted and empowered to watch over his officials. By 1385 they numbered 14,000 and were the emperor's eyes and ears. At their peak, the Jinyi Wei had about 200,000 members. They had the power to bypass judicial procedures and could arrest, imprison and punish without going through due process. By the time of Emperor Yongle control of the Guard was largely in the hands of the eunuchs, who had the ears of the emperors. The Jinyi Wei was disbanded along with the remnants of the Ming Dynasty after the Manchu invasion of China. The Imperial Examination The Imperial examinations (¿Æ¾Ù) in Imperial China determined who among the population would be permitted to enter the state's bureaucracy. The Imperial Examination System in China lasted for 1300 years, from its founding during the Sui Dynasty in 605 to its abolition near the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1905. In the imperial China the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. It also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The Chinese Imperial examination system had international influence throughout East Asia including Vietnam, Japan and Korea. Wenziyu (Literary Inquisition) Wenziyu (ÎÄ×ÖÓü, "imprisonment due to writings"), or Literary Inquisition, refers to the persecution of intellectuals for their writings by the authority in Imperial China. Wenziyu flourished during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The persecutions could owe to a single phrase or word, which the ruler considered offensive. Some of these owed to the naming taboo. In a serious case, not only the writer but also his families and relatives would be killed. There were wenziyu before the Ming and Qing dynasties. The poet Su Shi of the Song Dynasty was jailed for several months by the emperor owing to some of his poems. The Ming Dynasty founder Zhu Yuanzhang, who had a humble beginning, caused many wenziyu. The Qing rulers, who were sensitive to anti-Manchu feelings among the Han Chinese, also carried out many wenziyu, including the so-called "Case of the History of the Ming Dynasty" (Ã÷Ê·°¸) under the reign of Emperor Kangxi in which about 70 were killed and more exiled. Emperor Xuanzong of Ming (1398~1435) Emperor Xuanzong of Ming, or the Xuande Emperor, was the emperor of China between 1425-1435. Born Zhu Zhanji, he was emperor Hongxi's son. Comparing with many other emperors of Ming Dynasty, Zhu Zhanji was the active one in his political life. He ordered the 7th expedition of (1431-1433) Zheng He¡¯s voyage. Zhu Zhanji was versed in calligraphy, painting and poetry. He often bestowed his painting to officials, on which he wrote down the name of the official and the date. He managed the Imperial Art Academy by himself, paid a lot to outstanding court painters, and even gave them a ¡°Jinyi Wei¡± title, so many skilled painters served the court during his reign. The Emperor Xuanzong of Ming ruled over a remarkably peaceful time with no significant external or internal problems. Later historians have considered his reign to be the Ming dynasty's golden age. Dai Jin (1388~1462) Dai Jin is noted as the founder of the Zhe school of Ming dynasty painting. He began his life in Hangzhou. Although he studied painting as a boy his initial occupation was carpentry. Later he became known for landscapes and animal paintings. He served as an official for a time but after angering the Emperor he returned to Hangzhou in Zhejiang, Dai specialized in landscape painting, as well as figures and animals. Having extensively imitated paintings of his predecessors, Dai had a good grounding in traditional painting. Meanwhile, he was not restrained by tradition and developed his own style, using easy and smooth strokes. Dai followed in the footsteps of Ma Yuan and Xia Gui of the Southern Song, as well as Li Cheng and Fan Kuan of the Northern Song Dynasty in landscape painting. Dai Jin had many followers inside and outside the court. They were called ¡°Zhe School¡±. Wu Wei (1459~1508) Wu Wei, courtesy name Ci-weng, sobriquet Xiao-xian, was a native of Jiangxia, Hubei. A wanderer in his youth, he was at one time employed as a servant in the home of Qian Xin. Later he developed his talent as a painter. During the reign of the Emperor Xianzong (r. 1465-1488) he received the title of Painter-in-Attendance in the Ren-zhi Hall. The Emperor Xiaozong (r. 1488-1505) gave him a seal which read ¡°First among painters¡±. His numerous followers became a branch of ¡°Zhe School¡±, called ¡°Jiangxia School¡± Shen Zhou (1427~1509) Shen Zhou, courtesy name Qinan, was a Chinese painter in Ming Dynasty. Shen Zhou was born into a wealthy family in Xiangcheng in Jiangsu, which allowed him to live the majority of his lives as retired scholar-artists, free of responsibility, and devote his time to artwork, socializing, and monastic contemplation of the natural world around him. Shen Zhou lived at a pivotal point in the history of Chinese painting, and contributed greatly to the artistic tradition of China, founding the new Wu School in Suzhou. He and Wen Zheng-ming were the two most important painters of the Wu School, a group of leading literati artists who lived in the region around Wu-Hsien. Withdrawn from worldly pursuits, Shen Zhou developed a distinctive style of landscape and flower-and-bird painting through careful study of the works of the great Yuan dynasty masters. Wen Zhengming (1470~1559) Wen Zhengming was a leading Ming Dynasty painter, calligrapher, and scholar. Born in present-day Suzhou, he was a student of Shen Zhou. Although he was a thorough and diligent student, Wen Zhengming repeatedly failed the national examinations, the third level of civil service examinations. It was not until age 53 that he emerged from his scholarly isolation, receiving the recognition of the court with his appointment to the Hanlin Academy. The most famous member of the second generation of Wu School artists, Wen Zhengming profoundly influenced later painters. He was remarkable for his individuality as well as for the variety and range of his creativity. In technique, Wen Zhengming's paintings range from the highly detailed to the more freely washed. In all his paintings there is a spirit of studied antiquarianism and cautious consideration. Tang Yin (1470~1523) Tang Yin was a Chinese scholar, painter, calligraphist, and poet of the Ming Dynasty. Courtesy name Bohu, he was born into the merchant class of Suzhou. Although lacking social standing, he received an excellent education. He was a brilliant student and came first in the provincial examinations in Nanjing, the second stage in the civil service examination ladder. The following year he went to Beijing to sit the national examinations, but he was accused of bribing the servant of one of the chief examiners to give them the examination questions in advance. All parties were jailed, and Tang Yin returned to Suzhou in disgrace, his justifiably high hopes for a distinguished civil service career dashed forever. He began to pursue a life of pleasure and earned a living by selling his paintings. That mode of living brought him into disrepute with a later generation of artist-critics (for example, Dong Qichang) who felt that financial independence was vital to enable an artist to follow his own style and inspiration. While Tang is associated with paintings of feminine beauty, which inherited the Tang tradition of bright colours and elegant carriages, his paintings (especially landscapes) otherwise exhibit the same variety and expression of his peers and reveal a man of both artistic skill and profound insight. Qiu Ying (1498~1552) Qiu Ying was a Chinese painter who specialized in the gongbi brush technique. He was born to a peasant family, and studied painting at the Wu School in Suzhou. Though the Wu School encouraged painting in ink washes, Qiu Ying also painted in the green-and-blue style. He painted with the support of wealthy patrons, one of whom was the well-known wealthy collector Xiang Yuanbian. He created images of flowers, gardens, religious subjects, and landscapes in the fashions of the Ming Dynasty. He incorporated different techniques into his paintings. His talent and versatility allowed him to become regarded as one of the Four Masters of the Ming Dynasty with Shen Zhou, Wen Zhengming, and Tang Yin. White Spring Vine School In the mid- to late-Ming, paintings of birds and flowers in the xieyi style rose vigorously; Chen Chun of the mid-Ming and Xu Wei of the late-Ming both pushed xieyi birds and flower painting to new heights - referred to as ¡°White Spring Vine.¡± Their paintings left significant impact on xieyi birds and flower painting in the Ming and Qing periods. Chen Chun was skilled in poetry, writing, calligraphy and painting, and he was an acclaimed scholar of the Wumen school. His xieyi birds and flowers are delicately composed and refined, portraying common vegetation in the gardens of the literati. The realm achieved was peaceful and tranquil with freestyle brushwork, which was widely appreciated. Succeeding Chen Chun, Xu Wei fundamentally transformed birds and flower painting in the xieyi style. Xu Wei elevated Chinese xieyi birds and flower painting to a realm of adequately expressing powerful inner feelings and bringing the expression of freestyle ink painting to an unprecedented level, thus marking a milestone for the development of Chinese xieyi birds and flower paintings. Shi Da Fu (Court Officials) Shi Da Fu (or in English, ¡°Court Officials¡±) refers to, in general, the literati and intellectuals who served in the bureaucratic system in ancient China. ¡°Shi¡±, as a social level, appeared early. It included all talented people from folk society, who were usually born into poor family or declining aristocrat, and who had to attach themselves to and serve some rich peers by their talent. This was a group of elites and the Imperial Examination was its basis. Shi Da Fu could be an important role in national or imperial politics, on the other hand, they were also the main creators and inheritors of Chinese culture and art. Shi Da Fu, as a whole, was a representative phenomenon in Chinese civilization. Chen Hongshou (1599~1652, or 1598~1652) Born in Zhuji county in Zhejiang province, Chen Hongshou was a painter in Ming dynasty. He was excelled at calligraphy and painting (including landscape, flowers and figure), especially at figure painting. He was a student of Lan Ying, and was hold in high esteem for his painting techniques and thoughts. His figures often showed an exaggerated and even strange style which regarded as being ancient. As famous as another painter Cui Zizhong, they were together called ¡°South Chen North Cui¡±. Xixiang Ji (Romance of the West Chamber) Xixiang Ji, or in English Romance of the West Chamber (sometimes it¡¯s translated as Story of the Western Wing) is one of the most famous Chinese dramatic works. It was written by the Yuan Dynasty playwright Wang Shifu (ÍõÊµ¸¦), and set during the Tang Dynasty. It is a story of young lovers consummating their love without parental approval, and has been called "China's most popular love comedy" and a "lover's bible". At the same time, some have called it potentially dangerous, as there are stories of readers pining away under its influence. The story of Romance of the West Chamber was first told in a literary Chinese short story written by Yuan Zhen during the Tang Dynasty. This version was called The Story of Yingying, or Yingying's Biography. This version differs from the later play in that Zhang Sheng ultimately breaks from Yingying, and does not ask for her hand in marriage. Despite the unhappy ending, the story was popular with later writers, and recitative works based on it began accumulating in the centuries that followed. Perhaps bowing to popular sentiment, the ending gradually changed to the happy one seen in the play. The examples of the modified version include a drum song by Zhao Lingshi in Song dynasty, an oral performance by Dong Jieyuan of the Jin Dynasty, the Wang Shifu¡¯s drama in Yuan dynasty, Li Rihua and Lu Cai¡¯s in Ming dynasty, and Zhou Gonglu¡¯s version, etc. Wang Shifu's play was closely modeled on this performance and was the most successful one, in which his poem ¡°With clouds the sky turns grey; Yellow blooms pave the way. How bitter blows the western breeze! From north to south fly the wild geese.¡± was remembered and sung by generations after generations. Wang Yangming (1472~1529) Wang Yangming, also known as Wang Shouren, was a Ming Chinese idealist Neo-Confucian philosopher, official, educationist, calligraphist and general. After Zhu Xi, he is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker, with interpretations of Confucianism that denied the rationalist dualism of the orthodox philosophy of Zhu Xi. Wang Yangming¡¯s theory include ¡°The controlling power of the body is the mind. The mind originates the idea, and the nature of the idea is knowledge. Wherever the idea is, we have a thing. There are no principles but those of the mind, and nothing exists apart from the mind.¡± and ¡°Knowledge implies practice, which will lead to good knowledge.¡± Wang Yangming had many followers, and people called his theory ¡°Wang Knowledge¡±. Matteo Ricci (1552~1610) Matteo Ricci, Chinese nam
2073	dbpedia	1	25	https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nsong/hd_nsong.htm	en	Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)	https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/39936/198920/main-image	https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/39936/198920/main-image	[ "https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/39936/198920/main-image", "https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/42455/1551585/main-image", "https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/39543/1702922/main-image", "https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collectio...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	0001-01-01T00:00:00	The early Northern Song dynasty witnessed the flowering of one of the supreme artistic expressions of Chinese civilization: monumental landscape painting.	en	https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/favicon.ico?v=3	The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History	null	The Song dynasty (960–1279) was culturally the most brilliant era in later imperial Chinese history. A time of great social and economic change, the period in large measure shaped the intellectual and political climate of China down to the twentieth century. The first half of this era, when the capital was located at Bianliang (modern Kaifeng), is known as the Northern Song period. The early Northern Song dynasty witnessed the flowering of one of the supreme artistic expressions of Chinese civilization: monumental landscape painting. Retreating to the mountains to escape the turmoil and destruction that occurred at the end of the Tang dynasty (618–907), tenth-century recluse-painters discovered in nature the moral order that they had found lacking in the human world. In their visionary landscapes, the great mountain, towering above the lesser mountains, trees, and men, was like “a ruler among his subjects, a master among servants.” Later, Song court painters transformed these idealized images of nature into emblems of a perfectly ordered state. An important outgrowth of Song political unification after the war-torn Five Dynasties period (907–60) was the creation of a distinctive style of court painting under the auspices of the Imperial Painting Academy. Painters from all parts of the empire were recruited to serve the needs of the court. Over time, the varied traditions represented by this diverse group of artists were welded together into a harmonious Song academic manner that valued a naturalistic, closely descriptive portrayal of the physical world. Under Emperor Huizong (r. 1100–1125), himself an accomplished painter and calligrapher, imperial patronage and the ruler’s direct involvement in establishing artistic direction reached a zenith. While maintaining that the fundamental purpose of painting was to be true to nature, Huizong sought to enrich its content through the inclusion of poetic resonance and references to antique styles.
2073	dbpedia	0	87	https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/painting-ancient-dynasty-china.html	en	Painting ancient dynasty china hi	https://s.alamy.com/logo…avicon-16x16.png	https://s.alamy.com/logo…avicon-16x16.png	[ "https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy-black.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy-black.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/logos/1.68.0/alamy.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/mastercard.svg", "https://s.alamy.com/assets/latest/footer/visa.svg"...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Alamy Limited" ]	null	Find the perfect painting ancient dynasty china stock photo, image, vector, illustration or 360 image. Available for both RF and RM licensing.	en	https://s.alamy.com/logo…avicon-16x16.png	Alamy	https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/painting-ancient-dynasty-china.html	Alamy and its logo are trademarks of Alamy Ltd. and are registered in certain countries. Copyright © 11/08/2024 Alamy Ltd. All rights reserved.
2073	dbpedia	1	73	https://www.arthistory.ucsb.edu/people/peter-sturman	en	History of Art and Architecture - UC Santa Barbara	https://www.arthistory.u…pg?itok=lCKwP_3D		[ "https://www.arthistory.ucsb.edu/sites/secure.lsit.ucsb.edu.arth.d7/themes/at_lsit/images/department/haa-temp-banner.png", "https://www.arthistory.ucsb.edu/sites/default/files/styles/people_node/public/people/photo/sturman_pic_0.jpg?itok=lCKwP_3D", "https://www.arthistory.ucsb.edu/modules/file/icons/application...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	https://www.arthistory.ucsb.edu/sites/secure.lsit.ucsb.edu.arth.d7/themes/at_lsit/images/department/favicon.ico		https://www.arthistory.ucsb.edu/people/peter-sturman	Peter Sturman specializes in the study of Chinese painting and calligraphy with a particular focus on text-image relationships. His primary focus is on literati culture of the Northern Song and its immediate aftermath, though he has also published on landscape painting of the tenth and eleventh centuries, court art of the late Northern Song, loyalist art of the Song-Yuan transition, and most recently, painting and calligraphy of the seventeenth century. Among his notable publications are Mi Fu: Style and the Art of Calligraphy in Northern Song China (Yale University Press, 1997) and The Artful Recluse: Painting, Poetry, and Politics in 17th-Century China (The Santa Barbara Museum of Art, 2012), winner of the Alfred H. Barr Jr. Award for museum scholarship. He recently concluded scholarship on Shen Zhou’s “Falling Blossoms” project of the early sixteenth century. His current projects include a book on the development of literati painting in the late Northern Song and participation in a collaborative study of Xu Wei (1521–1593), the noted Ming-dynasty playwright, poet, calligrapher, and painter. Professor Sturman has organized a number of noted international conferences, including one on painting of the Song dynasty that was held in Hangzhou (Zhejiang University, 2014). Peter C. Sturman. "Cranes Above Kaifeng: The Auspicious Image at the Court of Huizong." Ars Orientalis, vol. XX (1990): 33-68. Peter C. Sturman. "The Donkey Rider as Icon: Li Cheng and Early Chinese Landscape Painting." Artibus Asiae, vol. LV, 1/2 (1995): 43-97. Peter C. Sturman. "Confronting Dynastic Change: Painting After the Mongol Reunification of North and South China." RES 35 (1999): 143-169. Peter C. Sturman. "The Poetic Ideas Scroll Attributed to Mi Youren and Sima Huai." Zhejiang University Journal of Art and Archaeology, 1 (2014): 84-128. Undergraduate Courses 6DS Survey: History of Art in China 134C Chinese Painting 134D Art in Modern China 134E The Art of Landscape in China 135BB History and Aesthetics of Chinese Calligraphy [seminar] 135CA Art and Theory in an Age of Trauma: Seventeenth-Century Chinese Painting [seminar] 186RS China in the Seventeenth Century Museum Exhibition Preparation [undergraduate/graduate seminar] Graduate Seminars 2016 Realism in Song Dynasty China 2015 Methods and their Anxieties 2012 17th-Century Chinese Art Exhibition Practicum 2011 The Hermit in Chinese Art 2010 China in the 17th Century: Exhibition Preparation 2009 The Methods of Chinese Calligraphy 2008 The Real and Imagined in Song Dynasty Painting 2007 Modernist Structures and Strategies in 20th-Century Chinese Art
2073	dbpedia	3	85	https://helloproject.fandom.com/wiki/Kawashima_Mifu	en	Kawashima Mifu	https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/helloproject/images/8/81/Kawashima_Mifu_Autograph.png/revision/latest?cb=20240730195534	https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/helloproject/images/8/81/Kawashima_Mifu_Autograph.png/revision/latest?cb=20240730195534	[ "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/helloproject/images/e/e6/Site-logo.png/revision/latest?cb=20240803204315", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/helloproject/images/e/e6/Site-logo.png/revision/latest?cb=20240803204315", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/helloproject/images/7/7f/PureRed_Penlight.png/revision/la...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Hello! Project Wiki" ]	null	Kawashima Mifu (川嶋美楓) is a Japanese pop singer under Hello! Project as a member of Juice=Juice and a former member of Hello Pro Kenshuusei. Kawashima Mifu was born on December 13, 2007 in Kyoto, Japan. Kawashima participated in Morning Musume '19 LOVE Audition, but failed. Kawashima participated...	en	https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/helloproject/images/4/4a/Site-favicon.ico/revision/latest?cb=20210601231635	Hello! Project Wiki	https://helloproject.fandom.com/wiki/Kawashima_Mifu	Kawashima Mifu (川嶋美楓) is a Japanese pop singer under Hello! Project as a member of Juice=Juice and a former member of Hello Pro Kenshuusei. Biography[] Early Life[] Kawashima Mifu was born on December 13, 2007 in Kyoto, Japan. 2019[] Kawashima participated in Morning Musume '19 LOVE Audition, but failed. 2020[] Kawashima participated in ANGERME ONLY ONE Audition ~Watashi wo Tsukuru no wa Watashi~, but failed. 2021[] Kawashima participated in Hello! Project "Juice=Juice" "Tsubaki Factory" Goudou Shin Member Audition, but failed. On August 23, it was announced that Kawashima had joined Hello Pro Kenshuusei alongside Yoshida Hinoha. They were introduced on September 12 at Hello! Project Kenshuusei Happyoukai 2021 9gatsu ~STARS~. 2022[] On May 3rd, Kawashima won a guest judge's award at the Hello! Project Kenshuusei Happyoukai 2022 ~Haru no Koukai Jitsuryoku Shindan Test~ event for her performance of "Seishun Collection" and "Potsuri to". 2023[] On April 30, Kawashima won the best performance award at the Hello! Project Kenshuusei Happyoukai 2023 ~Haru no Koukai Jitsuryoku Shindan Test~ event for her performance of "SHALL WE LOVE?" and "Kanashiki Heaven". On May 23, it was announced that Kawashima joined Juice=Juice as a new member.[1] On June 18, Kawashima had her last performance as a Hello Pro Kenshuusei member along with Goto Hana and Shimoitani Yukiho who both joined ANGERME as 11th generation members on May 23 at the June 18 Hello Pro Kenshuusei Recital. On October 12, it was announced that Kawashima was diagnosed with sudden hearing loss as result of a medical examination. She was instructed by the doctor to undergo medical treatment and to also avoid work that involves loud noises, such as live performances, for the time being. As result, she will be absent from the October 14 and 15 concerts of the Juice=Juice 10th Anniversary Concert Tour 2023 ~Juicetory~.[2] Prior to that, she has been absent from Juice=Juice's activities since the start of the tour due to poor health.[3][4][5] On October 26, it was announced in an update that Kawashima will be halting her activities for the time being to concentrate on her treatment as her symptoms did not improve.[6] On December 5, it was announced that she would be absent from the Hello! Project Year-End Party 2023 ~GOOD BYE & HELLO!~ concert and other concerts and events until the end of the year to recover.[7] On December 27, a new update announced that, despite Kawashima gradually showing signs of recovery, she was diagnosed as needing continued medical treatment for about two months, therefore being absent from all concerts and events up until February 2024. As a result, she would be absent from all dates of the Hello! Project 2024 Winter ~THREE OF US~ tour.[8] 2024[] On March 23, it was revealed that Kawashima has been on a recovery trend of her sudden hearing loss diagnosis but she was still experiencing unstable symptoms. As a result, she would be absent from the Hello! Project Hina Fes 2024 and from the Carbon Neutral wo Kangaeru 2024 by SATOYAMA & SATOUMI movement events, both being held on March 30 and 31, with future activities, including Juice=Juice's upcoming spring tour, being decided based on her health condition and rehearsal participation status.[9] It was also announced that she would not participate on Juice=Juice's 18th single "Tokyo Blur / Naimono Love / Oaiko", scheduled to be released on May 15, due to her medical treatment at the time the single was being produced.[10] On April 19, it was announced that Kawashima will be resuming activities with the opening concert of the Juice=Juice Concert Tour 2024 1-LINE on April 20 as her symptoms have eased and she was able to obtain the consent of her doctor to resume her activities. Her condition will continue to be monitored and precautions will be taken.[11] Personal Life[] Profile[] Works[] TV Programs[] [2021–] Hello Dream. Internet[] [2021–] Hello! Project Station [2023–] OMAKE CHANNEL [2023–] Upcoming Trivia[] Her mother is a fan of Fukumura Mizuki. Due to her mother's influence, she loved Morning Musume from a young age , and at her 5th birthday party, she said, "I want to be a Morning Musume member." She has loved Morning Musume since she was 3 years old. Former Morning Musume member Tanaka Reina said that Kawashima is her #1 out of all the trainees. She is not good at swimming. References[] [] Juice=Juice Profile Hello Pro Kenshuusei Profile (archived) Juice=Juice MembersCurrent MembersFormer Members DiscographySingles IndiesMajorDigitalNEXT YOUCollab Albums StudioBest Concerts & EventsConcerts Year-Long ToursWinter ToursSpring ToursSummer ToursFall ToursOne-DayMini LiveOverseas ConcertsJoint Concerts Events Miracle x Juice x BoxOther Units & Other GroupsIn-group SubunitsAssociated Acts
2073	dbpedia	3	9	https://kids.kiddle.co/Mi_Fu	en	Mi Fu facts for kids	https://kids.kiddle.co/i…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	https://kids.kiddle.co/i…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	[ "https://kids.kiddle.co/images/wk/kids-robot.svg", "https://kids.kiddle.co/images/wk/kids-search-engine.svg", "https://kids.kiddle.co/images/thumb/c/ce/%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg/300px-%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg", "https://kids.kiddle.co/images/thumb/7/7c/Mi_Fei_001.jpg/300px-Mi_Fei_001.jpg", "https://kids.kiddle.c...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Learn Mi Fu facts for kids	en	/images/wk/favicon-16x16.png		https://kids.kiddle.co/Mi_Fu	In this Chinese name, the family name is Mi. Quick facts for kids Mi Fu Mi Fu as depicted in a 1107 CE painting by Chao Buzhi Chinese name Chinese 米芾 or 米黻 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Mǐ Fú Wade–Giles Mi Fu Yue: Cantonese Jyutping Mei5 Fat1 Middle Chinese Middle Chinese MieiB Pjwǝt Korean name Hangul 미불 Transcriptions McCune–Reischauer Mi Bul Japanese name Hiragana べいふつ Transcriptions Romanization Bei Futsu Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi. Mi Fu is regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers of the Song dynasty, alongside Su Shi, Hung Tingjian and Cai Xian. His style is derived from calligraphers in earlier dynasties, although he developed unique traits of his own. As a personality, Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric; including a mania of cleanliness. At times, he was deemed "Madman Mi" due to his obsession with collecting stones. ..... His son, Mi Youren, also became a well known painter following in his father's artistic style. Biography According to Yao Weiyuan, Mi Fu was a fifth-generation descendant of Mi Xin, a Later Zhou and early Song dynasty general from the Kumo Xi tribe that descended from the Xianbei. However, according to other scholars, his family probably was of distant Sogdian heritage. His surname "Mi" is of Sogdian origin, and he was born after a long period in which the Sogdians intensively migrated deep into China and established flourishing communities there, and he referred to himself as "descendant of huozheng," "fire priest" (according to Jiang Boqin), having a seal with this inscribed on it. However, other Chinese scholars reject Jiang's interpretation, saying that huozheng referred to "Fire virtue" and was related to the Zhao family, and that he had other seals claiming different things. He showed early signs of interest in arts and letters, as well as unusual memory skills. His mother worked as a midwife and later as a wet-nurse, looking after the Emperor Shenzong. Mi Fu knew the imperial family and he lived in the privileged location of the royal palaces, where he also started his career as Reviser of Books, Professor of Painting and Calligraphy in the capital, Secretary to the Board of Rites, and Military Governor of Huaiyang. Mi Fu openly criticized conventional regulations of the time, causing him to move between jobs frequently. Mi Fu collected old writings and paintings as his family wealth gradually diminished. Gradually his collection's value grew. He also inherited some of the calligraphies in his collection. He arranged his collection in two parts, one of which was kept secret (or shown only to a few selected friends) and another which could be shown to visitors. In his later years, Mi Fu became very fond of Holin Temple (located on Yellow Crane Mountain (黃鶴樓)). He later asked to be buried at its gate. Today the temple is gone, but his grave remains. Historical background After the rise of landscape painting, creative activities followed which were of a more general kind and included religious figure, bird, flower and bamboo paintings besides landscapes. It was all carried out by men of high intellectual standards. To most of these men, painting was not a professional occupation but only one of the means by which they expressed their intellectual reactions to life and nature in visible symbols. Poetry and illustrative writing were in a sense even more important to them than painting and they made their living as more or less prominent government officials if they did not depend on family wealth. Even if some of them were skilled at ink painting and calligraphy, they avoided the fame and position of professional artists and became known as "gentleman-painters." Artistic occupations such as calligraphy and painting were seen as leisure activities from official duties or practical occupations. Nevertheless, the foundation of their technical mastery was in writing and calligraphy, which allowed them to transmit their thoughts with the same easiness in symbols of nature as in conventional characters. Their art became therefore a very intimate kind of expression, or idea-writing as it was called in later times. The beauty of this art was indeed closely connected to the visible ease with which it was produced, but which after all could not be achieved without intense training and deep thought. Mi Fu was one of the highly gifted gentleman-painters. With his very keen talent of artistic observation together with sense of humor and literary ability, he established for himself a prominent place among Chinese art historians; his contributions in this field are still highly valued because they are based on what he had seen with his own eyes and not simply on what he had heard or learned from his forerunners. Mi Fu had the courage to express his own views, even when these were different from the prevailing ones or official opinions. His notes about painting and calligraphy are of great interest to art historians because they are spontaneous expressions of his own observations and independent ideas that help to characterize himself as well as the artists whose works he discusses. Art He is considered one of the most important representatives of the Southern School (南宗畫) of landscape painting. However, it is no longer possible clearly to say this from the pictures which passed under his name – many works are attributed to him, and most of them represent a rather definite type or pictorial style which existed also in later centuries, but to what extent they can be considered as Mi Fu's own creations is still a question. Therefore, he is more remembered as a skilled calligrapher and for his influence as a critic and writer on art rather than a skilled landscape painter. Mi Fu was among those for whom writing or calligraphy was intimately connected with the composing of poetry or sketching. It required an alertness of mind and spirit, which he thought was best achieved through the enjoyment of wine. Through this he reached a state of excitement. A friend of Mi Fu, Su Shih (蘇軾) admired him and wrote that his brush was like a sharp sword handled skillfully in fight or a bow which could shoot the arrow a thousand li, piercing anything that might be in its way. "It was the highest perfection of the art of calligraphy", he wrote. Other critics claimed that only Mi Fu could imitate the style of the great calligraphers of the Six Dynasties. Mi Fu's son testified that his father always kept some calligraphic masterpiece of the Tang or the Qin period in his desk as a model. At night he would place it in a box at the side of his pillow. According to some writings, Mi Fu did most of his paintings during the last seven years of his life, and he himself wrote that "he chose as his models the most ancient masters and painted guided by his own genius and not by any teacher and thus represented the loyal men of antiquity." The pictures which still pass under Mi Fu's name represent ranges of wooded hills or cone-shaped mountain peaks rising out of layers of woolly mist. At their feet may be water and closer towards the foreground clusters of dark trees. One of the best known examples of this kind of Mi Fu style is the small picture in the Palace Museum known as Spring Mountains and Pine-Trees. It is in the size of a large album-leaf, but at the top of the picture is added a poem said to be by the emperor Emperor Gaozong of Song. Among the pictures which are attributed to Mi Fu, there apparently are imitations, even if they are painted in a similar manner with a broad and soft brush. They may be from Southern Song period, or possibly from the Yuan period, when some of the leading painters freely utilized the manner of Mi Fu for expressing their own ideas. The majority are probably from the later part of Ming period, when a cult of Mi Fu followers that viewed him as the most important representative of the Southern School started. Mi Fu himself had seen many imitations, perhaps even of his own works and he saw how wealthy amateurs spent their money on great names rather than on original works of art. He wrote that they "place their pictures in brocade bags and provide them with jade rollers as if they were very wonderful treasures, but when they open them one cannot but break out into laughter." Mi Fu's own manner of painting has been characterized by writers who knew it through their own observation or through hearsay. It is said that he always painted on paper which had not been prepared with gum or alum (alauns), never on silk or on the wall. In addition, he did not necessarily use the brush in painting with ink; sometimes he used paper sticks or sugar cane from which the juice had been extracted, or a calyx (kauss) of the lotus. Even if Mi Fu was principally a landscape painter, he also did portraits and figure paintings of an old-fashioned type. Nevertheless, he must have spent more time studying samples of ancient calligraphy and painting than producing pictures of his own. His book, History of Painting, contains practical hints as to the proper way of collecting, preserving, cleaning and mounting pictures. See also In Spanish: Mi-Fei para niños
2073	dbpedia	3	93	https://artmuseum.princeton.edu/es/search/maker/m	en	Princeton University Art Museum	https://artmuseum.prince…icon-192x192.png	https://artmuseum.prince…icon-192x192.png	[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	https://artmuseum.princeton.edu/sites/all/themes/puam_modern/favicon.ico		null
2073	dbpedia	0	44	https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/40512	en	Song of the Stone Drums	https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/40512/200753/main-image	https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/40512/200753/main-image	[ "https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/40512/200753/main-image", "https://images.metmuseum.org/CRDImages/as/web-additional/DP230507_CRD.jpg", "https://www.metmuseum.org/Rodan/dist/img/1x1-d7dcde.gif", "https://www.metmuseum.org/Rodan/dist/img/1x1-d7dcde.gif", "https://www.metmuseum.org/...	[]	[]	[ "Xianyu Shu", "Paper", "Paintings", "Scroll paintings", "Handscrolls", "Ink", "Calligraphy", "Asia", "China" ]	null	[]	null	<strong>Inscription:</strong> Artist’s inscription and signature (68 columns in cursive script)<br/><br/>Zhang handed me this tracing, from the stone drums, <br/>Beseeching me to write a poem on the stone drums	en	https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/favicon.ico?v=3	The Metropolitan Museum of Art	https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/40512	Xianyu Shu was a northerner who, at about the age of thirty, moved south, eventually settling in Hangzhou. There, he impressed his southern friends with his calligraphy, connoisseurship, and "heroic" northern spirit. Even Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322), a close friend, acknowledged Xianyu's superiority in cursive writing. One of Xianyu's most famous works, this scroll is a transcription of a poem by Han Yu (768–824) beseeching the preservation of the ten ancient Stone Drums, monuments carved with poems in archaic seal script around the fifth century B.C. Its vigorous brushwork displays both the freedom and energy of Xianyu's northern heritage and the new sophistication acquired through his study of Jin- and Tang-dynasty masters.
2073	dbpedia	3	11	https://english.visitbeijing.com.cn/article/47ONHQDE3nB	en	Chinese Painter, Poet and Calligrapher			[ "https://r1.visitbeijing.com.cn/images/20200904092248/010b7874ba93d5ce0d9a051b2e846c1a.png", "https://img-rs.huanqiucdn.cn/dp/api/files/imageDir/764c9c8a56ef636cc8088ebdedb545ae.jpg", "https://img-rs.huanqiucdn.cn/dp/api/files/imageDir/f0b60dbe4770d8cde9d9e64d347b8d33.jpg", "https://img-rs.huanqiucdn.cn/dp/ap...	[]	[]	[ "Mi Fu" ]	null	[]	null	Mi Fu (Chinese: 米黻; 1051–1107), also k	en	//rs.visitbeijing.com.cn/visitbeijing/sites/english/images/favicon.ico		null	Mi Fu (Chinese: 米黻; 1051–1107), also known as Mi Fei (米芾), was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan, Shanxi during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry followed the style of Li Bai and his calligraphy that of Wang Xizhi. His uninhibited style made him disliked at the Song court. He is best known for his calligraphy, and he was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. His style arises from that of calligraphers in earlier dynasties, but with a unique mark of his own. As a personality Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric. At times they even deemed him "Madman Mi" because he was obsessed with collecting stones and even declared one stone to be his brother. Hence he would bow to his "brother" rock in a display of the filial devotion given to older brothers. He also was known as a heavy drinker. His son, Mi Youren, would also be a famous painter in his father's artistic style. Unlike his father Mi Youren lived to be quite elderly, dying at the age of 79.
2073	dbpedia	0	13	https://pantheon.world/profile/person/Mi_Fu	en	Mi Fu Biography	https://pantheon.world/api/screenshot/person?id=2866681	https://pantheon.world/api/screenshot/person?id=2866681	[ "https://pantheon.world/images/icons/icon-nav.svg", "https://pantheon.world/images/logos/logo_pantheon.svg", "https://pantheon.world/images/icons/icon-search.svg", "https://pantheon.world/images/profile/people/2866681.jpg", "https://pantheon.world/images/ui/profile-w.svg", "https://pantheon.world/images/u...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/images/favicon.ico		null	Mi Fu Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush . Read more on Wikipedia
2073	dbpedia	2	0	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu	en	Wikipedia	https://upload.wikimedia…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	https://upload.wikimedia…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2005-10-09T02:08:26+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu	Chinese artist (1051–1107) Mi FuChinese nameChinese米芾 or 米黻 TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinMǐ FúWade–GilesMi FuYue: CantoneseJyutpingMei5 Fat1Middle ChineseMiddle ChineseMieiB Pjwǝt Korean nameHangul미불 TranscriptionsMcCune–ReischauerMi Bul Japanese nameHiraganaべいふつ TranscriptionsRomanizationBei Futsu Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE)[1] was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi. Mi Fu is regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers of the Song dynasty, alongside Su Shi, Hung Tingjian and Cai Xian. His style is derived from calligraphers in earlier dynasties, although he developed unique traits of his own. His son, Mi Youren, also became a well known painter. He followed his father's artistic style, adopting his use of large dots of wet ink, a technique later nicknamed "Mi Dots".[2] As a personality, Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric; including a mania of cleanliness.[2] At times, he was deemed "Madman Mi" due to his obsession with collecting stones. He was also known to be a heavy drinker. His son, Mi Youren, also became a well known painter following in his father's artistic style. Biography [edit] According to Yao Weiyuan, Mi Fu was a fifth-generation descendant of Mi Xin, a Later Zhou and early Song dynasty general from the Kumo Xi tribe that descended from the Xianbei.[3][4] However, according to other scholars, his family probably was of distant Muslim Sogdian heritage.[5][6][7][8][9] His surname "Mi" is of Sogdian origin,[10] and he was born after a long period in which the Sogdians intensively migrated deep into China and established flourishing communities there, and he referred to himself as "descendant of huozheng," "fire priest" (according to Jiang Boqin), having a seal with this inscribed on it. However, other Chinese scholars reject Jiang's interpretation, saying that huozheng referred to "Fire virtue" and was related to the Zhao family, and that he had other seals claiming different things.[11] Mi Fu showed early signs of interest in arts and letters, as well as unusual memory skills. His mother worked as a midwife and later as a wet-nurse, looking after the Emperor Shenzong. Due to his familial connections to the imperial family, Mi Fu was allowed the privilege of living in the royal palaces. Here, he began his career as Reviser of Books, Professor of Painting and Calligraphy in the capital, Secretary to the Board of Rites, and Military Governor of Huaiyang. He openly criticized conventional regulations of the time, causing him to move between jobs frequently. Mi Fu collected old writings and paintings as his family wealth gradually diminished. Over time, the value of his collection grew. He also inherited some of the calligraphy in his collection. His collection was arranged in two parts, one of which was kept secret (or shown only to a select few) and another which would be shown to visitors. In his later years, Mi Fu became very fond of Holin Temple (located on Yellow Crane Mountain (黃鶴樓)). He later asked to be buried at its gate. Today the temple is gone, but his grave remains.[12] Historical background [edit] After the rise of landscape painting, creative activities followed which were of a more general kind and included profane, religious figure, bird, flower and bamboo paintings besides landscapes. It was all carried out by men of high intellectual standards. To most of these men, painting was not a professional occupation but only one of the means by which they expressed their intellectual reactions to life and nature in visible symbols. Poetry and illustrative writing were in a sense even more important to them than painting and they made their living as more or less prominent government officials if they did not depend on family wealth. Even if some of them were skilled at ink painting and calligraphy, they avoided the fame and position of professional artists and became known as "gentleman-painters." Artistic occupations such as calligraphy and painting were seen as leisure activities from official duties or practical occupations. Nevertheless, the foundation of their technical mastery was in writing and calligraphy, which allowed them to transmit their thoughts with the same easiness in symbols of nature as in conventional characters. Their art became therefore a very intimate kind of expression, or idea-writing as it was called in later times. The beauty of this art was indeed closely connected to the visible ease with which it was produced, but which after all could not be achieved without intense training and deep thought.[citation needed] Mi Fu was one of the highly gifted gentleman-painters. His talent for artistic observation, his sense of humor, and his literary ability helped him establish a prominent place for himself among Chinese art historians. His contributions to the field remain in high regard due to their basis in direct, first-hand observation as opposed to relying on what he had heard or learned from his forerunners.[clarification needed] Mi Fu would often express his own views even when they differed from prevailing beliefs or official opinions. Art historians still maintain interest in his notes on painting and calligraphy–these writings are believed to be spontaneous expressions of his own observations and independent ideas which aid in the characterization of Mi Fu and the other artists he would write about.[citation needed] Art [edit] Mi Fu is considered one of the most important representatives of the Southern School (南宗畫) of landscape painting. Presently, many works are attributed to Mi Fu and most of them represent a type or pictorial style which also existed in later centuries. The accuracy of their attribution remains in question due to difficulties in verification. Mi Fu is now remembered as a skilled calligrapher and an influential art critic and writer rather than a skilled landscape painter.[citation needed] For Mi Fu writing or calligraphy was intimately connected with the composing of poetry or sketching. It required an alertness of mind and spirit, which he thought was best achieved through the enjoyment of wine. Through this he reached a state of excitement rather than drunkenness. A friend of Mi Fu, Su Shih (蘇軾) admired him and wrote that his brush was like a sharp sword handled skillfully in fight or a bow which could shoot the arrow a thousand li, piercing anything that might be in its way. "It was the highest perfection of the art of calligraphy", he wrote.[citation needed] Other critics claimed that only Mi Fu could imitate the style of the great calligraphers of the Six Dynasties. Mi Fu's son testified that his father always kept some calligraphic masterpiece of the Tang or the Qin period in his desk as a model. At night he would place it in a box at the side of his pillow.[citation needed] According to some writings,[which?] Mi Fu did most of his paintings during the last seven years of his life, and he himself wrote that "he chose as his models the most ancient masters and painted guided by his own genius and not by any teacher and thus represented the loyal men of antiquity."[citation needed] Paintings currently attributed to Mi Fu represent ranges of wooded hills or cone-shaped mountain peaks rising out of layers of mist. Bodies of water and clusters of dark trees may appear in the foreground of his compositions. One of the best known examples of the "Mi Fu style" is a small picture in the Palace Museum known as Spring Mountains and Pine-Trees. It is in the size of a large album-leaf and there is a poem at the top that was said to be added by Emperor Gaozong of Song.[citation needed] Some paintings attributed to Mi Fu are likely imitations. They may be from Southern Song period, or possibly from the Yuan period, when some of the leading painters freely utilized the manner of Mi Fu for expressing their own ideas. It is likely that many are from the later part of Ming period when a cult of Mi Fu was started, its followers viewing him as the most important representative of the Southern School. Mi Fu himself had seen many imitations and he saw how wealthy amateurs spent their money on great names rather than on original works of art. He wrote that they "place their pictures in brocade bags and provide them with jade rollers as if they were very wonderful treasures, but when they open them one cannot but break out into laughter."[citation needed] Mi Fu's own manner of painting has been characterized by writers who knew it through their own observation or through hearsay. It is said[who?] that he always painted on paper which had not been prepared with gum or alum (alauns) instead of silk, and he never painted on the wall. In addition to using a brush when painting with ink, Mi Fu also utilized paper sticks or sugar cane from which the juice had been extracted or a calyx (kauss) of a lotus.[citation needed] Mi Fu was principally a landscape painter, though he also created portraits and figure paintings. It is likely that he spent more time studying samples of ancient calligraphy and paintings than he spent producing work of his own.[citation needed] His book, Huashi ("History of Painting"), contains practical hints as to the proper way of collecting, preserving, cleaning and mounting pictures.[13] See also [edit] Poetry portal Chinese art Chinese painting Culture of the Song dynasty History of Chinese art Citations [edit] General references [edit] Barnhart, R. M. et al. (1997). Three Thousand years of Chinese Painting. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07013-6. p. 373. Rhonda and Jeffrey Cooper (1997). Masterpieces of Chinese Art. Todtri Productions. ISBN 1-57717-060-1. p. 76. Xiao, Yanyi, "Mi Fu". Encyclopedia of China (Arts Edition), 1st ed.
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2073	dbpedia	3	31	https://www.pinterest.com/pin/china--656751558172633011/	en		https://s.pinimg.com/web…x48-7470a30d.png	https://s.pinimg.com/web…x48-7470a30d.png	[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2021-12-29T15:59:24+00:00	Mi Fu (Chinese or pinyin M F, 10511107) was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the Mi Fu style and involved the use of large wet dots of i	en	https://s.pinimg.com/web…144-3da7a67b.png	Pinterest	https://ch.pinterest.com/pin/14073817565807572/
2073	dbpedia	3	5	https://ink-and-brush.com/mi-fu/	en	Mi Fu – Eccentric Encyclopaedia of Calligraphy	https://ink-and-brush.co…ed-2-1-32x32.png	https://ink-and-brush.co…ed-2-1-32x32.png	[ "https://ink-and-brush.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/cropped-Ink-Brush-logo.png", "https://ink-and-brush.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/cropped-Ink-Brush-logo.png", "https://ink-and-brush.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Spring-Mountains-and-Auspicious-Pines-726x1024.jpg", "https://ink-and-brush.com/wp-content...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Kain Jagger" ]	2023-10-01T15:08:05+00:00	Mi Fu (1051 – 1107 AD) was one of the four greatest Song dynasty calligraphers. He was also an accomplished artist and writer of art theory. His influence...	en	https://ink-and-brush.co…ed-2-1-32x32.png	Ink & Brush -	https://ink-and-brush.com/mi-fu/	Mi Fu (1051 – 1107 AD) (pronounced ‘me foo’) was one of the most famous eccentrics in Chinese art and calligraphy. (A competitive field…) He was outspoken, opinionated, and critical of many other artists and calligraphers. But he could back up his talk with his talent. Today he is remembered as one of the four great calligraphers of the Song dynasty – a dynasty that was filled with great calligraphers. He was also one of the most skilled and knowledgeable calligraphers ever to have lived. Biography Family background Mi Fu’s family traced their ancestry back five generations to Mi Xin (928 – 994 AD), a founding general of the Song dynasty and commandant of the Palace Guard. This placed his family high up in Song society. They were considered a part of the trusted elite around the dynasty’s Zhao emperors. Mi Fu’s father, Mi Zuo, was a military man, the general of the Left Guard. He was said to have enjoyed calligraphy and conversations with scholars. And his mother, surnamed Yan, was a midwife and wetnurse to the imperial family. The Mi family’s ethnic origins The Mi family were likely originally from the Xi ethnicity, who were themselves originally descended from the Xianbei (Eastern Turks). (This was the same group that the Tang dynasty (618 – 907 AD) emperors were partially descended from). Some scholars believe that the Mi name originates from the ancient Mi kingdom (also known as the Sogdiana kingdom) in Central Asia (today’s Uzbekistan). This heritage went back many generations. But during Mi’s lifetime he was sensitive about the issue, which some of his critics liked to play upon. His more immediate eventually ended up in Taiyuan (in today’s Shanxi Province), which they later considered their ancestral home. Mi Quan’s sacrifice One story has it that a sad story haunted Mi Fu’s ancestors. At one point, the family had settled in a town called Shuozhou (today’s Shuoxian, Shaanxi Province). This area fell under the control of the Song dynasty’s northern rival, the Khitan empire. Mi Quan had successfully undertaken the dangerous crossing to the Song border town of Daizhou. Once there, he waited for the rest of his family to join him Unfortunately, they were caught by border guards. When Mi Quan realised, he faced north and wept, exclaiming: I’ve heard loyalty to one’s ruler and faithfulness to one’s family cannot co-exist. Having decided to sacrifice my body for my country, how can I now attend to my family? This story’s truth is impossible to verify. However, it would likely have served as a useful way to illustrate the Mi family’s loyalty to the Han-ruled Song dynasty. Mi Xin’s crimes After the Song dynasty began, Mi Xin was transferred over to the position of governor of Cangzhou (today’s Hebei Province). He was illiterate and clearly unsuited to civil administration, so his role was given to a younger governor. He even harassed civilians. Finally, when his troops beat a servant to death he was sent to prison, where he died. Early life Mi Fu (米芾 [Mǐ Fú]), courtesy name Yuan Zhang, was born in Xiangyang (today’s Xiangzhou, Hubei Province) in 1051 AD. He was one of only two children (he had a sister). Later on, he would often refer to himself as the ‘Wild Scholar of Xianyang’. At some point, due to his mother’s work, his family seems to have lived in the prince Zhao Shu’s (1032 – 1067 AD) royal residence. This meant that Mi Fu grew up with the elite aristocracy of the Song dynasty. Here he was first exposed to networks of art collectors. This includes his friend, the famous artist and art collector Wang Shen (1048 – ca. 1103 AD). Precocious child Mi Fu did not take the imperial exams that defined the lives of so many educated men throughout Chinese history. However, he grew up in a cultured, learned environment and shared his father’s inclinations in these areas. By the age of six, he was reported to have memorised one hundred poems a day. One of his oldest friends, Cai Zhao (? – 1119 AD), later reflected on Mi Fu as a youth. By the age of six, Cai wrote, Mi Fu memorised one hundred poems a day. (Likely an exaggeration!). He added: He was extremely knowledgeable and well-read. He worked hard at getting the general idea of something but disliked exam preparation studies. The opinions he expressed were all according to his own ideas. – Cai Zhao, Grave Inscription for Mi Fu (ca. 1107 AD) Mi Fu’s personality Mi Fu’s contemporaries knew him as an eccentric and outspoken advocate of his own strong opinions. He is also said to have been what today we would call ‘a clean freak’ or ‘germaphobe’, or perhaps OCD (“One Clean Dude…”). He obsessively washed himself, including before each time he did calligraphy. And he was a fanatical collector of works of art, calligraphy and even inkstones. His outspokenness and eccentricity are clear in his writings and the apocryphal anecdotes about him. But alongside his idiosyncrasies lied a hardworking and discerning drive. He stood out for his loud voice and choice of clothes: he dressed in the fashion of the Tang dynasty, some three centuries before. 倾邪险怪诡诈不近人情人谓之颠… 元章喜服唐衣冠寛袖博带。人多怪之及洁疾器用不肯执持尝衣冠出谒帽檐髙不可乘肩舆乃彻其盖见者莫不惊笑。所为𩔖多如此。 …[Mi Fu] tended towards the unorthodox and strange. Craft and deceitful, he was detached from the feelings of others… Labelled mad, some objected to his name being in the register of court officials…. Yuanzhang [Mi Fu] liked to dress in the clothing of the Tang dynasty, with wide sleeves and a broad belt. Once, he had dressed up to pay his respects to another official, but the top of his hat was too tall to allow him into the sedan chair. Consequently, it poked through the roof of the chair. All who saw this were overcome with laughter. There are many stories of this kind. – Zeng Minxing, Duxing Zazhi Career 1070 AD: First job: Collator in the Palace Library Mi Fu’s family connections no-doubt helped him secure his first job when he was 18 years old. This was not unusual for the time. Despite their growing importance, the imperial exams were not a requirement for all officials. He did not last long in this position. This has led many to speculate that it may be an early sign of his ability to offend others… 1070 AD: Sheriff at Hanguang Throughout much of Chinese history, government officials being sent far away from the capital was often a sign of displeasure or even punishment. As far as most were concerned, the further south a location was, the more uncomfortable and uncivilised things were. (The tropical climate, with its increased risk of malaria, killed some officials). Hanguang (today’s Yingde Prefecture, Guangdong Province) was approximately 870 miles (1400 KM) from the Song capital in Bianliang (today’s Kaifeng, Henan Province). 1074: Sheriff in Linggui Mi Fu was only briefly in Linggui (today’s Guilin, Guanxi Province). However, here he began a friendship with the local prefect, Guan Ji. Guan showed Mi Fu a traced copy of a work by the famous Tang dynasty calligrapher Yu Shinan (558 – 638 AD). This is a good example of the kind of friendship based on shared connoisseurship that Mi Fu formed throughout his life. The two of them stayed in touch – and sent one another calligraphy pieces – for many years. 1075 AD: Changsha, minor official Aged 23, Mi took a relatively lowly position in Changsha in 1075. This was a large and prosperous city due to its position along China’s trade routes. He was already more interested in using his position to view and collect calligraphy and paintings than carry out official work. He navigated the region via its many canals and rivers. He named his houseboat (with a large sign): The Mi Family Calligraphy and painting Barge. (His first – of twelve – children had been born around this time: Mi Youren (1074 – 1173 AD)). One anecdote from this period illustrates another notable Mi Fu trait – his greedy cunning: 长沙之湘西，有道林、岳麓二寺，名刹也。[….] 米老元章为微官时，游宦过其下，舣舟湘江，就寺主僧借观，一夕张帆携之遁。[….] 官为遣健步追取还，世以为口实也。 In the Xiangxi district of Changsha, there are two famous temples: Daolin and Yuelu…. Old Mi Yuanzhang [Mi Fu] toured this area during this period as he served in minor offices. He would moor his boat along the Xiang River. He approached the head abbot of the [Daolin] temple and requested to borrow a [famous] calligraphy plaque so that he could study it. However, one night Mi Fu set off in his boat still in possession of the plaque. The temple monks urgently made a formal complaint and a courier was sent to retrieve the work. This became the subject of great gossip. – Cai Tao, The Iron-Enclosed Mountain: Collected Writings《铁围山丛谈卷第四》(ca. 1130 AD) 1081 – 1091 AD: Wandering scholar and collector Mi Fu Spend approximately 10 years travelling China between 1081 – 1091. His main goal was to visit private art collections across the empire. (There were no museums). The nature of Mi’s activities during these years mean that his precise movements are difficult to trace. However, some interesting information exists. During this time, his reputation as an expert, connoisseur and great calligrapher grew. So too did his calligraphy collection. We know that he spent a couple of years in Suzhou. Here he grew his collection via elderly brokers of rich families going through economic difficulties. He even secured works by the great Jin dynasty calligraphers Wang Xizhi (303 – 361 AD) and his son Wang Xianzhi (344 – 386 AD). The most significant of these was Twelth Night. He also befriended many well-known literary and political figures across the empire. This included two who can both be considered a mix of these two categories: Wang Anshi (1021 – 1086 AD) and Su Shi (1137 – 1101 AD). And he completed a book, Catalogue of Precious Calligraphy Specimens Visited (1088). 1092 AD: Magistrate at Yongqiu Mi Fu resumed his career as an official in the summer of 1092. He appears to have enthusiastically taken part in his role. His letters from the time show him concerned and busy with the work. However, within a couple of years, he seems to was having problems. He was investigated (and cleared) for improper handling of tax money and requested leave from his role on health grounds. He was transferred to superintendent of Zhongyue Temple on Mount Song, Henan Province. This role required little responsibility and official duties. 1100 AD: Huizong is crowned At the turn of the century, the young emperor Huizong (r. 1100 – 1126 AD). At this point (between 1099 – 1101 AD), Mi Fu had been working on the state waterways around Lake Tai (in Jiangsu Province). Amusingly, when he wrote to friends asking them to recommend him for office under Huizong, he suggested the wording, too: [Mi Fu] relies on his own talents and has nothing to do with factions. He is old now and hampered by his qualifications. If it were his misfortune to die one day without having had the opportunity to enrich His Majesty’s enterprise and thus embellish His Majesty’s magnanimity, this official would consider it a pity. – Quoted from Emperor Huizong by Patricia Buckley Ebrey (London: Harvard University Press, 2014), p. 204 At this time, Huizong’s chief minister Cai Jing (1047 – 1126 AD) is said to have remarked: 芾人品诚高，所谓不可无一，不可有二者也。 Mi Fu is the kind of person we must have one of, but cannot afford to have two of! – He Yuan, Chuju Zhiwen 春渚纪闻 Gaining an inkstone from the emperor One anecdote has it that his obsession with collecting inkstones led him to gaining a rare inkstone from the Huizong Emperor (1082 – 1135 AD) (a famously fanatical fan of art and art collecting). After viewing the inkstone, Mi Fu told the emperor that ‘after a lowly commoner such as myself has touched it, it’s no longer fit for your majesty.’ 上大笑，因以赐之。芾蹈舞以谢，即抱负趋出，馀墨霑渍袍袖，而喜见颜色。上顾蔡京曰：“颠名不虚得也。” The emperor laughed loudly and gave it to Mi Fu as a gift. Fu danced a jig of thanks, clasping the inkstone as he hurried out. The remaining ink spilled onto his clothes, soiling his robe and sleeve, yet there was only a look of utter glee on his face. The emperor looked at [Cai] Jing and said, “This reputation of being mad is not empty at all.” – Ibid. 1107: Passes away Mi Fu did not last long working under the emperor. Details about exactly why this is aren’t clear. Either way, he was demoted and sent to a post in Jiangsu, where he died in 1107 AD. In 2005, his grave was discovered in Qingyuan, Guangzhou Province. Clues to its whereabouts were found by a scholar looking through Qingyuan’s historical records. Mi Fu’s calligraphy 金井寒生一水池，读书窗纸照萤飞。悲欢穷泰寻常共，掷破还须匣取归。 Lonely waters [ink] appear within the golden well [inkstone], Dragonflies glimmer by the paper window where I read. Together we have shared sadness, joy, poverty, and wealth, And when we are finally worn down, we’ll return via our boxes [like used inkstones put back in their boxes]. – ‘Inkstone’ by Mi Fu Influences Early in life, Mi Fu primarily studied the calligraphy of the two main famous eras for it: the Jin (266 – 420 AD) and Tang (618 – 907 AD) dynasties. And in his Autobiographical Essay, he mentions studying and imitating the works of Tang dynasty masters, including Ouyang Xun (557 – 641 AD), Chu Suiliang (597 – 658 AD) and Liu Gongquan (778 – 865 AD). Later on, Mi Fu’s good friend and general Song dynasty ‘renaissance man’ Su Shi (1037 – 1101 AD) encouraged him to study the words of the ‘two Wangs’. These are the most admired calligrapher in Chinese history Wang Xizhi (303 AD – 361 AD) and his son, innovative regular and cursive script master Wang Xianzhi (344 – 386 AD). Later on, he would try to stylistically escape or surpass their influence. Some critics believe that in his later career he achieved this. Mi Fu’s Calligraphic Style Mi is most famous for his running script calligraphy (the semi-cursive version of standard script). His style shows clear influence of the famous Tang dynasty running script master Yan Zhenqing (709 – 785 AD) and one of the four masters of regular script Ouyang Xun (557 – 641 AD). His fluent strokes vary between thick and thin and occasionally feature abrupt, sharp turns of the brush. Overall, his characters vigorous and free-flowing. The spaces within and between them are even, despite the swiftness apparent in their strokes. Perhaps Mi Fu’s most famous remarks on calligraphy come from an idiom he coined: 无垂不缩，无往不收 [wú chuí bù suō, wú wǎng bù shōu] Each vertical stroke should end with a contraction, each horizontal one by turning back on itself – Mi Fu This quote emphasises the physical nature of calligraphy. It’s no coincidence that Mi Fu was also deeply interested in martial arts. His friend, Su Shi, described Mi Fu’s style as ‘battleships in full sail, or war-horses charging into the enemy’s positions.’ One of the four great calligraphers of the Song dynasty Mi Fu has long been considered one of the four great calligraphers of the Song dynasty. The other three are: Cai Xiang (1012 – 1067): a famous reformist politician and influential calligraphy innovator Su Shi (1037 – 1101): Mi Fu’s friend and one of the most famous intellectuals and artists in Chinese history Huang Tingjian (1045 – 1105): the cursive script master with calligraphy that looked like ‘ripples on water’. All four figures lived during the Northern Song period, which was later cherished as the Song dynasty’s cultural and political golden age. Shuazi Mi Fu was inspired by the calligrapher Duan Jizhan to adopt a calligraphic method termed shuazi (which can be roughly translated as ‘coating’ or ‘whitewashing’). It involves calligraphers apply ink to paper or silk in the same manner they would on a wall. The idea is to maintain a steady rhythm that applies the right amount of ink evenly. (Mi Fu liked to write on walls after drinking, and even apologised to friends for doing so at times!). Mi Fu’s artistic philosophy Mi Fu practiced calligraphy very diligently each day. In doing so, he believed he was emulating the ancients. But at the same time, he also liked to emphasise how he treated calligraphy as ‘just a game’. 何必识难字，辛苦笑扬雄。自古为字人，用字或不通。要之皆一戏，不当问拙工。意足我自足，放笔一戏空。 Is it really necessary to recognise difficult characters? We laugh at the lengths Yang Xiong went to. Since ancient times, calligraphers Have not known [all] characters correctly. It’s all just a game. One shouldn’t question clumsiness or skill. If my mind is satisfied, then I am satisfied. When I put down the brush, the game is over. – ‘Reply To Shaopeng’s Remarks on Being Unable to Read Difficult Characters’, Mi Fu The Song dynasty was a period when the concept of scholar-artists developed greatly. These were usually officials, or at least independent and educated individuals who expressed themselves with calligraphy, painting, and poetry. They saw themselves as different to the more technically proficient artists hired by the government to work on realistic, official paintings and murals. Unlike this group, who worked for money, scholar-artists saw their work as a reflection of their inner cultivation of Daoist, Confucian, and Buddhist principles. The reality wasn’t always so clear cut. But intellectuals such as Mi Fu, Su Shi, and others, often thought and wrote about art theory in these terms. They also emphasised the individual nature of art. Each artist must pursue their own path, wherever it may lead. Unlike professional artists, commissioned to represent others’ orders, the scholar-artist has to find his own vision. A good example of this ethos can even be seen in how Mi Fu wrote about his beloved inkstones. He often painted scenes of hilly landscapes in mist or just before rain. When doing this, Mi declared that an exact model was not needed. Generally, in painting animals and human figures, one does a sketch and it resembles the object, but in doing landscapes, reproduction will not succeed. In landscapes, the level at which the artist’s mind is satisfied is high. – On Painting, Mi Fu As in calligraphy, Mi felt that it was the artist’s mind and self-expression was more important than technical abilities.
2073	dbpedia	3	27	https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Wu-Changshuo/384513/related/main%3Fpage%3D1	en				[ "https://cdn.britannica.com/65/104965-003-B8EFCC27.gif", "https://cdn.britannica.com/41/41-003-379582C1.gif", "https://cdn.britannica.com/88/183488-003-B21DC7E5.gif", "https://cdn.britannica.com/92/195892-003-7C219103.gif", "https://cdn.britannica.com/87/2087-003-7F8786F5.gif", "https://cdn.britannica.com...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null	calligraphy the art of beautiful handwriting. The term may derive from the Greek words for “beauty” (kallos) and “to write” (graphein). It implies a sure knowledge of the correct form of... Chinese painting one of the major art forms produced in China over the centuries. The other arts of China are treated in separate articles. These include Chinese calligraphy, which in China... painting the expression of ideas and emotions, with the creation of certain aesthetic qualities, in a two-dimensional visual language. The elements of this language—its shapes, lines,... Chinese calligraphy the stylized artistic writing of Chinese characters, the written form of Chinese that unites the languages (many mutually unintelligible) spoken in China. Because calligraphy... art a visual object or experience consciously created through an expression of skill or imagination. The term art encompasses diverse media such as painting, sculpture,... engraving technique of making prints from metal plates into which a design has been incised with a cutting tool called a burin. Modern examples are almost invariably made from... graphic art traditional category of fine arts, including any form of visual artistic expression (e.g., painting, drawing, photography, printmaking), usually produced on flat surfaces.... seal in documentation, an impression made by the impact of a hard engraved surface on a softer material such as wax or clay, producing a device in relief. Seals have been used... Mi Fu (born 1051—died 1107, Huaiyang, Jiangsu province, China) was a scholar, poet, calligrapher, and painter who was a dominant figure in Chinese art. Of his extensive... Dong Qichang (born 1555, Huating [now in Shanghai], China—died 1636) was a Chinese painter, calligrapher, and theoretician who was one of the finest artists of the late Ming period. The... Wen Zhengming (born 1470, Suzhou, Jiangsu province, China—died 1559) was a Chinese painter, calligrapher, and scholarly figure who was a student of Shen Zhou; these two artists are... Zhao Mengfu (born 1254, Huzhou [now Wuxing], Zhejiang province, China—died 1322) was a Chinese painter and calligrapher who, though occasionally condemned for having served in the... Qi Baishi (born November 22, 1863, Xiangtan, Hunan province, China—died September 16, 1957, Beijing) was, along with Zhang Daqian, one of the last of the great traditional Chinese... Xu Beihong (born July 19, 1895, Yixing, Jiangsu province, China—died September 26, 1953, Beijing) was an influential Chinese artist and art educator who, in the first half of the 20th... Liu Songnian (born active 1174—died 1224, Qiantang [now Hangzhou], Zhejiang province, China) was a Chinese figure and landscape painter who was one of the great masters of the Southern... Lu Yanshao (born June 26, 1909, Jiading, Shanghai, China—died 1993, Jiading) was a Chinese landscape painter whose vigorous style received critical acclaim in the late 20th century. As... Ma Yuan (born c. 1160/65, Qiantang [now Hangzhou], Zhejiang province—died 1225) was an influential Chinese landscape painter whose work, together with that of Xia Gui, formed the... Zhang Daqian (born May 10, 1899, Neijiang, Sichuan province, China—died April 2, 1983, Taipei, Taiwan) was a painter and collector who was one of the most internationally renowned Chinese... Wang Wei (born 701, Qi county, Shanxi province, China—died 761, Chang’an [now Xi’an], Shaanxi province) was one of the most famous men of arts and letters during the Tang dynasty, one... Xia Gui (flourished 1195–1224, Qiantang [now Hangzhou], Zhejiang province, China) was one of China’s greatest masters of landscape painting, cofounder with Ma Yuan of the Ma-Xia... Pan Tianshou (born March 14, 1897, Ninghai, Zhejiang province, China—died September 5, 1971, Hangzhou) was a Chinese painter, art educator, and art theorist who was one of the most... Lin Fengmian (born November 22, 1900, Meixian, Guangdong, China—died August 12, 1991, Hong Kong) was a Chinese painter and art educator who sought to blend the best of both Eastern and...
2073	dbpedia	1	45	https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/History/hiindexen.htm	en	Vocabulary of Chinese Traditional Art			[ "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Chines1.gif", "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Home.h2.gif", "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Home.h3.gif", "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Home.h4.gif", "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Ho...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null	Xuan Paper Name of a kind of rice paper made in China. It was first produced in Xuanzhou (now the Jing County of East China's, Anhui Province), hence the name of Xuan paper. The bark of Pteroceltis tatarinowii and straw are the main raw materials for producing Xuan paper. After maceration, the fibers are treated with lime, exposed to sunlight, bleached, and washed with starch. Prized xuan papers are cast by hand. They are fine, soft, resistant to insect damage, and their pure white color lasts long to retard absorption of the ink, they may be treated with alum. Where not otherwise indicated, the Chinese papers used for prints and paintings in the exhibition are on a variety of xuan paper. Bamboo Slip Tablets or slips made from bamboo (or wood) for writing in ancient China. It¡¯s called slip if it¡¯s made from bamboo, and called tablet if it¡¯s made from wood. Slit used to be the general name, but now it¡¯s often called bamboo slip. The writing tools of bamboo slip were Chinese brush and ink, and only one line of text can be handwritten on each slip. An article often included many slips. Upon the finish, the slips were bound by strings and rolled up for storage. These rolls were the earliest form of Chinese books. Wooden tablet was often used for short essays. Bamboo slip was invented in Western Zhou, and was widely accepted during Spring and Autumn Period and Warring Period. Around 4th century, with the popularization of paper, the status of bamboo slips was eventually replaced. Du Fu (712~770) Du Fu was a prominent Chinese poet of the Tang Dynasty. His courtesy name was Zi Mei, and he called himself ¡°Shao Ling countryside aged¡±, ¡°Du Shao Ling¡±, ¡°Du Gong Bu¡±, etc. Du Fu¡¯s own greatest ambition was to help his country by becoming a successful civil servant, but he proved unable to make the necessary accommodations. He only served in some low-level position, such as the military adviser in a regional governor's headquarters and concurrently assistant secretary in the Board of Works (Gong Bu). His life, like the whole country, was devastated by the An Lushan Rebellion of 755, and the last 15 years of his life were a time of almost constant unrest. Initially little known, his works came to be hugely influential in both Chinese and Japanese culture. Of his poetic writing, nearly fifteen hundred poems written by Du Fu have been handed down over the ages, most of which expressed a sincere and broad concern for humanity. He also possesses a remarkable power of description, with which he vividly presents human affairs and natural scenery. Thus the afterworld gave him the name of Poet-Historian and the Poet-Sage. Emperor Huizong of Song (1082~1135) Emperor of Northern Song Dynasty. Painter. Calligrapher. The eleventh son of the Emperor Shenzong of Song. The brother of the Emperor Zhezong of Song. After the death of Zhezong, Huizong¡¯s mother made him the eighth emperor of Song Dynasty (r. 1100~1125). During his reign, Huizong devoted himself into art more than into governing the empire. He was an accomplished painter, calligrapher and art supporter. When Jin Dynasty declared war on Song in 1126, Huizong lost it and had to escape. In 1127, Huizong, his son Emperor Qinzong, as well as the entire imperial court and harem were captured by the Jin in the Jingkang Incident. Nine years later he died in captivity at the age of 54. His tomb is 35 miles away from Shaoxing county in Zhejiang province. Cui Bai (11th century c.) Chinese painter in the Northern Song dynasty. Cui Bai was active during the reign of the Emperor Shenzong of Song. Appreciated by Shenzong, he became a Yixue (ÒÕÑ§, a title in the Imperial Art Academy, lower than painter-in-attendance) and later panter-in-attendance in the Imperial Art Academy. Cui Bai was good at flower-and-bird painting, as well as Buddhism mural painting. He broke the court tradition created by Huang Quan and his son in the early period of Song dynasty, who had founded the standard to paint flower and bird in a luxuary way, and originated a new style in the Imperial Art Academy. His works include ¡°Shuangxi Tu¡± (¡¶Ë«Ï²Í¼¡·, Double Happiness), ¡°Hanque Tu¡± (¡¶º®È¸Í¼¡·, Sparrow in Cold Days), and ¡°Zhu¡¯ou Tu¡±(¡¶ÖñÅ¸Í¼¡·, Bamboo and Gull), etc. Fan Kuan (early 11th century c.) Fan Kuan is known to be one of the leading figures in the Northern Song Landscape tradition and one of the most appreciated landscape artists in traditional China. According to Chinese art history, he was born at the end of Five Dynasties, and still alive during Tianren years of the reign of Emperor Renzong of Song (1023~1031). His courtesy name is Zhongli, but because of his nature of lenience and magnanimous, people of his time called him ¡°Kuan¡±, which means wide. Then he named himself ¡°Kuan¡± too. In the record of Xuanhe Hua Pu (¡¶ÐûºÍ»Æ×¡·, ¡°Xuanhe Painting List, a catalogue made of Emperor Huizong¡¯s collection, compiled by court connoisseurs during his reign in Song dynasty), Fan Kuan¡¯s characteristics was also mentioned. The List said Fan ¡°had a style of ancient times; behaved wild; loved alcohol; and never restrained by convention or propriety¡±. Fan Kuan created imaginary landscapes that were different and unique while preserving the internal order and ideal balance of nature. Ma Yuan (1140~1225) One of Four Masters in Southern Song Dynasty, courtesy name Yaofu, and pseudonym Qinshan, Ma Yuan was born in Hezhong (today¡¯s Yongji county in Shanxi province), and moved to Qiantang (today¡¯s Hangzhou in Zhejiang province). He represented the fourth generation in a tradition of painters spanning five generations, beginning with his great-grandfather, Ma Fen, and ending with his son, Ma Lin, all of whom served the Sung emperors as court painters-in-attendance. Although the family tradition doubtless had strong influence on Ma Yuan's development as a painter, he was also indebted to the great northern landscape and figure master Li Tang. Ma Yuan's art at its best is a masterpiece of understatement and evocative suggestion. His typical compositions, featuring the extensive use of swirling mist and empty spaces, with only a few sharply etched forms dramatically silhouetted against the whiteness, lent him the sobriquet "One-corner Ma." Li Song (1166~1243) A native of Qiantang, was a prominent painter of the Southern Song dynasty. Li Song was a talented carpenter before the court painter Li Xun adopted him. He served as a Painter-in-Attendance during the reign of Emperor Gaozong, Ningzong and Lizong of Song. Li was good at Daoist and Buddhist figure, as his foster father Li Xun, he was especially gifted in architecture paintings. The Palace Museum in Beijing collected his painting Puppet Play of a Skeleton. In this painting the expression of figures were well presented. He used the outlining method of nail head and mouse tail to paint the drapes of clothes, and straight lines were often used, which was fine but powerful. And his Flower Basket shows different levels of all the flowers, just like real ones. Zhu Da (1626~1705) Chinese painter and poet. A descendant of the imperial Zhu family of the Ming dynasty and a leading artist of the early Qing period, Zhu Da grew up in Nanchang in Jiangxi province. His connections with the previous dynasty led him to become a monk after the Manchu conquest of China in 1644. Zhu Da had many pseudonyms, but his favorite should be Bada Shanren, which means mountain man of eight masters. Zhu Da adopted and developed the technique of Chen Chun and Xu Wei to paint flowers, birds and landscapes in a style of freehand brushwork, and he went even further - his paintings were in a distinctive and highly dramatic calligraphic style. In a way of symbolization and metaphor, he exaggerated flowers and birds, fishes and insects in his paintings, even gave them a human expression of white eyes (supercilious look). This showed the painter¡¯s own feelings. His bitter experiences of social turmoil and his hatred for the Qing rulers helped to shape his distinctive style. Zhu Da's style exerted a great influence on later artists, such as the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou. Shi Tao (1642~1707) Original name Zhu Ruoji. Chinese painter and theoretician who was, with Zhu Da, one of the most famous Four Monks in the early Qing dynasty. Shi Tao¡¯s paintings were famous and popular when he was alive. He traveled a lot and learned from the nature itself. Before he began painting a sketch of sceneries, he had seen thousands of mountains (this is one of his famous opinions). His work has a freshness inspired not by masters of the past but by an unfettered imagination, with brush techniques that were free and unconventional, and with an ingenious composition. Shitao's independent spirit is also found within his theoretical writings, such as the Kugua Heshang Yulu (¡¶¿à¹ÏºÍÉÐÓïÂ¼¡·, ¡°Comments on Painting by Monk of Bitter Melon¡±). Gu Hongzhong (910~980, or 937~975) Gu Hongzhong was a painter during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. He was from southern China, and served as painter-in-attendance in southern Tang during the reign of Li Jing and Li Yu. He excelled at figure painting. ¡°Han Xizai Ye Yan Tu¡± (¡¶º«ÎõÔØÒ¹ÑçÍ¼¡·, Han Xizai Gives A Night Banquet) was his most famous painting. It¡¯s a wide known work of high classical Chinese art. And it¡¯s also the only work we can see today by Gu Hongzhong. Lou Rui (6th century c.) Lou Rui, a Xianbei native, was a relative of Emperor Shizu of Northern Qi, whose wife¡¯s brother Lou Zhuang was Lou Rui¡¯s father. Lou Rui was buried in 570 at Guo village in Taiyuan, Shanxi province. Since its discovery and excavation from 1980 to 1982, the tomb, with its underground structure decorated with mural paintings, has constituted a corpus of the most reliable data for an accurate assessment of the art, music, costume, court life and rites in the Northern Qi dynasty. Zhao Mengfu (1254~1322) A native of Huzhou, ZheJiang province. His courtesy name was Zi Ang and his pseudonyms was Taoist Xuesong (Pine Snow Taoist). Zhao Mengfu was a descendent of Song imperial family, but he also served the Yuan dynasty as one of the highest Han officials (regular official, not a court painter). He was a famous calligraphy and adept in many styles of calligraphy, such as seal character, official script, running script and the cursive hand, and he also created his own style, Zhaoti. He excelled at painting too, especially in ink bamboo, flowers and birds. His wife, Guan Daosheng was also talented in painting and calligraphy. The Xuesong Zhai Ji (¡¶ËÉÑ©Õ«¼¯¡·, ¡°Collected Essays from Pine Snow Studio¡±) was written by Zhao. Pop Art The term first appeared in Britain during the 1950s and referred to the interest of a number of artists in the images of mass media, advertising, comics and consumer products. The 1950s were a period of optimism in Britain following the end of war-time rationing, and a consumer boom took place. Influenced by the art seen in Eduardo Paolozzi's 1953 exhibition Parallel between Art and Life at the Institute for Contemporary Arts, and by American artists such as Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg, British artists such as Richard Hamilton and the Independent Group aimed at broadening taste into more popular, less academic art. Hamilton helped organize the ¡°Man, Machine, and Motion¡± exhibition in 1955, and ¡°This is Tomorrow¡± with its landmark image Just What is it that makes today's home so different, so appealing? (1956). Pop Art therefore coincided with the youth and pop music phenomenon of the 1950s and '60s, and became very much a part of the image of fashionable, 'swinging' London. Peter Blake, for example, designed album covers for Elvis Presley and the Beatles and placed film stars such as Brigitte Bardot in his pictures in the same way that Warhol was immortalizing Marilyn Monroe in the USA. Pop art came in a number of waves, but all its adherents - Joe Trilson, Richard Smith, Peter Phillips, David Hockney and R.B. Kitaj - shared some interest in the urban, consumer, modern experience. Zhang Xuan (8th c.) A native of Jingzhao (today¡¯s Xi¡¯an in Shanxi province) in Tang dynasty. In 723 AD during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, he became a court painter with Yang Sheng and Yang Ning. Zhang Xuan was famous for his figure paintings, especially his paintings of noble lady, noble child, baby, and horse. He and Zhou Fang were the most outstanding figure painters in Tang dynasty. Xie He (479~502) Painter, art historian in Southern Qi and Liang of Southern dynasties. He excelled at genre painting and figure painting. His most famous work was a book, the Gu Hua Pin Lu (¡¶¹Å»Æ·Â¼¡·, Classified Record of Ancient Painters), which is also the oldest painting treatise in Chinese history. In this book Xie made comments on the important painters during 3rd to 4th century. Xie He is best known for his Six Cannons of painting which became a central theory in the history of Chinese painting. In this theory Xie He deals with all the major aspects of the art of painting according to importance. Six Cannons The Six Cannons were introduced by Xie He in his Gu Hua Pin Lu (¡¶¹Å»Æ·Â¼¡·, Classified Record of Ancient Painters). They may be paraphrased as: first vivid spiritual consonance; second structural use of the brush; third proper representation and fidelity to object; fourth specific coloring of different objects; fifth proper planning of composition; and sixth transmission of the past and copying. Theory of Relativity The theory of relativity refers specifically to two theories: Albert Einstein's special relativity and general relativity. Special relativity is a theory of the structure of spacetime. General relativity is a theory of gravitation. Relativity and quantum physics touch the very basis of physical reality, altering our commonsense notions of space and time, cause and effect. Classical Physics is convenient in studying bodies of ordinary dimensions but not in other cases. For bodies of astronomical dimensions, the use of Relativity is required as well as that of Quantum Mechanics is required for bodies of atomic dimensions. The theory of relativity changed the ¡°comment sense¡± toward space and time by its new contents of ¡°relativity of simultaneity¡±, ¡°four-dimensional space-time¡±, and ¡°curve space¡±, etc. Quantum Theory The modern world of physics is notably founded on two tested and demonstrably sound theories of general relativity and quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics is a fundamental branch of physics with wide applications in both experimental and theoretical physics. The effects of quantum mechanics are typically not observable on macroscopic scales, but become evident at the atomic and subatomic level. Quantum theory generalizes all classical theories, including mechanics and electromagnetism, and provides accurate descriptions for many previously unexplained phenomena such as black body radiation and stable electron orbits. It is the underlying mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, solid-state physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, computational chemistry, quantum chemistry, particle physics, and nuclear physics. Heisenberg (1901~1976) Werner Karl Heisenberg was a celebrated German physicist and Nobel laureate, one of the founders of quantum mechanics, and acknowledged to be one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century. He was born in W¨¹rzburg, Germany and died in Munich. Heisenberg was the head of German nuclear energy project, though the nature of this project, and his work in this capacity, has been heavily debated. He is most well-known for discovering one of the central principles of modern physics, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Ren Bonian (1840~1896) Ren Bonian (Ren Yi) was an outstanding painting in modern China. Born in Zhejiang and lived in Shanghai, he was active in the Haishang Painting School (º£ÉÏ»ÅÉ) which fused popular and traditional styles. He is also sometimes referred to as one of and the best of the "Four Rens"(four modern painters in Shanghai who shared a same family name Ren). Wu Changshuo (1844~1927) Wu Changshuo was born in Anji, Zhejiang Province, and died in Shanghai. He settled in Suzhou in his twenties, where he founded the Xiling Seal Engravers Society, an artists' association with a focus on the craft of seal carving. As a leading figure in the Haishang Painting School during the early 20th century, he was largely responsible for rejuvenating the genre of bird-and-flower painting by introducing an expressive, individualistic style more generally associated with literati painting. He began his artistic career with the traditional study of literature and ancient inscriptions before moving to calligraphy. He wrote Fou Lu Ji (¡¶ó¾Â®¼¯¡·, ¡°Works from My Cottage Fou Lu¡±) and Fou Lu Yin Cun (¡¶ó¾Â®Ó¡´æ¡·, ¡°Seals Colleted in My Cottage Fou Lu¡±) , etc. His famous paintings include ¡°Tianzhu Huahui¡± (ÌìÖñ»¨»Ü, Geranium Flower), ¡°Zi Teng Tu¡± (×ÏÌÙÍ¼, Purple Bine), ¡°Mo He Tu¡±( Ä«ºÉÍ¼, Water Lily of Ink), and ¡°Xin Hua Tu¡± (ÐÓ»¨Í¼, Apricot Blossom), etc. Huang Binhong (1865~1955) Modern art historian and literati painter. He used to edit literary and art journals and taught at fine arts colleges in Shanghai for nearly 30 years. Huang experimented with traditional techniques for the use of ink, including shading and layering. He achieved an effect of ¡°dark, dense, thick, and heavy¡± in his landscapes. Huang was the author of Huangshan Huajia Yuanliu Kao (¡¶»ÆÉ½»¼ÒÔ´Á÷¿¼¡·, ¡°Research the Headstream of Paintings in Yellow Mountain¡±), Hong Lu Hua Tan (¡¶ºçÂ®»Ì¸¡·, ¡°Essays of Paintings from My Cottage of Hong¡±), Gu Hua Wei (¡¶¹Å»Î¢¡·, ¡°About Ancient Paintings¡±), Jinshi Shuhua Bian (¡¶½ðÊ¯Êé»±à¡·, ¡°Knowledge of Painting, Inscription Painting and Calligraphy¡±), and Hua Fa Yao Zhi (¡¶»·¨ÒªÖ¼¡·, ¡°Principles and Methods of Paintings¡±), etc. Liu Haisu (1896~1994) Painter and art educator Li Haisu was born in Wujin, Jiangsu province. He founded Shanghai Art Academy in 1912, which is the first modern art academy, the first coeducation school and the first art school allowed nude models in China. He traveled to Japan and Europe many times to study western art. His works can be found in a number of albums, including Huangshan (¡¶»ÆÉ½¡·, ¡°Yellow Mountain¡±), Haisu Guo Hua (¡¶º£ËÚ¹ú»¡·, ¡°Chinese Paintings by Haisu¡±), Haisu Laoren Shuhua Ji (¡¶º£ËÚÀÏÈËÊé»¼¯¡·, ¡°Old Man Haisu¡¯s Calligraphy and Painting¡±). His theoretical writings include Biography of Millet, and The Six Cannons in Chinese Painting, etc. Shi Lu (1919~1982) Originally known as Feng Ya-heng, Shi created his artistic pseudonym by combining those of two heroes of cultural iconoclasm, the seventeenth century individualist painter Shitao and the twentieth century writer Lu Xun. For the same reason, he changed his name to Shi Lu (representing Shi Tao and Lu Xun). Adept in Chinese painting and plate drawing, he was the representative of the Chang¡¯an School of Painting. Zhu Qizhan (1892~1996) Born in Taicang in Jiangsu province, Zhu Qizhan started to copy ancient Chinese painting at the age of eight. When he at middle age he traveled to Japan twice where he studied Western-style oil, but after 1950s, he turned his interest to Chinese paintings. He excelled at landscape, flower, especially orchid, bamboo and stone. Lin Fengmian (1900~1991) Lin Fengmian is a famous modern painter and art educator who successfully combined Chinese and Western painting skills. He was born in Meixian County, Guangdong Province. At the age of 19, he went to France to learn oil painting, doing part-time work to support his study. In 1925 he came back to China to work as principal of the Beiping State Vocational Art School. In the late 1920s, invited by Cai Yuanpei, he became principal of the Hangzhou Vocational Art School (now the China Academy of Art). In 1978, he settled in Hong Kong. His solo exhibition was successfully held in Paris in 1979. Lin was good at the painting of noble ladies, characters of Beijing opera, scenery of fishing villages, female body, still life and landscapes. Pan Tianshou (1897~1971) Chinese painter, fine arts educationist, theorist of fine arts, calligraphist and seal cutting artist. From 1923, Pan started to teach in Shanghai Art School, New China Art School, Xihu Art School. The next year he went to Japan with Lin Fengmian to investigate Japanese art education. In 1944 he became the principal of the National Arts Vocational School. After the foundation of People¡¯s Republic of China, Pan took the positions of president of Zhejiang Fine Arts Academy and vice president of China Federation of Literary and Art Circles, etc. Books written by Pan Tianshou include The History of Chinese Painting, Tingtiange Huatan Suibi (¡¶ÌýÌì¸ó»Ì¸Ëæ±Ê¡·, ¡°Essays of Painting from Tingtian Attic, Tingtiange was the name of his studio), etc. Li Keran (1907~1989) Li Keran was born in Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province. He was a famous painter and art educator in modern China. He developed a personal style of landscape painting that was based upon the western technique of light and shade. His famous paintings include ¡°Apricot Blossom with Spring Rain in South China¡± (ÐÓ»¨´ºÓê½ÄÏ), ¡°Morning Fog in Mountain Town¡± (É½³Ç³¯Îí), ¡°Watching Mountains¡± (¿´É½Í¼), etc. Fu Baoshi (1904~1964) Chinese painter. Having studied in Japan, he travelled all over China to paint landscape, forming his own style based on traditional artistry. He also wrote Research on the History of Chinese Ancient Landscape Paintings, Techniques of Chinese Landscape Painting and Figure Painting, and Theories of Chinese Painting, etc. Li Kuchan (1898~1983) Li Kuchan¡¯s given name was Ying, and his courtesy name was Kuchan (which means bitter Zen). He combined western techniques and spirituality in sculpture and painting into his Chinese painting teaching, and he himself was excelled at great freehand style of flower-and-bird painting. His representative works include ¡°Orchid and Bamboo¡± (À¼Öñ), ¡°Eagle's Eyes Guarding China¡± (ÈºÓ¥Í¼), ¡°Perching¡±, ¡°Fully Blossoming Water Lily¡± (Ê¢ºÉ), etc. Huang Zhou (1925~1997) Artist, collector of traditional Chinese paintings, and a social activist. Entrusted by the Ministry of Culture, Huang founded the Research Institute of Traditional Chinese Painting and became its deputy director. He was also successively in the positions of director of Chinese Artists Association, member of the standing committee of CPPCC, and curator of Yanhuang Art Gallery. Cheng Shifa (1921~2006) Born in Songjiang, Shanghai, Cheng was good at comic works, illustration drawing, new-year picture, landscapes painting, flower-and-bird painting, and figure painting. Marx (1818~1883) Karl Marx was the founder of Marxism, the organizer and leader of the First International, and the Great Teacher of the proletariat and the working people in the world. Romain Rolland (1866¡«1944) French writer. Romain Rolland's most famous work is Jean Christophe, a partly autobiographical novel, which also won him the 1915 Nobel Prize. The Sword of Damocles In Greek mythology, Damocles was courtier at the court of Dionysius I. He so persistently praised the power and happiness of Dionysius that the tyrant, in order to show the precariousness of rank and power, gave a banquet and had a sword suspended above the head of Damocles by a single hair. Hence the expression ¡°the sword of Damocles¡± to mean an ever-present peril. Zhong Yong (or Doctrine of the Mean) The essence of Zhong Yong rooted in the Doctrine of the Mean in Confucianism. Doctrine of the Mean was one of the Four Books, and it also refers to a way of living. Not like most people understand today, Zhong Yong does not equal to indifference or mediocrity. It¡¯s about cultivation of human nature, including the way of learning, ¡°To this attainment there are requisite the extensive study of what is good, accurate inquiry about it, careful reflection on it, the clear discrimination of it, and the earnest practice of it. Moderation is the process of eliminating or lessening extremes¡±; and the duties of universal obligation are five, ¡°the duties are those between sovereign and minister, between father and son, between husband and wife, between elder brother and younger, and those belonging to the intercourse of friends¡±; and the virtues wherewith they are practiced are three, ¡°Knowledge, magnanimity, and energy¡±(the quotations follow James Legge¡¯s translation in 1893). The highest goal of cultivation of Zhong Yong is the most entire sincerity. Chang'e Chang'e is the subject of several legends in Chinese mythology. She was Hou Yi¡¯s wife. Chang¡¯e stole and ate Hou Yi¡¯s elixir, then flew to moon. She had to live on Moon forever. Nv Wa A goddess in Chinese mythology. In some legends, Nv Wa created human beings from mud. In some other legends Nv Wa married to Fu Xi, her brother, and gave birth to human beings. Another legend tells how she patched up the sky. One day, there was a hole in the sky and it caused a flood. Nv Wa melted together various kinds of colored stones and with the molten mixture she patched up the sky. Human beings were protected. There are many legends about Nv Wa, which are well known until today. Mawangdui Located in the eastern suburbs of Chansha, Hunan Province, the Mawangdui Han Dynasty Tombs were uncovered in 1972 and excavated from 1972 to 1974. Mawangdui is the tombs of a man named Li Cang and his wife and son, who lived in the State of Changsha, Western Han Dynasty (206BC-8AD). The three tombs contained the remains of the Marquis Dai (tomb no.2), his wife (tomb no.1) and his son (tomb no.3), and their most prized possessions. The articles excavated from the tombs have been highly important in researching this very wealthy and sophisticated Western Han culture. Gu Kaizhi (346~407) Gu Kaizhi was a celebrated painter and art theorist in Eastern Jin dynasty. According to historical records he was born in Wuxi, Jiangsu province and first painted at Nanjing in 364. In 366 he became an officer (Da Sima Canjun). Later he was promoted to royal officer (Sanji Changshi). He was also a talented poet and calligrapher. He wrote three books about painting theory: On Painting (¡¶ÂÛ»¡·), Introduction of Famous Paintings of Wei and Jin Dynasties (¡¶Îº½úÊ¤Á÷»ÔÞ¡·) and Painting Yuntai Mountain (¡¶»ÔÆÌ¨É½¼Ç¡·). He wrote: "In figure paintings the clothes and the appearances were not very important. The eyes were the spirit and the decisive factor." Gu's art is known today through copies of three silk handscroll paintings attributed to him: ¡°Nv Shi Zhen Tu¡± (Å®Ê·óðÍ¼, Admonitions of the Instructress to the Court Ladies), ¡°Luo Shen Fu Tu¡± (ÂåÉñ¸³Í¼ , Nymph of the Luo River) , and ¡°Lienv Renzhi Tu¡± (ÁÐÅ®ÈÊÖÇÍ¼ , Wise and Benevolent Women). Zong Bing (375~443) Zong Bing, painter and art theorist made important contributions to Chinese art theory especially in developing Gu Kaizhi's theory of spirit and form and clarifying and tackling issues of perspective and composition. In the field of theory Zong Bing promoted a view that saw landscape painting as a spiritual domain that enables humans to dwell in. His theory can be found in his essay Introduction to Painting Landscapes. Zong Bing was famous for his landscape paintings. Xie He, an art theorist in Southern Qi, said Zong¡¯s painting was ¡°not accurate but its atmosphere worth recommend¡±. His famous paintings include ¡°Kongzi Dizi Xiang¡± (¿××ÓµÜ×ÓÏñ , Portraits of Confucius¡¯ Students), ¡°Yingchuan Xianxian Tu¡± (ò£´¨ÏÈÏÍÍ¼ , Saints in Ying Chuan), ¡°Zhou Li Tu¡± (ÖÜÀñÍ¼ , Rites of the Zhou), ¡°Qiu Shan Tu¡± (ÇïÉ½Í¼, Autumn Mountains), and ¡°Lijia Yiwu Tu¡± (Àñ¼ÎÒØÎÝÍ¼ , Lijia Cottage), etc. He was also a wonderful qin player, finishing the editing of an ancient music book Jin Shi Nong (¡¶½ðÊ¯Åª¡·). Jing Hao (9th century~early 10th century c.) Jing Hao was an important landscape painter and essayist of the Five Dynasties (907-960) period. Jing spent much of his life in retirement as a farmer in the Taihang Mountains of Shanxi province. In his art, Jing followed the court painters of the Tang dynasty in emphasizing the singular grandeur of the landscape. According to his essay Bifa Ji (¡¶±Ê·¨¼Ç¡·, ¡°On Brushstrokes¡±), Taihang Mountain was so beautiful that he brought papers and ink brushes into it and painted day after day. Not until he painted thousands of landscapes, he could not grasp the mountain¡¯s spirit. Jing Hao was the first great figure to adequately depict the characteristic landscape of the north, because he always observed and learnt from the nature. Mi Fu (1051~1107) Mi Fu was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan, Shanxi during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the ¡°Mi Fu Style¡± and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. He is best known for his calligraphy, and he was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. As a personality Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric. At times they even deemed him ¡°Madman Mi¡±. He also was known as a heavy drinker. Su Shi (1037~1101) Su Shi was a writer, poet, artist, calligrapher, pharmacologist, and statesman of the Northern Song Dynasty. His courtesy name was Zizhan and his pseudonym was Dongpo Jushi (Resident of Dongpo), and he is often referred to as Su Dongpo. Su Shi was born in Meishan, near Mount Emei in what is now Sichuan province. His brother Su Zhe and his father Su Xun were both famous literati and they were called The Three Sus. Su was among the earliest to advocate the scholar painting and later founded Huzhou School. Su's poem was teemed with exaggerated metaphors. A small group of them represented the sufferings of the people, scolding governors' dissipation and debauchery. His poems exerted great influence on literature of later generations. As to ci (lyrics), Su Shi and Xin Qiji were called Su-Xin for their ci were both of powerful and freestyle. They brought new atmosphere to the circle of ci and broke the monopoly of restrained style. Another of his contribution to ci was that he liberated ci from music. From then on, ci became an independent lyric. Wang Wei (701~761) Wang Wei sometimes titled the Poet Buddha, was a Tang Dynasty Chinese poet, musician, painter and statesman. His courtesy name was Mojie, and was from Hedong, the Yellow River area in southwestern Shanxi. He is best known for his poems, which addressed the illusory nature of beauty and the physical world. As well as being a poet, Wang Wei was a painter of some note and the delicate, atmospheric nature of his art is reflected in his poetry. None of his original paintings survive, but copies of works attributed to him are also landscapes with similar qualities. He influenced what became known as the Southern school of Chinese landscape art, which was characterised by strong brushstrokes contrasted with light ink washes. In his later years, he lived at Wangchuan at Lantian, southeast of Chang'an. Guo Xi (1020~1109) Born in Wen county in present day Henan province, Guo Xi is not only one of the greatest landscape artists, but also one of the most influential art theorists in the Northern Song dynasty. Although his style can be traced back to Tang dynasty¡¯s famous Li Cheng, he experimented with a variety of different styles. Being a prominent member of the Imperial Academy of Painting GuoXi¡¯s art ornamented large parts of the imperial palace' especially during the reign of emperor Shenzong who admired his work. Lin Quan Gao Zhi (¡¶ÁÖÈª¸ßÖÂ¡·, Collection of Hermit in Woods and Spring), written by Guo Xi, is an important work of aesthetic ideology in Chinese painting. It provides a deep analysis and research on Guo Xi¡¯s key aesthetic ideology ¡°Beyond Nature¡±. Guo Xi developed a strategy of depicting multiple perspectives called "the angle of totality." And his theory of ¡°Three Distances¡± shows that Chinese landscape painting has entered a more mature stage. His important masterpieces include ¡°Zao Chun¡± (Ôç´º, Early Spring), ¡°Keshi Pingyuan Tu¡± (ñ½Ê¯Æ½Ô¶Í¼, Old Trees, Level Distance), ¡°Guanshan Chunxue Tu¡± (¹ØÉ½´ºÑ©Í¼), Spring Snow in Guan Mountain) and ¡°Yougu¡± (ÓÄ¹È, Quiet Valley), etc. Qian Xuan (1235~1301) Qian Xuan was a Song loyalist painter from Zhejiang and most of his life was lived in early Yuan Dynasty. He started as an aspiring scholar-official during the Southern Song. When the Mongol Yuan took over China in 1276 he effectively gave up the idea of officialdom. Like many of his compatriots, he turned to artistic pursuits to support himself. He was accomplished in painting of ancient figure, landscape, fur-and-feather, calligraphy, and flower-and-bird. In the field of landscape painting, his theory and practice of returning the old tradition and innovation in visual structure inspired many literati painters of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. Ni Zan (1301~1374) Ni Zan is considered to be one of the four "Late Yuan" masters. He was born into a wealthy family in Wuxi, which could afford him to be educated despite the unavailability of high-paying governmental jobs that traditionally were the reward for a rigorous Confucian education. So he can choose not to serve the foreign Mongol dynasty of the Yuan and lived a life of retirement and scholarship of his whole life. He called himself ¡°Lazy Zan¡±, or ¡°Pedantic Ni¡±. As a sticker of cleanliness, Ni washed and cleaned his clothes several times a day, and even washed the trees around his house. He was part of a movement that radically altered the traditional conceptions of Chinese painting. Their paintings depicted representations of natural settings that were highly localized, portraying personally valued vistas that reflected their individual feelings. His works include ¡°Yuhou Konglin¡± (Óêºó¿ÕÁÖ , The Empty Woods after Rain), ¡°Wuzhu Xiaoshi¡± (ÎàÖñÐãÊ¯ , Bamboo and Rocks), etc. Dong Qichang (1555~1636) Chinese painter, calligrapher, connoisseur, theoretician, collector and high official in late Ming Dynasty. Born in Huating (today¡¯s Songjiang in Shanghai), Dong¡¯s courtesy name was Xuanzai or Yuanzai, and his pseudonym was Si Bai and Xiangguang Jushi. He was the main representative of Huating School. Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou is the name for a group of eight Chinese painters in the Qing dynasty known for rejecting the orthodox ideas about painting in favor of a style deemed expressive and individualist. They all gathered in Yangzhou, a business center in China at that time. The term was also used not only for geographic reason, it also because they each had strong personalities at variance with the conventions of their own time. Most of them were from impoverished or troubled backgrounds. Still the term is, generally, more a statement about their style rather than being a judgment of them as personally being among history's noted eccentrics. The group includes Jin Nong, Huang Shen, Gao Xiang, Li Fangying, Li Shan, Luo Ping, and Wang Shishen. Other artists, such as Gao Fenghan, Bian Shoumin, Min Zhen, and Hua Yan, are sometimes included. Their style was influenced by Chen Chun, Xu Wei, Zhu Da, Shi Tao, and Gao Qipei, etc. Eight Masters from Nanjing The Eight Masters of Nanjing (Nanjing¡¯s old name was Jinling) were a group of 17th century Chinese painters living in Nanjing. The most prominent of them was Gong Xian. The famous painters in this group included Gong Xian, Fan Qi, Ye Xin, Zou Che, Gao Cen, Hu Cao, Wu Hong, and Xie Sun. The style of their paintings was different. Wilhelm Worringer (1881¡«1965) Wilhelm Worringer was a German art historian. He is known in connection with expressionism. His best-known works are Abstraction and Empathy in 1908, which was his doctoral thesis, and Form in Gothic published in 1911. After World War I, Worringer became a professor in Bonn University, where he wrote Egyptian Art and Greek and Gothic Art. He moved to Konigsberg in 1928 and to East Germany in 1945. He was a professor in Halle University when this country was under the control of Soviet Union. In 1950 he settled in Munich and lived there until his death. Worringer was influential because he saw abstract as being in no way inferior to "realist" art, and worthy of respect in its own right. This was critical justification for the increased use of abstraction in pre-war European art. Kang Youwei (1858¡«1927) Kang Youwei, born in Foshan, Guangdong, was a famous scholar, noted calligrapher and political reformist in Chinese modern history. Kang came from a wealthy family of scholar-officials. He was a strong believer in constitutional monarchy and wanted to remodel the country after Meiji Japan. He was an important leader of a campaign to modernize China now known as the Reform Movement of 1898 (or Hundred Days' Reform). After the reform failed Kang fled to Japan, where with his student Liang he organized the Protect the Emperor Society. He returned China in 1914, after the Qing Dynasty fell and the Republic of China was established. Gong Xian (1618~1689) A painter in Qing dynasty. His courtesy names included Bian Qian, Ye Yi, Qi Xian, and his pseudonyms were Ban Mu (half acre) and Chai Zhangren (old man of firewood). He was born in Kunshan in Jiangsu province and later moved to Nanjing. One of the Eight Masters from Nanjing. Chen Duxiu (1879¡«1942) A founder of the Chinese Communist Party and a major leader in developing the cultural basis of revolution in China. Chen Duxiu was born in the city of Anqing in Anhui province. He moved to Shanghai in 1900 and Japan in 1901. It was in Japan where Chen became influenced by western socialism and the growing Chinese dissident movement. During this time, Chen became an increasingly influential activist in the revolutionary movement against foreign imperialism, the Qing government, and Yuan Shikai. In 1915, he chiefly edited the magazine Youth (renamed as New Youth the next year), which started the prelude of New Culture Campaign. In 1916, he was employed to take charge of the science of arts in Peking University, where he initiated the magazine of Weekly Review with Li Dazhao two years later. Since then, he directly devoted himself into the struggle of patriotic movement. He was one of the prominent leaders of the May Fourth Movement of 1919. In the summer of 1920, he set up the first communism group in Shanghai with the help of the Communist International. From the first session to the fifth session of the national congress of CPC, he was elected the head of communist party. Lv Zheng (1896~1989) Lv Zheng went to Japan to study art at 20. Being angry at Japanese invasion in China, he returned China soon. In 1918, Lv went to Nanjing to assist Ouyang Jingwu to found the Cheen Institute of Inner Learning (Ö§ÄÇÄÚÑ§Ôº), an institute of Chinese Buddhism. Lv Zheng was proficient in languages associated with Buddhism, including Japanese, Sanskrit, Pali and Tibetan, etc, and was one of the most accomplished Buddhism researchers in China. Lu Xun (1881¡«1936) Lu Xun is a famous writer, thinker, and revolutionist of the 20th century in China. Born in Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, Lu Xun was first named Zhou Zhangshu and later renamed Shuren, literally, ¡°to nurture a person¡±. In 1904, he went to Japan to pursue a Western medical degree at Sendai Medical School, where, however, he found it was more important to cure his compatriots' spiritual ills rather their physical diseases. He decided to be a wrtier. In 1918, Lu Xun used his pen name for the first time and published the first major baihua short story, ¡°A Madman's Diary¡±, in the magazine New Youth. It immediately established him as one of the most influential leading writers of his day. Both his first short story collection Call to Arms (published in 1923) and the second collection Wandering (published in 1926) won him a reputation of one of the founders of Chinese Modern Literature. Although highly sympathetic of the Chinese Communist movement, Lu Xun himself never joined the Chinese Communist Party despite being a staunch socialist as he professed in his works. Xu Beihong (1895¡«1953) Xu Beihong (born in Yixing, Jiangsu) was a modern Chinese painter, art educator and art theorist. Considered a modern master in China, he merged Western techniques with classic Chinese approaches. From the beginning of 1919, Xu studied western art overseas in Paris, Berlin and Belgium. In 1927 he came back to China and taught art in several academies. After the foundation of People¡¯s Republic of China, he became president of the Central Academy of Fine Arts and chairman of the Chinese Artists Association. Xu stuck to a way of realism, and his famous paintings include ¡°Tianheng Wubaishi¡± (ÌïºáÎå°ÙÊ¿, Tianheng and Five Hundred Brave Men), ¡°Yugong Yishan¡± (ÓÞ¹«ÒÆÉ½, Foolish Old Man Removing a Mountain), etc. ¡°Refugees¡± ¡°Refugees¡±(ink and colour on paper, 200 X 2600 cm) is the representing work painted by Jiang Zhaohe, who started the creation of ¡°Refugees¡± at the Japanese occupied areas in Beiping in 1941. It vividly describes a hundred refugees trying to escape from the bombing in the war. Qi Baishi (1864¡«1957) Qi Baishi was a Chinese painter. Born to a peasant from Xiangtan, Hunan, Qi became a carpenter at 14. He learned to paint by himself firstly, then studied literature, seal carving, calligraphy and painting from local literati Chen Shaoran and Hu Qinyuan. In the following years he could make a living by selling paintings and seal carving. After he turned 40, he traveled five times to visit famous sceneries in China. He is most noted for his whimsical, often playful style of ink and wash works. All of his works show no western influences, which was unique and different from most artists at his time. At the age of 90, he was honored as "People's Artist" by the Chinese Ministry of Culture, and was selected chairman of the Chinese Artists' Association. In 1956 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by the United Nations and later, after his death, was listed as a world cultural celebrity. Hui Shouping (1633~1690) Born in Wujing in Jiangsu province, painter Hui Shouping was one of the Six Masters in Early Qing dynasty, which included Wu Li and the Four Wangs too. Among the Six, only Hui Shouping excelled at both landscape and flower-and-bird. His renovation in flower-and-bird painting won him the reputation of important flower-and-bird painter in early Qing dynasty. ¡¡ Yi Yuan Lun Hua (On Paintings by Yi Yuan) Yi Yuan Lun Hua (ÒÃÔ°ÂÛ» , On Paintings by Yi Yuan) is an essays collection written by Song Nian. Song Nian¡¯s courtesy name was Xiao Meng, and his pseudonym was Yi Yuan. He founded the Painting Association of Zhenliu in Ji¡¯nan during the reign of emperor Guangxu. The lectures he wrote for the association was collected, named Yi Yuan Lun Hua. Xinhai Revolution The Xinhai Revolution, named for the Chinese year of Xinhai (1911), was the overthrow of China's ruling Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. The revolution began with the armed Wuchang Uprising and the spread of republican insurrection through the southern provinces, and culminated in the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor after lengthy negotiations between rival Imperial and Republican regimes based in Beijing and Nanjing respectively. Led by Sun Zhongshan, the Revolution inaugurated a period of struggle over China's eventual constitutional form, which saw two brief monarchical restorations and successive periods of political fragmentation before the Republic's final establishment. Leaving the brilliant impression on China modern history, the Xinhai Revolution is a great piece of political affair, which is the first time to flag Democracy republic on China. It overthrew the Qing dynasty and founded the Republic of China. This emancipated the people from the rule of the feudal system. May Fourth Movement The May Fourth Movement takes its name from the massive popular protest that took place on May 4th 1919 in Beijing, China. It was an anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement in early modern China, and it marked the upsurge of Chinese nationalism, and a re-evaluation of Chinese culture. Science and democracy became the code words of the movement. The May Fourth Movement came out from the New Culture Movement. Taiji First mentioned in the Book of Change, Taiji (or Taichi) is an important concept in Chinese history of thought. It was a state primeval chaos before birth of the world and before the world split into Yin and Yang (Two Aspects). Taiji was said to be the primary of the universe. The Book of Change The Book of Change (¡¶ÖÜÒ×¡·) is a Chinese classical book in Zhou dynasty. Its Chinese name is Zhou Yi (¡¶ÖÜÒ×¡·), or Yi (¡¶Ò×¡·), or Yi Jing (¡¶Ò×¾¡·). ¡°Yi¡± means change. As the result of ancient Chinese intelligence, the book was about the essence and laws of the universe. Its influence on Chinese culture lasted for thousands of years. Heidegger (1889¡«1976) Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher. His thinking has contributed to such diverse fields as phenomenology, existentialism, hermeneutics, political theory, psychology, theology, and postmodernism. His main concern was ontology or the study of being. His best-known work is Being and Time. Chen Shizeng (1876 ~1923) Courtesy name Chengke. A critic, painter, and educator of early 20th-century China. His brother is famous Chinese historian Chen Yinke. In 1902 Chen went to Japan to study natural history. In 1913 Chen went to Beijing and became an editor in Ministry of Education the next year. He published a very inspiring essay called ¡°The Value of Literati Paintings¡± in 1921, pointing out the relationship between literati paintings and traditional Chinese philosophy. He said that each scholar painting had a special meaning behind. Li Bai (701~762) Li Bai was a Chinese poet. Li Bai is often regarded, along with Du Fu, as one of the two greatest poets in China's literary history. Approximately 1,100 of his poems remain today. Li Bai is best known for the extravagant imagination and striking imagery in his poetry, as well as for his great love for liquor. Li Bai is considered as the foremost romantic poet after Qu Yuan. And he is one of the most renowned and admired poets in China. Li Gonglin (1049-1106) Gonglin, courtesy name Li Boshi, pseudonym Longmian Jushi (Resident of Sleeping Dragon), was a Chinese painter, civil officer and archaeologist in the Northern Song Dynasty. He became famous for his paintings of horses, then he turned to Buddhism and Taoism religious painting, as well as portrait and landscape painting. His painting style was attributed to the style of Gu Kaizhi and Wu Taozi, developing their technique of line drawing. ¡°Lin Weiyan Mufang Tu¡± (ÁÙÎ¤ÙÈÄÁ·ÅÍ¼ , Painting after Wei Yan's Pasturing Horses) is his most famous painting. Liang Kai (early 13th century c.) Liang Kai was a Chinese artist who studied with, and then excelled, his master, Jia Shigu. In 1210, he was awarded the rank of Painter-in-Attendance at court, but he refused it. Instead, calling himself "Madman Liang", he spent his life drinking and painting. Eventually, he retired and became a Zen monk. Famous for his figure painting, Liang is credited with inventing the Zen school of Chinese art. He managed to capture figures¡¯ essences by simplicity and understatement of the work. Simplicity means the fundamental lines of a figure. His style influenced many painters in Ming and Qing dynasties even modern China. His famous paintings include ¡°Liuzu Zhuozhu Tu¡±, (Áù×æí½ÖñÍ¼, The Sixth Patriarch (Hui Neng) Chopping the Bamboo), ¡°Bagaoseng Gushi Tu¡± (°Ë¸ßÉ®¹ÊÊÂÍ¼ , Painting of the Eight Monks), and ¡°Pomo Xianren Tu¡± (ÆÃÄ«ÏÉÈËÍ¼ , Immortal in Splashed Ink). Mu Xi (13th century c.) Surname Li, Buddhist name Fachang, and hao, Mu Xi was a native of Sichuan Province. His year of birth is unknown. He was a monk and a painter from the late-Song to early-Yuan periods. He was skilled at painting Bodhisattvas, figures, birds and flowers, wild beasts (dragons, tigers, monkeys and cranes), landscapes and vegetation. His brush stroke was executed freely with both meticulous brushwork and free sketch painting, which resulted in mixed reviews from his successors. The aura rendered by his brush invokes the realm of Zen. Most of his works are now found in Japan and are widely appreciated. Chen Banding (1877¡ª1970) Real name Chen Nian, courtesy name Banding, Chen was adept in idea-sketch painting of flowers, landscapes and human figures. His technique was influenced by Wu Changshuo. Li Yu (1611¡«1679) Li Yu was born in Lanxi in Jiangsu province. Courtesy names Lihong and Zefan, Pseudonym Li Wong. Li Yu's plays and drama theory are his biggest accomplishments. Ten of his plays remain, including Bi Mu Yu (¡¶±ÈÄ¿Óã¡·, ¡±Flatfish¡±) and Feng Zheng Wu (¡¶·çóÝÎó¡·, ¡°Errors Caused by the Kite¡±). In his book Xian Qing Ou Ji (¡¶ÏÐÇéÅ¼¼Ä¡·, ¡°Occasional Notes with Leisure Motions¡±), he divulges useful information pertaining to cooking, architecture, collections and planting. He also wrote a book of short stories called Shi¡¯er Lou (¡¶Ê®¶þÂ¥¡·, ¡°Twelve Towers¡±). Li Tang (1050~1130 c.) Li Tang was born in Henan province in the town of Sancheng. He lived in the latter part of the eleventh century and into the first half of the twelfth, flourishing as a painter principally between the years 1100 and 1130. Li T'ang spent most of his life in the capital at Kaifeng, where he was an important member of the Imperial Painting Academy and a friend of Emperor Huizong. Li Tang painted traditional Song landscapes, but is best known for his droll, rustic genre scenes, and for his precise paintings of water buffaloes, executed in fine line and showing both movement and character. When the Mongols invaded northern China in 1122, and the Emperor was taken prisoner, Li Tang, then over seventy-five years old, moved south to Hangzhou to teach in the New Academy there. He brought with him the disciplined Song style of brushwork. ¡°Ru Niu Tu¡± (ÈéÅ£Í¼, Child on Buffalo), ¡°Cai Wei Tu¡± (²ÉÞ±Í¼, Pick the Rosebush), ¡°Wanhe Songfeng Tu¡± (ÍòÛÖËÉ·çÍ¼, Whispering Pines in the Mountains) are some of his most famous works. Jian Jiang (1610-1664) Jian Jiang was from She county of Anhui province and a member of the Anhui or Xin'an school of painting in Qing dynasty. His original name was Jiang Tao. He is noted for painting Mount Huangshan. After the fall of the Ming dynasty he became a monk, Budhhistic monastic name Hong Ren. This makes him one of the "Four Monks" along with Zhu Da, Shi Tao, and Kun Can. Four Wangs The Four Wangs were four Chinese landscape painters in the 17th century, all called Wang. They were Wang Shimin (1592-1680), Wang Jian (1598-1677), Wang Hui (1632-1717) and Wang Yuanqi (1642-1715). They were fervent followers of Dong Qichang of the late Ming. The Four Wangs are grouped together for two main reasons. They were all related by blood or in student-teacher relations, working in the same period at the end of the Ming and beginning of the Qing. The second reason is their artistic tendencies and the fact that they belonged to the same tradition and shared the same beliefs concerning art. It can be said that the Four Wangs stressed the importance of technique of brush and ink application and meticulous copying of ancient forms. Zhang Yanyuan (c. 815~?) Zhang Yanyuan, courtesy name Aibin, was a Chinese art historian, scholar, calligrapher and painter of the late Tang Dynasty. He was born to a high ranking family in present-day Yuncheng, Shanxi. Zhang wrote several works about art and calligraphy, among them Fashu Yaolu (¡¶·¨ÊéÒªÂ¼¡·, "Compendium of Calligraphy"), a collection of poems on color paper, and Lidai Minghua Ji (¡¶Àú´úÃû»¼Ç¡·, "Famous Paintings through History") - a general arts book, about the famous historical paintings. Zhang created his own style of art history writing, combining historical facts and art critic. His book also described the painter's lives thoroughly, including biography and works. Fang Xun (1736~1799) Courtesy name Landi or Lanru, pseudonym Lanshi, Lanru, Lansheng, Changqing and Yu¡¯er Nongxiang, Fang Xun was born in Shimen, Zhejiang province. He was said an impetuous and upright person, as unsophisticated as monk. Fang was good at poem, calligraphy and painting. As a painter he was on a par with Xi Gang, called Fang and Xi by their contemporaries. Zou Yigui (1686~1772) Chinese poet, literati, calligrapher and painter from Qing dynasty in the 18th century. He was a student of Hui Shouping, and as his teacher, Zou also excelled at flower painting in bright colours. In his book Xiaoshan Huapu (¡¶Ð¡É½»¨Æ×¡·, ¡°Painting Manual of Xiaoshan¡±), Zou elaborated on techniques of flower painting, composition, coloring, staining, methods to paint trees and rocks, shading, painters, schools of painters, pigments, framing, and papers, in which he said: ¡°Western painters are good at delineating, so their paintings, regardless of distance and light, faithfully represent the real objects. All the figures, houses and trees that are drawn have shadows. The colors and techniques of painting used by them are completely different from those in Chinese painting. The compositions range from wide to narrow, and can be measured by triangle. Palaces, rooms and walls in the paintings are so vivid that the audience may wish to enter them. If learners learn from their craft, they can get some inspiration. But western paintings have no brushwork at all, so in spite of their technical dexterity, they cannot be classified as artworks as such.¡± Wanmu Caotang Canghua Mu (Catalogue of Painting Collection in Ten Thousand Vegetation Pavilion) Wanmu Caotang Canghua Mu (¡¶ÍòÄ¾²ÝÌÃ²Ø»Ä¿¡·, Catalogue of Painting Collection in Ten Thousand Vegetation Pavilion), accomplished in 1917, was one of Kang Youwei (1858~1927)¡¯s signature works. It consists of a foreword and after word, and discusses art from different historical periods. Kang Youwei clearly states his view of reforming Chinese painting in the foreword. Even though this compilation is titled as a list of paintings, its critical writings make up most of the volume. It is a work of art theory by Kang Youwei, coupled with his theories on calligraphy compiled in Guangyizhou Shuangji (¡¶¹ãÒÕÖÛË«é®¡·). An acclaimed calligrapher and art collector; Kang Youwei was deeply perplexed by the fate of Chinese panting in the modern period and showed deep concern for its fate. In compiling this collection, he was motivated by his study and reflections on the history of Chinese art in order to refresh the waning of art theory from the late-Ming to Qing period. Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty The Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty is a name used to collectively describe the four Chinese painters Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, Ni Zan, Wang Meng active in the Yuan Dynasty. Wang Shizhen said in his Yiyuan Zhiyan (¡¶ÒÕÔ·Ø´ÑÔ¡·, Comments On Art), that the Four Masteres were Zhao Mengfu, Wuzhen, Huang Gongwang and Wang Meng, but it was not widely accepted. They worked during the Yuan period and were revered during the Ming Dynasty and later periods as major exponents of the tradition of literati painting, which was concerned more with individual expression and learning than with outward representation and immediate visual appeal. They were all natives in Southern China, all were good at ink landscapes, and all were influenced by Zhao Mengfu. The Four Masters were noted for their lofty personal and aesthetic ideals, the art of landscape painting shifted from an emphasis on close representation of nature to a personal expression of nature's qualities. They spurred experimentation with novel brushstroke techniques, with a new attention to the vocabulary of brush manipulation. Xu Wei (1521~1593) Xu Wei was a Ming Chinese painter, poet and dramatist famed for his artistic expressiveness. His courtesy names were Wenqing and then Wenchang. His various pseudonyms were Tianchi Shanren (The Mountain-man of the Heavenly Pond), Qingteng Jushi (Resident of the Green Vine House) and Shutian Shuiyue (The Water and Moon of the Bureau's Farm). Revolutionary for its time, his painting style influenced and inspired countless subsequent painters, such as Zhu Da, the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou, and the modern masters Wu Changshuo and Qi Baishi. Xu Wei can be considered as the founder of modern painting in China. In addition Xu was a relatively unknown playwright, authoring four plays. Xu Wei was also a poet in his style of considerable note. His works today available are Xu Wenchang Quanji (¡¶ÐìÎÄ³¤È«¼¯¡·, ¡°Xu Wenchang¡¯s Collected Works); Xu Wenchang Yicao (¡¶ÐìÎÄ³¤Øý²Ý¡·, ¡°Xu Wenchang¡¯s Cursive Scripts); and Si Sheng Yuan (¡¶ËÄÉùÔ³¡·, ¡°The Four Shrieks of the Ape¡±), a poetic drama of Yuan style; Nanci Xulu (¡¶ÄÏ´ÊÐðÂ¼¡·, ¡°Account of the Southern Style of Drama¡±), a book of drama theory. Xu Wei¡¯s influence continues to exert itself. Four Monks The Four Monks were four famous monk painters in early Qing dynasty. They are Bada Shanren (Zhu Da), Shi Tao (Zhu Ruoji), Hong Ren (Jian Jiang) and Kun Can (Shi Xi), who lived in late Ming dynasty and early Qing dynasty. Out of them, Bada Shanren and Shi Tao were from royal family of Ming dynasty. The four monks painted in reaction to conservative trends where artists were preoccupied with reproducing landscapes of old masters in highly ornamental and somewhat rigid styles. The attack against conventions is at the same time a political protest against the occupation of China by the foreign Manchu rulers and the dissatisfaction with a new reality imposed on the locals. This explains why the Four Monks preferred to turn their back on society and avoid collaborating with the aggressive Qing rulers. Their interests in painting came partly from a desire to escape from the mundane world by inosculating themselves with nature. Their love for landscapes and flower-and-bird paintings also suggests the bittersweet nostalgia underlying their mutual resentment of the political situation of the time. Rock Painting Rock painting is the general term including colored drawing, line carving and relief sculpture on the wall of caves, cliffs or isolated rocks. Rock Painting was found in many places around the world. China is the earliest country that found and recorded Rock Painting. Wide in distribution and large in number, China became an important component of world's Rock Painting. Rock paintings located in eighteen provinces and more than one hundred cities in China. Among them nearly 30 locations, including the Yin Mountain (ÒõÉ½) in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Helan Mountain (ºØÀ¼É½) in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Hei Mountain (ºÚÉ½) in Gansu province, Altai Mountain (°¢¶ûÌ©É½) in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Jiangjun Cliff (½«¾üÑÂ) in Jiangsu province, Cangyuan (²×Ô´) in Yunnan province and Zuoyou River in Guangxi province are the most important. According to its area, content and style, Chinese rock painting falls into three schools -- the northeast, the southwest, and the southeast. Northern Chinese Rock Paintings are mainly grinding and carving about grazine, hunting and animals in a realistic style. Rock Paintings of southwest school are often representing religious activities and painted in red. As to Rock Paintings found in coastal area of southeast China, most are about sailing and represented in abstract designs by chiseling and carving. Totem A totem is any entity which watches over or assists a group of people, such as a family, clan or tribe. It derived from the root-oode-in the Ojibwe language, which referred to something kinship-related, c.f. odoodem, ¡°his totem¡±. The word root ¡°odoo¡± represents the blood relation between brothers and sisters of a same mother, who are forbidden to marry each other. In 1971, a British merchant translated ¡°odoodem¡± into ¡°totem¡±. Although the term is of Ojibwa origin, ¡°totemism¡±, which was derived from totem, is not limited to Native American Indians. Similar totemism-like beliefs have been historically found throughout much of the world. Yan Fu, a scholar in modern China, was the first person introduced this word to China. He said: ¡°Totem, a religious belief of foreign groups, is usually used to differ one group from others¡±. That is, the totem is usually an animal or other naturalistic figure that spiritually represents a group of related people such as a clan. Bronze Wares Chinese Bronze history started beside the Yellow river. Bronze utensils were found from the relics of Longshan culture and Qijia culture in the Late Neolithic Age. Bronze was a kind of alloy, made of red copper and tin. The percentage of copper and tin of the alloy was different for different utilities, which was the so-called ¡°Six Metallic Components¡± in Kao Gong Ji (¡¶ÖÜÀñ¡¤¿¼¹¤¼Ç¡·, an old book in ancient China). In the late Shang dynasty Chinese had used Bronze wares in almost every important aspects in their lifes, including sacrificial vessel, music instruments, weapons, chariots utilities and tools. During Xia, Shang and Zhou pieriod, bronze was prevailing in handicraft production, so this period is called Bronze Age. Qu Yuan (ca. 339 BC~278 BC) Qu Yuan was a loyal minister in the government of the state of Chu. The Chu king, however, fell under the influence of other corrupt, jealous ministers who slandered Qu Yuan, and then banished him. In Qu Yuan¡¯s exile, he collected many legends and folk odes, and produced some of the greatest poetry in Chinese literature while expressing his fervent love for his state and his deepest concern for its future. In 278 BC, after learning of the capture of his country's capital, Ying, by the state of Qin, Qu Yuan waded into the Miluo river. holding a great rock in order to commit ritual suicide as a form of protest against the corruption of the era. Popular legend has it that villagers carried Zongzi (glutinous rice dumpling) and put them into the river in order to keep fish and evil spirits away from his body. The act gradually became the cultural tradition of dragon boat racing, which is held on the anniversary of his death every year (the fifth day of the fifth month of the Chinese lunar calendar), called Duan Wu festival. Qu Yuan is generally recognised as the first great Chinese poet with record. He initiated the style of Sao, which is named after his work Li Sao (¡¶ÀëÉ§¡·), in which he abandoned the classic four-character verses used in poems and adopted verses with varying lengths, which gives the poem more rhythm and latitude in expression. Qu Yuan¡¯s most important works include Li Sao, Jiu Zhang (¡¶¾ÅÕÂ¡·), Jiu Ge (¡¶¾Å¸è¡·), and Tian Wen (¡¶ÌìÎÊ¡·). Qu Yuan is also regarded as one of the most prominent figures of Romanticism in Chinese literature, and his masterpieces influenced some of the greatest Romanticist poets in Tang Dynasty such as Li Bai and Du Fu. Other than his literary influence, Qu Yuan is also held as the earliest patriotic poet in China history. His political idealism and patriotism have served as the model for Chinese intellectuals to this day. Dragon and Phoenix Human Figure Painting on Silk In February1949 the painting was unearthed in a tomb of the Chu Kingdom near Changsha in Hunan Province. It¡¯s the earliest traditional Chinese painting found so far. The painting was executed about 2,300 years ago on a piece of white silk used as a banner in traditional Chinese funerals. It is the profile of a noble woman dressed in a garment with full sleeves and a long skirt. She has her palms together, as if praying. On her top and her right side are a phoenix and a dragon. It¡¯s said that the woman in the picture was a portrayal of the one buried in the tomb, and the phoenix and dragon are leading her up to heaven. In 1973 another silk painting was found in the tomb of the Chu Kingdom, called ¡°Driving Dragon Painting¡±. ¡°The Dragon and Phoenix Human Figure Painting on Silk¡± and the ¡°Driving Dragon Painting¡± show us the painting styles in the Warring States Period. Kongzi Jiayu Kongzi Jiayu (¡¶¿××Ó¼ÒÓï¡·, The School Sayings of Confucius), or Jiayu, is an early Han period collection of parables centering around Confucius and his disciples, laying stress upon his teachings about ethical human conduct. Annotated by the late Han scholar Wang Su, it¡¯s one of Confucian classical books. Ma Duanlin, a scholar in Yuan dynasty, quoted Wang Su¡¯s note in his Wenxian Tongkao - Section Jingji Kao (¡¶ÎÄÏ×Í¨¿¼.¾¼®¿¼¡·, Critical Examinations of Documents-Study of Classics), ¡°Kongzi Jiayu is the dialogues between the nobles, Confucius and his seventy-two disciples. The disciples wrote down what they talked. The important sayings were collected and named as Lunyu (¡¶ÂÛÓï¡·, Analects), and the rest were collected and named as Kongzi Jiayu.¡± It means this book is a complement of the Confucian Analects Lunyu. Qin Shihuang (259 BC~210 BC) Qin Shihuang (ÇØÊ¼»Ê), personal name Ying Zheng, was the king of the Chinese State of Qin from 247 BCE to 221 BCE, he absorbed States Han, Zhao, Wei, Chu, Yan, and Qi, and then became the first emperor of a unified China, known as Qin Dynasty, from 221 BCE to 210 BCE, ruling under the name Shihuang (the First Emperor). Emperor Wu of Han (156 BC~87 BC) Emperor Wu of Han, personal name Liu Che, was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty in China, ruling from 141 BC to 87 BC. Emperor Wu is best remembered for the vast territorial expansion that occurred under his reign, as well as the strong and centralized Confucian state he organized. He is cited in Chinese history as one of the greatest emperors. As a military campaigner, Emperor Wu led Han China through its greatest expansion ¡ª at its height, the Empire's borders spanned from the modern Kyrgyzstan in the west, to the northern Korea in the northeast, and to northern Vietnam in the south. While establishing an autocratic and centralized state, Emperor Wu adopted the principles of Confucianism as the state philosophy and code of ethics for his empire and started a school to teach future administrators the Confucian classics. These reforms would have an enduring effect throughout the existence of imperial China and an enormous influence on neighbouring civilizations. The ¡°Han¡± in ¡°The Prosperous Han and Tang Dynasties (ººÌÆÊ¢ÊÀ)¡± just means the period during Emperor Wu of Han¡¯s reign. Huo Qubing (140 BC~117 BC) Huo Qubing was a famous general of the western Han dynasty under Emperor Wu. A nephew of another famous Han general Wei Qing, Huo Qubing exhibited outstanding military talent as a teenager. He defeats the Xiongnu troops four times in his life. As a result, he gained great favour with the Emperor. Huo Qubing died at the early age of 24 due to a plague. Cao¡¯s Clothing as Water It¡¯s a saying to describe Cao Zhongda¡¯s outlining method of the drapes of ancient clothes. Cao Zhongda, a Northern Qi painter from the Central Asian kingdom of Cao, was famous for his Buddhist paintings as the ¡°Cao style¡±, characterized by closely pleated garments clinging to the body as though they had just emerged from water. It¡¯s the ¡°Cao¡¯s Clothing of Water¡±. ¡°Cao¡¯s Style¡± is the style of the earliest centuries of Buddhism art reached China and mixed with Chinese art. Wang Wei (415~453) Wang Wei, a landscape painter in Liu Song of Southern Dynasty. In his essay On Paintings (¡¶Ðð»¡·), Wang Wei pointed out the difference between landscape painting and map, and emphasized the importance of concinnity and emotion in landscape painting. His theory of ¡°please one¡¯s spirit¡± showed that he realized how nature and landscapes could cultivate mankind. ¡°Luo Shen Fu Tu¡± (ÂåÉñ¸³Í¼ , Nymph of the Luo River) ¡°The Nymph of the Luo River¡± was painted by Gu Kaizhi, an established painter during the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Painting ¡°Nymph of the Luo River¡± survives in three copies dating to the Song dynasty. It illustrates a poem Ode to The Nymph of the Luo River (¡¶ÂåÉñ¸³¡·) written by Cao Zhi. The painting depicts the meeting between Cao Zhi and the Nymph of the Luo River at Luo River, vividly capturing the mood of their first meeting and eventual separation. The painter emphasized the tension between figures not by their expressions, but mainly by the composition of figures, stones, mountains and trees. The Emperor Taizong of Tang (599~649) Emperor Taizong of Tang, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. As he encouraged his father, Li Yuan (later Emperor Gaozu) to rise against Sui Dynasty rule at Taiyuan in 617 and subsequently defeated several of his most important rivals, he was ceremonially regarded as a cofounder of the dynasty along with Emperor Gaozu. He is typically considered one of the greatest, if not the greatest, emperor in all of Chinese history. Throughout the rest of Chinese history, Emperor Taizong's reign was regarded as the exemplary model against which all other emperors were measured, and his "Reign of Zhen'guan" (Õê¹ÛÖ®ÖÎ) was considered a golden age of Chinese history and required study for future crown princes. During his reign, Tang China flourished economically and militarily, and after his death, Tang China still enjoyed the peace and prosperity for more than a hundred years. Yan Liben (c.600~673) Yan Liben was a Chinese painter and government official (the Prime Minister of the Right) of the early Tang Dynasty. He excelled at figure painting, especially nobles, officials and court figures deprived from history. His notable works include the ¡°Eighteen Scholars Served in Qin¡± (¡¶ÇØ¸®Ê®°ËÑ§Ê¿¡·), ¡°Portraits at Lingyan Pavilion¡± (¡¶ÁèÑÌ¸ó¶þÊ®ËÄ¹¦³¼Ïñ¡·), ¡°Duty Tribute¡± (¡¶Ö°¹±Í¼¡·), and ¡°Officials of Yonghui¡± (¡¶ÓÀ»Õ³¯³¼Í¼¡·), etc. The copy of his ¡°Emperor Taizong Receiving the Tibetan Envoy¡± (¡¶²½éýÍ¼¡·) and ¡°Portraits of Chinese Emperors¡± (¡¶Àú´úµÛÍõÍ¼¡·) are survived. His works were highly regarded in Chinese art history. Wu Daozi (c. 690~758) Wu Daozi was a Chinese artist of the Tang Dynasty, famous for initiating a new style of religious painting, which was called ¡°Wu Style¡±. ¡°Wu Style¡± by Wu Daozi and ¡°Cao Style¡± by Cao Zhongda were both very influential in early Chinese figure painting, whose difference were often described as ¡°Wu¡¯s Belt as Wind, Cao¡¯s Clothing as Water¡±. The influence of his religious painting style can be seen even after Yuan and Ming dynasty, and the modern artisan painters regarded him as their ancestor. Wu Daozi was called The Sage of Chinese Painting. Li Zhaodao (c. 670~730) Li Zhaodao, as his father Li Sixun, was also famous for his landscape paintings. The ¡°Emperor Ming Huang¡¯s Journey to Shu¡±, attributed to Li Zhaodao, possibly a 10th-11th-century copy, described the journey of the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang to Sichuan escaping from The An Shi Rebellion. It is a representative work of Chinese early blue and green landscape painting. Han Gan (c. 706~783) Chinese famous painter in Tang dynasty. Coming from a poor family, Han Gan was recognized by Wang Wei, a prominent poet, who sponsored Han in learning arts. Chen Hong and Cao Ba were both his teachers. Han became a painter-in-attendance during the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang¡¯s reign. Han painted many portraits and Buddhism themed paintings, but he is most widely remembered for his paintings of horses. He was reputed to be able to not only portray the physical body of the horse, but also its spirit. Han Gan¡¯s works include the famous painting "Night-Shining White", portrait of a favorite steed of Emperor Xuanzong. Mo Gao Ku Located near the historic junction of the Northern and Southern Silk Roads, Dunhuang was a town of military importance from China to western world in ancient days. . In 366 A.D. a monk named Yuezun had a vision of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. Now there are 492 caves kept, in which there are more than 2400 sculptures and 450 thousands square meters of mural paintings. Mo Gao Ku is the most important cave temple in China. The caves show an uninterrupted history of Chinese painting, over a period of nearly a thousand years from Northern dynasties. An Shi Rebellion The An Shi Rebellion took place in China during the Tang Dynasty, from 755 to 763. An Lushan was a general of Sodgian-Turkic ancestry (i.e., non-Han). He was appointed by the Xuanzong emperor to be commander (½Ú¶ÈÊ¹) of three garrisons in the north¡ªPinglu, Fanyang and Hedong. In effect, An was given control over the entire area north of the lower reaches of the Yellow River. With such power and land in his control, An Lushan committed a revolt. When An Lushan 's forces went near Chang¡¯an, seeing the imminent threat to the capital, Emperor Xuanzong fled to Sichuan with his household. On the way, at Mawei Inn in Shaanxi, Xuanzong's bodyguard troops demanded the death of Yang Guozhong and his cousin Lady Yang. With the army on the verge of mutiny, the Emperor had no choice but to agree, ordering the execution of Yang Guozhong and the suicide of Lady Yang. Meanwhile, the crown prince Li Heng, now called Suzong, fled in the other direction to Lingzhou and was then proclaimed emperor. The new Imperial forces recaptured both Chang'an and Luoyang, and were helped by internal dissent in the newly-formed dynasty. An Lushan was killed by his son, An Qingxu, not long after his ascent to the throne. His son was then killed by a subordinate, general Shi Siming. Shi Siming was killed in turn by his son, Shi Chaoyi. Finally, after Luoyang was taken by the Tang forces for the second time, Shi Chaoyi committed suicide (in 763), thus ending the 8 year long rebellion. Guan Xiu (832~912) Guan Xiu, a monk painter at the end of Tang dynasty and the beginning of Five Dynasties, was orphaned and became a monk at the age of seven. He was known for his skill at painting and calligraphy, as well as for his poetry. His most famous paintings are the portraits of arhats and disciples of Sakyamuni, for example, ¡°The Sixteen Arhats¡± (¡¶Ê®ÁùÂÞººÍ¼¡·). The Buddhism figures in his painting are often with thick eyebrows and big eyes, high cheekbones and long nose, which gave them a look of foreigners and Buddhist. The following Buddhism painters often based their portrayals of the arhats on Guan Xiu's paintings. Shi Ke (active in Five dynasties) Shi Ke was a painter at the end of Five dynasties and the beginning of Song dynasty. His most famous survived work is ¡°Erzu Tiaoxin Tu¡±(¡¶¶þ×æµ÷ÐÄÍ¼¡·, Two Minds in Harmony). Guan Tong (active in Five dynasties) Jing Hao and Guan Tong are the two representative artists of the northern school of landscape painting, the two were also known as Jing-Guan. Apart from leading the same school of art they both found the turmoil in the north of China too much to bear and fled to the remote mountain areas to live in relative solitude. Guan Tong took Jing Hao¡¯s art and went even further when he beautifully reflected the changes that take place throughout the year as the seasons transform nature. He depicted the characterizing features of the different seasons and the effects of nature's changes on the human spirit. This cyclical feature is central in the philosophy and practice of Chinese medicine and Chinese thought in general. Like Jing Hao he represents the Northern School and uses techniques representative of this school, namely, Axe-cut Shading. His famous works include ¡°Shanxi Daidu Tu¡± (¡¶É½Ïª´ý¶ÉÍ¼¡·, Across A Mountain Stream) and ¡°Guanshan Xinglv Tu¡± (¡¶¹ØÉ½ÐÐÂÃÍ¼¡·, Travel in Mountain Guan) Dong Yuan (c. 934~c. 962) Dong Yuan as a Chinese painter. He was born in Zhongling. Dong Yuan was active in the Southern Tang Kingdom of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. He was from Nanjing in the Jiangsu province, which was a center for culture and the arts. He and his student Ju Ran were the founders of the southern school of landscape painting, and with Jing Hao and Guan Tong of the northern school they constituted the four seminal painters of that time. Although Dong Yuan became to represent the subtleness of the south and the monochrome style of landscape painting, he also painted in the early style known as Blue and Green Landscape Painting, done in the tradition of the famous Li Sixun. However, he added to the number of techniques, including more sophisticated perspective, use of pointillism and crosshatching to build up vivid effect. ¡°The Xiao and Xiang Rivers¡± (¡¶äìÏæÍ¼¡·), one of his best-known paintings, demonstrates these techniques, and his sense of composition. Ju Ran (active in Five dynasties) Ju Ran, a monk painter in Five dynasties, was one of the representative painters of the southern school landscapes. He followed Dong Yuan¡¯s style but went further. Ju Ran's new approach introduces new possibilities and ways of using a Chinese brush, bringing inspiration to painters of later dynasties. His famous paintings include ¡°Wanhe Songfeng Tu¡± (¡¶ÍòÛÖËÉ·çÍ¼¡·, the Pine-Soughing Valleys), etc. Huang Quan (?~965) Born in Chengdu, Huang Quan was comprehensive in different types of drawing, and chosen to be a court drawer in west Shu when he was only 17. He is famous for exquisite sketching and lifelike paintings. The depicted birds in his paintings were full-fledged and flowers looked luxurious under the bush. ¡°Xiesheng Zhenqin Tu¡± (¡¶Ð´ÉúÕäÇÝÍ¼¡·, Studies from Nature: Birds and Insects) Sketch of Rare Bird Scroll -- a piece handed down from Huang -- vividly depicts many kinds of birds. Xu Xi (active in Five dynasties) Xu Xi lived during the Five Dynasties, and was never involved in politics. Xu did not seek fame or wealth -- he just concentrated on painting. He admired the country lifestyle, choosing wild birds and village plants as the theme of his art. Xu used thick strokes and ink, drew branches and leaves plainly, and used a slight hint of color so it would not impair the ink. His works were full of natural and wild interest. ¡°Snow Covers Bamboo¡± was one of Xu's works that was handed down in history. Zhao Kuangyin (927~976) Zhao Kuangyin, Emperor Taizu of Song, was the founder of the Song Dynasty of China, reigning from 960 to 976. He established the core Song Ancestor Rules and Policy for the future emperors. He was remembered for, but not limited to, his reform of the examination system whereby entry to the bureaucracy favored individuals who demonstrated academic ability rather than by birth. He also created academies that allowed a great deal of freedom of discussion and thought, which facilitated the growth of scientific advance, economic reforms as well as achievements in arts and literature. He is perhaps best known for weakening the military and so preventing anyone else rising to power as he did. Zhang Zeduan (1085~1145) Zhang Zeduan, alias Zheng Dao, was a famous Chinese painter during the twelfth century, during the transitional period from the Northern Song to the Southern Song Dynasty. He was a native of Dongwu (present Zhucheng, Shandong). There is evidence that he was a court painter of the Northern Song Dynasty, and that in the aftermath of that dynasty's fall, his paintings were criticisms of the new dynasty. Zhang Zeduan's most famous painting is ¡°Qingming Shanghe Tu¡± (¡¶ÇåÃ÷ÉÏºÓÍ¼¡·, Along the River During Qing Ming Festival), a wide handscroll which depicts life in a city. This painting was made famous throughout China. In terms of historical significance, Zhang's original painting reveals much about life in China during the 12th century. Its myriad depictions of different people interacting with one another reveals the nuances of class structure and the many hardships of urban life as well. It also displays accurate depictions of technological practices found in Song China. Wang Ximeng (active in Northern Song) Wang Ximeng's ¡°Qianli Jiangshan Tu¡± (¡¶Ç§Àï½É½Í¼¡·, A Thousand Li of River and Mountain) is a breathtakingly beautiful blue-and-green landscape panorama painted for the emperor Huizong. Wang was a brilliant young artist who arrived at court in his teens and unfortunately died only a few years later. The young man received the gift of direct instruction in the art of painting from Huizong, and the present picture must have been something like a graduate-examination. It bears a remark by the prime minister, Cai Jing, which provides the only information known about Wang Ximeng. As painted under Huizong's instructions, Wang Ximeng's landscape combines classical roots in the blue-and-green tradition, elegant and realistic drawing, and a glowing, golden atmosphere that is a kind of visual poetry. Xia Gui (c. 1195~1224) Xia Gui, Chinese painter of the Song Dynasty, who was one of the great masters of the Southern Song landscape style. He was active in the imperial painting academy at Hangzhou during the reign of Emperor Ningzong of Song. Along with his celebrated contemporary artist Ma Yuan, he broke with the elaborate ornamental style of the period to cultivate a simpler, more emotional mode. Xia¡¯s landscapes, characterized by asymmetrical composition¡ªpainting only one corner out of four¡ªreduced human figures and buildings to minor accents. He was especially noted for his brilliant ink technique, in which extremely subtle, graded ink washes and overlapping brushstrokes created complex atmospheric effects of mist, sky, and infinity. In his ¡°Xishan Qingyuan Tu¡± (¡¶ÏªÉ½ÇåÔ¶Í¼¡·, Clear View of Streams and Mountains), a 9-m (30-ft) hand scroll, the panoramic sweep of landscape contains a full use of his varied brushwork. Along with Ma Yuan, he gave his name to the succeeding Ma and Xia School of landscape painting. Mi Youren (1086~1165, or 1074~1153) Mi Youren, son of the famous Song dynasty literati painter Mi Fu, was also a painter. The father and son created a new style of landscape painting called ¡°Mi Style¡±, which described mysterious mountains covering mist and fog, by a method of simple brushstroke and lighten ink. They sought after pure nature, and showed a typical taste of literati¡¯s. ¡°Xiaoxiang Qiguan Tu¡± (¡¶äìÏæÆæ¹ÛÍ¼¡·, Spectacular Views of the Xiao and Xiang Rivers) is Mi Youren¡¯s work. Ren Renfa (1254~1327) Ren Renfa was an expert of irrigation works, artist, and a government official in Yuan dynasty. He led the construction of the dams of Wusong river, Tonghui river, Huidong river, Yellow river, Lian Lake, and some sea dams. In his spare time, Ren also drew some outstanding paintings of horses and figures. His style is similar to the artists of the Tang Dynasty and Li Gongling in Song Dynasty. His paintings of horses are comparable to those by Zhao Mengfu. Gao Kegong (1248~1310) Painter and Ministry of Justice in Yuan dynasty. Gao Kegong was a Hui Nationality (Uygur). He was good at landscape painting and ink bamboo painting. Huang Gongwang (1269~1354) Huang Gongwang was a painter and calligrapher from Jiangsu in Yuan dynasty. He is the oldest of the "Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty". After serving as an official he acted as a Taoist priest. He spent his last years in the Fu-ch'un mountains near Hangzhou devoting himself to Taoism. In art he rejected the landscape conventions of his era's Academy, but is regarded as one of the great literati painters. He had two styles. One was dependent on the use of purple and the other preferred black ink. Like all other Chinese scholar-officials of his era he was also a poet. His most famous work is ¡°Fuchun Shanju Tu¡± (¡¶¸»´ºÉ½¾ÓÍ¼¡·, Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains, c. 1350). Wu Zhen (1280~1354) Painter Wu Zhen was one of the ¡°Four Masters of Yuan Dynasty¡±. He followed the Dong Yuan, Ju Ran school of painting. Following along with trends of the time, Wu's works tended less toward naturalism (ie. painting exactly what the eye sees) and more toward abstraction, focusing on dynamic balance of elements, and personifying nature. From his ¡°Yufu Tu¡± (¡¶Óæ¸¸Í¼¡·, Hermit Fisherman) we can see his style. Wang Meng (c. 1308~1385) Wang Meng, a grandson of Zhao Mengfu, was born in Huzhou (now known as Wuxing), Zhejiang. He was the youngest of the ¡°Four Masters in Yuan Dynasty¡±, and the least famous in his own time. Nevertheless, his style greatly influenced later Chinese Painting. In contrast to the relatively spare style of his compatriots, his ropy brushstrokes piled one on the other to produce masses of texture combined in dense and involved patterns. His most famous works include ¡°Qingbian Yinju Tu¡± (¡¶Çà±åÒþ¾ÓÍ¼¡·, Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains), etc. Zhu Yuanzhang (1328~1398) The founder of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, also known by his reign name "Hung-wu" (literally means "Vast Military"), came from a poor peasant family. He was orphaned at the age of 16 and then entered a Buddhist monastery, but left it in 1352 to join a band of rebels, of which he became leader. By 1382 he had ended Mongol rule and unified all China. His reign was marked by the consolidation of imperial power, agrarian reconstruction, and intimidation of the landed and scholarly elite, a reflection of his commoner roots. Through the case of Hu Wei-yong, the case of Lanyu (Blue Jade), and many times of literary inquisition, Zhu Yuanzhang killed almost all his co-founders of Ming dynasty. After his death, he was buried in Xiaoling Tomb in Nanjing, and was given the posthumous name ¡°Emperor Gao¡±, which literally means Emperor Tall. As historian Ebrey puts it "Seldom has the course of Chinese history been influenced by a single personality as much as it was by the founder of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang." Jinyi Wei (Secret Service of the Ming Emperors) The Jinyi Wei, literally "Brocade-Clad Guard", was the secret service of the Ming emperors. Originally a 500-man organization set up in 1382 by Emperor Hongwu (Zhu Yuanzhang) to be his personal bodyguards, it was soon entrusted and empowered to watch over his officials. By 1385 they numbered 14,000 and were the emperor's eyes and ears. At their peak, the Jinyi Wei had about 200,000 members. They had the power to bypass judicial procedures and could arrest, imprison and punish without going through due process. By the time of Emperor Yongle control of the Guard was largely in the hands of the eunuchs, who had the ears of the emperors. The Jinyi Wei was disbanded along with the remnants of the Ming Dynasty after the Manchu invasion of China. The Imperial Examination The Imperial examinations (¿Æ¾Ù) in Imperial China determined who among the population would be permitted to enter the state's bureaucracy. The Imperial Examination System in China lasted for 1300 years, from its founding during the Sui Dynasty in 605 to its abolition near the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1905. In the imperial China the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. It also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The Chinese Imperial examination system had international influence throughout East Asia including Vietnam, Japan and Korea. Wenziyu (Literary Inquisition) Wenziyu (ÎÄ×ÖÓü, "imprisonment due to writings"), or Literary Inquisition, refers to the persecution of intellectuals for their writings by the authority in Imperial China. Wenziyu flourished during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The persecutions could owe to a single phrase or word, which the ruler considered offensive. Some of these owed to the naming taboo. In a serious case, not only the writer but also his families and relatives would be killed. There were wenziyu before the Ming and Qing dynasties. The poet Su Shi of the Song Dynasty was jailed for several months by the emperor owing to some of his poems. The Ming Dynasty founder Zhu Yuanzhang, who had a humble beginning, caused many wenziyu. The Qing rulers, who were sensitive to anti-Manchu feelings among the Han Chinese, also carried out many wenziyu, including the so-called "Case of the History of the Ming Dynasty" (Ã÷Ê·°¸) under the reign of Emperor Kangxi in which about 70 were killed and more exiled. Emperor Xuanzong of Ming (1398~1435) Emperor Xuanzong of Ming, or the Xuande Emperor, was the emperor of China between 1425-1435. Born Zhu Zhanji, he was emperor Hongxi's son. Comparing with many other emperors of Ming Dynasty, Zhu Zhanji was the active one in his political life. He ordered the 7th expedition of (1431-1433) Zheng He¡¯s voyage. Zhu Zhanji was versed in calligraphy, painting and poetry. He often bestowed his painting to officials, on which he wrote down the name of the official and the date. He managed the Imperial Art Academy by himself, paid a lot to outstanding court painters, and even gave them a ¡°Jinyi Wei¡± title, so many skilled painters served the court during his reign. The Emperor Xuanzong of Ming ruled over a remarkably peaceful time with no significant external or internal problems. Later historians have considered his reign to be the Ming dynasty's golden age. Dai Jin (1388~1462) Dai Jin is noted as the founder of the Zhe school of Ming dynasty painting. He began his life in Hangzhou. Although he studied painting as a boy his initial occupation was carpentry. Later he became known for landscapes and animal paintings. He served as an official for a time but after angering the Emperor he returned to Hangzhou in Zhejiang, Dai specialized in landscape painting, as well as figures and animals. Having extensively imitated paintings of his predecessors, Dai had a good grounding in traditional painting. Meanwhile, he was not restrained by tradition and developed his own style, using easy and smooth strokes. Dai followed in the footsteps of Ma Yuan and Xia Gui of the Southern Song, as well as Li Cheng and Fan Kuan of the Northern Song Dynasty in landscape painting. Dai Jin had many followers inside and outside the court. They were called ¡°Zhe School¡±. Wu Wei (1459~1508) Wu Wei, courtesy name Ci-weng, sobriquet Xiao-xian, was a native of Jiangxia, Hubei. A wanderer in his youth, he was at one time employed as a servant in the home of Qian Xin. Later he developed his talent as a painter. During the reign of the Emperor Xianzong (r. 1465-1488) he received the title of Painter-in-Attendance in the Ren-zhi Hall. The Emperor Xiaozong (r. 1488-1505) gave him a seal which read ¡°First among painters¡±. His numerous followers became a branch of ¡°Zhe School¡±, called ¡°Jiangxia School¡± Shen Zhou (1427~1509) Shen Zhou, courtesy name Qinan, was a Chinese painter in Ming Dynasty. Shen Zhou was born into a wealthy family in Xiangcheng in Jiangsu, which allowed him to live the majority of his lives as retired scholar-artists, free of responsibility, and devote his time to artwork, socializing, and monastic contemplation of the natural world around him. Shen Zhou lived at a pivotal point in the history of Chinese painting, and contributed greatly to the artistic tradition of China, founding the new Wu School in Suzhou. He and Wen Zheng-ming were the two most important painters of the Wu School, a group of leading literati artists who lived in the region around Wu-Hsien. Withdrawn from worldly pursuits, Shen Zhou developed a distinctive style of landscape and flower-and-bird painting through careful study of the works of the great Yuan dynasty masters. Wen Zhengming (1470~1559) Wen Zhengming was a leading Ming Dynasty painter, calligrapher, and scholar. Born in present-day Suzhou, he was a student of Shen Zhou. Although he was a thorough and diligent student, Wen Zhengming repeatedly failed the national examinations, the third level of civil service examinations. It was not until age 53 that he emerged from his scholarly isolation, receiving the recognition of the court with his appointment to the Hanlin Academy. The most famous member of the second generation of Wu School artists, Wen Zhengming profoundly influenced later painters. He was remarkable for his individuality as well as for the variety and range of his creativity. In technique, Wen Zhengming's paintings range from the highly detailed to the more freely washed. In all his paintings there is a spirit of studied antiquarianism and cautious consideration. Tang Yin (1470~1523) Tang Yin was a Chinese scholar, painter, calligraphist, and poet of the Ming Dynasty. Courtesy name Bohu, he was born into the merchant class of Suzhou. Although lacking social standing, he received an excellent education. He was a brilliant student and came first in the provincial examinations in Nanjing, the second stage in the civil service examination ladder. The following year he went to Beijing to sit the national examinations, but he was accused of bribing the servant of one of the chief examiners to give them the examination questions in advance. All parties were jailed, and Tang Yin returned to Suzhou in disgrace, his justifiably high hopes for a distinguished civil service career dashed forever. He began to pursue a life of pleasure and earned a living by selling his paintings. That mode of living brought him into disrepute with a later generation of artist-critics (for example, Dong Qichang) who felt that financial independence was vital to enable an artist to follow his own style and inspiration. While Tang is associated with paintings of feminine beauty, which inherited the Tang tradition of bright colours and elegant carriages, his paintings (especially landscapes) otherwise exhibit the same variety and expression of his peers and reveal a man of both artistic skill and profound insight. Qiu Ying (1498~1552) Qiu Ying was a Chinese painter who specialized in the gongbi brush technique. He was born to a peasant family, and studied painting at the Wu School in Suzhou. Though the Wu School encouraged painting in ink washes, Qiu Ying also painted in the green-and-blue style. He painted with the support of wealthy patrons, one of whom was the well-known wealthy collector Xiang Yuanbian. He created images of flowers, gardens, religious subjects, and landscapes in the fashions of the Ming Dynasty. He incorporated different techniques into his paintings. His talent and versatility allowed him to become regarded as one of the Four Masters of the Ming Dynasty with Shen Zhou, Wen Zhengming, and Tang Yin. White Spring Vine School In the mid- to late-Ming, paintings of birds and flowers in the xieyi style rose vigorously; Chen Chun of the mid-Ming and Xu Wei of the late-Ming both pushed xieyi birds and flower painting to new heights - referred to as ¡°White Spring Vine.¡± Their paintings left significant impact on xieyi birds and flower painting in the Ming and Qing periods. Chen Chun was skilled in poetry, writing, calligraphy and painting, and he was an acclaimed scholar of the Wumen school. His xieyi birds and flowers are delicately composed and refined, portraying common vegetation in the gardens of the literati. The realm achieved was peaceful and tranquil with freestyle brushwork, which was widely appreciated. Succeeding Chen Chun, Xu Wei fundamentally transformed birds and flower painting in the xieyi style. Xu Wei elevated Chinese xieyi birds and flower painting to a realm of adequately expressing powerful inner feelings and bringing the expression of freestyle ink painting to an unprecedented level, thus marking a milestone for the development of Chinese xieyi birds and flower paintings. Shi Da Fu (Court Officials) Shi Da Fu (or in English, ¡°Court Officials¡±) refers to, in general, the literati and intellectuals who served in the bureaucratic system in ancient China. ¡°Shi¡±, as a social level, appeared early. It included all talented people from folk society, who were usually born into poor family or declining aristocrat, and who had to attach themselves to and serve some rich peers by their talent. This was a group of elites and the Imperial Examination was its basis. Shi Da Fu could be an important role in national or imperial politics, on the other hand, they were also the main creators and inheritors of Chinese culture and art. Shi Da Fu, as a whole, was a representative phenomenon in Chinese civilization. Chen Hongshou (1599~1652, or 1598~1652) Born in Zhuji county in Zhejiang province, Chen Hongshou was a painter in Ming dynasty. He was excelled at calligraphy and painting (including landscape, flowers and figure), especially at figure painting. He was a student of Lan Ying, and was hold in high esteem for his painting techniques and thoughts. His figures often showed an exaggerated and even strange style which regarded as being ancient. As famous as another painter Cui Zizhong, they were together called ¡°South Chen North Cui¡±. Xixiang Ji (Romance of the West Chamber) Xixiang Ji, or in English Romance of the West Chamber (sometimes it¡¯s translated as Story of the Western Wing) is one of the most famous Chinese dramatic works. It was written by the Yuan Dynasty playwright Wang Shifu (ÍõÊµ¸¦), and set during the Tang Dynasty. It is a story of young lovers consummating their love without parental approval, and has been called "China's most popular love comedy" and a "lover's bible". At the same time, some have called it potentially dangerous, as there are stories of readers pining away under its influence. The story of Romance of the West Chamber was first told in a literary Chinese short story written by Yuan Zhen during the Tang Dynasty. This version was called The Story of Yingying, or Yingying's Biography. This version differs from the later play in that Zhang Sheng ultimately breaks from Yingying, and does not ask for her hand in marriage. Despite the unhappy ending, the story was popular with later writers, and recitative works based on it began accumulating in the centuries that followed. Perhaps bowing to popular sentiment, the ending gradually changed to the happy one seen in the play. The examples of the modified version include a drum song by Zhao Lingshi in Song dynasty, an oral performance by Dong Jieyuan of the Jin Dynasty, the Wang Shifu¡¯s drama in Yuan dynasty, Li Rihua and Lu Cai¡¯s in Ming dynasty, and Zhou Gonglu¡¯s version, etc. Wang Shifu's play was closely modeled on this performance and was the most successful one, in which his poem ¡°With clouds the sky turns grey; Yellow blooms pave the way. How bitter blows the western breeze! From north to south fly the wild geese.¡± was remembered and sung by generations after generations. Wang Yangming (1472~1529) Wang Yangming, also known as Wang Shouren, was a Ming Chinese idealist Neo-Confucian philosopher, official, educationist, calligraphist and general. After Zhu Xi, he is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker, with interpretations of Confucianism that denied the rationalist dualism of the orthodox philosophy of Zhu Xi. Wang Yangming¡¯s theory include ¡°The controlling power of the body is the mind. The mind originates the idea, and the nature of the idea is knowledge. Wherever the idea is, we have a thing. There are no principles but those of the mind, and nothing exists apart from the mind.¡± and ¡°Knowledge implies practice, which will lead to good knowledge.¡± Wang Yangming had many followers, and people called his theory ¡°Wang Knowledge¡±. Matteo Ricci (1552~1610) Matteo Ricci, Chinese nam
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2073	dbpedia	1	7	https://ink-and-brush.com/mi-fu/	en	Mi Fu – Eccentric Encyclopaedia of Calligraphy	https://ink-and-brush.co…ed-2-1-32x32.png	https://ink-and-brush.co…ed-2-1-32x32.png	[ "https://ink-and-brush.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/cropped-Ink-Brush-logo.png", "https://ink-and-brush.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/cropped-Ink-Brush-logo.png", "https://ink-and-brush.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Spring-Mountains-and-Auspicious-Pines-726x1024.jpg", "https://ink-and-brush.com/wp-content...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Kain Jagger" ]	2023-10-01T15:08:05+00:00	Mi Fu (1051 – 1107 AD) was one of the four greatest Song dynasty calligraphers. He was also an accomplished artist and writer of art theory. His influence...	en	https://ink-and-brush.co…ed-2-1-32x32.png	Ink & Brush -	https://ink-and-brush.com/mi-fu/	Mi Fu (1051 – 1107 AD) (pronounced ‘me foo’) was one of the most famous eccentrics in Chinese art and calligraphy. (A competitive field…) He was outspoken, opinionated, and critical of many other artists and calligraphers. But he could back up his talk with his talent. Today he is remembered as one of the four great calligraphers of the Song dynasty – a dynasty that was filled with great calligraphers. He was also one of the most skilled and knowledgeable calligraphers ever to have lived. Biography Family background Mi Fu’s family traced their ancestry back five generations to Mi Xin (928 – 994 AD), a founding general of the Song dynasty and commandant of the Palace Guard. This placed his family high up in Song society. They were considered a part of the trusted elite around the dynasty’s Zhao emperors. Mi Fu’s father, Mi Zuo, was a military man, the general of the Left Guard. He was said to have enjoyed calligraphy and conversations with scholars. And his mother, surnamed Yan, was a midwife and wetnurse to the imperial family. The Mi family’s ethnic origins The Mi family were likely originally from the Xi ethnicity, who were themselves originally descended from the Xianbei (Eastern Turks). (This was the same group that the Tang dynasty (618 – 907 AD) emperors were partially descended from). Some scholars believe that the Mi name originates from the ancient Mi kingdom (also known as the Sogdiana kingdom) in Central Asia (today’s Uzbekistan). This heritage went back many generations. But during Mi’s lifetime he was sensitive about the issue, which some of his critics liked to play upon. His more immediate eventually ended up in Taiyuan (in today’s Shanxi Province), which they later considered their ancestral home. Mi Quan’s sacrifice One story has it that a sad story haunted Mi Fu’s ancestors. At one point, the family had settled in a town called Shuozhou (today’s Shuoxian, Shaanxi Province). This area fell under the control of the Song dynasty’s northern rival, the Khitan empire. Mi Quan had successfully undertaken the dangerous crossing to the Song border town of Daizhou. Once there, he waited for the rest of his family to join him Unfortunately, they were caught by border guards. When Mi Quan realised, he faced north and wept, exclaiming: I’ve heard loyalty to one’s ruler and faithfulness to one’s family cannot co-exist. Having decided to sacrifice my body for my country, how can I now attend to my family? This story’s truth is impossible to verify. However, it would likely have served as a useful way to illustrate the Mi family’s loyalty to the Han-ruled Song dynasty. Mi Xin’s crimes After the Song dynasty began, Mi Xin was transferred over to the position of governor of Cangzhou (today’s Hebei Province). He was illiterate and clearly unsuited to civil administration, so his role was given to a younger governor. He even harassed civilians. Finally, when his troops beat a servant to death he was sent to prison, where he died. Early life Mi Fu (米芾 [Mǐ Fú]), courtesy name Yuan Zhang, was born in Xiangyang (today’s Xiangzhou, Hubei Province) in 1051 AD. He was one of only two children (he had a sister). Later on, he would often refer to himself as the ‘Wild Scholar of Xianyang’. At some point, due to his mother’s work, his family seems to have lived in the prince Zhao Shu’s (1032 – 1067 AD) royal residence. This meant that Mi Fu grew up with the elite aristocracy of the Song dynasty. Here he was first exposed to networks of art collectors. This includes his friend, the famous artist and art collector Wang Shen (1048 – ca. 1103 AD). Precocious child Mi Fu did not take the imperial exams that defined the lives of so many educated men throughout Chinese history. However, he grew up in a cultured, learned environment and shared his father’s inclinations in these areas. By the age of six, he was reported to have memorised one hundred poems a day. One of his oldest friends, Cai Zhao (? – 1119 AD), later reflected on Mi Fu as a youth. By the age of six, Cai wrote, Mi Fu memorised one hundred poems a day. (Likely an exaggeration!). He added: He was extremely knowledgeable and well-read. He worked hard at getting the general idea of something but disliked exam preparation studies. The opinions he expressed were all according to his own ideas. – Cai Zhao, Grave Inscription for Mi Fu (ca. 1107 AD) Mi Fu’s personality Mi Fu’s contemporaries knew him as an eccentric and outspoken advocate of his own strong opinions. He is also said to have been what today we would call ‘a clean freak’ or ‘germaphobe’, or perhaps OCD (“One Clean Dude…”). He obsessively washed himself, including before each time he did calligraphy. And he was a fanatical collector of works of art, calligraphy and even inkstones. His outspokenness and eccentricity are clear in his writings and the apocryphal anecdotes about him. But alongside his idiosyncrasies lied a hardworking and discerning drive. He stood out for his loud voice and choice of clothes: he dressed in the fashion of the Tang dynasty, some three centuries before. 倾邪险怪诡诈不近人情人谓之颠… 元章喜服唐衣冠寛袖博带。人多怪之及洁疾器用不肯执持尝衣冠出谒帽檐髙不可乘肩舆乃彻其盖见者莫不惊笑。所为𩔖多如此。 …[Mi Fu] tended towards the unorthodox and strange. Craft and deceitful, he was detached from the feelings of others… Labelled mad, some objected to his name being in the register of court officials…. Yuanzhang [Mi Fu] liked to dress in the clothing of the Tang dynasty, with wide sleeves and a broad belt. Once, he had dressed up to pay his respects to another official, but the top of his hat was too tall to allow him into the sedan chair. Consequently, it poked through the roof of the chair. All who saw this were overcome with laughter. There are many stories of this kind. – Zeng Minxing, Duxing Zazhi Career 1070 AD: First job: Collator in the Palace Library Mi Fu’s family connections no-doubt helped him secure his first job when he was 18 years old. This was not unusual for the time. Despite their growing importance, the imperial exams were not a requirement for all officials. He did not last long in this position. This has led many to speculate that it may be an early sign of his ability to offend others… 1070 AD: Sheriff at Hanguang Throughout much of Chinese history, government officials being sent far away from the capital was often a sign of displeasure or even punishment. As far as most were concerned, the further south a location was, the more uncomfortable and uncivilised things were. (The tropical climate, with its increased risk of malaria, killed some officials). Hanguang (today’s Yingde Prefecture, Guangdong Province) was approximately 870 miles (1400 KM) from the Song capital in Bianliang (today’s Kaifeng, Henan Province). 1074: Sheriff in Linggui Mi Fu was only briefly in Linggui (today’s Guilin, Guanxi Province). However, here he began a friendship with the local prefect, Guan Ji. Guan showed Mi Fu a traced copy of a work by the famous Tang dynasty calligrapher Yu Shinan (558 – 638 AD). This is a good example of the kind of friendship based on shared connoisseurship that Mi Fu formed throughout his life. The two of them stayed in touch – and sent one another calligraphy pieces – for many years. 1075 AD: Changsha, minor official Aged 23, Mi took a relatively lowly position in Changsha in 1075. This was a large and prosperous city due to its position along China’s trade routes. He was already more interested in using his position to view and collect calligraphy and paintings than carry out official work. He navigated the region via its many canals and rivers. He named his houseboat (with a large sign): The Mi Family Calligraphy and painting Barge. (His first – of twelve – children had been born around this time: Mi Youren (1074 – 1173 AD)). One anecdote from this period illustrates another notable Mi Fu trait – his greedy cunning: 长沙之湘西，有道林、岳麓二寺，名刹也。[….] 米老元章为微官时，游宦过其下，舣舟湘江，就寺主僧借观，一夕张帆携之遁。[….] 官为遣健步追取还，世以为口实也。 In the Xiangxi district of Changsha, there are two famous temples: Daolin and Yuelu…. Old Mi Yuanzhang [Mi Fu] toured this area during this period as he served in minor offices. He would moor his boat along the Xiang River. He approached the head abbot of the [Daolin] temple and requested to borrow a [famous] calligraphy plaque so that he could study it. However, one night Mi Fu set off in his boat still in possession of the plaque. The temple monks urgently made a formal complaint and a courier was sent to retrieve the work. This became the subject of great gossip. – Cai Tao, The Iron-Enclosed Mountain: Collected Writings《铁围山丛谈卷第四》(ca. 1130 AD) 1081 – 1091 AD: Wandering scholar and collector Mi Fu Spend approximately 10 years travelling China between 1081 – 1091. His main goal was to visit private art collections across the empire. (There were no museums). The nature of Mi’s activities during these years mean that his precise movements are difficult to trace. However, some interesting information exists. During this time, his reputation as an expert, connoisseur and great calligrapher grew. So too did his calligraphy collection. We know that he spent a couple of years in Suzhou. Here he grew his collection via elderly brokers of rich families going through economic difficulties. He even secured works by the great Jin dynasty calligraphers Wang Xizhi (303 – 361 AD) and his son Wang Xianzhi (344 – 386 AD). The most significant of these was Twelth Night. He also befriended many well-known literary and political figures across the empire. This included two who can both be considered a mix of these two categories: Wang Anshi (1021 – 1086 AD) and Su Shi (1137 – 1101 AD). And he completed a book, Catalogue of Precious Calligraphy Specimens Visited (1088). 1092 AD: Magistrate at Yongqiu Mi Fu resumed his career as an official in the summer of 1092. He appears to have enthusiastically taken part in his role. His letters from the time show him concerned and busy with the work. However, within a couple of years, he seems to was having problems. He was investigated (and cleared) for improper handling of tax money and requested leave from his role on health grounds. He was transferred to superintendent of Zhongyue Temple on Mount Song, Henan Province. This role required little responsibility and official duties. 1100 AD: Huizong is crowned At the turn of the century, the young emperor Huizong (r. 1100 – 1126 AD). At this point (between 1099 – 1101 AD), Mi Fu had been working on the state waterways around Lake Tai (in Jiangsu Province). Amusingly, when he wrote to friends asking them to recommend him for office under Huizong, he suggested the wording, too: [Mi Fu] relies on his own talents and has nothing to do with factions. He is old now and hampered by his qualifications. If it were his misfortune to die one day without having had the opportunity to enrich His Majesty’s enterprise and thus embellish His Majesty’s magnanimity, this official would consider it a pity. – Quoted from Emperor Huizong by Patricia Buckley Ebrey (London: Harvard University Press, 2014), p. 204 At this time, Huizong’s chief minister Cai Jing (1047 – 1126 AD) is said to have remarked: 芾人品诚高，所谓不可无一，不可有二者也。 Mi Fu is the kind of person we must have one of, but cannot afford to have two of! – He Yuan, Chuju Zhiwen 春渚纪闻 Gaining an inkstone from the emperor One anecdote has it that his obsession with collecting inkstones led him to gaining a rare inkstone from the Huizong Emperor (1082 – 1135 AD) (a famously fanatical fan of art and art collecting). After viewing the inkstone, Mi Fu told the emperor that ‘after a lowly commoner such as myself has touched it, it’s no longer fit for your majesty.’ 上大笑，因以赐之。芾蹈舞以谢，即抱负趋出，馀墨霑渍袍袖，而喜见颜色。上顾蔡京曰：“颠名不虚得也。” The emperor laughed loudly and gave it to Mi Fu as a gift. Fu danced a jig of thanks, clasping the inkstone as he hurried out. The remaining ink spilled onto his clothes, soiling his robe and sleeve, yet there was only a look of utter glee on his face. The emperor looked at [Cai] Jing and said, “This reputation of being mad is not empty at all.” – Ibid. 1107: Passes away Mi Fu did not last long working under the emperor. Details about exactly why this is aren’t clear. Either way, he was demoted and sent to a post in Jiangsu, where he died in 1107 AD. In 2005, his grave was discovered in Qingyuan, Guangzhou Province. Clues to its whereabouts were found by a scholar looking through Qingyuan’s historical records. Mi Fu’s calligraphy 金井寒生一水池，读书窗纸照萤飞。悲欢穷泰寻常共，掷破还须匣取归。 Lonely waters [ink] appear within the golden well [inkstone], Dragonflies glimmer by the paper window where I read. Together we have shared sadness, joy, poverty, and wealth, And when we are finally worn down, we’ll return via our boxes [like used inkstones put back in their boxes]. – ‘Inkstone’ by Mi Fu Influences Early in life, Mi Fu primarily studied the calligraphy of the two main famous eras for it: the Jin (266 – 420 AD) and Tang (618 – 907 AD) dynasties. And in his Autobiographical Essay, he mentions studying and imitating the works of Tang dynasty masters, including Ouyang Xun (557 – 641 AD), Chu Suiliang (597 – 658 AD) and Liu Gongquan (778 – 865 AD). Later on, Mi Fu’s good friend and general Song dynasty ‘renaissance man’ Su Shi (1037 – 1101 AD) encouraged him to study the words of the ‘two Wangs’. These are the most admired calligrapher in Chinese history Wang Xizhi (303 AD – 361 AD) and his son, innovative regular and cursive script master Wang Xianzhi (344 – 386 AD). Later on, he would try to stylistically escape or surpass their influence. Some critics believe that in his later career he achieved this. Mi Fu’s Calligraphic Style Mi is most famous for his running script calligraphy (the semi-cursive version of standard script). His style shows clear influence of the famous Tang dynasty running script master Yan Zhenqing (709 – 785 AD) and one of the four masters of regular script Ouyang Xun (557 – 641 AD). His fluent strokes vary between thick and thin and occasionally feature abrupt, sharp turns of the brush. Overall, his characters vigorous and free-flowing. The spaces within and between them are even, despite the swiftness apparent in their strokes. Perhaps Mi Fu’s most famous remarks on calligraphy come from an idiom he coined: 无垂不缩，无往不收 [wú chuí bù suō, wú wǎng bù shōu] Each vertical stroke should end with a contraction, each horizontal one by turning back on itself – Mi Fu This quote emphasises the physical nature of calligraphy. It’s no coincidence that Mi Fu was also deeply interested in martial arts. His friend, Su Shi, described Mi Fu’s style as ‘battleships in full sail, or war-horses charging into the enemy’s positions.’ One of the four great calligraphers of the Song dynasty Mi Fu has long been considered one of the four great calligraphers of the Song dynasty. The other three are: Cai Xiang (1012 – 1067): a famous reformist politician and influential calligraphy innovator Su Shi (1037 – 1101): Mi Fu’s friend and one of the most famous intellectuals and artists in Chinese history Huang Tingjian (1045 – 1105): the cursive script master with calligraphy that looked like ‘ripples on water’. All four figures lived during the Northern Song period, which was later cherished as the Song dynasty’s cultural and political golden age. Shuazi Mi Fu was inspired by the calligrapher Duan Jizhan to adopt a calligraphic method termed shuazi (which can be roughly translated as ‘coating’ or ‘whitewashing’). It involves calligraphers apply ink to paper or silk in the same manner they would on a wall. The idea is to maintain a steady rhythm that applies the right amount of ink evenly. (Mi Fu liked to write on walls after drinking, and even apologised to friends for doing so at times!). Mi Fu’s artistic philosophy Mi Fu practiced calligraphy very diligently each day. In doing so, he believed he was emulating the ancients. But at the same time, he also liked to emphasise how he treated calligraphy as ‘just a game’. 何必识难字，辛苦笑扬雄。自古为字人，用字或不通。要之皆一戏，不当问拙工。意足我自足，放笔一戏空。 Is it really necessary to recognise difficult characters? We laugh at the lengths Yang Xiong went to. Since ancient times, calligraphers Have not known [all] characters correctly. It’s all just a game. One shouldn’t question clumsiness or skill. If my mind is satisfied, then I am satisfied. When I put down the brush, the game is over. – ‘Reply To Shaopeng’s Remarks on Being Unable to Read Difficult Characters’, Mi Fu The Song dynasty was a period when the concept of scholar-artists developed greatly. These were usually officials, or at least independent and educated individuals who expressed themselves with calligraphy, painting, and poetry. They saw themselves as different to the more technically proficient artists hired by the government to work on realistic, official paintings and murals. Unlike this group, who worked for money, scholar-artists saw their work as a reflection of their inner cultivation of Daoist, Confucian, and Buddhist principles. The reality wasn’t always so clear cut. But intellectuals such as Mi Fu, Su Shi, and others, often thought and wrote about art theory in these terms. They also emphasised the individual nature of art. Each artist must pursue their own path, wherever it may lead. Unlike professional artists, commissioned to represent others’ orders, the scholar-artist has to find his own vision. A good example of this ethos can even be seen in how Mi Fu wrote about his beloved inkstones. He often painted scenes of hilly landscapes in mist or just before rain. When doing this, Mi declared that an exact model was not needed. Generally, in painting animals and human figures, one does a sketch and it resembles the object, but in doing landscapes, reproduction will not succeed. In landscapes, the level at which the artist’s mind is satisfied is high. – On Painting, Mi Fu As in calligraphy, Mi felt that it was the artist’s mind and self-expression was more important than technical abilities.
2073	dbpedia	2	51	http://chinaknowledge.org/History/Altera/xiongnu.html	en	Xiongnu åå¥´ (www.chinaknowledge.de)			[ "http://chinaknowledge.org/System/logo.png", "https://www.paypalobjects.com/de_DE/i/scr/pixel.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Ulrich Theobald" ]	null	The Xiongnu åå¥´ were a nomad people living north and northwest of China during the Qin ç§¦ (221-206 BC) and Han æ¼¢ (206 BCE-220 CE) periods.		../../System/ding.ico		null	Dec 15, 2012 © Ulrich Theobald The Xiongnu åå¥´ were a nomad people living north and northwest of China during the Qin ç§¦ (221-206 BC) and Han æ¼¢ (206 BCE-220 CE) periods. They founded a mighty federation of tribes living in the steppe and continuously endangered the border regions of Han China and the city states of the Silk Road. Emperor Wu æ¼¢æ¦å¸ (r. 141-87 BCE) was able to destroy the first Xiongnu empire, so that Chinese troops were able to occupy the Western Territories. Yet in times of Chinese weakness, the Xiongnu rose again. From the 2nd century CE on more and more Xiongnu families migrated eastwards onto Chinese territory and settled down in the modern provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi and Shanxi. Some tribesleaders claiming origin from the Xiongnu founded small empires in northern China during the period of the Sixteen Barbarian kingdoms åå å (300~430), especially the Former Zhao åè¶ (304-329), Northern Liang åæ¶¼ (398-439) and Xia å¤ (407-432). Western scholars tried identifying them with the Huns that threatened Europe during the 4th century BCE, but there is no archaeological or historiographical evidence for the Xiongnu's migration to the west. A Central Asian people invading India in the late 5th century was called Huna or "White Huns" (in Greek Hephthalites, see Yeda åå ). Although there might be similarities in the name of these peoples, it must be considered that the name of a mighty nomad tribe (Mongols, Tartars) was often used for very different ethnic people. Pulleyblank has shown that the language of the Xiongnu - of which a few words and terms are preserved in Chinese literature - was related to the Siberian ethnics (Samoyeds, Kets) in the River Yennisej area, and not to the Mongols or TÃ¼rks, while the Hun hords of Attila that tried to conquer Europe were surely Proto-TÃ¼rks. The native name of the Xiongnu might have been Hungnor or Hunoch, a word that Chinese could neither pronounce nor write and hence created the translitertaion Hungnu (modern pronunciation [ÉiÊÅ nu]). The syllable "hu" like in Hu è¡ is often used for barbarian, i.e. non-Chinese peoples. The term Hu appears in texts from the Warring States period æ°å (5th cent.-221 BCE), but some Chinese scholars think that the Xianyun çç (Quanrong ç¬æ, see Rong æ) or Xunzhou è°ç²¥ from the Western Zhou period è¥¿å¨ (11th cent.-770 BCE) were probably ancestors of the Xiongnu. Life of the Xiongnu The nomad tribes of the Xiongnu developed their power at the end of the Warring States period when the Chinese states were occupied by intensive wars against each other. During the following Qin dynasty ç§¦ they still not seem to represent a danger for Chinese soil and people. Only at the begin of the 2nd century BC, when a chieftain named Mo-du åé (not: Maodun!; his original name might have been Bordur) made himself ruler (chanyu å®äº, not danyu! [old: shanyu] a term similar to the TÃ¼rk-Mongol "khan") over the Xiongnu tribes. The territory that was inhabited or roamed by the Xiongnu tribes stretched from the Ili Basin in the far west of modern China to the pastures of modern Mongolia. When the Xiongnu subjugated neighbouring tribes, these were incorporated into the Xiongnu federation and took over the name of the Xiongnu although they might be of a very different ethnic. This custom was followed by all subsequent mighty steppe peoples that should dominate the Mongolian grasslands. History of the Xiongnu The contacts, diplomatical and economical, between the Chinese peasant culture and the nomad culture of the steppe people was very intensive - using the border markets (guanshi éå¸) -, and Chinese historians are therefore much better informed about the Xiongnu than the western antique writers about the Skythians and Huns, altough we find "barbarian" princes and members of a nobility visiting the "capital of culture" (Rome, Chang'an) - sometimes as hosts - in both spheres of the Eurasian continent. The economy of the Xiongnu was characterized by cattle breeding, especially horses that were used as war horses, transport medium and as a commercial item. They lived in large round tents (qionglu ç©¹å»¬; also known as yurt or kibitka), their main food was meat, and their wine brewed of horse milk was famous. Later, the Xiongnu aristocracy lived in small palaces, and their villages were protected by walls. Archaeologists have discovered many bronze and also iron tools, partially for military use, but also many items for daily use. The art of the Xiongnu is very different from Chinese art, although we also find Chinese objects among the tomb accessories of the Xiongnu nobility. The entourage of the Shanyu consisted of officials of several degrees that were only partially copied from the Chinese central government system. Under the Qin dynasty when general Meng Tian èæ¬ conquered some territories north of the Ordos river bend of the Yellow River and installed Jiuyuan ä¹å commandery, the new settlers of this region (most of them were resettled there by imperial command) had to be protected from the Xiongnu raids and plundering campaigns by fortified walls (later known as the "Great Wall" é·å). After the downfall of Qin and the subsequent turbulent years of fight for the imperial power the Xiongnu advanced to each direction, subjugated their neighbours like the Yuezhi ææ° and Dingling ä¸é¶ and invaded the region of modern Shaanxi, Shanxi and Hebei provinces. The efforts of emperor Han Gaozu æ¼¢é«ç¥ (r. 206/02-195 BC), founder of the Han dynasty, to repell the Xiongnu were without positive results and lead to a policy of "peacful approachment" (heqin åè¦ª) that was in fact nothing else than the delivery of tributes by the Chinese to appease the "plundering instinct" of the nomads. The provision of silk and other items of a highly sophisticated culture eventually contributed to the "degeneration" of the barbarian character of the Xiongnu. Many Chinese (alleged) princesses were given to the Xiongnu rulers. For the next few decades, the Xiongnu were able to expand their territory into modern Xinjiang and thereby controlled the region of the later silkroad. But during the same time, the power of the Han dynasty stabilized, and the two realms of Xiongnu and China became rivals. Under the great martial emperor Han Wudi æ¼¢æ¦å¸ (141-87 BC) the Chinese generals Wei Qing è¡é and Huo Qubing éå»ç conquered the region of modern Gansu and opened the way to Inner Asia. In 60 BC the Protectorate of the Western Regions (Xiyu duhufu è¥¿åé½è·åº) was established, and the Chinese became masters of the trade routes to the west. Three years later the Xiongnu divided into a western and an eastern branch, the eastern ruler Hu-han-ye å¼ééª surrendered to the Chinese in 51 BC, he was rewarded with a Chinese princess named Wang Zhaojun çæå sent to his court, a famous story often retold and arranged like in the Yuan period å (1279-1368) theatre play Hangongqiu æ¼¢å®®ç§ "Autumn in the Han Palace". At the beginning of the Later Han period å¾æ¼¢ (25-220 CE) the Xiongnu split up into the southern tribes and the northern tribes (Nan Xiongnu ååå¥´, Bei Xiongnu ååå¥´). While the northern part of the Xiongnu federation roamed the grasslands north of the fortification walls, the southern Xiongnu became sedentate and settled down in the area of modern Shaanxi and Shanxi provinces, side by side with Chinese inhabitants. Cao Cao æ¹æ, the potentate at the end of Han, forced a planful separation of the Xiongnu aristocracy from the Xiongnu people and thereby lead to the disappearing of the Xiongnu as part of the population of northern China. When the Jin dynasty æ (265-420) suffered under the power struggles of the various princes, the Xiongnu Liu Yao åæ (who was allowed to adopt the surname of the Han dynasty rulers, Liu, as his own) founded the Former Zhao åè¶ (304-329) empire, at the end of the 4th century the Xiongnu Helian Bobo èµ«é£åå founded the Xia dynasty å¤ (407-431), both dynasties belonging to the Sixteen Barbarian States äºè¡åå å (300~430) controlling north China during the 4th and early 5th centuries. The northern Xiongnu tribes were defeated in 89 AD by the Han generals Dou Xian ç«æ² and Geng Bing è¿ç§, and from then onward, the Xiongnu ceased to represent a military challenge for the Chinese empire. Some older western scholars believed the remaining Xiongnu migrated to the west and reappeared in Eastern Europe as the Huns in the 4th century. From the 3rd century on the Mongolian grassland was occupied by a new challenging nomad people federation - the Xianbei é®®å. Table 1. "Khans" (chanyu å®äº or xian chanyu è³¢å®äº) of the Xiongnu, Luanti Family æ£é®æ° é æ¼ Tou-man (?-209 BCE) åé Mo-du (sic!) (209-174) èä¸è³¢å®äº Lao-shang Khan (174-161) è»è£è³¢å®äº Jun-chen Khan, oldest son of Lao-shang (161-126) ä¼ç¨æè³¢å®äº Yi-zhi-xie Khan, second son of Lao-shang (126-114) çç¶è³¢å®äº Wu-wei Khan, oldest son of Yi-zhi-xie (114-105) å å®äº Er Khan, personal name Wu-shi-lu çå¸«å»¬, oldest son of Wu-wei (105-102) å´çæ¹è³¢å®äº Hou-li-hu Khan, second son of Yi-zhi-xie (102-101) ä¸é®ä¾¯è³¢å®äº Qie-di-hou Khan, youngest son of Yi-zhi-xie (101-96) çé¹¿å§è³¢å®äº Hu-lu-gu Khan, son of Qie-di-hou (96-85) å£ºè¡é®è³¢å®äº Hu-yan-di Khan, oldest son of Hu-lu-gu (85-68) èéæ¬æ¸ è³¢å®äº Xu-lÃ¼-quan-qu Khan, second son of Hu-lu-gu (68-60) æ¡è¡æé®è³¢å®äº Wo-yan-qu-di Khan, personal name Tu-xi-tang å± èå , descendant of Wu-wei (60-58) å¼ééªå®äº Hu-han-ye Khan, personal name Ji-hou-shan ç¨½ä¾¯ç¦, second son of Xu-lÃ¼-quan-qu concurrent proclamation of Run-zhen Khan éæ¯å®äº (60), Tu-xi Khan å± èå®äº (58-56) Che-li Khan è»çå®äº (57), Wu-ji Khan çç±å®äº (57), Hu-jie Khan å¼æå®äº (57), Zhi-zhi-gu-du-hou Khan é æ¯éª¨é½ä¾¯å®äº (56-36, personal name Hu-tu-wu-si å¼å± å¾æ¯) (58-31) å¾©ç çµ«è¥é®å®äº Fu-zhu-lei-ruo-di Khan, personal name Diao-tao-mo-gao éé¶è«ç, oldest son of Hu-han-ye (31-20) æè«§è¥é®å®äº Sou-xie-ruo-di Khan, personal name Qie-mi-xu ä¸éºè¥, second son of Hu-han-ye (20-12) è»çè¥é®å®äº Che-ya-ruo-di Khan, personal name Qie-mo-che ä¸è«è», third son of Hu-han-ye (12-8 BCE) çç çè¥é®å®äº Wu-zhu-liu-ruo-di Khan, personal name Nang-zhi-ya-si åç¥çæ¯, fourth son of Hu-han-ye, and ancestor of the Southern Xiongnu ååå¥´ (8 BCE-13 CE) çç´¯è¥é®å®äº Wu-lei-ruo-di Khan, personal name Xian å¸, fifth son of Hu-han-ye (13-18 CE) å¼é½èå±éè¯è¥é®å®äº Hu-du-er-shi-dao-hao-ruo-di Khan, personal name Yu è¼¿, sixth son of Hu-han-ye (18-46) çéé®ä¾¯å®äº Wu-da-di-hou Khan, son of Hu-du-er-shi-dao-hao-ruo-di (46) è²å¥´å®äº Pu-nu Khan, youngest son of Hu-han-ye, and founder of the Northern Xiongnu ååå¥´ (48-?) Table 2. "Khans" of the Northern Xiongnu ååå¥´ è²å¥´å®äº Pu-nu Khan, youngest son of Hu-han-ye å¼ééª (48-? CE) åªçå®äº You-liu Khan, oldest son of Pu-nu (?-87) åå®äº The Northern Khan, personal name and title unknown, second son of Pu-nu (88-91) æ¼é¤é¬å®äº Yu-chu-jian Khan, youngest son of Pu-nu (91-93) é¢ä¾¯å®äº Feng-hou Khan, son of the southern khan Xiu-lan-shi-zhu-hou-ti ä¼èå°¸éä¾¯é® (94-118) Table 3. "Khans" of the Southern Xiongnu ååå¥´ ä¤(é¯)è½å°¸éé®å®äº Xi-luo-shi-zhu-di Khan (å¼ééªå®äº Hu-han-ye Khan II), personal name Su-tu-hu èå± è¡ or Bi æ¯, oldest son of Wu-zhu-liu-ruo-di çç çè¥é® Usurper Yu-ti èé¬, the Left Wise King å·¦è³¢ç (50) (48-56 CE) ä¸æµ®å°¤é®å®äº Qiu-fu-you-ti Khan, personal name Mo è«, second son of Wu-zhu-liu-ruo-di (56-57) ä¼ä¼æ¼æ ®é®å®äº Yi-fa-yu-lÃ¼-di Khan, personal name Han æ±, youngest son of Wu-zhu-liu-ruo-di (57-59) ä¤(é¯)å®å°¸éä¾¯é®å®äº Xi-tong-shi-zhu-hou-di Khan, personal name Shi é©, oldest son of Xi-luo-shi-zhu-ti (60-63) ä¸é¤è»æé®å®äº Qiu-chu-che-lin-di Khan, son of Qiu-fu-you-ti (63) è¡éªå°¸éä¾¯é®å®äº Hu-ye-shi-zhu-hou-di Khan, personal name Chang é·, second son of Xi-luo-shi-zhu-ti (63-85) ä¼å± æ¼éé®å®äº Yi-tu-yu-lÃ¼-di Khan, personal name Xuan å®£, oldest son of Yi-fa-yu-lÃ¼-ti (85-88) ä¼èå°¸éä¾¯é®å®äº Xiu-lan-shi-zhu-hou-di Khan, personal name Dun-tu-he å±¯å± ä½, youngest son of Xi-luo-shi-zhu-ti (88-93) å®åå®äº Anguo Khan, oldest son of Yi-fa-yu-lÃ¼-ti (93-94) äºç¨å°¸éä¾¯é®å®äº Ting-du-shi-zhu-hou-di Khan, personal name Shizi å¸«å, son of Xi-tong-shi-zhu-hou-di (94-98) è¬æ°å°¸éé®å®äº Wan-shi-shi-zhu-di Khan, personal name Tan æª, oldest son of Hu-ye-shi-zhu-hou-di (98-124) çç¨½ä¾¯å°¸éé®å®äº Wu-ji-hou-shi-zhu-di Khan, personal name Ba æ, second son of Hu-ye-shi-zhu-hou-di (124-128) å»ç¹è¥å°¸éå°±å®äº Qu-te-ruo-shi-zhu-jiu Khan, personal name Xiu-li ä¼å©, youngest son of Hu-ye-shi-zhu-hou-di (128-140) è»ç´å®äº Che-niu Khan, son of the former (140-143) å¼èè¥å°¸éå°±å®äº Hu-lan-ruo-shi-zhu-jiu Khan, personal name Dou-lou-chu å æ¨å², son of the former (143-147) ä¼éµå°¸éå°±å®äº Yi-ling-shi-zhu-jiu Khan, personal name Ju-che-er å± è»å , son of the former (147-172) å± ç¹è¥å°¸éå°±å®äº Tu-te-ruo-shi-zhu-jiu Khan, son of the former (172-178) å¼å¾µå®äº Hu-zhi Khan, son of the former (178-179) ç¾æ¸ å®äº Qiang-qu Khan, son of the former (179-183) æè³å°¸éä¾¯å®äº Te-zhi-shi-zhu-hou Khan, personal name Fu-yu-luo æ¼å¤«ç¾ (or æ¼æ¶ç¾ ), oldest son of Qiang-qu usurper Xu-bu-gu Khan é åéª¨é½ä¾¯ (188-189) (188-195) å¼å»æ³å®äº Hu-chu-quan Khan, youngest son of Qiang-qu (195-216) Liu Bao åè±¹, son of Te-zhi-shi-zhu-hou () Liu Yuan åæ·µ, courtesy name Yuanhai å æµ·, son of Liu Bao, and founder of the Former Zhao åè¶ or Han-Zhao æ¼¢è¶ (304-329) (304-309) Sources: Cai Ling è¡ç² (1998). "Xiongnu åå¥´", in Zhang Dainian å¼µå²±å¹´, ed. Zhongguo wenshi baike ä¸åæå²ç¾ç§ (Hangzhou: Zhejiang renmin chubanshe), Vol. 1, 54. Cui Xiangdong å´åæ± (2000). "Xiongnu åå¥´", in Zhonghua Qin wenhua cidian bianweihui ãä¸è¯ç§¦æåè¾å ¸ãç·¨å§æ, ed. Zhonghua Qin wenhua cidian ä¸è¯ç§¦æåè¾å ¸ (Xi'an: Xibei daxue chubanshe), 518. Gao Wende é«æå¾·, ed. (1995). Zhongguo shaoshu minzu shi da cidian ä¸åå°æ¸æ°æå²å¤§è¾å ¸ (Changchun: Jilin jiaoyu chubanshe), 531, 855, 1590. Lin Gan æå¹¹ (1986). "Xiongnu åå¥´", in Zhongguo da baike quanshu ä¸åå¤§ç¾ç§å ¨æ¸, Minzu æ°æ (Beijing/Shanghai: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe), 481. MarÃ³ti, ZoltÃ¡n et al. (2022)Â "The Genetic Origin of Huns, Avars, and Conquering Hungarians", Current Biology, 32 (13): 2858â2870. Shaanxi baike quanshu bianweihui ãéè¥¿ç¾ç§å ¨æ¸ãç·¨å§æ, ed. (1992). Shaanxi baike quanshu éè¥¿ç¾ç§å ¨æ¸ (Xi'an: Shaanxi renmin jiaoyu chubanshe), 331. Xinjiang baike quanshu bianzuan weiyuanhui ãæ°çç¾ç§å ¨æ¸ãç·¨çºå§å¡æ, ed. (2002). Xinjiang baike quanshu æ°çç¾ç§å ¨æ¸ (Beijing/Shanghai: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe), 53. Yu Taishan ä½å¤ªå±± (1992). "Xiongnu åå¥´", in Zhongguo da baike quanshu ä¸åå¤§ç¾ç§å ¨æ¸, Zhongguo lishi ä¸åæ·å² (Beijing/Shanghai: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe), Vol. 3, 1332-1334. Yang Qingzhen æ¥æ ¶é® (1993). "Xiongnu åå¥´", in Shi Quanchang ç³æ³é·, ed. Zhonghua baike yaolan ä¸è¯ç¾ç§è¦è¦½ (Shenyang: Liaoning renmin chubanshe), 42. Yuan Mingren è¢æä» et al., ed. (1992). Sanqin lishi wenhua cidian ä¸ç§¦æ·å²æåè¾å ¸ (Xi'an: Shaanxi renmin jiaoyu chubanshe), 393, 408. Zhou Weizhou å¨åæ´², Ding Jingtai ä¸æ¯æ³°, ed. (2006). Sichou zhi lu da cidian çµ²ç¶¢ä¹è·¯å¤§è¾å ¸ (Xi'an: Shaanxi renmin chubanshe), 125, 358. Further reading: Xiongnu Pulleyblank, E. G. (1962). "The Consonantal System of Old Chinese", Asia Maior, IX: 58-144; 206-265. [Appendix: "The Hsiung-nu Language", 329-265.
2073	dbpedia	0	88	https://search.proquest.com/openview/b97c5c41ac5829202fb81107da58e428/1%3Fpq-origsite%3Dgscholar%26cbl%3D18750	en	“40 Views of the Yuanming yuan”: Image and Ideology in a Qianlong Imperial Album of Poetry and Paintings	https://search.proquest.…roQuest_logo.gif	https://search.proquest.…roQuest_logo.gif	[ "https://search.proquest.com/assets/ctx/51be0a5b/images/icons/blank.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Explore millions of resources from scholarly journals, books, newspapers, videos and more, on the ProQuest Platform.	en	/apple-icon-57x57.png		null	Database copyright ProQuest LLC; ProQuest does not claim copyright in the individual underlying works. Your library or institution may also provide you access to related full text documents in ProQuest.
2073	dbpedia	3	6	https://www.mutualart.com/Artist/Mi-Fu/886601ACB0180A33/Biography	en	Biography	https://media.mutualart.…c83d6b7_570.Jpeg	https://media.mutualart.…c83d6b7_570.Jpeg	[ "https://static.mutualart.com/img/logo-white-24.svg", "https://static.mutualart.com/img/logo-white-24.svg", "https://media.mutualart.com/ExternalImages/Rewards/ICON-%20REWARDS-24.png", "https://media.mutualart.com/Images/2024_07/22/14/145434722/40f9af13-df2a-4cc4-9bfa-4f1c68157911_160.Jpeg", "https://media....	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Mi Fu" ]	null	Learn more about Mi Fu (Chinese, 1051 - 1107). Read the artist bio and gain a deeper understanding with MutualArt's artist profile.	en	https://static.mutualart…e-touch-icon.png		https://www.mutualart.com/Artist/Mi-Fu/886601ACB0180A33/Biography	Cookie Consent We use cookies to enhance your browsing experience, serve personalized ads or content, and analyse our traffic. You can change your cookies' preferences any time. To learn more, check our Cookie Policy
2073	dbpedia	3	24	https://www.flickr.com/photos/32357038%40N08/13589510115	en	Mi Fu (1051-1107) - 1100c. Mountains and Pines in Spring (National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan)	https://live.staticflick…1d8f7a262e_b.jpg	https://live.staticflick…1d8f7a262e_b.jpg	[ "https://live.staticflickr.com/3676/13589510115_1d8f7a262e.jpg", "https://live.staticflickr.com/3676/13589510115_1d8f7a262e.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "mountains", "ink", "paper", "landscape", "traditional", "chinese", "painter", "1100", "12thcentury", "1100s", "mifu", "publiccollection", "mountainsandpinesinspring" ]	null	[ "Flickr", "Milton Sonn" ]	2024-08-27T05:37:21.465000+00:00	Indian ink and color on paper; 35 x 44.1 cm. Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051–1107)[1] was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry followed the style of Li Bai and his calligraphy that of Wang Xizhi. His uninhibited style made him disliked at the Song court. He is best known for his calligraphy, and he was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. His style arises from that of calligraphers in earlier dynasties, but with a unique mark of his own. As a personality Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric. At times they even deemed him "Madman Mi" because he was obsessed with collecting stones and even declared one stone to be his brother. Hence he would bow to his "brother" rock in a display of the filial devotion given to older brothers. He also was known as a heavy drinker. His son, Mi Youren, would also be a famous painter in his father's artistic style. Unlike his father Mi Youren lived to be quite elderly, dying at the age of 79. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu" rel="noreferrer nofollow">en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu</a>	en	https://combo.staticflickr.com/pw/favicon.ico	Flickr	https://www.flickr.com/photos/32357038@N08/13589510115	Indian ink and color on paper; 35 x 44.1 cm. Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051–1107)[1] was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry followed the style of Li Bai and his calligraphy that of Wang Xizhi. His uninhibited style made him disliked at the Song court. He is best known for his calligraphy, and he was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. His style arises from that of calligraphers in earlier dynasties, but with a unique mark of his own. As a personality Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric. At times they even deemed him "Madman Mi" because he was obsessed with collecting stones and even declared one stone to be his brother. Hence he would bow to his "brother" rock in a display of the filial devotion given to older brothers. He also was known as a heavy drinker. His son, Mi Youren, would also be a famous painter in his father's artistic style. Unlike his father Mi Youren lived to be quite elderly, dying at the age of 79. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu
2073	dbpedia	1	11	http://drawingatduke.blogspot.com/2016/03/mi-fu-my-favorite-calligrapher_3.html	en	DRAWING AT DUKE: Mi Fu, My Favorite Calligrapher	https://3.bp.blogspot.co…%25282%2529.jpeg	https://3.bp.blogspot.co…%25282%2529.jpeg	[ "https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-zE8b-aNrn9Y/VthQnJ1QnJI/AAAAAAAAADE/I_JW_mNJCL0/s400/images%2B%25282%2529.jpeg", "https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Ft_0-D8EV9w/VthOAUOwDKI/AAAAAAAAACE/uW11u5sj3uw/s640/2015063012454140.jpg", "https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-T5_3zJ9qABQ/VthOOs2X4jI/AAAAAAAAACU/uThfLGIw-9w/s400/images.jpeg", "h...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Born in 1501, Mi Fu was an artist in the Northern Song Dynasty. He was listed as one of the "four great calligraphers in Song Dynasty". The...		http://drawingatduke.blogspot.com/favicon.ico		http://drawingatduke.blogspot.com/2016/03/mi-fu-my-favorite-calligrapher_3.html	Born in 1501, Mi Fu was an artist in the Northern Song Dynasty. He was listed as one of the "four great calligraphers in Song Dynasty". The other three in the list being Su Shi, Huang Tingjian, and Cai Xiang. I put family names in front of given names in accordance with Chinese convention. Like most Chinese intellectuals of the day, Mi Fu served in the imperial Song government. However, unlike most of his contemporaries, he did not go through the Imperial Examination (Keju), through which most government officials were selected. Shen Zong, the emperor in Mi Fu's time, appointed him to a secretary because Mi Fu's mother was Shen Zong's wet nurse. Below is a portrait of Mi Fu. Mi Fu had no interest in higher positions in the government and devoted himself fully to the pursuit of art. His style underwent several profound changes and did not completely develop until he was in his fifties. As a child prodigy, Mi Fu displayed a remarkable talent in memorizing and imitating the works of the ancient masters. At first, Mi Fu studied the style of many Tang masters, including Yan Zhenqing, Ouyang Xun and Chu Suiliang. At the age of 31, Mi Fu followed the advice by Su Shi, who was 14 years his elder, to learn from the masters in the Jin Dynasty. Before Mi Fu formed his own calligraphic style, he was often criticized for being too imitative of the ancient masters.His works were even ridiculed as "montages of characters of existent masterpieces". I was drawn to his calligraphy the first time I encountered "Shusu Scroll". "Shusu" was the name of the kind of silk on which Mi Fu recorded eight poems of his own, and hence the name of the piece. He was already in his fifties when creating this masterpiece, and it faithfully reflected his personal style. Just as musicians would , masters of the cursive style often intentionally create tension and resolve it . However, Mi Fu went to extremes in doing so and hence imbued his work with dynamism and power. I selected two characters from the scroll as examples. Some may find his style slightly protruding. Yet others, including me, find it exciting. Silk of the type used in the Shusu scroll is very difficult to write on as it does not readily absorb ink. Few calligraphers dare to write on it, but Mi Fu did. This very quality of the silk gave his calligraphy work even more power by making the contrast between the heavier and lighter strokes more vibrant, the rhythm of his writing more apparent, and his attention to detail more awe-inspiring. Calligrapher Dong Qichang commented that Mi Fu wrote like “a lion fighting against an elephant with all his might” on this scroll. According to Stanley-Baker, "Calligraphy is sheer life experienced through energy in motion that is registered as traces on silk or paper, with time and rhythm in shifting space its main ingredients." Through imitating a master’s work, I believe, one can feel the mental state of the master. After I came to Duke, I rarely have had the chance to practice calligraphy. However, whenever I get a chance to do so, I imitate Mi Fu’s work. Mi Fu’s burst of impulses can often penetrate through the paper and reach my heart. Below is my imitation of one of the poems in Shusu Scroll. Bibliography 1. Ledderose, Lothar, Mi Fu and the classical tradition of Chinese calligraphy, Princeton University Press, 1979. 2. Chang, Leon Long-yien, Four Thousands Years of Chinese Calligraphy, University of Chicago Press, 1990.
2073	dbpedia	1	4	http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/calligraphy-mi-fu.php	en	China Online Museum - Chinese Art Galleries	http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/resources/zhong.png	http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/resources/zhong.png	[ "http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3419/3373271187_6da469e1b5_m.jpg", "http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/classes/components/FlickrLightbox/images/modern/modern_s_b.png?1001071", "http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3653/3374087902_6403e30eaf_m.jpg", "http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/classes/components/FlickrLightbox/i...	[]	[]	[ "Chinese art", "Chinese calligraphy", "calligraphy", "Chinese artist", "Chinese museum", "Chinese gallery", "Chinese artwork", "China", "Song Dynasty", "Mi Fu" ]	null	[]	null	Chinese Song Dynasty calligrapher Mi Fu and his artworks		resources/zhong.png		null	Mi Fu (米芾, 1051–1107) was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan, Shanxi during the Song Dynasty. Because his mother had been the wet nurse of the Emperor Yingzong (reigned 1063 –1067), he was brought up within the imperial precincts, mixing freely with the imperial family. As a young boy, Mi showed precocious talent, particularly in calligraphy. Although he expressed distaste for the formal lessons prescribed for a future official, he displayed a lively intelligence in his quick understanding of learned argument, his aptitude for excitingly original poetry, and his ability in painting and calligraphy. In later life Mi had a checkered official career, with frequent changes of post. He began as a reviser of books in the imperial library and subsequently served in three posts outside the capital of Kaifeng, in Henan Province. In 1103 he was appointed a doctor of philosophy and was briefly military governor of Wuwei in the province of Anhui. He returned to the capital in 1104 to serve as a professor of painting and calligraphy, taking this opportunity to present to the emperor a painting by his son, Mi Youren. He then undertook the position of a secretary to the Board of Rites before setting out on his final appointment as military governor of Huaiyang, in Jiangsu Province, in which post he died at the age of 57. Mi Fu was married and had five sons, of whom only the two eldest survived infancy, and eight daughters.
2073	dbpedia	1	50	https://www.flickr.com/photos/32357038%40N08/13589924493	en	Mi Fu (1051-1107) - 1100c. Poem Written in a Boat on the Wu River (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City)	https://live.staticflick…3f3d5450d8_b.jpg	https://live.staticflick…3f3d5450d8_b.jpg	[ "https://live.staticflickr.com/7375/13589924493_3f3d5450d8.jpg", "https://live.staticflickr.com/7375/13589924493_3f3d5450d8.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "ink", "paper", "traditional", "chinese", "painter", "calligraphy", "scroll", "metropolitanmuseumofart", "1100", "12thcentury", "1100s", "mifu", "poemwrittenonaboatonthewuriver" ]	null	[ "Flickr", "Milton Sonn" ]	2024-08-11T21:47:22.820000+00:00	Handscroll; ink on paper; 31.1 x 556.9 cm. Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051–1107)[1] was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry followed the style of Li Bai and his calligraphy that of Wang Xizhi. His uninhibited style made him disliked at the Song court. He is best known for his calligraphy, and he was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. His style arises from that of calligraphers in earlier dynasties, but with a unique mark of his own. As a personality Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric. At times they even deemed him "Madman Mi" because he was obsessed with collecting stones and even declared one stone to be his brother. Hence he would bow to his "brother" rock in a display of the filial devotion given to older brothers. He also was known as a heavy drinker. His son, Mi Youren, would also be a famous painter in his father's artistic style. Unlike his father Mi Youren lived to be quite elderly, dying at the age of 79. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu" rel="noreferrer nofollow">en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu</a>	en	https://combo.staticflickr.com/pw/favicon.ico	Flickr	https://www.flickr.com/photos/32357038@N08/13589924493	Handscroll; ink on paper; 31.1 x 556.9 cm. Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051–1107)[1] was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry followed the style of Li Bai and his calligraphy that of Wang Xizhi. His uninhibited style made him disliked at the Song court. He is best known for his calligraphy, and he was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. His style arises from that of calligraphers in earlier dynasties, but with a unique mark of his own. As a personality Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric. At times they even deemed him "Madman Mi" because he was obsessed with collecting stones and even declared one stone to be his brother. Hence he would bow to his "brother" rock in a display of the filial devotion given to older brothers. He also was known as a heavy drinker. His son, Mi Youren, would also be a famous painter in his father's artistic style. Unlike his father Mi Youren lived to be quite elderly, dying at the age of 79. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu
2073	dbpedia	2	25	https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/animals-through-chinese-history/animal-to-edible/9E8030BBEA65BF0F26E4B9D9351D386D	en	Animals through Chinese History	https://www.cambridge.or…hare_600x600.jpg	https://www.cambridge.or…hare_600x600.jpg	[ "https://www.cambridge.org/core/cambridge-core/public/images/icn_circle__btn_close_white.svg", "https://www.cambridge.org/core/cambridge-core/public/images/logo_core.png", "https://www.cambridge.org/core/cambridge-core/public/images/logo_core.svg", "https://www.cambridge.org/core/cambridge-core/public/images/...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Roel Sterckx", "University of Cambridge", "Martina Siebert", "Dagmar Schäfer" ]	null	Animals through Chinese History - December 2018	en	/core/cambridge-core/public/images/favicon.ico	Cambridge Core	https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/animals-through-chinese-history/animal-to-edible/9E8030BBEA65BF0F26E4B9D9351D386D	In early China, animals featured as spirit media and as symbols and metaphors in a highly anthropomorphized literary and philosophical tradition. Yet it is their role as victims in sacrificial rituals – blood and meat to be consumed by spirits and ritual participants – that stands out in the sources. Information on animal physiology, ethology, ecology and the daily management of animals (such as feeding, herding, welfare, etc.) is often included in descriptions of their role in ritual sacrifices. While no Warring States or early imperial text deals exclusively with the fate of animals as they transit from stable to sacrificial stand, it is possible to reconstruct parts of this process from various sources. In this chapter I examine the successive stages of transition from animal to victim. Who was in charge of looking after the animals destined for ritual slaughter? How and on what basis were animals identified as suitable victims and set apart from the rest of the herds? Evidence suggests that the early Chinese developed a sophisticated system of animal management, while ritual criteria offered a specific vocabulary for the classification and analysis of animals. The ritual transformation and killing of animals extracted from their natural or domesticated environment has been the subject of an extensive theoretical literature. My analysis does not adhere to any particular theoretical framework. As I have argued elsewhere, cross-cultural theories may not provide the most productive way of understanding the role of (animal) sacrifice in early Chinese religious practice. The semantics of what sacrifice means are best understood from within a particular tradition or society, as they are intimately contingent on the socio-political, economic and physical conditions of communities in a time and place. Disregarding culturally specific vocabulary and context risks resulting in evidence being collated in order to fit a theoretical model, rather than allowing theorizing reflection to shape it from within. Anthropological approaches to sacrifice have largely ignored the wealth of data that can be sourced from Chinese texts and material culture, and historians of religion have mostly limited their analysis to Mediterranean antiquity, or biblical or Vedic traditions. As Fritz Graf reiterates in a recent essay, the era of grand theories of sacrifice may have passed. The influential negative anthropologies of sacrifice proposed by René Girard and Walter Burkert in the 1970s have not led to any new theoretical reflections that command consensus among classicists and historians of religion. Most research today appears to (re)contract upon single regions, cultures or historical periods. This is not to suggest that conceptual similarities in other civilizations cannot, or should not, inspire our reading of Chinese sources. My study of Chinese sacrificial culture has led me to work by two French scholars. The first is Jean-Pierre Vernant (1914–2007) and his collaborators, who obstinately refused to draw on grand theories and emphasized that, for the Greeks, sacrifice in essence meant cuisine and the animal was a medium of communication with the spirit world. Over and above being used to obtain a response from the spirits, it was vital that the victim tasted good in the banquet for the ritual participants that followed the kill. The second is Noëlie Vialles’ study of abattoirs in the Adour region in southwestern France, from which this chapter borrows part of its title. Vialles describes an abattoir as ‘the place that is no-place’ and depicts the step-by-step process by which animals are de-animalized and de-animated into anonymous flesh for consumption . Vialles’ analysis helps us conceive of the ritualization of animals as a metamorphic process that operates at various levels. First, the biological and moral properties of animals are transformed and commodified into a world of carcass and flesh. This process is conducted via rules and rituals mediated by the figure of the butcher or ritual officiant. Like the abattoir suppliers, the sacrificial officiant is engaged in a process of feeding in order to be fed; the priest feeds the gods via ritual mediation, the farmer offers up his livestock via the liminal transit zone that is the slaughterhouse. What passes from meadow to sacrificial altar mirrors the transit from animal to edible. Thus, slaughter entails a process of ‘distancing’ between the point of origin where animals are bred and kept, and the point of consumption – a notion that remains engrained in the political economy of meat consumption today. In all of this the ultimate aim is consumption, whether in the form of clinically butchered and vacuum-packed lamb chops, or as consummate offerings for the spirits. This principle is behind the recurring insistence in early Chinese texts that slaughter without consumption, de-animating without de-animalizing, or killing animals for no reason (wu gu 無故) should be taboo. As the ‘Royal Regulations’ (‘Wang zhi’ 王制) in the Liji 禮記 (Book of Rites) command: ‘Feudal lords do not kill oxen without a reason, grandees do not kill sheep without a reason, a gentleman-knight does not kill dogs and pigs without reason, commoners do not eat exotic products without reason.’ The link between an animal’s edibility and its suitability for sacrifice has been noticed by Western zoologists and agronomists, although their unfamiliarity with the Chinese textual canon has left room for imagination. For instance, in his account of a 1963 tour of China to describe livestock, Hellmut Epstein notes that: While Epstein’s link between dog meat consumption and the ‘sacred’ or ‘profane’ consumption of wolves in ancient China is tenuous – if ‘wolf’ here refers to Canis lupus (lang 狼) – his inference (drawn from Eduard Erkes) that spirits prefer to consume the meats that humans deem edible is in line with technical literature of the period. Dogs were kept as either guard dogs, hunting dogs or food dogs. Dog slaughter scenes are not uncommon in Han murals and dogs (quan 犬) destined for sacrifice were accorded a special name, ‘the stew offering’ (geng xian 羹獻). But what made an animal suitable for sacrifice, and how much do we know about the management of animals used for ritual consumption? What were the stages that marked the transmutation from an ordinary domesticated animal into a select symbol to be offered up in sacrifice?
2073	dbpedia	1	70	https://mulanbook.com/pages/overview/history-of-legend-of-mulan	en	The History Behind the Legend of Hua Mulan (400 AD Onward)	https://mulanbook.com/as…ulan-history.jpg	https://mulanbook.com/as…ulan-history.jpg	[ "https://mulanbook.com/assets/themes/twitter/images/logo_mulanbook.png", "https://mulanbook.com/assets/images/articles/mulan-history.jpg", "https://mulanbook.com/assets/images/articles/ballad-of-mulan-song-dynasty-mu-fu.jpg", "https://mulanbook.com/assets/images/articles/mulan-bids-farewell-to-her-family-whil...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Ancient texts from the past 1,500 years reveal the real history behind the legend of Mulan and how it developed into what we have today.	en	/icon.png		https://mulanbook.com/pages/overview/history-of-legend-of-mulan	Ancient texts from the past 1,500 years reveal the real history behind the legend of Mulan and how it developed into what we have today. Around 400 AD, a poem began circulating imperial China. It told of a young girl (most likely in her early teens) who made the momentous decision to take her father’s place in battle. Although modern historians now believe this poem to be fictitious, early historians (most notably, Zhu Guozhen) insisted that the Ballad of Mulan was an autobiography. Regardless of the authenticity of the original tale, this amazing story went on to inspire one of the greatest legends ever told. For over a hundred years, the Ballad of Mulan was passed down via oral tradition, until it was finally written down during the Tang dynasty. Around this same time, several authors (Wei Yuanfu, Bai Juyi, Du Mu, and Li Rong) also wrote accounts verifying Mulan’s story. The early narratives about Mulan were are all very short. They provide enough information to verify that Mulan took her father’s place in battle, served for twelve or thirteen years without her femininity ever being discovered, and was rewarded by the emperor for her accomplishments. Due to the brevity of these accounts, later authors became fascinated with Mulan’s story and began embellishing it. After all, Mulan’s story has such a fantastic premise that it begs to be told in a more elaborate form. For the next several hundred years, very little was written about Mulan. While a memorial erected during the Song dynasty suggests that this maiden warrior continued to captivate the hearts of a Taoist sect, it wasn’t until the Ming dynasty that Mulan’s story came into the public spotlight. Around 1500 AD, Xu Wei wrote the play Mulan Joins the Army. Although this play was short (the unannotated manuscript is twelve pages), Xu Wei inserted reimagined the story in a way that would capture the imaginations of the common people. Xu Wei took a lot of liberties with this play and wasn’t overly concerned with historical accuracy. For example, the play included Mulan with bound feet… which is the ancient equivalent of having a woman soldier wearing sexy armor. One version of the manuscript even explicitly instructs the actress playing Mulan to change clothes in full view of the audience. The play primarily focuses on Mulan’s life as a woman. After she spends a long time preparing to go to war, the narrator blitzes through a decade of military service to show the audience Mulan resuming her life as a woman. (Plot summary of Mulan Joins the Army) Although no records exist of Xu Wei’s play ever being performed, the printed manuscript circulated widely throughout China. Thus, in its written form, this play inspired a renewed interest in the legend. After the Ming dynasty fell, the Chinese people found themselves under barbarian rule. The Manchu (who founded the Qing dynasty) oppressed the Chinese people and forced them to adapt to the Manchu way of life under penalty of death. During this time, the Chinese people took solace in Mulan’s story, as they desired for such a hero to rise up amongst them. (More information: The Legend of Mulan During the Qing Dynasty) The most famous retelling of Mulan’s story to be written during this time was Romance of Sui and Tang by Chu Renhuo, which was written to incite feelings of animosity against those who oppressed the Chinese. In the novel, Mulan is a biracial teen who is initially loyal to the barbarian khan. Although she begins fighting against a Chinese enemy, she is captured by a Chinese princess, who turns out to be such a benevolent captor that Mulan eventually desires to return home to bring her family to dwell together with the princess. However, the khan intercepts Mulan and tries to take her as his concubine by force. When Mulan realizes that the khan will not allow her to refuse, she commits suicide on her father’s grave. (Plot summary of Romance of Sui and Tang) The Complete Account of Extraordinary Mulan was a very different novel, in that it encouraged its readers to withdraw from society and rise above evil by living virtuous lives. The author, who seems to be a pacifist, uses the novel to glorify monasticism. The novel begins by focusing on Mulan’s grandfather, an ambitious young scholar. As he pursues enlightenment, however, he learns the virtue of inaction. After his granddaughter Mulan is born, he teaches her the art of magic but warns that responsible use of magic is so difficult that he has never found an occasion where the use of magic would be proper. Although Mulan eventually learns how to use her power for good, evil still triumphs in the end. In 1850, author Zhang Shaoxian conducted a thorough investigation of the legend. He reviewed numerous retellings and united them into a coherent story. The resulting novel, Fierce and Filial, tells of how Mulan’s brilliance and military prowess stem from he virtue. The most unique feature of this novel is the narrator’s analysis of Mulan’s inner struggle during her military service. Mulan is repeatedly traumatized by the cruelty of warfare, but refuses to suppress her tender side and become a hardened warrior. In the end, she manages to befriend the enemy princess, and the two women swear to help one another bring the war to an end. In 1903, the play Mulan Joins the Army turned Mulan’s story into a raucous comedy about how Mulan took her father’s place when her adopted brother Mushu refused his filial duty. Although the play was hardly successful, it helped pave the way for a new era in the legend’s development. One of the most famous early film adaptations of Mulan’s story was the 1939 motion picture Mulan Joins the Army. Because this coincided with the early stages of Word War II, after the Japanese had already captured Nanjing (China’s capital city at the time), the filmmakers desired to make it into a call to arms. This film glorifies warfare and is the first adaptation of the legend to introduce romance into Mulan’s story. After Word War II ended, China was now under communist rule. The people of Hong Kong, who were under British rule, began to wonder if they had anything left in common with the mainland. Partially in response to political tensions, the film Lady General Hua Mu-Lan was released. The primary emphasis of this film is family unity. When Mulan hears that her cousin, Hua Ping, has decided to take his father’s place in battle, Mulan is inspired to do the same. Ping serves as Mulan’s protector throughout their years of service together. Mulan’s superior officer, Li Guang, takes a special interest in Mulan and becomes her mentor. Mulan, who has strong feelings for Li Guang, tries to drop hints about her true gender, but he responds by professing his brotherly love. The film concludes with Mulan appearing before Li Guang dressed in feminine attire, much to his delight. In 1998, the first English-language film adaptation of Mulan’s story was released. Although Disney’s Mulan was a success in America (it was the second highest grossing movie in 1998), it was poorly received in China. Almost immediately after the release of the Disney film, Starlight International Media announced plans to produce Mulan: Rise of a Warrior. Throughout the film, Mulan struggles to put the needs of the masses above her own emotions. Being that she cares for certain comrades more than others, she repeatedly makes decisions that put her men at risk in attempt to rescue her closet friends. When her dear friend Wentai fakes his own death, Mulan is thrown into depression until she finally learns to detach herself from the battlefield. In 2010, Disney announced plans to release a live-action remake of Mulan. This film, which is purported to draw inspiration from both Chinese and American cultures, is expected to appeal to audiences from around the globe. Because this movie is yet to be released, very little is known about it, except that the film will be strikingly different from the 1998 animated film. Mulan’s story has traversed the globe several times and has touched the hearts and minds of countless generations since the story was first conceived over a millennium ago. While we may never know the details of her true story (if she really did exist), Mulan continues to be an inspiration to live virtuously when faced with crisis. Throughout the ages, the legend has continued to tell the story of a woman who is prepared to sacrifice everything out of filial devotion to her father. The legend always has been, and always will be, a touching story of honor, virtue, and sacrifice.
2073	dbpedia	3	86	https://new.artsmia.org/stories/finding-kodojin-andreas-marks-on-his-15-year-quest-to-rediscover-a-forgotten-master	en	year quest to rediscover a forgotten master –– Minneapolis Institute of Art	https://images.artsmia.o…inpic-scaled.jpg		[ "https://images.artsmia.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/16151023/Mia_Isolated_Wordmark_100K.svg", "https://images.artsmia.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/31103803/Kodojinpic-scaled.jpg", "https://images.artsmia.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/31104317/6eb4adcf72cda43cfb68642c8eb6f735-modernism.jpg", "https://ima...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null			https://images.artsmia.o…lated_M_100K.svg		null	By Tim Gihring // Fifteen years ago, Andreas Marks had never heard of Fukuda Kodōjin. Hardly anyone had. Kodōjin, who was born in rural Japan in 1865, was among the last of the literati painters, a tradition of scholarship, poetry, and art that died with him in the wake of World War II. By the time Marks began exploring the artist’s life and work, in 2008, he had been largely forgotten for decades—especially in Japan. Marks is the Mary Griggs Burke Curator of Japanese and Korean Art and director of the Clark Center for Japanese Art at Mia. He is also now the preeminent authority on Kodōjin, having discovered far more than he expected in what he calls the “Sherlock Holmes work” of tracking down the artist’s legacy: some 800 paintings, a humble love of study and nature, and the remarkable patronage of the rich and powerful in prewar Japan. In Mia’s exhibition “Fukuda Kodōjin: Japan’s Great Poet and Landscape Artist” and its accompanying catalogue, Marks showcases the singular and stunning artistic vision that once captivated the elite. Here, he talks about the journey of rediscovery and what he learned along the way. How did you become interested in Kodōjin and his art? When I came to California to work at the Clark Center, 15 years ago, [collector] Bill Clark said, “Someday you need to do an exhibition about Fukuda Kodōjin” and started reciting parts of his biography—that he had died of poverty, that he was a poet and didn’t paint much. And I remember thinking, “Which part of class did I miss that I had never heard of this man before?” Bill was an avid collector of Kodōjin—he had 20 or so paintings. But the only document of his work was this book by Stephen Addiss, Old Taoist, from 2001, which is mostly poetry. The Japanese curator at the Met had never heard of him, museums in Japan don’t know who he is. He’s completely disappeared. Only American collectors have found him and put him on the map. Before embarking into Japanese art, I studied Chinese art, so the fact that there’s a Japanese artist doing Chinese-style painting suited me well—right away there was a level of familiarity and understanding. I started digging in, never imagining the extent of what I would find. You spoke with his family, visited his house in Kyoto—what was it like to retrace the steps of a forgotten man? I started contacting collectors, asking for photos, visiting people here as well as in Japan. I met with his granddaughter and great-granddaughter. There are no works left in the family. I was lucky that some scholars in Japan—all of them in Wakayama, his home province—have concentrated on his poetry. They had dug up some biographical information, but there was nothing on his paintings. So I visited Wakayama, I visited collectors and people who had inherited a collection but were not interested in the work themselves—it had been passed down by a grandfather or some relative who knew Kodōjin personally. And through the inscriptions on his paintings, I was able to create a timeline—where he went and when, places where he would stay and paint—and correct some of the biography. There’s a photograph at one of these painting events, where he’s holding his brush and drinking sake. Another photo shows him in the host’s garden and now there’s a photo of me in the same garden, following in his footsteps. Literati painting is often said to have died out before the 20th century, and yet here’s Kodōjin in the 1930s and ’40s, still doing this work, still living this lifestyle. Yes, even at an advanced age he’s traveling to these events where he’s invited to paint, and he would stay awhile and then move on again. It’s fascinating to see that this culture still existed, and he wasn’t the only one, though of course there were far more in the old days. Japanese art history books always talk of the last literati painters being active in the late 19th century—the 20th century is completely ignored. It’s a misjudgment. After World War II, sure. With American occupation and American culture coming in, it’s over. In the late 1920s, he’s so popular among Japanese politicians and industrialists that they create a Kodōjin Society—including the current and former prime ministers. Which is fascinating: this modest traditionalist, embraced by the elite trying to modernize the country. There’s probably a certain level of idealism there—you’re in politics or business, working hard, earning a living, but what you’d really love to do is be out in nature, composing poems. And here’s this man who is doing exactly that, enjoying a life of solitude, giving his life to the arts. It’s true that Kodōjin is not into luxurious things—he’s not driving a Mercedes or living in a massive villa. But he’s also not living in a cave. The family house looks fairly large. We know from real estate records that he was able to buy his house in Kyoto, so he was clearly generating enough income to support a family and his property. But still, it’s interesting that his modesty extends to his work: he’s not just catering to the wealthy, he’s also creating simpler paintings that sold relatively cheaply, so you didn’t have to be a big industrialist to own his work. There’s this wonderful phrase he uses to describe his paintings: “Things done after studying.” Suggesting his art really is something he does in his leisure time. For him, his real work is studying books, being very knowledgeable about traditional Chinese literature and poetry. And after he’s dealt with his books, he’ll make paintings. He says, “People after me will decide if I was clumsy or not in my paintings,” and I can imagine he was actually thinking like that. I don’t think it’s a pose. I’m not sensing any kind of aspiration to manipulate or befriend collectors or the people running museums. He’s authentic. And actually the fact that he didn’t cultivate those groups more is one reason he’s not better known today. He dies in 1943, during the war, but not of starvation as Stephen Addiss had suggested. What happens at the end of his life? In one of the first conversations I had with his family, they brought this up—they were shocked when they read Addiss’s book, they had never heard this. I’ve seen the Japanese text where Addiss picked up this idea and I think he misinterpreted it: Kodōjin’s student at his deathbed records that he doesn’t want to take food, he’s not eating, and Addiss takes that to mean he doesn’t have anything to eat. But in reality it’s just him being tired and without energy. In May 1943, his son dies in the war, and then at the end of the year he dies himself. Two years earlier, suddenly this Buddhist verse appears in his poetry, where there had not been anything Buddhist before—toward the end of his life he’s turning toward nirvana. Also, the last landscape painting we have by him is lacking the quality that had been there before. It seems detailed but nowhere near his other work. Sadly, the energy is gone. What happens to traditional Japanese culture after the war—and Kodōjin’s work? Japan had to go through a period of trying to understand what they did—invading Korea, China, other parts of Asia—and that included rethinking the idea of China as a part of Japanese history, which is very much how it was traditionally understood. Which makes sense: so much of Japanese culture came from China, from tea to chopsticks. But after World War II, there’s a strong break. Japan’s modernization began around 1870 but now grows even stronger—it’s looking far more at America. Traditional entertainments, like tea ceremonies and geisha culture, continue but at a much smaller level than before.A year after Kodōjin’s passing, people get together for the traditional memorial service: his student is there, his wife, his friends. In 1960, a local journal in Wakayama publishes some memories of him and one of his collectors from those last days puts on a small exhibition. And then that’s it. It’s not until 1989 that foreign collectors rediscover him and start falling in love with his work. You’ve done this research now, there’s the exhibition and the book. Is there a sense that Kodōjin is due for a revival, perhaps even in Japan? To me, he’s a fascinating example of someone appealing to the highest levels of society and then completely disappearing. It’s incredible that it can happen. He has this group of elites dedicated to him, including the prime minister and the previous prime minister—it really is a big deal. And now, on the other side of the world, we’re holding his legacy. It’s often the case that the impetus for appreciating an artist in their home country comes from somewhere else. It doesn’t work with every artist. But if somebody is worth looking at and being remembered again, Kodōjin is at the top of that list.
2073	dbpedia	1	66	https://education.asianart.org/resources/chinese-calligraphy-from-the-neolithic-period-ca-4500-2200-bce-to-the-song-dynasty-960-1279/	en	Chinese Calligraphy: From the Neolithic Period (ca. 4500–2200 BCE) to the Song Dynasty (960–1279)	https://education.asianart.org/wp-content/themes/aam-framework/favicon.ico	https://education.asianart.org/wp-content/themes/aam-framework/favicon.ico	[ "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=1861119050879672&ev=PageView &noscript=1", "https://education.asianart.org/wp-content/themes/aam-framework/img/AAM-logo.svg", "https://education.asianart.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2019/12/F2002.49.1_Scripture_of_the_Hidden_Talisman-1200x798.jpg", "https://education....	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2020-03-13T19:02:19+00:00	The Asian Art Museum of San Francisco houses one of the most comprehensive Asian art collections in the world, with more than 18,000 works of art in its permanent collection. Stroll through 6,000 years of art and culture.	en	https://education.asianart.org/wp-content/themes/aam-framework/favicon.ico	Education	https://education.asianart.org/resources/chinese-calligraphy-from-the-neolithic-period-ca-4500-2200-bce-to-the-song-dynasty-960-1279/	Calligraphy is considered to be one of the most important art forms in Chinese culture. Only in Islamic art does calligraphy also rank so highly. Why? In both cases, beautiful writing constitutes what is most precious and sacred to the culture. In China, calligraphy represents not just writing and art, but beliefs, education, literature, performance, and social values. Calligraphy can be large or small in scale and execution; it can be produced very quickly or very slowly and carefully. It can be created with relatively few materials, and it is easily transportable. It is, along with painting and poetry, the most personal and expressive of Chinese art forms. It is no wonder that calligraphy, painting, and poetry in China are referred to as the “Three Perfections.” Naturally there is a close relationship between calligraphy and painting, since both were produced by the skillful use of brush and ink. Which art form came first? It appears that in China writing first developed through the use of pictographs, so from a very early time, writing and making pictures were closely intertwined. Chinese characters trace their origins to sacred writing on ancient oracle bones and bronze vessels nearly four thousand years ago. Writing on oracle bones served the purpose of ritual divination. Inscriptions on bronze vessels consisted of dedications accompanying some event, not unlike later dedications inscribed on Buddhist artworks. Soon, scribes began to record important events and royal decrees on wood and bamboo slips. By the Han dynasty (206 BCE–CE 220), new script styles began to be written on silk and paper. Beautiful writing began to be collected as an art form and was transferred to stone monuments to be used like libraries as archives and historical markers. Some of the most ancient writings to be collected and revered as works of art were fragments of letters, particularly the writings of Wang Xizhi and his son, who lived in the 300s during the Jin dynasty (1206-1234). This was the beginning of cursive script styles, written with more rapidity and with greater freedom of expression. At about the same time, standard script styles began to replace the earlier clerical scripts of the Han dynasty (206 BCE–CE 220). This standardized fourth-century script is the basis for standard forms of calligraphy that are used today. The importance of calligraphy is undoubtedly related to the Confucian-based education system which placed such a high value on writing and knowledge. Scholars were expected to demonstrate skillful calligraphy as a component of their qualifying exams, in addition to knowing the content of classical texts. A famous exercise was developed during the Liang dynasty (late 400s) that involved writing one thousand different characters (qian zi wen) made up of 250 sentences, all rhyming, with each sentence containing four characters, and none of the characters repeated. This exercise formed a critical part of the curriculum for scores of aspiring calligraphers by the Tang and Song and for centuries thereafter. Originality and individuality do not play the same role in much of Chinese art as in familiar examples of post-Renaissance Western art, where artists are appreciated for striking out in entirely new directions. Chinese calligraphers often studied former masters for decades before reaching a point where their calligraphy could be identified by any sort of personal style. In fact, for many Chinese artists it could be said that originality was how one interpreted the works of others more than how one’s art differentiated itself from everyone else’s. During the Tang (618–906) and Song (960–1279) dynasties, a number of emperors took a great personal interest in calligraphy. Both dynasties had Imperial Academies of Calligraphy. The top calligrapher was permitted to wear a golden girdle over a purple gown, indicating that his court position was at the highest level. Tang Taizong (reigned 626–649) was impassioned by the works of Wang Xizhi. The emperor composed texts and then had court calligraphers create the calligraphy using individual characters traced from the work of Wang Xizhi. This new work was engraved and adopted as the official style in 670. It was said that Taizong was buried with the calligrapher’s most famous work, the Preface to the Orchid Pavilion or Lanting Xu. Indeed, Tang court catalogues list over two thousand works by Wang Xizhi, but by the Song that number had decreased to only 243, and the Orchid Pavilion was not listed among them. Song Huizong (reigned 1101–1125) added an Imperial College of Calligraphy in 1104 and appointed Mi Fu as its first Dean. Huizong himself practiced a very elegant form of calligraphy using very thin strokes. His paintings of natural subjects and those of his court artists were equally meticulous. By the Song, appreciation of calligraphy—and painting—had reached very sophisticated levels. Artists looked for specific, but subtle qualities in each other’s work. They wanted to see dynamic energy or qi that captured the essence of life, breath, vitality. They wanted works to project the artist’s innate humanity, the nature and character of the person, or xing. They even appreciated a deliberate awkwardness, or the ability to overcome the desire to show off, called cho. Many of these same principles applied to theories about painting.
2073	dbpedia	0	1	http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/calligraphy-mi-fu.php	en	China Online Museum - Chinese Art Galleries	http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/resources/zhong.png	http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/resources/zhong.png	[ "http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3419/3373271187_6da469e1b5_m.jpg", "http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/classes/components/FlickrLightbox/images/modern/modern_s_b.png?1001071", "http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3653/3374087902_6403e30eaf_m.jpg", "http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/classes/components/FlickrLightbox/i...	[]	[]	[ "Chinese art", "Chinese calligraphy", "calligraphy", "Chinese artist", "Chinese museum", "Chinese gallery", "Chinese artwork", "China", "Song Dynasty", "Mi Fu" ]	null	[]	null	Chinese Song Dynasty calligrapher Mi Fu and his artworks		resources/zhong.png		null	Mi Fu (米芾, 1051–1107) was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan, Shanxi during the Song Dynasty. Because his mother had been the wet nurse of the Emperor Yingzong (reigned 1063 –1067), he was brought up within the imperial precincts, mixing freely with the imperial family. As a young boy, Mi showed precocious talent, particularly in calligraphy. Although he expressed distaste for the formal lessons prescribed for a future official, he displayed a lively intelligence in his quick understanding of learned argument, his aptitude for excitingly original poetry, and his ability in painting and calligraphy. In later life Mi had a checkered official career, with frequent changes of post. He began as a reviser of books in the imperial library and subsequently served in three posts outside the capital of Kaifeng, in Henan Province. In 1103 he was appointed a doctor of philosophy and was briefly military governor of Wuwei in the province of Anhui. He returned to the capital in 1104 to serve as a professor of painting and calligraphy, taking this opportunity to present to the emperor a painting by his son, Mi Youren. He then undertook the position of a secretary to the Board of Rites before setting out on his final appointment as military governor of Huaiyang, in Jiangsu Province, in which post he died at the age of 57. Mi Fu was married and had five sons, of whom only the two eldest survived infancy, and eight daughters.
2073	dbpedia	2	64	https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/animals-through-chinese-history/walking-by-itself/93B623D3994597A7D4B7E0CBBA16CB09	en	Animals through Chinese History	https://www.cambridge.or…hare_600x600.jpg	https://www.cambridge.or…hare_600x600.jpg	[ "https://www.cambridge.org/core/cambridge-core/public/images/icn_circle__btn_close_white.svg", "https://www.cambridge.org/core/cambridge-core/public/images/logo_core.png", "https://www.cambridge.org/core/cambridge-core/public/images/logo_core.svg", "https://www.cambridge.org/core/cambridge-core/public/images/...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Roel Sterckx", "University of Cambridge", "Martina Siebert", "Dagmar Schäfer" ]	null	Animals through Chinese History - December 2018	en	/core/cambridge-core/public/images/favicon.ico	Cambridge Core	https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/animals-through-chinese-history/walking-by-itself/93B623D3994597A7D4B7E0CBBA16CB09	In today’s urbanized world, the domestic animals most familiar to the majority of us tend to be those small enough to share a living space with human beings. They may range in size from fairly large dogs through various smaller mammals down to tropical fish, and even smaller pets. The cat, towards the top end of this spectrum , vies with the dog as one of the most interactive animals and, hence, one of the most popular to be found in ordinary homes. Yet, unlike the dog, which has lived with humans for thousands of years, the cat – even if associated with people for almost as long – has only been brought inside the house in historical times, and is well known for still retaining a measure of aloofness, as our chapter title suggests. We have the sources to hand to trace cat histories in several ancient and modern societies and, though a detailed sequential history for China has yet to be written, the provisional narrative outlined here should be sufficient to suggest that cat histories have not all unfolded in the same way or at the same pace.
2073	dbpedia	3	28	https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/649042	en	Response to Mi Fu's Poem Written in a Boat on the Wu River	https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/649042/1681837/restricted	https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/649042/1681837/restricted	[ "https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/649042/1681837/restricted", "https://images.metmuseum.org/CRDImages/as/web-additional/DP-13266-002.jpg", "https://www.metmuseum.org/Rodan/dist/img/1x1-d7dcde.gif", "https://www.metmuseum.org/Rodan/dist/img/1x1-d7dcde.gif", "https://www.metmuseum.or...	[]	[]	[ "Fung Ming Chip", "Paper", "Paintings", "Scroll paintings", "Handscrolls", "Ink", "Calligraphy", "Asia", "China" ]	null	[]	null	<strong>Inscription:</strong> Artist’s inscription (60 columns in mixed scripts)<br/><br/>Yesterday the wind arose in the west-north, <br/>And innumerable boats all took advantage of its favor. <br/>Today, the wind has shifted [and comes from] the east, <br/>And my boat [needs] fifteen men to tow	en	https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/favicon.ico?v=3	The Metropolitan Museum of Art	https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/649042	Fung Ming Chip is one of the most innovative practitioners of Chinese calligraphy working today. Inspired by but not limited to the classical canon, Fung constantly seeks new ways to invigorate old forms, and he has spent the last two decades creating novel scripts, some of which deliberately defy the dictates of legibility and push close to abstract art. The current work is among Fung’s more traditional, because it takes as its explicit inspiration a classical work of art—Mi Fu’s calligraphy Poem Written in a Boat on the Wu River. Since its gift to the Met by John Crawford in 1984, this has been one of the Museum’s signature works of Chinese art, a masterpiece known to Chinese calligraphy enthusiasts the world over (1984.174). Datable to around 1100, Poem Written in a Boat on the Wu River demonstrates Mi Fu’s epochal achievement in calligraphy, for it shows him riding the line between historically informed elegance and strategic imbalance, a delicate dance that only a calligrapher of Mi’s brilliance could successfully manage. Since the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), Mi Fu has been a source of both inspiration and intimidation to calligraphers. Faced with the daunting task of responding to such a work, Fung departed somewhat from his more typical working mode, in which he uses the hanging scroll format to create striking, iconic images that are meant to address the viewer from the wall. Following the format of Mi Fu’s piece, Fung wrote his response on a handscroll, creating a more intimate object that is meant to be read on a table, one section at a time. Fung adhered to Mi Fu’s overall lineation and composition, and he took care to make the work more legible than much of his nearly abstract calligraphy, honoring the text of the original. But he also injected his own voice. For instance, he uses a whimsical self-created form for the character meaning “wind” (feng 風), while using archaic forms for other characters, including “five” (wu 五). In one section, Fung highlights the coincidental repetition of characters featuring two visually similar components (jian 見 and mu 目) in Mi’s poem; by foregrounding this repetition, he creates a whimsical and almost childlike space within the scroll. Fung’s voice comes out most strongly in his long inscription at the end of Mi Fu’s poem. Here, Fung departs for the first time from Mi’s compositional structure to lay the characters on the paper according to his own fancy. He clusters the characters on the lower two-thirds of the scroll, building a composition almost like a mountain range out of the words. His meditation on the role of brush-written calligraphy in contemporary life reveals a concern that animates his entire oeuvre.
2073	dbpedia	0	47	https://brewminate.com/a-history-of-chinese-art-from-the-ancient-world-to-today/	en	A History of Chinese Art from the Ancient World to Today	https://brewminate.com/w…-Chinese-Art.jpg	https://brewminate.com/w…-Chinese-Art.jpg	[ "https://brewminate.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/1Banner.jpg", "https://brewminate.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/031420-01-History-China-Chinese-Art.jpg", "https://brewminate.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/MattCoffee03-1024x783.jpg", "https://brewminate.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/031420-02-History-Chin...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Matthew McIntosh" ]	2020-03-15T19:42:23+00:00	The earliest surviving examples of Chinese painting are fragments of painting on silk, stone, and lacquer items. Introduction	en	https://brewminate.com/w…Logo01-32x32.jpg	Brewminate: A Bold Blend of News and Ideas	https://brewminate.com/a-history-of-chinese-art-from-the-ancient-world-to-today/	The earliest surviving examples of Chinese painting are fragments of painting on silk, stone, and lacquer items. Curated/Reviewed by Matthew A. McIntosh Public Historian Brewminate Introduction Chinese art traditions are the oldest continuous art traditions in the world. Early so-called “stone age art” in China, consisting mostly of simple pottery and sculptures, dates back to 10,000 B.C.E.. This early period was followed by a series of dynasties, most of which lasted several hundred years. Through dynastic changes, political collapses, Mongol and Manchurian invasions, wars, and famines, Chinese artistic traditions were preserved by scholars and nobles and adapted by each successive dynasty. The art of each dynasty can be distinguished by its unique characteristics and developments. Jade carvings and cast bronzes are among the earliest treasures of Chinese art. The origins of Chinese music and poetry can be found in the Book of Songs, containing poems composed between 1000 B.C.E. and 600 B.C.E.. The earliest surviving examples of Chinese painting are fragments of painting on silk, stone, and lacquer items dating to the Warring States period (481 – 221 B.C.E.). Paper, invented during the first century C.E., later replaced silk. Beginning with the establishment of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (265–420)\|, painting and calligraphy were highly appreciated arts in court circles. Both used brushes and ink on silk or paper. The earliest paintings were figure paintings, followed later by landscapes and bird-and-flower paintings. Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism powerfully influenced the subjectmatter and style of Chinese art. Historical Development to 221 BCE Neolithic Pottery Early forms of art in China are found in the Neolithic Yangshao culture (Chinese: 仰韶文化; pinyin: Yǎngsháo Wénhuà), which dates back to the sixth millennium B.C.E. Archeological findings such as those at the Banpo have revealed that the Yangshao made pottery; early ceramics were unpainted and most often ornamented by with marks made by pressing cords into the wet clay. The first pictorial decorations were fish and human faces, which eventually evolved into symmetrical-geometric abstract designs, some painted. The most distinctive feature of Yangshao culture was the extensive use of painted pottery, especially human facial, animal, and geometric designs. Unlike the later Longshan culture, the Yangshao culture did not use pottery wheels in pottery making. According to archaeologists, Yangshao society was based around matriarchal clans. Excavations have found that children were buried in painted pottery jars. Jade Culture Tools such as hammer heads, ax heads and knives were made of jade nephrite during the Neolithic period (c. 12,000 – c. 2,000 B.C.E.). The Liangzhu culture, the last Neolithic jade culture in the Yangtze River delta, lasted for a period of about 1300 years from 3400 – 2250 B.C.E. The jade from this culture is characterized by finely worked, large ritual jades such as Cong cylinders, Bi discs, Yue axes, pendants and decorations in the form of chiseled open-work plaques, plates and representations of small birds, turtles and fish. Liangzhu jade has a white, milky bone-like aspect due to its origin as Tremolite rock and the influence of water-based fluids at the burial sites. Bronze Casting The Bronze Age in China began with the Xia Dynasty (ca. 2100 – 1600 B.C.E.). Examples from this period have been recovered from ruins of the Erlitou culture, in Shanxi, and include complex but unadorned utilitarian objects. In the following Shang Dynasty (商朝) or Yin Dynasty (殷代) (ca. 1600 – ca. 1100 B.C.E.), more elaborate objects, including many ritual vessels, were crafted. The Shang are recognized for their bronze casting, noted for its clarity of detail. Excavations show that Shang bronzesmiths usually worked in foundries outside the cities and made ritual vessels, weapons and sometimes chariot fittings. The bronze vessels were receptacles for storing or serving various solids and liquids used in the performance of sacred ceremonies. Some forms such as the ku and jue can be very graceful, but the most powerful pieces are the ding, sometimes described as having an “air of ferocious majesty.” It is typical of the developed Shang style that all available space is decorated, most often with stylized forms of real and imaginary animals. The most common motif is the taotie, a symmetrical zoomorphic mask, presented frontally, with a pair of eyes and typically no lower jaw area. The early significance of taotie is not clear, but myths about it existed around the late Zhou Dynasty (周朝; 1122 B.C.E. to 256 B.C.E.). It was considered to be variously a covetous man banished to guard a corner of heaven against evil monsters; or a monster equipped with only a head which tries to devour men but hurts only itself. The function and appearance of bronzes altered gradually from the Shang to the Zhou, and they began to be used for practical purposes as well as in religious rites. By the Warring States Period (fifth century B.C.E. to 221 B.C.E.), bronze vessels had become objects of aesthetic enjoyment. Some were decorated with scenes of social life, such as banquets or hunts; while others displayed abstract patterns inlaid with gold, silver, or precious and semiprecious stones. Shang bronzes became appreciated as works of art during the Song Dynasty (960 – 1279 C.E.), when they were collected and prized not only for their shape and design but also for the various green, blue green, and even reddish patinas created by chemical action as they lay buried in the ground. The study of early Chinese bronzecasting is a specialized field of art history. Early Chinese Music The origins of Chinese music and poetry can be found in the Book of Songs, containing poems composed between 1000 B.C.E. and 600 B.C.E.. The text, preserved among the canon of early Chinese literature, contains folk songs, religious hymns and stately songs. Originally intended to be sung, the music accompanying the words has unfortunately been lost. The songs were written for a variety of purposes, including courtship, ceremonial greetings, warfare, feasting and lamentation. The love poems are among the most appealing in the freshness and innocence of their language. Early Chinese music was based on percussion instruments such as the bronze bell. Chinese bells were sounded by being struck from the outside, usually with a piece of wood. Sets of bells were suspended on wooden racks. Inside excavated bells are grooves, scrape marks and scratches made as the bells were tuned to the right pitch by removing small amounts of metal. Percussion instruments gradually gave way to string and reed instruments toward the Warring States period. Significantly, the Chinese character for the word music (yue) was the same as that for joy (le). Confucians believed music had the power to make people harmonious and well balanced, or to cause them to be quarrelsome and depraved. According to Xun Zi, music was as important as the li (rites, etiquette) stressed in Confucianism. Mozi, philosophically opposed to Confucianism, dismissed music as useless and wasteful, having no practical purpose. In addition to the Book of Songs (Shi Jing), a second early and influential poetic anthology was the Songs of Chu (Simplified Chinese: 楚辞; Traditional Chinese: 楚辭; pinyin: Chǔ Cí), made up primarily of poems ascribed to the semilegendary Qu Yuan (c. 340–278 B.C.E.) and his follower Song Yu (fourth century B.C.E.). The songs in this collection are more lyrical and romantic and represent a different tradition from the earlier Classic of Poetry (Shi Jing) Chu and Southern Culture A rich source of art in early China was the state of Chu (722 – 481 B.C.E.), which developed in the Yangtze River valley. Painted wooden sculptures, jade disks, glass beads, musical instruments, and an assortment of lacquerware have been found in excavations of Chu tombs. Many of the lacquer objects are finely painted, red on black or black on red. The world’s oldest painting on silk discovered to date was found at a site in Changsha, Hunan province. It shows a woman accompanied by a phoenix and a dragon, two mythological animals that feature prominently in Chinese art. An anthology of Chu poetry has also survived in the form of the Chu Ci, which has been translated into English by David Hawkes. Many of the works in the text are associated with Shamanism. There are also descriptions of fantastic landscapes, examples of China’s first nature poetry. The longest poem, “Encountering Sorrow,” is reputed to have been written by the tragic Qu Yuan as a political allegory. Early Imperial China (221 BCE – 220 CE) Qin Sculpture The Terracotta Army, inside the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, consists of more than seven thousand life-size tomb terra-cotta figures of warriors and horses buried with the self-proclaimed first Emperor of Qin (Qin Shi Huang) in 210–209 B.C.E.. The figures were painted before being placed into the vault. The original colors were visible when the pieces were first unearthed, but exposure to air caused the pigments to fade. The figures are in several poses including standing infantry and kneeling archers, as well as charioteers with horses. The head of each figure appears to be unique; the figures exhibit a variety of facial features and expressions as well as hair styles. Pottery Porcelain is made from a hard paste comprised of the clay kaolin and a feldspar called petuntse, which cements the vessel and seals any pores. The word china (chinaware) has become synonymous with high-quality porcelain. Most china comes from the city of Jingdezhen in China’s Jiangxi province. Jingdezhen, under a variety of names, has been central to porcelain production in China since at least the early Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E.–220 C.E.). The most noticeable difference between porcelain and other pottery clays is that it “wets” very quickly (that is, added water has a noticeably greater effect on the plasticity of porcelain clays), and that it tends to continue to “move” longer than other clays, requiring experience in handling to attain optimum results. Porcelain is fired at very high temperatures and the result is a translucent quality, allowing light to penetrate the finished product. In medieval Europe, Chinese porcelain was very expensive and much sought after for its beauty. TLV Mirrors Bronze mirrors, called TLV mirrors because symbols resembling the letters T, L, and V are engraved into them, became popular during the Han Dynasty. They were produced from around the second century B.C.E. until the second century C.E.. The dragon was an important symbol on early TLV mirrors, appearing as arabesques on early mirrors and later as fully-fledged figures.[1] In the later part of the Western Han period, the dragons were replaced by winged figures, monsters and immortals. Mirrors from the Xin Dynasty (8-23 C.E.) usually have an outer band with cloud or animal motifs, and an inner circle with a square containing a knob. The inner circle often contains a series of eight ‘nipples,’ and various mythological animals and beings, including the Queen Mother of the West.[2] The central square could have an inscription, or contain the characters of the Twelve Earthly Branches. Inscriptions placed in between the mirror’s sections frequently discuss Wang Mang and his reign.[3] Han Poetry During, the Han Dynasty, Chu lyrics evolved into the fu (賦), a poem usually in rhymed verse except for introductory and concluding passages that are in prose, often in the form of questions and answers. From the Han Dynasty onwards, a process similar to the official compilation of the Shi Jing produced yue fu (Traditional Chinese: 樂府; Simplified Chinese: 乐府; Hanyu Pinyin: yuèfǔ) poems, composed in a folk song style. “Yue fu” literally means “music bureau,” a reference to the government organization originally charged with collecting or writing the lyrics. The lines are of uneven length, though five characters is the most common. Each poem follows one of a series of patterns defined by the song title. Yue fu includes original folk songs, court imitations and versions by known poets such as Li Bai). Han Paper Art The invention of paper during the Han dynasty[4] spawned two new Chinese arts. Chinese paper cutting originated as a pastime among the nobles in royal palaces[5]. The Song Dynasty scholar Chou Mi mentioned several paper cutters who cut paper with scissors into a great variety of designs and characters in different styles, and a young man who could even cut characters and flowers inside his sleeve[6]. The oldest surviving paper cut out is a symmetrical circle from the sixth century found in Xinjiang, China[6]. The art of Chinese paper folding also originated in the Han dynasty, later developing into origami after Buddhist monks introduced paper to Japan[7]. Other Han Art The Han Dynasty was also known for jade burial suits, made of thousands of jade plates threaded together with gold, silver or copper wire, or with silk threads. One of the earliest known depictions of a landscape in Chinese art comes from a pair of hollow-tile door panels from a Western Han Dynasty tomb near Zhengzhou, dated 60 B.C.E.[8] A scene of continuous depth recession is conveyed by the zigzag of lines representing roads and garden walls, giving the impression that one is looking down from the top of a hill.[8] This artistic landscape scene was made by the repeated impression of standard stamps on the clay while it was still soft and not yet fired.[8] Period of Division (220–581) Influence of Buddhism Buddhism arrived in China around the first century C.E. (although some traditions tell of a monk visiting China during Asoka’s reign), and for the next seven centuries China became very active in the development of Buddhist art, particularly in the area of statuary. Strong Chinese traits were soon incorporated in Buddhist artistic expression. From the fifth to sixth century, the Northern Dynasties, physically distant from the original sources of inspiration, developed symbolic and abstract modes of representation with schematic lines. Their style is solemn and majestic. The lack of corporeality of this art, and its distance from the original Buddhist objective of expressing the pure ideal of enlightenment in an accessible, realistic manner, progressed towards more the natural and realistic expression of Tang Buddhist art. Poetry Historical records indicate Cao Cao (155 – 220), the father of the well-known poets Cao Pi (187 – 226) and Cao Zhi (192 – 232), was himself a brilliant ruler and poet. Cao Pi is known for writing the first Chinese poem using seven syllables per line (七言詩), the poem 燕歌行. Cao Zhi demonstrated his spontaneous wit at an early age and was a favorite candidate for the throne; his brother Cao Pi quickly took control after their father’s death and Cao Zhi was never allowed to enter politics. Instead, he devoted his ability to Chinese literature and poetry, and surrounded himself with a group of poets and officials with literary interests. The poems of Cao Zhi, Cao Cao, and Cao Pi were representative of the solemn and stirring jian’an style (建安風骨), a transition from earlier folksongs into scholarly poetry. Lament over the ephemerality of life was a central theme of works from this period. More than 60 of the 90 poems by Cao Zhi still in existence are five-character poems (五言詩), considered to have strongly influenced the later development of five-character poetry. The poetry of Tao Qian (365 – 427) was an important influence on the poetry of the Tang and Song Dynasties. Approximately 120 of his poems survive, depicting an idyllic pastoral life of farming and drinking. Calligraphy In ancient China, painting and calligraphy were the most highly appreciated arts in court circles and were produced almost exclusively by amateurs, aristocrats and scholar-officials who had the leisure to perfect the technique and sensibility necessary for great brushwork. Calligraphy was considered the highest and purest form of painting. The implements were the brush pen, made of animal hair, and black inks, made from pine soot and animal glue. Writing as well as painting was done on silk until the invention of paper in the first century. Original writings by famous calligraphers have been greatly valued throughout China’s history. Wang Xizhi (Chinese: 王羲之, 303–361), a famous Chinese calligrapher who lived in the 4th century C.E., is known for Lanting Xu, the preface to a collection of poems written by a number of poets who gathered at Lan Ting near the town of Shaoxing, in Zhejiang province, to engage in a game called “qu shui liu shang.” His teacher was Wei Shuo (Simplified Chinese: 卫铄; Traditional Chinese: 衛鑠; pinyin: Wèi Shuò, 272–349), commonly addressed as Lady Wei (衛夫人), a well-known calligrapher who established consequential rules for Regular Script. Her works include Famous Concubine Inscription (名姬帖 Ming Ji Tie) and The Inscription of Wei-shi He’nan (衛氏和南帖 Wei-shi He’nan Tie). Gu Kaizhi (Traditional Chinese: 顧愷之; Simplified Chinese: 顾恺之; Hanyu Pinyin: Gù Kǎizhī; Wade-Giles: Ku K’ai-chih) (ca. 344-406), a celebrated painter born in Wuxi, wrote three books on painting theory: On Painting (画论), Introduction of Famous Paintings of Wei and Jin Dynasties (魏晋胜流画赞) and Painting Yuntai Mountain (画云台山记). He wrote, “In figure paintings the clothes and the appearances were not very important. The eyes were the spirit and the decisive factor.” Three of Gu’s paintings still survive: “Admonitions of the Instructress to the Court Ladies,” “Nymph of the Luo River” (洛神赋), and “Wise and Benevolent Women.” Other examples of Jin Dynasty painting have been found in tombs. Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, painted on a brick wall of a tomb located near modern Nanjing and now found in the Shaanxi Provincial Museum, depicts a famous group of seven Daoist scholars, each labeled and shown either drinking, writing, or playing a musical instrument. Other tomb paintings portray scenes of daily life, such as men plowing fields with teams of oxen. The Sui and Tang dynasties (581–960) The Tang period was considered the golden age of Chinese literature and art. Buddhist Architecture and Sculpture Following a transition under the Sui Dynasty, Buddhist sculpture of the Tang evolved towards markedly lifelike expression. Buddhism continued to flourish during the Tang period and was adopted by the imperial family, becoming thoroughly sinicized and a permanent part of Chinese traditional culture. As a consequence of the Dynasty’s openness to foreign influences, and renewed exchanges with Indian culture due to the numerous travels of Chinese Buddhist monks to India from the fourth to the eleventh century, Tang dynasty Buddhist sculpture assumed a classical form, inspired by the Indian art of the Gupta period. Towards the end of the Tang dynasty foreign influences came to be negatively perceived. In the year 845, the Tang emperor Wu-Tsung outlawed all “foreign” religions (including Christian Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism) in order to support the indigenous Daoism. He confiscated Buddhist possessions and forced the faith to go underground, affecting the further development of the religion and its arts in China. Most wooden Tang sculptures have not survived, though representations of the Tang international style can still be seen in Nara, Japan. Some of the finest examples of Tang stone sculpture can be seen at Longmen, near Luoyang, Yungang near Datong, and Bingling Temple, in Gansu. One of the most famous Buddhist Chinese pagodas is the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, built in 652 C.E. Golden Age of Chinese Poetry From the second century C.E., yue fu (Chinese poems composed in the style of folk songs) began to develop into shi—the form which was to dominate Chinese poetry until the modern era. The writers of these poems took the five-character line of the yue fu and used it to express more complex ideas. The shi poem was generally an expression of the poet’s personal nature rather than the adopted characters of the yue fu; many were romantic nature poems heavily influenced by Daoism. The Chinese term gushi (“old poems”) refers either to the mostly anonymous shi poems, or more generally to the poems written in the same form by later poets. Gushi are distinct from jintishi (regulated verse); the writer of gushi was under no formal constraints other than line length and rhyme (in every second line). Jintishi, or regulated verse, developed from the 5th century onwards. By the Tang dynasty, a series of set tonal patterns had been developed, which were intended to ensure a balance between the four tones of classical Chinese in each couplet: the level tone, and the three deflected tones (rising, falling and entering). The Tang dynasty was the high point of the jintishi. Notable poets from this era include Bai Juyi, Du Mu, Han Yu, Jia Dao, Li Qiao, Liu Zongyuan, Luo Binwang, Meng Haoran, Wang Wei, and Zhang Jiuling. Li Po and Du Fu Li Po and Du Fu, regarded by many as the greatest of the Chinese poets, both lived during the Tang Dynasty. Over a thousand poems are attributed to Li Po, but the authenticity of many of these is uncertain. He is best known for his intense and imaginative yue fu poems. Li Po is associated with Daoism, but his gufeng (“ancient airs”) often adopt the perspective of the Confucian moralist. He composed approximately 160 jueju (five- or seven-character quatrains) on nature, friendship, and acute observations of life. Some poems, like Changgan xing (translated by Ezra Pound as A River Merchant’s Wife: A Letter), record the hardships or emotions of common people. Since the Song dynasty, critics have called Du Fu the “poet historian.” The most directly historical of his poems are those commenting on military tactics or the successes and failures of the government, or the poems of advice which he wrote to the emperor. One of the Du Fu’s earliest surviving works, The Song of the Wagons (c. 750), gives voice to the sufferings of a conscript soldier in the imperial army, even before the beginning of the rebellion. Du Fu mastered all the forms of Chinese poetry and used a wide range of registers, from the direct and colloquial to the allusive and self-consciously literary. Late Tang Poetry Li Shangyin, a Chinese poet typical of the late Tang dynasty, wrote works that were sensuous, dense and allusive. Many of his poems have political, romantic or philosophical implications. Li Yu, the last ruler of the Southern Tang Kingdom, composed his best-known poems during the years after the Song formally ended his reign in 975 and brought him back as a captive to the Song capital, Bianjing (now Kaifeng). Li’s works from this period dwell on his regret for the lost kingdom and the pleasures it had brought him. He was finally poisoned by the Song emperor in 978. Li Yu developed the ci by broadening its scope from love to history and philosophy, particularly in his later works. He also introduced the two-stanza form, and made great use of contrasts between longer lines of nine characters and shorter ones of three and five. Painting During the Tang dynasty (618–907), landscape painting (shanshui) became highly developed. These landscapes, usually monochromatic and sparse, were not intended to reproduce exactly the appearance of nature but to evoke an emotion or atmosphere and capture the “rhythm” of nature. The oldest known classical Chinese landscape painting is a work by Zhan Ziqian of the Sui Dynasty (581–618), Strolling About In Spring in which the mountains are arranged to show perspective. Painting in the traditional style involved essentially the same techniques as calligraphy and was done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink on paper and silk. The finished work was then mounted on scrolls, which could be hung or rolled up. Traditional painting was also done in albums and on walls, lacquer work, and other media. Dong Yuan, a painter of the Southern Tang Kingdom, was known for both figure and landscape paintings, and exemplified the elegant style which would become the standard for brush painting in China over the next 900 years. Like many Chinese painters, he was a government official. Dong Yuan studied and emulated the styles of Li Sixun and Wang Wei, but added new techniques including more sophisticated perspective and the use of pointillism and crosshatching to build up vivid effect. Song and Yuan Dynasties (960–1368) Song Poetry Beginning in the Liang Dynasty, Ci lyric poetry followed the tradition of the Shi Jing and yue fu; lyrics from anonymous popular songs (some of Central Asian origin) were developed into a sophisticated literary genre. The form was further developed during the Tang Dynasty, and was most popular in the Song Dynasty. Ci most often expressed feelings of desire, often in an adopted persona, but the greatest exponents of the form (such as Li Houzhu and Su Shi) used it to address a wide range of topics. Well-known poets of the Song Dynasty include Zeng Gong, Li Qingzhao, Lu You, Mei Yaochen, Ouyang Xiu, Su Dongpo, Wang Anshi, and Xin Qiji. Song Painting During the Song dynasty (960–1279), landscapes of more subtle expression appeared; immeasurable distances were conveyed through the use of blurred outlines, mountain contours disappearing into the mist, and impressionistic treatment of natural phenomena. Emphasis was placed on the spiritual qualities of the painting and on the ability of the artist to reveal the inner harmony of man and nature, as perceived according to Daoist and Buddhist concepts. Liang Kai, a Chinese painter who lived in the thirteenth century (Song Dynasty), called himself “Madman Liang.” He spent his life drinking and painting, eventually retiring to become a Zen monk. Liang is credited with inventing the Zen school of Chinese art. Wen Tong, who lived in the eleventh century, was famous for ink paintings of bamboo. He could hold two brushes in one hand and paint two different bamboos simultaneously. He did not need to look at bamboo while he painted because he was so familiar with their appearance and character. Zhang Zeduan is noted for his horizontal cityscape Along the River During Qingming Festival, which has been copied many times throughout Chinese history.[9] Other famous paintings include The Night Revels of Han Xizai, originally painted by the Southern Tang artist Gu Hongzhong in the tenth century. The best-known version of his painting is a twelfth century copy from the Song Dynasty. The large horizontal hand scroll shows men of the gentry class being entertained by musicians and dancers while enjoying food, beverage, and being offered wash basins by maidservants. Yuan Drama Chinese opera has its origins in the Tang dynasty. Emperor Xuanzong (712–755) founded the “Pear Garden” (梨园), the first known opera troupe in China, to perform for his personal enjoyment. Chinese operatic professionals are still referred to as “Disciples of the Pear Garden” (梨园子弟). In the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368), forms like the Zaju (杂剧, variety plays), in which dramas are based on rhyming schemes and incorporate specialized character roles like “Dan” (旦, female), “Sheng” (生, male) and “Chou” (丑, Clown), were introduced into the opera. Yuan dynasty opera exists today as Cantonese opera. It is universally accepted that Cantonese opera was imported from the northern part of China and slowly migrated to the southern province of Guangdong in late thirteenth century, during the late Southern Song Dynasty. In the twelfth century, there was a theatrical form called Narm hei (南戲), or the Nanxi (Southern opera), which was performed in public theaters of Hangzhou, then capital of the Southern Song Dynasty. When the Mongol army invaded in 1276, Emperor Gong (Gong Di (恭帝 Gōngdì)) fled from Zhao Xian (趙顯 Zhào Xiǎn) to the province of Guangdong with hundreds of thousands of Song people. Among these people were some narm hei artists who introduced narm hei into Guangdong where it developed into the earliest kind of Cantonese opera. Many well-known operas performed today, such as The Purple Hairpin and Rejuvenation of the Red Plum Flower, originated in the Yuan Dynasty, with the lyrics and scripts in Cantonese. Until the twentieth century all the female roles were performed by males. Yuan Painting Wang Meng was a Chinese painter during the Yuan dynasty. One of his well-known works is Forest Grotto. Zhao Mengfu, a Chinese scholar, painter and calligrapher during the Yuan Dynasty, rejected the refined, gentle brushwork of his era in favor of the cruder style of the eighth century and is considered to have brought about a revolution that resulted in modern Chinese landscape painting. Qian Xuan (1235-1305), a patriot from the Song court who refused to serve the Mongols and instead turning to painting, revived and reproduced the vivid and detailed Tang Dynasty style. Late Imperial China (1368-1911) Ming Poetry Gao Qi (1336 – 1374) is acknowledged by many as the greatest poet of the Ming Dynasty. His style was a radical departure from the extravagance of Yuan dynasty poetry, and led the way for three hundred years of Ming dynasty poetry. Ming Prose Zhang Dai (张岱; pinyin: Zhāng Dài, courtesy name: Zhongzhi (宗子), pseudonym: Tao’an (陶庵)) (1597 – 1689) is acknowledged as the greatest essayist of the Ming dynasty. Wen Zhenheng, (Chinese: 文震亨; pinyin: Wén Zhènhēng; Wade-Giles: Wen Chen-heng, 1585–1645) the great grandson of Wen Zhengming, a famous Ming dynasty painter, wrote a classic on garden architecture and interior design, Zhang Wu Zhi (On Superfluous Things). Ming Painting Chinese culture bloomed during the Ming dynasty. Narrative painting, with a wider color range and a much busier composition than the Song paintings, became very popular. As techniques of color printing were perfected, illustrated manuals on the art of painting began to be published. Jieziyuan Huazhuan (Manual of the Mustard Seed Garden), a five-volume work first published in 1679, has been in use as a technical textbook for artists and students ever since. Wen Zhengming (Traditional Chinese: 文徵明; Simplified Chinese: 文征明; Hanyu Pinyin: Wén Zhēngmíng; Wade-Giles: Wen Cheng-ming, 1470–1559), a leading Ming Dynasty painter and calligrapher, painted subjects of great simplicity, such as single trees or rocks. His discontent with official life is expressed as a feeling of strength through isolation in his works. Many of his works celebrate the contexts of elite social life for which they were created. Xu Wei (Chinese: 徐渭; pinyin: Xú Wèi, 1521—1593), a Ming Chinese painter, poet and dramatist, is considered the founder of modern painting in China. Revolutionary for its time, his painting style influenced and inspired countless subsequent painters, such as Zhu Da, the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou, and the modern masters Wu Changshuo and Qi Baishi. Matteo Ricci (October 6, 1552 – May 11, 1610; Traditional Chinese: 利瑪竇; Simplified Chinese: 利玛窦; pinyin: Lì Mǎdòu; courtesy name: 西泰 Xītài), an Italian Jesuit priest, arrived in China in 1583 and introduced Western geography, science, music, painting and technology for the first time to Chinese scholars. Qing Drama The best-known form of Chinese opera, Beijing opera, assumed its present form in the mid-nineteenth century and was popular during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911). It originated in the Chinese provinces of Anhui and Hubei. Its two main melodies, Xipi and Erhuang, come from Anhui and Hubei operas, and much of the dialogue is carried out in an archaic dialect originating partially from those regions. It is commonly believed that Beijing Opera was born when the Four Great Anhui Troupes came to Beijing in 1790. Originally staged for the court, it later became a form of public entertainment. In 1828, some famous Hubei troupes came to Beijing, where they performed on stage with Anhui troupes. Beijing opera’s main melodies evolved from this combination. Music and arias were also absorbed from other operas and musical arts such as the historic Qinqiang. In Beijing Opera, traditional Chinese string and percussion instruments provide a strong rhythmic accompaniment to the acting, in which stylized gestures, footwork, and other body movements express such actions as riding a horse, rowing a boat, or opening a door. Qing Poetry Yuan Mei, a well-known poet who lived during the Qing Dynasty, produced a large body of poetry, essays and paintings. His works reflected his interest in Zen Buddhism and the supernatural, at the expense of Daoism and institutional Buddhism—both of which he rejected. Yuan is most famous for his poetry, which has been described as “unusually clear and elegant language.” His views on poetry, elaborated on in the Suiyuan shihua (隨園詩話), stressed the importance of personal feeling and technical perfection. Early Qing Painting Bada Shanren (Template:Zh-cwl, (ca. 1626—1705), born as Zhu Da (朱耷), was a calligrapher and ink-and-wash (shuimohua) painter. His paintings feature sharp brush strokes which are attributed to the sideways manner by which he held his brush. Jiang Tingxi (Traditional Chinese: 蔣廷錫; Simplified Chinese: 蒋廷锡; Hanyu Pinyin: Jiǎng Tíngxí; Wade-Giles: Chiang T’ing-hsi, 1669–1732), courtesy name Yangsun (杨孙), was an editor of the 5020-volume state-sponsored encyclopedia Gǔjīn Túshū Jíchéng (Traditional Chinese: 古今圖書集成; Simplified Chinese: 古今图书集成; literally “Complete Collection of Illustrations and Writings from the Earliest to Current Times”), published in 1726 and compiled in collaboration with Chen Menglei during the reigns of Qing emperors Kangxi and Yongzheng. An official painter and grand secretary to the Imperial Court in Kyoto, Jiang Tingxi used a wide variety of artistic styles, and focused particularly on paintings of birds and flowers. He was also proficient in calligraphy. Yuanji Shih T’ao (born Zhu Ruoji (1642 – 1707) was a member of the Ming royal house who narrowly escaped in 1644 when the Ming dynasty fell to invading Manchurians and civil rebellion. He assumed the name Yuanji Shih T’ao and became a Buddhist monk, then converted to Daoism in 1693. One of the most famous individualist painters of the early Qing dynasty, he transgressed the rigidly codified techniques and styles of painting tradition. His formal innovations include drawing attention to the act of painting itself through the use of washes and bold, impressionistic brushstrokes; an interest in subjective perspective; and the use of negative or white space to suggest distance. Shanghai School (1850-1890) After the bloody Taiping rebellion broke out in 1853, wealthy Chinese refugees flocked to Shanghai where they prospered by trading with British, American, and French merchants in the foreign concessions there. Their patronage encouraged artists to come to Shanghai, where they congregated in groups and art associations and developed a new Shanghai style of painting. The new cultural environment, a rich combination of Western and Chinese lifestyles, traditional and modern, stimulated painters and presented them with new opportunities.[10] The Shanghai School (海上画派 Haishang Huapai or 海派 Haipai) challenged the literati tradition of Chinese art, while paying technical homage to the ancient masters and improving on existing traditional techniques. One of the most influential painters of the Shanghai school was Ren Xiong. Members of the Ren family and their students produced a number of innovations in painting between the 1860s and the 1890s, particularly in the traditional genres of figure painting and bird-and-flower painting. In an era of rapid social change, works from the Shanghai School were widely innovative and diverse, and often contained thoughtful yet subtle social commentary. The most well-known figures from this school are Ren Xiong (任熊), Ren Yi (任伯年, also known as Ren Bonian), Zhao Zhiqian (赵之谦), Wu Changshuo (吴昌硕), Sha Menghai (沙孟海, calligrapher), Pan Tianshou (潘天寿), Fu Baoshi (傅抱石). Other well-known painters are: Wang Zhen, XuGu, Zhang Xiong, Hu Yuan, and Yang Borun. Qing Fiction Many great works of art and literature originated during the period, and the Qianlong emperor in particular undertook huge projects to preserve important cultural texts. The novel became widely read and Dream of the Red Chamber, by Cao Xueqin, perhaps China’s most famous novel, was written in the mid-eighteenth century. Handwritten copies of this work, consisting of 80 chapters, were in circulation in Beijing shortly after Cao’s death, before Gao Ê, who claimed to have access to the former’s working papers, published a complete 120-chapter version in 1792. Pu Songling was a famous writer of Liaozhai Zhiyi 《聊齋志異》during the Qing dynasty. He opened a tea house and invited his guests to tell stories, and then compiled the tales in collections such as Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio. New China Art (1912-1949) Transformation After the end of the last dynasty in China, the New Culture Movement (1917 – 1923) defied all facets of traditionalism. A new breed of twentieth century cultural philosophers including Xiao Youmei, Cai Yuanpei, Feng Zikai and Wang Guangqi called for Chinese culture to modernize and reflect the “New China.” The Chinese Civil War (1927 – 1950) brought about by a split between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China, and the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937 – 1945), in particular the Battle of Shanghai, threw the Chinese art and cultural worlds into tumult. Nevertheless, several important developments of Chinese modern art took place during this period. The Big Three Shanghai became an entertainment center and the birthplace of the three new art forms, Chinese cinema, Chinese animation and Chinese popular music. Heavily inspired by Western technology, Chinese artists adapted it to Chinese culture in a positive way. The introduction of gramophone technology gave rise to shidaiqu (時代曲, “music of the time”), popular songs with Mandarin lyrics influenced by Western jazz. Composer Li Jinhui, regarded as the father of Chinese popular music, organized the Bright Moonlight Song and Dance Troupe which merged with the China Film Company in 1931. This troupe groomed several of the “seven great singing stars of the Republic of China” (Chinese: 七大歌星; pinyin: qī dà gēxīng), female vocalists who produced hundreds of recordings as well as acting in musical films. Comics The most popular form of comics, lianhuanhua, circulated as palm sized books in Shanghai, Guangzhou, Wuhan and Northern China. Comic books became one of the most affordable forms of entertainment. The famous Sanmao character was born at this time. Painting In the late 1800s and 1900s, Chinese painters were increasingly exposed to the Western art, and an artistic controversy arose over how to respond to it. Some artists who studied in Europe rejected Chinese painting; others tried to combine the best of both traditions. Qi Baishi (Simplified Chinese: 齐白石; Traditional Chinese: 齊白石; pinyin: Qí Báishí, also Ch’i Pai-shih) (January 1, 1864 – September 16, 1957) began life as a poor peasant and became a great painter of flowers and small animals and is known for the whimsical, often playful style of his watercolors. As an extension of the New Culture Movement Chinese artists started to adopt Western painting techniques. and oil painting was introduced to China. Some artists, including Zhang Daqian, Lin Fengmian, Pang Xunqin and Wu Zuoren, studied or worked abroad. Guohua As part of the effort to Westernize and modernize China during the first half of the twentieth century, art education in China’s modern schools taught European artistic techniques, which educators considered necessary for engineering and science. Painting in the traditional medium of ink and color on paper came to be referred to as guohua (国画, meaning ‘national’ or ‘native painting’), to distinguish it from Western-style oil painting, watercolor painting, or drawing. Various groups of traditionalist painters formed to defend and reform China’s heritage, believing that innovation could be achieved within China’s own cultural tradition. Some of them recognized similarities between Western modernism and the self-expressive and formalistic qualities of guohua, and turned to modernist oil painting. Others believed that the best qualities of Chinese civilization should never be abandoned, but did not agree on what those qualities were. One group of guohua painters, including Wu Changshi, Wang Zhen, Feng Zikai, Chen Hengke, and Fu Baoshi, were influenced by similar nationalistic trends in Japan and favored simple but bold imagery. Wu Hufan, He Tianjian, Chang Dai-chien and Zheng Yong, based their work upon a return to the highly refined classical techniques of the Song and Yuan periods. A third group, dominated by Xu Beihong, followed the footsteps of the Lingnan school in trying to reform Chinese ink painting by adding elements of Western realism. Communist Art (1950-1980s) Overview After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the Communist Party of China took full control of the government and established the Central Academy of Fine Arts and the Chinese Artists’ Association to direct artistic policy. Art was treated as a vehicle for ideology. Artists who did not comply with government policies were punished and sent to rural areas to be “re-educated” as farmers. During Mao Zedong’s Cultural Revolution (1966 – 1976), art schools were closed, and publication of art journals and major art exhibitions ceased. Many artists and intellectuals were exiled, lynched or imprisoned. Some traditional arts almost disappeared. As part of the Destruction of the Four Olds campaign,” museums and temples were pillaged and art treasures such as pottery, statuary and paintings were defaced and destroyed, not only in mainland China but also Tibet. Following the Cultural Revolution, art schools and professional organizations were reinstated. Exchanges were set up with groups of foreign artists, and Chinese artists began to experiment with new subjects and techniques. The Loss of the Big Three The Communist regime quickly classified popular music as yellow music (pornography), and began to promote revolutionary music (guoyue) instead. Many filmmakers, artists, and popular musicians immigrated to Hong Kong, Taiwan and Japan, where they fueled the development of modern Chinese art. Painting Artists were encouraged to employ socialist realism. Some Soviet Union socialist realism was directly imported, and painters were assigned subjects and expected to mass-produce paintings. This regimen was considerably relaxed in 1953, and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign of 1956–57, traditional Chinese painting experienced a significant revival. Along with these developments in professional art circles, there was a proliferation of peasant art depicting everyday life in the rural areas on wall murals and in open-air painting exhibitions. Notable modern Chinese painters include Huang Binhong, Qi Baishi, Xu Beihong, Chang Ta Chien, Pan Tianshou, Wu Changshi, Fu Baoshi, Wang Kangle and Zhang Chongren. Poetry Modern Chinese poems (新詩, free verse) usually do not follow any prescribed pattern. Bei Dao is the most notable representative of the Misty Poets, a group of Chinese poets who reacted against the restrictions of the Cultural Revolution. The work of the Misty Poets and Bei Dao in particular were an inspiration to pro-democracy movements in China. Most notable was his poem “Huida” (“The Answer”), which was written during the 1976 Tiananmen demonstrations in which he participated. The poem was taken up as a defiant anthem of the pro-appeared on posters during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. Xu Zhimo is a romantic poet who loved the poetry of the English Romantics like Keats and Shelley. He was one of the first Chinese writers to successfully naturalize Western romantic forms into modern Chinese poetry. Redevelopment (Mid-1980s-1990s) Contemporary Art Contemporary Chinese art (中国当代艺术, Zhongguo Dangdai Yishu), often referred to as Chinese avant-garde art, has continued to develop since the 1980s, when the restrictions of the Cultural Revolution were lifted. Contemporary Chinese art incorporates painting, film, video, photography, and performance. Until recently, art exhibitions deemed controversial were routinely shut down by police, and performance artists in particular faced the threat of arrest during the early 1990s. More recently there has been greater tolerance by the Chinese government, though many internationally acclaimed artists are still restricted from media exposure at home or have their exhibitions closed by government order. Leading contemporary visual artists include Ai Weiwei, Cai Guoqiang, Cai Xin, Fang Lijun, Huang Yan, Huang Yong Ping, Kong Bai Ji, Lu Shengzhong, Ma Liuming, Ma Qingyun, Song Dong, Li Wei, Christine Wang, Wang Guangyi, Wang Qingsong, Wenda Gu, Xu Bing, Yang Zhichao, Zhan Wang, Zhang Dali, Zhang Xiaogang, Zhang Huan, Zhu Yu, Yan Lei, and Zhang Yue. Visual Art Beginning in the late 1980s younger Chinese visual artists received unprecedented exposure in the West through Chinese museum curators based outside the country. Museum curators within China, such as Gao Minglu, and critics such as Li Xianting (栗宪庭) have reinforced the promotion of particular newly-emerged brands of painting, and spread the idea of art as a strong social force within Chinese culture. Critics contend that these curators are exercising personal preferences and that the majority of avant-garde Chinese artists are alienated from Chinese officialdom and the patronage of the Western art market. Contemporary Chinese Art Market The market for Chinese art, both contemporary and ancient, has exploded in recent years. Globalization has increased Western awareness of and appreciation for Chinese art, and the growth of a wealthy middle class in China has created a new market within China. In 2008, China overtook France as the world’s third-largest art market, after the United States and the United Kingdom.[11] [12]The 798 Art District, or Dashanzi, in East Beijing, where artists and dealers work out of Bauhaus-style factories built in the 1950s, has grown so popular since it surfaced six years ago that it is jammed with visitors on weekends. There are an estimated 20,000 artists in the Peoples’ Republic of China and one thousand more graduate every year[13]. A 1993 painting, “Tiananmen Square” by Zhang Xiaogang sold for USD $2.3 million in Hong Kong in 2006. A 1964 painting “All the Mountains Blanketed in Red” was sold for HKD $35 million. Sotheby’s auctioned Xu Beihong’s 1939 masterpiece “Put Down Your Whip” for US $9,220,839 [14]. In 2006 Christie’s sold a Chinese porcelain bowl with the mark of Emperor Qianlong for US $19,376,569[15]. There is concern that increased competition is driving prices artificially high, and that buyers are too inexperienced to distinguish valuable pieces from forgeries or second-rate art. Appendix Notes Anneliese Bulling. The Decoration of Mirrors of the Han Period: A Chronology. (Ascona: Artibus Asiae, 1960), 22. Bulling, (1960), 52. Bulling, (1960), 51. Latest Discovery Challenges China’s Long-term Paper-making Theory. May 13, 2002. people daily. Retrieved October 11, 2008. Chinavoc. “Artistic Creations from Nimble fingers. Retrieved September 2, 2008. Joseph Needham. Chemistry and Chemical Technology. (1974) (Cambridge University Press) Robert James Lang. The Complete Book of Origami: Step-by Step Instructions in Over 1000 Diagrams/48 Original Models. (Courier Dover Publications. 1988) Joseph Needham, (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics. (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.), Plate CCCXII ‘Keith Bradsher, ‘New York Times ‘China’s Mona Lisa’ Makes a Rare Appearance in Hong Kong The New York Times, (July 3, 2007) Retrieved September 3, 2008. Dr. Julia Andrews and Kuiyi Shen. Guggenheim Museum of Art: Exhibit of Modern Chinese Painting Ohio State University. retrieved August 23, 2008. Tom Spender (May 2, 2008) Culture and art Beijing style Emirates Business 24-7. Retrieved September 3, 2008. Reshmi Dasgupta, The Economic Times China way ahead of India in Contemporary art, The Economic Times, March 11, 2008. Retrieved September 3, 2008. Adrienne Mong, (May 29, 2007). China’s Art Scene MSNBC. Retrieved on September 3, 2008. Le-Min Lim, (May 29, 2007) Stanley Ho Buys Chinese Emperor’s Throne for HK$13.7 Million. Bloomberg. Retrieved September 3, 2008. Adrienne Mong, (May 29, 2007). China’s Art Scene MSNBC Retrieved on September 3, 2008. References Barnhart, Richard M., et al. Three Thousand Years of Chinese Painting. Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art: 2002. Bulling, Anneliese. The Decoration of Mirrors of the Han Period: A Chronology. Ascona: Artibus Asiae, 1960. Chi, Lillian, et al. A Dictionary of Chinese Ceramics. Sun Tree Publishing: 2003. Clunas, Craig. Art in China. Oxford University Press: 1997. Ebrey, Patricia, et al. Taoism and the Arts of China. University of California Press: 2000. Gowers, David, et al. Chinese Jade from the Neolithic to the Qing. Art Media Resources: 2002. Harper, Prudence Oliver. China: Dawn Of A Golden Age (200-750 C.E.). Yale University Press: 2004. Lang, Robert James. The Complete Book of Origami: Step-by Step Instructions in Over 1000 Diagrams/48 Original Models. Courier Dover Publications, 1988. Mascarelli, Gloria, and Robert Mascarelli. The Ceramics of China: 5000 B.C.E. to 1900 C.E. Schiffer Publishing: 2003. Needham, Joseph. Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Cambridge University Press, 1974. Sturman, Peter Charles. Mi Fu: Style and the Art of Calligraphy in Northern Song China. Yale University Press: 2004. Sullivan, Michael. The Arts of China, Fourth edition. University of California Press: 2000. Tregear, Mary. Chinese Art. Thames & Hudson: 1997. Watson, William. The Arts of China to AD 900. Yale University Press: 1995. Chinese Paintings, Chi Baishi Album Paintings, MSN. Retrieved September 3, 2008. Chinese Art and Architecture, MSN Encarta. Retrieved September 3, 2008. Chinese art, The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Retrieved September 3, 2008.
2073	dbpedia	3	12	https://dbpedia.org/page/Mi_Fu	en	About: Mi Fu	http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg?width=300	http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg?width=300	[ "https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/dbpedia_logo_land_120.png", "http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg?width=300", "https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/virt_power_no_border.png", "https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/LoDLogo.gif", "https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/sw-sparq...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi.			DBpedia	http://dbpedia.org/resource/Mi_Fu	dbo:abstract Mi Fu (1051-1107), també conegut com a Mi Fei, va ser un pintor xinès, poeta i cal·lígraf nascut a Taiyuan, Shanxi, durant la dinastia Song. El seu estil de la pintura de paisatges era boirós; anomenat estil "Mi Fu" i que es fonamenta amb l'ús de grans taques de tinta humida que realitzava amb una brotxa plana. (ca) Mi Fu (čínsky 米芾 nebo 米黻; pinyin Mǐ Fú; 1051–1107) byl čínský malíř, básník a kaligraf. V malířství je znám podle typického stylu malování mlžných krajin, založeného na velkých skvrnách tuše nanášených plochým štětcem. V básnictví následoval Li Poa a v kaligrafii byl jeho vzorem Wang Si-č’. V osobním životě byl Mi Fu alkoholik a choval se excentricky, takže mu někdy přezdívali „bláznivý Mi“. Jeho syn se rovněž stal známým malířem. (cs) Mi Fu, auch genannt der „alte Mi“ (chinesisch 米芾, Pinyin Mǐ Fú, Jyutping Mai5 Fat1, Geburtsname als 米黻 geschrieben, * 1051 in der Provinz Jiangsu; † 1107 in Kaifeng), war ein berühmter chinesischer Maler zur Zeit der Nördlichen-Song (960–1126). (de) MI Fu (ĉine: 米黻, Mǐ Fú) ankaŭ konata kiel Mi Fei (米芾; naskiĝis en 1051 en Tajvano; mortis en 1107) estis ĉina poeto, kaligrafo kaj pejzaĝisto de la dinastio Song, aŭtoro de la traktato Hua Shi pri pentrarto. Li famiĝis en pentrarto pro sia stilo pentri nebulajn pejzaĝojn. Tian stilon, kiu uzis multe malsekajn inkopunktojn aldonitajn per plata peniko, oni nomis poste la Mi-Fu-stilon. Lia poezio sekvis la stilon de Li Bai kaj lia kaligrafio tiun de . Lia aparta stilo malŝategis lin ĉe la Song-kortumo. Oni plej bone konas lin pro liaj kaligrafiaĵoj, kaj oni taksis lin kiel unu el la kvar plej grandaj kaligrafistoj de la dinastio Song. Lia kaligrafa stilo devenis de kaligrafoj de antaŭaj dinastioj, sed li alportis unikan propran markon al ĝi. La personecon de Mi Fu oni konsideris ekscentra. Iam oni eĉ nomis ĝin "frenezulo Mi" ĉar lin obsedis kolektado de ŝtonoj, kaj li eĉ deklaris ke unu el tiuj ŝtonoj estis lia frato. Oni konis lin ankaŭ kiel drinkemulo. Lia filo, , estis ankaŭ fama pentristo laŭ la stilo de sia patro. Malsame kiel sia patro Mi Youren longe vivis kaj mortis nur 79-jara. (eo) Mi-Fei (1051-1107), también conocido como Mi Fu fue un pintor, poeta y funcionario público chino. Había nacido en Taiyuan, Shanxi durante la dinastía Song. En el ámbito de la pintura ganó reconocimiento por sus paisajes con neblina. Su particular estilo sería denominado «estilo Mi Fu» e incluía el uso de grandes manchas de tinta húmeda aplicada con un pincel chato. Su poesía estaba compuesta en estilo Li Bai, mientras que su caligrafía seguía el estilo de Wang Xizhi. Su estilo desinhibido hizo que no gozara de demasiada simpatía en la corte Song. Su madre, camarera de la emperatriz (la mujer del emperador Renzong), le consiguió una colocación militar en Anhui. Pero la fama de su talento pictórico le valió ser nombrado pintor de cámara; más tarde fue secretario de la Junta de ritos y luego desempeñó cargos oficiales en diversas provincias, muriendo en una de ellas. Como literato, su estilo era exagerado e incorrecto en alto grado, pero como pintor mereció justas alabanzas, especialmente por sus paisajes y figuras de hombres y animales. Mi-Fei tenía la monomanía de la limpieza y se negaba a usar servilletas, platos o vasos que hubiesen servido en otra ocasión. Era grandemente excéntrico y sus rarezas le perjudicaron en su carrera oficial. Escribió un Tratado de dibujo y algunas obras de amena literatura. (es) Mi Fu (Taiyuan, Shanxi, Txina, 1051 - 1107), (txineraz: 米黻; pinyineraz: Mǐ Fú), Song dinastia garaiko margolari, poeta, eta kaligrafialari txinatarra izan zen. Laino paisaiak margozteagatik egin zen famatu eta hori dela eta "Mi Fu" estiloa zabaldu zen ondorengo margolari txinatarren artean. Mi Fuk egindako poesiak Li Bairen estiloa jarraitu zuen eta bere kaligrafia eredua izan zuen. Song dinastia garaiko kaligrafialaririk onena izan zen. (eu) Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi. Mi Fu is regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers of the Song dynasty, alongside Su Shi, Hung Tingjian and Cai Xian. His style is derived from calligraphers in earlier dynasties, although he developed unique traits of his own. As a personality, Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric; including a mania of cleanliness. At times, he was deemed "Madman Mi" due to his obsession with collecting stones. He was also known to be a heavy drinker. His son, , also became a well known painter following in his father's artistic style. (en) Mi Fu (chinois : 米芾 ; pinyin : mǐ fú) ou Mi Fou ou Mi Fei, également nommé fú (黻), surnom : Yuanzhang (元章), noms de pinceau : Mi Nangong (米南宮), Xiangyang Manshi (襄陽漫士), Haiyue Waishi (海岳外史), Lumen Jushi (鹿門居士), né en 1051 à Xiangyang (province de Hubei), mort en 1107 à Huaiyang (province du Jiangxi), fut un peintre chinois du XIe siècle. Célèbre lettré, calligraphe, peintre et esthète, Mi Fu est une de ces personnalités qui ont non seulement exercé sur l'évolution de la peinture chinoise une influence fondamentale, mais plus généralement, ont contribué à modeler les goûts de l'honnête homme chinois. L'importance de son rôle est sans commune mesure avec son œuvre peinte proprement dite. Esprit clairvoyant, passionné et tenace, il apporte une nouvelle esthétique et se fait le porte-parole flamboyant d'une conception nouvelle de l'activité picturale, à partir de laquelle se développera ultérieurement la peinture des lettrés, le Wenren hua. Le bouddhisme qu'il aurait rencontré dans sa jeunesse au contact d'un adepte du chan l'a conduit, dans ses dernières années, à étudier le chan à une période qui correspond à son activité de peintre. Son œuvre picturale date uniquement des sept dernières années de sa vie. (fr) Mi Fu (Hanzi: 米芾 or 米黻; Pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051–1107) adalah seorang pelukis penyair, dan kaligrafer Tiongkok yang lahir di Taiyuan pada zaman dinasti Song. Ia paling dikenal karena kaligrafinya, dan ia diangkat sebagai salah satu dari empat kaligrafer terbesar pada zaman dinasti Song. (in) Mi Fu (米黻T o 米芾T, Mǐ FúP; Taiyuan, 1051 – 1107) è stato un pittore, poeta e calligrafo cinese. Montagne e pini in primavera (parte), National Palace Museum (Taipei) (it) 미불(米芾, 1051년~1107년)은 중국 북송 시대의 학자, 서예가이다. 채양, 소동파, 황정견과 함께 송4대가로 불린다. 자(字)는 원장(元章)으로 양양만사(襄陽漫士), 해악외사(海岳外史) 등의 호(號)가 있다. 휘종에게 소치(召致)되어 서화학 박사가 되었고, 그의 탁월하고 직관적인 감식안은 그의 비망록 <화사(畵史)> 중에서도 엿볼 수가 있다. 붓을 쓰지않고, 연근이나 사탕수수의 짜고 난 찌꺼기 등을 구사한 조방(粗放)한 화풍은 후세에 '미가산(米家山)'이라 불리는 형식화된 점태법(點苔法)으로 변질되어 남종(南宗) 문인화(文人畵)에 많이 이용되었다. 이 문서에는 다음커뮤니케이션(현 카카오)에서 GFDL 또는 CC-SA 라이선스로 배포한 글로벌 세계대백과사전의 내용을 기초로 작성된 글이 포함되어 있습니다. (ko) Mi Fu (米芾 of 米黻; 1051–1107) was een Chinees kunstschilder, dichter, kalligraaf en connaisseur uit de Song-periode. Hij maakte naam met zijn shan shui-landschappen en zijn kalligrafieën. Daarnaast stond Mi bekend om zijn excentrieke levensstijl en zijn omvangrijke verzamelingen. (nl) 米芾（べいふつ、皇祐3年（1051年） - 大観元年（1107年））は、中国の北宋末の文学者・書家・画家・収蔵家・であり、特に書画の専門家として活躍した。初名は黻（ふつ）。字は元章（げんしょう）。官職によって南宮（なんぐう）、住拠によって海嶽（かいがく）と呼ばれ、号は襄陽漫仕（じょうようまんし）・海嶽外史（かいがくがいし）・鹿門居士（ろくもんこじ）などがあり、室名を宝晋斎といった。子の米友仁に対して大米と呼ぶ。襄州襄陽県の人で、後に潤州（現在の江蘇省鎮江市）に居を定めた。 (ja) Mi Fei (米芾), znany także jako Mi Fu (米黻), ur. 1051, zm. 1107 – chiński malarz i teoretyk sztuki z czasów dynastii Song. Malował przeważnie krajobrazy utrzymane w tonacji czarno-białej, posługując się wyłącznie tuszem. Uznawany jest za mistrza w przedstawianiu pejzaży z mgłą nad powierzchnią wody i zamglonych szczytów gór. Uważa się go za twórcę songowskiej szkoły malarstwa, choć zdaniem innych był jedynie uzdolnionym naśladowcą Wang Weia. Sam posiadał olbrzymią kolekcję obrazów. (pl) Mi Fei eller Mi Fu (kinesiska: 米芾 Mi Fu den gamle Mi, Pinyin: Mǐ Fú) född 1051 i provinsen Jiangsu i Kina, död 1107 i Kaifeng, var en berömd kinesisk konstnär, poet och kalligraf under Songdynastin. Han levde samtidigt som Su Dongpo. Hans son var , den unge Mi. Mi Fei utvecklade ny stil inom tuschmåleri, påminnande om den västerländska akvarelltekniken. Stilen utövades av hans son på samma sätt och stilen kallas Mis-stil eller Mi-stil. Mi Fu ansågs av många vara en av de främsta kinesiska kalligraferna någonsin och hans verk i semikursiv skrift var åtrådda samlarobjekt. (sv) 米芾（fú）（1051年－1107年），北宋书画家。初名黻（fú），字元章，太原人，號襄阳漫士、海岳外史、鹿门居士。北宋著名书法家、书画理论家、画家、鉴定家、收藏家。 (zh) Ми Фэй (кит. 米黻, 1051—1107, также известен как Ми Фу) — китайский художник, поэт и каллиграф согдийского происхождения. Предки Ми Фэя происходили из города Тайюань. Поскольку его мать была кормилицей императора Ин-цзуна, Ми Фэй рос в императорском дворце и свободно общался со знатью, что послужило толчком к развитию его талантов в каллиграфии и живописи. Основное занятие — государственный служащий. На протяжении жизни занимал должности в Императорской библиотеке, военного губернатора Увэя в Аньхой, секретаря в Совете по ритуалам и губернатора Хуайяна в Цзянсу. Ми Фу был женат и имел пять сыновей, из которых выжили только два старших, и восемь дочерей. В живописи он прославился своими туманными, поэтически-вольными пейзажами, в которых пятна туши, нанесённые с помощью плоской щётки, могли иметь большую выразительность, чем линии и контуры. Больше всего в живописи Ми Фэй ценил самовыражение, что соответствовало его свободолюбивому и индивидуалистическому нраву. В поэзии он был последователем стиля Ли Бая, а в каллиграфии — Ван Сичжи. Как каллиграф он стал наиболее известен и считался одним из четырёх лучших каллиграфов империи Сун. Ми Фэй считался современниками очень эксцентричным человеком и за свои выходки получил прозвище «Сумасшедший Ми». Он коллекционировал камни, и однажды он собрал несколько штук, объявив один из них своим старшим братом и поклоняясь ему как старшему члену семьи. Известно также, что Ми Фэй злоупотреблял алкоголем. Его сын Ми Южэнь также стал известным живописцем, но прожил, в отличие от отца, до преклонных лет. (ru) Мі Фу (1051 —1107) — один з провідних живописців та каліграфів часів династії Північна Сун. (uk) rdfs:comment Mi Fu (1051-1107), també conegut com a Mi Fei, va ser un pintor xinès, poeta i cal·lígraf nascut a Taiyuan, Shanxi, durant la dinastia Song. El seu estil de la pintura de paisatges era boirós; anomenat estil "Mi Fu" i que es fonamenta amb l'ús de grans taques de tinta humida que realitzava amb una brotxa plana. (ca) Mi Fu (čínsky 米芾 nebo 米黻; pinyin Mǐ Fú; 1051–1107) byl čínský malíř, básník a kaligraf. V malířství je znám podle typického stylu malování mlžných krajin, založeného na velkých skvrnách tuše nanášených plochým štětcem. V básnictví následoval Li Poa a v kaligrafii byl jeho vzorem Wang Si-č’. V osobním životě byl Mi Fu alkoholik a choval se excentricky, takže mu někdy přezdívali „bláznivý Mi“. Jeho syn se rovněž stal známým malířem. (cs) Mi Fu, auch genannt der „alte Mi“ (chinesisch 米芾, Pinyin Mǐ Fú, Jyutping Mai5 Fat1, Geburtsname als 米黻 geschrieben, 1051 in der Provinz Jiangsu; † 1107 in Kaifeng), war ein berühmter chinesischer Maler zur Zeit der Nördlichen-Song (960–1126). (de) Mi Fu (Taiyuan, Shanxi, Txina, 1051 - 1107), (txineraz: 米黻; pinyineraz: Mǐ Fú), Song dinastia garaiko margolari, poeta, eta kaligrafialari txinatarra izan zen. Laino paisaiak margozteagatik egin zen famatu eta hori dela eta "Mi Fu" estiloa zabaldu zen ondorengo margolari txinatarren artean. Mi Fuk egindako poesiak Li Bairen estiloa jarraitu zuen eta bere kaligrafia eredua izan zuen. Song dinastia garaiko kaligrafialaririk onena izan zen. (eu) Mi Fu (Hanzi: 米芾 or 米黻; Pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051–1107) adalah seorang pelukis penyair, dan kaligrafer Tiongkok yang lahir di Taiyuan pada zaman dinasti Song. Ia paling dikenal karena kaligrafinya, dan ia diangkat sebagai salah satu dari empat kaligrafer terbesar pada zaman dinasti Song. (in) Mi Fu (米黻T o 米芾T, Mǐ FúP; Taiyuan, 1051 – 1107) è stato un pittore, poeta e calligrafo cinese. Montagne e pini in primavera (parte), National Palace Museum (Taipei) (it) 미불(米芾, 1051년~1107년)은 중국 북송 시대의 학자, 서예가이다. 채양, 소동파, 황정견과 함께 송4대가로 불린다. 자(字)는 원장(元章)으로 양양만사(襄陽漫士), 해악외사(海岳外史) 등의 호(號)가 있다. 휘종에게 소치(召致)되어 서화학 박사가 되었고, 그의 탁월하고 직관적인 감식안은 그의 비망록 <화사(畵史)> 중에서도 엿볼 수가 있다. 붓을 쓰지않고, 연근이나 사탕수수의 짜고 난 찌꺼기 등을 구사한 조방(粗放)한 화풍은 후세에 '미가산(米家山)'이라 불리는 형식화된 점태법(點苔法)으로 변질되어 남종(南宗) 문인화(文人畵)에 많이 이용되었다. 이 문서에는 다음커뮤니케이션(현 카카오)에서 GFDL 또는 CC-SA 라이선스로 배포한 글로벌 세계대백과사전의 내용을 기초로 작성된 글이 포함되어 있습니다. (ko) Mi Fu (米芾 of 米黻; 1051–1107) was een Chinees kunstschilder, dichter, kalligraaf en connaisseur uit de Song-periode. Hij maakte naam met zijn shan shui-landschappen en zijn kalligrafieën. Daarnaast stond Mi bekend om zijn excentrieke levensstijl en zijn omvangrijke verzamelingen. (nl) 米芾（べいふつ、皇祐3年（1051年） - 大観元年（1107年））は、中国の北宋末の文学者・書家・画家・収蔵家・であり、特に書画の専門家として活躍した。初名は黻（ふつ）。字は元章（げんしょう）。官職によって南宮（なんぐう）、住拠によって海嶽（かいがく）と呼ばれ、号は襄陽漫仕（じょうようまんし）・海嶽外史（かいがくがいし）・鹿門居士（ろくもんこじ）などがあり、室名を宝晋斎といった。子の米友仁に対して大米と呼ぶ。襄州襄陽県の人で、後に潤州（現在の江蘇省鎮江市）に居を定めた。 (ja) Mi Fei (米芾), znany także jako Mi Fu (米黻), ur. 1051, zm. 1107 – chiński malarz i teoretyk sztuki z czasów dynastii Song. Malował przeważnie krajobrazy utrzymane w tonacji czarno-białej, posługując się wyłącznie tuszem. Uznawany jest za mistrza w przedstawianiu pejzaży z mgłą nad powierzchnią wody i zamglonych szczytów gór. Uważa się go za twórcę songowskiej szkoły malarstwa, choć zdaniem innych był jedynie uzdolnionym naśladowcą Wang Weia. Sam posiadał olbrzymią kolekcję obrazów. (pl) Mi Fei eller Mi Fu (kinesiska: 米芾 Mi Fu den gamle Mi, Pinyin: Mǐ Fú) född 1051 i provinsen Jiangsu i Kina, död 1107 i Kaifeng, var en berömd kinesisk konstnär, poet och kalligraf under Songdynastin. Han levde samtidigt som Su Dongpo. Hans son var , den unge Mi. Mi Fei utvecklade ny stil inom tuschmåleri, påminnande om den västerländska akvarelltekniken. Stilen utövades av hans son på samma sätt och stilen kallas Mis-stil eller Mi-stil. Mi Fu ansågs av många vara en av de främsta kinesiska kalligraferna någonsin och hans verk i semikursiv skrift var åtrådda samlarobjekt. (sv) 米芾（fú）（1051年－1107年），北宋书画家。初名黻（fú），字元章，太原人，號襄阳漫士、海岳外史、鹿门居士。北宋著名书法家、书画理论家、画家、鉴定家、收藏家。 (zh) Мі Фу (*1051 —1107) — один з провідних живописців та каліграфів часів династії Північна Сун. (uk) MI Fu (ĉine: 米黻, Mǐ Fú) ankaŭ konata kiel Mi Fei (米芾; naskiĝis en 1051 en Tajvano; mortis en 1107) estis ĉina poeto, kaligrafo kaj pejzaĝisto de la dinastio Song, aŭtoro de la traktato Hua Shi pri pentrarto. Li famiĝis en pentrarto pro sia stilo pentri nebulajn pejzaĝojn. Tian stilon, kiu uzis multe malsekajn inkopunktojn aldonitajn per plata peniko, oni nomis poste la Mi-Fu-stilon. Lia poezio sekvis la stilon de Li Bai kaj lia kaligrafio tiun de . Lia aparta stilo malŝategis lin ĉe la Song-kortumo. (eo) Mi-Fei (1051-1107), también conocido como Mi Fu fue un pintor, poeta y funcionario público chino. Había nacido en Taiyuan, Shanxi durante la dinastía Song. En el ámbito de la pintura ganó reconocimiento por sus paisajes con neblina. Su particular estilo sería denominado «estilo Mi Fu» e incluía el uso de grandes manchas de tinta húmeda aplicada con un pincel chato. Su poesía estaba compuesta en estilo Li Bai, mientras que su caligrafía seguía el estilo de Wang Xizhi. Su estilo desinhibido hizo que no gozara de demasiada simpatía en la corte Song. (es) Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi. (en) Mi Fu (chinois : 米芾 ; pinyin : mǐ fú) ou Mi Fou ou Mi Fei, également nommé fú (黻), surnom : Yuanzhang (元章), noms de pinceau : Mi Nangong (米南宮), Xiangyang Manshi (襄陽漫士), Haiyue Waishi (海岳外史), Lumen Jushi (鹿門居士), né en 1051 à Xiangyang (province de Hubei), mort en 1107 à Huaiyang (province du Jiangxi), fut un peintre chinois du XIe siècle. (fr) Ми Фэй (кит. 米黻, 1051—1107, также известен как Ми Фу) — китайский художник, поэт и каллиграф согдийского происхождения. Предки Ми Фэя происходили из города Тайюань. Поскольку его мать была кормилицей императора Ин-цзуна, Ми Фэй рос в императорском дворце и свободно общался со знатью, что послужило толчком к развитию его талантов в каллиграфии и живописи. Его сын Ми Южэнь также стал известным живописцем, но прожил, в отличие от отца, до преклонных лет. (ru)
2073	dbpedia	0	10	https://dbpedia.org/page/Mi_Fu	en	About: Mi Fu	http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg?width=300	http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg?width=300	[ "https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/dbpedia_logo_land_120.png", "http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg?width=300", "https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/virt_power_no_border.png", "https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/LoDLogo.gif", "https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/sw-sparq...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi.			DBpedia	http://dbpedia.org/resource/Mi_Fu	dbo:abstract Mi Fu (1051-1107), també conegut com a Mi Fei, va ser un pintor xinès, poeta i cal·lígraf nascut a Taiyuan, Shanxi, durant la dinastia Song. El seu estil de la pintura de paisatges era boirós; anomenat estil "Mi Fu" i que es fonamenta amb l'ús de grans taques de tinta humida que realitzava amb una brotxa plana. (ca) Mi Fu (čínsky 米芾 nebo 米黻; pinyin Mǐ Fú; 1051–1107) byl čínský malíř, básník a kaligraf. V malířství je znám podle typického stylu malování mlžných krajin, založeného na velkých skvrnách tuše nanášených plochým štětcem. V básnictví následoval Li Poa a v kaligrafii byl jeho vzorem Wang Si-č’. V osobním životě byl Mi Fu alkoholik a choval se excentricky, takže mu někdy přezdívali „bláznivý Mi“. Jeho syn se rovněž stal známým malířem. (cs) Mi Fu, auch genannt der „alte Mi“ (chinesisch 米芾, Pinyin Mǐ Fú, Jyutping Mai5 Fat1, Geburtsname als 米黻 geschrieben, * 1051 in der Provinz Jiangsu; † 1107 in Kaifeng), war ein berühmter chinesischer Maler zur Zeit der Nördlichen-Song (960–1126). (de) MI Fu (ĉine: 米黻, Mǐ Fú) ankaŭ konata kiel Mi Fei (米芾; naskiĝis en 1051 en Tajvano; mortis en 1107) estis ĉina poeto, kaligrafo kaj pejzaĝisto de la dinastio Song, aŭtoro de la traktato Hua Shi pri pentrarto. Li famiĝis en pentrarto pro sia stilo pentri nebulajn pejzaĝojn. Tian stilon, kiu uzis multe malsekajn inkopunktojn aldonitajn per plata peniko, oni nomis poste la Mi-Fu-stilon. Lia poezio sekvis la stilon de Li Bai kaj lia kaligrafio tiun de . Lia aparta stilo malŝategis lin ĉe la Song-kortumo. Oni plej bone konas lin pro liaj kaligrafiaĵoj, kaj oni taksis lin kiel unu el la kvar plej grandaj kaligrafistoj de la dinastio Song. Lia kaligrafa stilo devenis de kaligrafoj de antaŭaj dinastioj, sed li alportis unikan propran markon al ĝi. La personecon de Mi Fu oni konsideris ekscentra. Iam oni eĉ nomis ĝin "frenezulo Mi" ĉar lin obsedis kolektado de ŝtonoj, kaj li eĉ deklaris ke unu el tiuj ŝtonoj estis lia frato. Oni konis lin ankaŭ kiel drinkemulo. Lia filo, , estis ankaŭ fama pentristo laŭ la stilo de sia patro. Malsame kiel sia patro Mi Youren longe vivis kaj mortis nur 79-jara. (eo) Mi-Fei (1051-1107), también conocido como Mi Fu fue un pintor, poeta y funcionario público chino. Había nacido en Taiyuan, Shanxi durante la dinastía Song. En el ámbito de la pintura ganó reconocimiento por sus paisajes con neblina. Su particular estilo sería denominado «estilo Mi Fu» e incluía el uso de grandes manchas de tinta húmeda aplicada con un pincel chato. Su poesía estaba compuesta en estilo Li Bai, mientras que su caligrafía seguía el estilo de Wang Xizhi. Su estilo desinhibido hizo que no gozara de demasiada simpatía en la corte Song. Su madre, camarera de la emperatriz (la mujer del emperador Renzong), le consiguió una colocación militar en Anhui. Pero la fama de su talento pictórico le valió ser nombrado pintor de cámara; más tarde fue secretario de la Junta de ritos y luego desempeñó cargos oficiales en diversas provincias, muriendo en una de ellas. Como literato, su estilo era exagerado e incorrecto en alto grado, pero como pintor mereció justas alabanzas, especialmente por sus paisajes y figuras de hombres y animales. Mi-Fei tenía la monomanía de la limpieza y se negaba a usar servilletas, platos o vasos que hubiesen servido en otra ocasión. Era grandemente excéntrico y sus rarezas le perjudicaron en su carrera oficial. Escribió un Tratado de dibujo y algunas obras de amena literatura. (es) Mi Fu (Taiyuan, Shanxi, Txina, 1051 - 1107), (txineraz: 米黻; pinyineraz: Mǐ Fú), Song dinastia garaiko margolari, poeta, eta kaligrafialari txinatarra izan zen. Laino paisaiak margozteagatik egin zen famatu eta hori dela eta "Mi Fu" estiloa zabaldu zen ondorengo margolari txinatarren artean. Mi Fuk egindako poesiak Li Bairen estiloa jarraitu zuen eta bere kaligrafia eredua izan zuen. Song dinastia garaiko kaligrafialaririk onena izan zen. (eu) Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi. Mi Fu is regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers of the Song dynasty, alongside Su Shi, Hung Tingjian and Cai Xian. His style is derived from calligraphers in earlier dynasties, although he developed unique traits of his own. As a personality, Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric; including a mania of cleanliness. At times, he was deemed "Madman Mi" due to his obsession with collecting stones. He was also known to be a heavy drinker. His son, , also became a well known painter following in his father's artistic style. (en) Mi Fu (chinois : 米芾 ; pinyin : mǐ fú) ou Mi Fou ou Mi Fei, également nommé fú (黻), surnom : Yuanzhang (元章), noms de pinceau : Mi Nangong (米南宮), Xiangyang Manshi (襄陽漫士), Haiyue Waishi (海岳外史), Lumen Jushi (鹿門居士), né en 1051 à Xiangyang (province de Hubei), mort en 1107 à Huaiyang (province du Jiangxi), fut un peintre chinois du XIe siècle. Célèbre lettré, calligraphe, peintre et esthète, Mi Fu est une de ces personnalités qui ont non seulement exercé sur l'évolution de la peinture chinoise une influence fondamentale, mais plus généralement, ont contribué à modeler les goûts de l'honnête homme chinois. L'importance de son rôle est sans commune mesure avec son œuvre peinte proprement dite. Esprit clairvoyant, passionné et tenace, il apporte une nouvelle esthétique et se fait le porte-parole flamboyant d'une conception nouvelle de l'activité picturale, à partir de laquelle se développera ultérieurement la peinture des lettrés, le Wenren hua. Le bouddhisme qu'il aurait rencontré dans sa jeunesse au contact d'un adepte du chan l'a conduit, dans ses dernières années, à étudier le chan à une période qui correspond à son activité de peintre. Son œuvre picturale date uniquement des sept dernières années de sa vie. (fr) Mi Fu (Hanzi: 米芾 or 米黻; Pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051–1107) adalah seorang pelukis penyair, dan kaligrafer Tiongkok yang lahir di Taiyuan pada zaman dinasti Song. Ia paling dikenal karena kaligrafinya, dan ia diangkat sebagai salah satu dari empat kaligrafer terbesar pada zaman dinasti Song. (in) Mi Fu (米黻T o 米芾T, Mǐ FúP; Taiyuan, 1051 – 1107) è stato un pittore, poeta e calligrafo cinese. Montagne e pini in primavera (parte), National Palace Museum (Taipei) (it) 미불(米芾, 1051년~1107년)은 중국 북송 시대의 학자, 서예가이다. 채양, 소동파, 황정견과 함께 송4대가로 불린다. 자(字)는 원장(元章)으로 양양만사(襄陽漫士), 해악외사(海岳外史) 등의 호(號)가 있다. 휘종에게 소치(召致)되어 서화학 박사가 되었고, 그의 탁월하고 직관적인 감식안은 그의 비망록 <화사(畵史)> 중에서도 엿볼 수가 있다. 붓을 쓰지않고, 연근이나 사탕수수의 짜고 난 찌꺼기 등을 구사한 조방(粗放)한 화풍은 후세에 '미가산(米家山)'이라 불리는 형식화된 점태법(點苔法)으로 변질되어 남종(南宗) 문인화(文人畵)에 많이 이용되었다. 이 문서에는 다음커뮤니케이션(현 카카오)에서 GFDL 또는 CC-SA 라이선스로 배포한 글로벌 세계대백과사전의 내용을 기초로 작성된 글이 포함되어 있습니다. (ko) Mi Fu (米芾 of 米黻; 1051–1107) was een Chinees kunstschilder, dichter, kalligraaf en connaisseur uit de Song-periode. Hij maakte naam met zijn shan shui-landschappen en zijn kalligrafieën. Daarnaast stond Mi bekend om zijn excentrieke levensstijl en zijn omvangrijke verzamelingen. (nl) 米芾（べいふつ、皇祐3年（1051年） - 大観元年（1107年））は、中国の北宋末の文学者・書家・画家・収蔵家・であり、特に書画の専門家として活躍した。初名は黻（ふつ）。字は元章（げんしょう）。官職によって南宮（なんぐう）、住拠によって海嶽（かいがく）と呼ばれ、号は襄陽漫仕（じょうようまんし）・海嶽外史（かいがくがいし）・鹿門居士（ろくもんこじ）などがあり、室名を宝晋斎といった。子の米友仁に対して大米と呼ぶ。襄州襄陽県の人で、後に潤州（現在の江蘇省鎮江市）に居を定めた。 (ja) Mi Fei (米芾), znany także jako Mi Fu (米黻), ur. 1051, zm. 1107 – chiński malarz i teoretyk sztuki z czasów dynastii Song. Malował przeważnie krajobrazy utrzymane w tonacji czarno-białej, posługując się wyłącznie tuszem. Uznawany jest za mistrza w przedstawianiu pejzaży z mgłą nad powierzchnią wody i zamglonych szczytów gór. Uważa się go za twórcę songowskiej szkoły malarstwa, choć zdaniem innych był jedynie uzdolnionym naśladowcą Wang Weia. Sam posiadał olbrzymią kolekcję obrazów. (pl) Mi Fei eller Mi Fu (kinesiska: 米芾 Mi Fu den gamle Mi, Pinyin: Mǐ Fú) född 1051 i provinsen Jiangsu i Kina, död 1107 i Kaifeng, var en berömd kinesisk konstnär, poet och kalligraf under Songdynastin. Han levde samtidigt som Su Dongpo. Hans son var , den unge Mi. Mi Fei utvecklade ny stil inom tuschmåleri, påminnande om den västerländska akvarelltekniken. Stilen utövades av hans son på samma sätt och stilen kallas Mis-stil eller Mi-stil. Mi Fu ansågs av många vara en av de främsta kinesiska kalligraferna någonsin och hans verk i semikursiv skrift var åtrådda samlarobjekt. (sv) 米芾（fú）（1051年－1107年），北宋书画家。初名黻（fú），字元章，太原人，號襄阳漫士、海岳外史、鹿门居士。北宋著名书法家、书画理论家、画家、鉴定家、收藏家。 (zh) Ми Фэй (кит. 米黻, 1051—1107, также известен как Ми Фу) — китайский художник, поэт и каллиграф согдийского происхождения. Предки Ми Фэя происходили из города Тайюань. Поскольку его мать была кормилицей императора Ин-цзуна, Ми Фэй рос в императорском дворце и свободно общался со знатью, что послужило толчком к развитию его талантов в каллиграфии и живописи. Основное занятие — государственный служащий. На протяжении жизни занимал должности в Императорской библиотеке, военного губернатора Увэя в Аньхой, секретаря в Совете по ритуалам и губернатора Хуайяна в Цзянсу. Ми Фу был женат и имел пять сыновей, из которых выжили только два старших, и восемь дочерей. В живописи он прославился своими туманными, поэтически-вольными пейзажами, в которых пятна туши, нанесённые с помощью плоской щётки, могли иметь большую выразительность, чем линии и контуры. Больше всего в живописи Ми Фэй ценил самовыражение, что соответствовало его свободолюбивому и индивидуалистическому нраву. В поэзии он был последователем стиля Ли Бая, а в каллиграфии — Ван Сичжи. Как каллиграф он стал наиболее известен и считался одним из четырёх лучших каллиграфов империи Сун. Ми Фэй считался современниками очень эксцентричным человеком и за свои выходки получил прозвище «Сумасшедший Ми». Он коллекционировал камни, и однажды он собрал несколько штук, объявив один из них своим старшим братом и поклоняясь ему как старшему члену семьи. Известно также, что Ми Фэй злоупотреблял алкоголем. Его сын Ми Южэнь также стал известным живописцем, но прожил, в отличие от отца, до преклонных лет. (ru) Мі Фу (1051 —1107) — один з провідних живописців та каліграфів часів династії Північна Сун. (uk) rdfs:comment Mi Fu (1051-1107), també conegut com a Mi Fei, va ser un pintor xinès, poeta i cal·lígraf nascut a Taiyuan, Shanxi, durant la dinastia Song. El seu estil de la pintura de paisatges era boirós; anomenat estil "Mi Fu" i que es fonamenta amb l'ús de grans taques de tinta humida que realitzava amb una brotxa plana. (ca) Mi Fu (čínsky 米芾 nebo 米黻; pinyin Mǐ Fú; 1051–1107) byl čínský malíř, básník a kaligraf. V malířství je znám podle typického stylu malování mlžných krajin, založeného na velkých skvrnách tuše nanášených plochým štětcem. V básnictví následoval Li Poa a v kaligrafii byl jeho vzorem Wang Si-č’. V osobním životě byl Mi Fu alkoholik a choval se excentricky, takže mu někdy přezdívali „bláznivý Mi“. Jeho syn se rovněž stal známým malířem. (cs) Mi Fu, auch genannt der „alte Mi“ (chinesisch 米芾, Pinyin Mǐ Fú, Jyutping Mai5 Fat1, Geburtsname als 米黻 geschrieben, 1051 in der Provinz Jiangsu; † 1107 in Kaifeng), war ein berühmter chinesischer Maler zur Zeit der Nördlichen-Song (960–1126). (de) Mi Fu (Taiyuan, Shanxi, Txina, 1051 - 1107), (txineraz: 米黻; pinyineraz: Mǐ Fú), Song dinastia garaiko margolari, poeta, eta kaligrafialari txinatarra izan zen. Laino paisaiak margozteagatik egin zen famatu eta hori dela eta "Mi Fu" estiloa zabaldu zen ondorengo margolari txinatarren artean. Mi Fuk egindako poesiak Li Bairen estiloa jarraitu zuen eta bere kaligrafia eredua izan zuen. Song dinastia garaiko kaligrafialaririk onena izan zen. (eu) Mi Fu (Hanzi: 米芾 or 米黻; Pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051–1107) adalah seorang pelukis penyair, dan kaligrafer Tiongkok yang lahir di Taiyuan pada zaman dinasti Song. Ia paling dikenal karena kaligrafinya, dan ia diangkat sebagai salah satu dari empat kaligrafer terbesar pada zaman dinasti Song. (in) Mi Fu (米黻T o 米芾T, Mǐ FúP; Taiyuan, 1051 – 1107) è stato un pittore, poeta e calligrafo cinese. Montagne e pini in primavera (parte), National Palace Museum (Taipei) (it) 미불(米芾, 1051년~1107년)은 중국 북송 시대의 학자, 서예가이다. 채양, 소동파, 황정견과 함께 송4대가로 불린다. 자(字)는 원장(元章)으로 양양만사(襄陽漫士), 해악외사(海岳外史) 등의 호(號)가 있다. 휘종에게 소치(召致)되어 서화학 박사가 되었고, 그의 탁월하고 직관적인 감식안은 그의 비망록 <화사(畵史)> 중에서도 엿볼 수가 있다. 붓을 쓰지않고, 연근이나 사탕수수의 짜고 난 찌꺼기 등을 구사한 조방(粗放)한 화풍은 후세에 '미가산(米家山)'이라 불리는 형식화된 점태법(點苔法)으로 변질되어 남종(南宗) 문인화(文人畵)에 많이 이용되었다. 이 문서에는 다음커뮤니케이션(현 카카오)에서 GFDL 또는 CC-SA 라이선스로 배포한 글로벌 세계대백과사전의 내용을 기초로 작성된 글이 포함되어 있습니다. (ko) Mi Fu (米芾 of 米黻; 1051–1107) was een Chinees kunstschilder, dichter, kalligraaf en connaisseur uit de Song-periode. Hij maakte naam met zijn shan shui-landschappen en zijn kalligrafieën. Daarnaast stond Mi bekend om zijn excentrieke levensstijl en zijn omvangrijke verzamelingen. (nl) 米芾（べいふつ、皇祐3年（1051年） - 大観元年（1107年））は、中国の北宋末の文学者・書家・画家・収蔵家・であり、特に書画の専門家として活躍した。初名は黻（ふつ）。字は元章（げんしょう）。官職によって南宮（なんぐう）、住拠によって海嶽（かいがく）と呼ばれ、号は襄陽漫仕（じょうようまんし）・海嶽外史（かいがくがいし）・鹿門居士（ろくもんこじ）などがあり、室名を宝晋斎といった。子の米友仁に対して大米と呼ぶ。襄州襄陽県の人で、後に潤州（現在の江蘇省鎮江市）に居を定めた。 (ja) Mi Fei (米芾), znany także jako Mi Fu (米黻), ur. 1051, zm. 1107 – chiński malarz i teoretyk sztuki z czasów dynastii Song. Malował przeważnie krajobrazy utrzymane w tonacji czarno-białej, posługując się wyłącznie tuszem. Uznawany jest za mistrza w przedstawianiu pejzaży z mgłą nad powierzchnią wody i zamglonych szczytów gór. Uważa się go za twórcę songowskiej szkoły malarstwa, choć zdaniem innych był jedynie uzdolnionym naśladowcą Wang Weia. Sam posiadał olbrzymią kolekcję obrazów. (pl) Mi Fei eller Mi Fu (kinesiska: 米芾 Mi Fu den gamle Mi, Pinyin: Mǐ Fú) född 1051 i provinsen Jiangsu i Kina, död 1107 i Kaifeng, var en berömd kinesisk konstnär, poet och kalligraf under Songdynastin. Han levde samtidigt som Su Dongpo. Hans son var , den unge Mi. Mi Fei utvecklade ny stil inom tuschmåleri, påminnande om den västerländska akvarelltekniken. Stilen utövades av hans son på samma sätt och stilen kallas Mis-stil eller Mi-stil. Mi Fu ansågs av många vara en av de främsta kinesiska kalligraferna någonsin och hans verk i semikursiv skrift var åtrådda samlarobjekt. (sv) 米芾（fú）（1051年－1107年），北宋书画家。初名黻（fú），字元章，太原人，號襄阳漫士、海岳外史、鹿门居士。北宋著名书法家、书画理论家、画家、鉴定家、收藏家。 (zh) Мі Фу (*1051 —1107) — один з провідних живописців та каліграфів часів династії Північна Сун. (uk) MI Fu (ĉine: 米黻, Mǐ Fú) ankaŭ konata kiel Mi Fei (米芾; naskiĝis en 1051 en Tajvano; mortis en 1107) estis ĉina poeto, kaligrafo kaj pejzaĝisto de la dinastio Song, aŭtoro de la traktato Hua Shi pri pentrarto. Li famiĝis en pentrarto pro sia stilo pentri nebulajn pejzaĝojn. Tian stilon, kiu uzis multe malsekajn inkopunktojn aldonitajn per plata peniko, oni nomis poste la Mi-Fu-stilon. Lia poezio sekvis la stilon de Li Bai kaj lia kaligrafio tiun de . Lia aparta stilo malŝategis lin ĉe la Song-kortumo. (eo) Mi-Fei (1051-1107), también conocido como Mi Fu fue un pintor, poeta y funcionario público chino. Había nacido en Taiyuan, Shanxi durante la dinastía Song. En el ámbito de la pintura ganó reconocimiento por sus paisajes con neblina. Su particular estilo sería denominado «estilo Mi Fu» e incluía el uso de grandes manchas de tinta húmeda aplicada con un pincel chato. Su poesía estaba compuesta en estilo Li Bai, mientras que su caligrafía seguía el estilo de Wang Xizhi. Su estilo desinhibido hizo que no gozara de demasiada simpatía en la corte Song. (es) Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi. (en) Mi Fu (chinois : 米芾 ; pinyin : mǐ fú) ou Mi Fou ou Mi Fei, également nommé fú (黻), surnom : Yuanzhang (元章), noms de pinceau : Mi Nangong (米南宮), Xiangyang Manshi (襄陽漫士), Haiyue Waishi (海岳外史), Lumen Jushi (鹿門居士), né en 1051 à Xiangyang (province de Hubei), mort en 1107 à Huaiyang (province du Jiangxi), fut un peintre chinois du XIe siècle. (fr) Ми Фэй (кит. 米黻, 1051—1107, также известен как Ми Фу) — китайский художник, поэт и каллиграф согдийского происхождения. Предки Ми Фэя происходили из города Тайюань. Поскольку его мать была кормилицей императора Ин-цзуна, Ми Фэй рос в императорском дворце и свободно общался со знатью, что послужило толчком к развитию его талантов в каллиграфии и живописи. Его сын Ми Южэнь также стал известным живописцем, но прожил, в отличие от отца, до преклонных лет. (ru)
2073	dbpedia	2	3	https://www.britannica.com/topic/Haiyue-Mingyan	en	Haiyue Mingyan \| work by Mi Fu	https://cdn.britannica.c…e.jpg?v=3.124.12	https://cdn.britannica.c…e.jpg?v=3.124.12	[ "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png", "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png", "https://cdn.britannica.com/91/223091-131-A986B08A/relief-Zoroastrian-god-Ahura-Mazda-Persepolis-Iran.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/56/198256-131-6...	[]	[]	[ "Haiyue Mingyan", "encyclopedia", "encyclopeadia", "britannica", "article" ]	null	[]	null	Other articles where Haiyue Mingyan is discussed: Mi Fu: Works: …posthumous collections of his writings, Haiyue Mingyan (“Remarks on Calligraphy”) and Haiyue Tiba (“Inscriptions and Colophons by Mi Fu”).	en	/favicon.png	Encyclopedia Britannica	https://www.britannica.com/topic/Haiyue-Mingyan	In Mi Fu: Works …posthumous collections of his writings, Haiyue Mingyan (“Remarks on Calligraphy”) and Haiyue Tiba (“Inscriptions and Colophons by Mi Fu”). Read More
2073	dbpedia	2	2	http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/painting-mi-fu.php	en	Chinese Art Gallery	http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/resources/zhong.png	http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/resources/zhong.png	[ "http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/resources/Painting/MiFu/pines-s.jpg", "http://www.chinaonlinemuseum.com/resources/Painting/MiFu/rising-clouds-s.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "Mi Fu", "Mi Fu paintings", "landscape painting", "Chinese landscape painting", "Chinese painting", "Chinese paintings", "Chinese art", "Chinese arts", "famous Chinese painter", "Chinese painters", "Chinese museum", "Chinese artwork", "online museum" ]	null	[]	null	Mi Fu (米芾, 1051–1107) and his Painting Gallery at China Online Museum.		resources/zhong.png		null	Mi Fu (米芾, 1051-1107), style name Yuanzhang (元章), was a scholar, poet, calligrapher, and painter who was a dominant figure in Chinese art. Of his extensive writings—poetry, essays on the history of aesthetics, and criticism of painting—a considerable amount survives. Mi Fu was born of a family that had held high office in the early years of the Song dynasty (960–1279). Because his mother had been the wet nurse of the emperor Yingzong (reigned 1063–1067), he was brought up within the imperial precincts, mixing freely with the imperial family. As a young boy, Mi Fu showed precocious talent, particularly in calligraphy. Although he expressed distaste for the formal lessons prescribed for a future official, he displayed a lively intelligence in his quick understanding of learned argument, his aptitude for excitingly original poetry, and his ability in painting and calligraphy. In later life Mi had a checkered official career, with frequent changes of post. He began as a reviser of books in the imperial library and subsequently served in three posts outside the capital of Kaifeng, in Henan province. In 1103 he was appointed a doctor of philosophy and was briefly military governor of Wuwei in the province of Anhui. He returned to the capital in 1104 to serve as a professor of painting and calligraphy, taking this opportunity to present to the emperor a painting by his son, Mi Youren (米友仁). He then undertook the position of a secretary to the Board of Rites before setting out on his final appointment as military governor of Huaiyang, in Jiangsu province, in which post he died at the age of 57. He was buried in Dantu, in Jiangsu province, under an epitaph written for him by Mi Youren. Throughout Mi’s life, the workings of a highly individualistic temperament were evident. This was manifested in his fastidious attention to cleanliness, his preference for the clothes of ancient Chinese dynasties, and his love for strange rocks and ink stones, which he collected. His comparative failure in his official career was perhaps a result of this eccentric personality. Despite his undoubted ability, his friendship with the leaders of both principal political factions (the poet-statesman Wang Anshi 王安石 and Su Shi 蘇軾), and his family connections, he never rose to any office higher than that of a second-class secretary to the Board of Rites. As an artist, Mi Fu is best known for his calligraphy and landscape painting. His calligraphic style rejected inaccessibly unusual or flamboyant approaches and was formed by patient and catholic study of the great Chinese calligraphers of the past. His theoretical writings in the Shu Shi (書史) and Haiyue Mingyan (海嶽名言), which contain some of the most penetrating remarks written on the subject of calligraphy, indicate that Mi believed in respect for historic styles suffused with the calligrapher’s own creative talent. Most of all he valued spontaneity and self-expression, eschewing the contrived and saccharine.
2073	dbpedia	0	11	https://musicbrainz.org/artist/c9cc6e5e-12a5-453b-a465-f29d38e005ea	en	MusicBrainz	https://musicbrainz.org/…avicon-32x32.png	https://musicbrainz.org/…avicon-32x32.png	[ "https://static.metabrainz.org/MB/header-logo-1f7dc2a.svg", "https://static.metabrainz.org/MB/search-52f8034.svg", "https://static.metabrainz.org/MB/filter-a7c3d16.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Type: Person, Gender: Male, Born: 1051, Died: 1107, Area: China	en	/static/images/favicons/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png		null
2073	dbpedia	3	13	https://pantheon.world/profile/person/Mi_Fu	en	Mi Fu Biography	https://pantheon.world/api/screenshot/person?id=2866681	https://pantheon.world/api/screenshot/person?id=2866681	[ "https://pantheon.world/images/icons/icon-nav.svg", "https://pantheon.world/images/logos/logo_pantheon.svg", "https://pantheon.world/images/icons/icon-search.svg", "https://pantheon.world/images/profile/people/2866681.jpg", "https://pantheon.world/images/ui/profile-w.svg", "https://pantheon.world/images/u...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/images/favicon.ico		null	Mi Fu Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush . Read more on Wikipedia
2073	dbpedia	1	9	https://kids.kiddle.co/Mi_Fu	en	Mi Fu facts for kids	https://kids.kiddle.co/i…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	https://kids.kiddle.co/i…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	[ "https://kids.kiddle.co/images/wk/kids-robot.svg", "https://kids.kiddle.co/images/wk/kids-search-engine.svg", "https://kids.kiddle.co/images/thumb/c/ce/%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg/300px-%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg", "https://kids.kiddle.co/images/thumb/7/7c/Mi_Fei_001.jpg/300px-Mi_Fei_001.jpg", "https://kids.kiddle.c...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Learn Mi Fu facts for kids	en	/images/wk/favicon-16x16.png		https://kids.kiddle.co/Mi_Fu	In this Chinese name, the family name is Mi. Quick facts for kids Mi Fu Mi Fu as depicted in a 1107 CE painting by Chao Buzhi Chinese name Chinese 米芾 or 米黻 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Mǐ Fú Wade–Giles Mi Fu Yue: Cantonese Jyutping Mei5 Fat1 Middle Chinese Middle Chinese MieiB Pjwǝt Korean name Hangul 미불 Transcriptions McCune–Reischauer Mi Bul Japanese name Hiragana べいふつ Transcriptions Romanization Bei Futsu Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi. Mi Fu is regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers of the Song dynasty, alongside Su Shi, Hung Tingjian and Cai Xian. His style is derived from calligraphers in earlier dynasties, although he developed unique traits of his own. As a personality, Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric; including a mania of cleanliness. At times, he was deemed "Madman Mi" due to his obsession with collecting stones. ..... His son, Mi Youren, also became a well known painter following in his father's artistic style. Biography According to Yao Weiyuan, Mi Fu was a fifth-generation descendant of Mi Xin, a Later Zhou and early Song dynasty general from the Kumo Xi tribe that descended from the Xianbei. However, according to other scholars, his family probably was of distant Sogdian heritage. His surname "Mi" is of Sogdian origin, and he was born after a long period in which the Sogdians intensively migrated deep into China and established flourishing communities there, and he referred to himself as "descendant of huozheng," "fire priest" (according to Jiang Boqin), having a seal with this inscribed on it. However, other Chinese scholars reject Jiang's interpretation, saying that huozheng referred to "Fire virtue" and was related to the Zhao family, and that he had other seals claiming different things. He showed early signs of interest in arts and letters, as well as unusual memory skills. His mother worked as a midwife and later as a wet-nurse, looking after the Emperor Shenzong. Mi Fu knew the imperial family and he lived in the privileged location of the royal palaces, where he also started his career as Reviser of Books, Professor of Painting and Calligraphy in the capital, Secretary to the Board of Rites, and Military Governor of Huaiyang. Mi Fu openly criticized conventional regulations of the time, causing him to move between jobs frequently. Mi Fu collected old writings and paintings as his family wealth gradually diminished. Gradually his collection's value grew. He also inherited some of the calligraphies in his collection. He arranged his collection in two parts, one of which was kept secret (or shown only to a few selected friends) and another which could be shown to visitors. In his later years, Mi Fu became very fond of Holin Temple (located on Yellow Crane Mountain (黃鶴樓)). He later asked to be buried at its gate. Today the temple is gone, but his grave remains. Historical background After the rise of landscape painting, creative activities followed which were of a more general kind and included religious figure, bird, flower and bamboo paintings besides landscapes. It was all carried out by men of high intellectual standards. To most of these men, painting was not a professional occupation but only one of the means by which they expressed their intellectual reactions to life and nature in visible symbols. Poetry and illustrative writing were in a sense even more important to them than painting and they made their living as more or less prominent government officials if they did not depend on family wealth. Even if some of them were skilled at ink painting and calligraphy, they avoided the fame and position of professional artists and became known as "gentleman-painters." Artistic occupations such as calligraphy and painting were seen as leisure activities from official duties or practical occupations. Nevertheless, the foundation of their technical mastery was in writing and calligraphy, which allowed them to transmit their thoughts with the same easiness in symbols of nature as in conventional characters. Their art became therefore a very intimate kind of expression, or idea-writing as it was called in later times. The beauty of this art was indeed closely connected to the visible ease with which it was produced, but which after all could not be achieved without intense training and deep thought. Mi Fu was one of the highly gifted gentleman-painters. With his very keen talent of artistic observation together with sense of humor and literary ability, he established for himself a prominent place among Chinese art historians; his contributions in this field are still highly valued because they are based on what he had seen with his own eyes and not simply on what he had heard or learned from his forerunners. Mi Fu had the courage to express his own views, even when these were different from the prevailing ones or official opinions. His notes about painting and calligraphy are of great interest to art historians because they are spontaneous expressions of his own observations and independent ideas that help to characterize himself as well as the artists whose works he discusses. Art He is considered one of the most important representatives of the Southern School (南宗畫) of landscape painting. However, it is no longer possible clearly to say this from the pictures which passed under his name – many works are attributed to him, and most of them represent a rather definite type or pictorial style which existed also in later centuries, but to what extent they can be considered as Mi Fu's own creations is still a question. Therefore, he is more remembered as a skilled calligrapher and for his influence as a critic and writer on art rather than a skilled landscape painter. Mi Fu was among those for whom writing or calligraphy was intimately connected with the composing of poetry or sketching. It required an alertness of mind and spirit, which he thought was best achieved through the enjoyment of wine. Through this he reached a state of excitement. A friend of Mi Fu, Su Shih (蘇軾) admired him and wrote that his brush was like a sharp sword handled skillfully in fight or a bow which could shoot the arrow a thousand li, piercing anything that might be in its way. "It was the highest perfection of the art of calligraphy", he wrote. Other critics claimed that only Mi Fu could imitate the style of the great calligraphers of the Six Dynasties. Mi Fu's son testified that his father always kept some calligraphic masterpiece of the Tang or the Qin period in his desk as a model. At night he would place it in a box at the side of his pillow. According to some writings, Mi Fu did most of his paintings during the last seven years of his life, and he himself wrote that "he chose as his models the most ancient masters and painted guided by his own genius and not by any teacher and thus represented the loyal men of antiquity." The pictures which still pass under Mi Fu's name represent ranges of wooded hills or cone-shaped mountain peaks rising out of layers of woolly mist. At their feet may be water and closer towards the foreground clusters of dark trees. One of the best known examples of this kind of Mi Fu style is the small picture in the Palace Museum known as Spring Mountains and Pine-Trees. It is in the size of a large album-leaf, but at the top of the picture is added a poem said to be by the emperor Emperor Gaozong of Song. Among the pictures which are attributed to Mi Fu, there apparently are imitations, even if they are painted in a similar manner with a broad and soft brush. They may be from Southern Song period, or possibly from the Yuan period, when some of the leading painters freely utilized the manner of Mi Fu for expressing their own ideas. The majority are probably from the later part of Ming period, when a cult of Mi Fu followers that viewed him as the most important representative of the Southern School started. Mi Fu himself had seen many imitations, perhaps even of his own works and he saw how wealthy amateurs spent their money on great names rather than on original works of art. He wrote that they "place their pictures in brocade bags and provide them with jade rollers as if they were very wonderful treasures, but when they open them one cannot but break out into laughter." Mi Fu's own manner of painting has been characterized by writers who knew it through their own observation or through hearsay. It is said that he always painted on paper which had not been prepared with gum or alum (alauns), never on silk or on the wall. In addition, he did not necessarily use the brush in painting with ink; sometimes he used paper sticks or sugar cane from which the juice had been extracted, or a calyx (kauss) of the lotus. Even if Mi Fu was principally a landscape painter, he also did portraits and figure paintings of an old-fashioned type. Nevertheless, he must have spent more time studying samples of ancient calligraphy and painting than producing pictures of his own. His book, History of Painting, contains practical hints as to the proper way of collecting, preserving, cleaning and mounting pictures. See also In Spanish: Mi-Fei para niños
2073	dbpedia	1	30	https://soch.wordpress.com/2007/11/26/4-mi-fu-paying-homage-to-a-rock/	en	4. Mi Fu paying homage to a rock	https://s0.wp.com/i/blank.jpg	https://s0.wp.com/i/blank.jpg	[ "https://2.gravatar.com/avatar/bc2f67209139c75229d2f3ae0d169d347b67081d3bc9cd471db6848e0e31a8da?s=48&d=identicon&r=G", "https://0.gravatar.com/avatar/fc6de0bdfee1b1d06479ced8385ccd931fd75cd2ec9b1585b9ed7a61d51b4f22?s=48&d=identicon&r=G", "https://0.gravatar.com/avatar/fc6de0bdfee1b1d06479ced8385ccd931fd75cd2ec9...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2007-11-26T00:00:00	Mi Fu (1051-1107) is the name of a famous artist that invented the way of using ink dots to paint Chinese paintings (landscapes). Dian signifies someone crazy, abnormal. In the past articles, I briefly mentioned about dots, in Chinese paintings when one talks about dots, one has to talk about the “Mi family method”.…	en	https://s1.wp.com/i/favicon.ico	Save Our Chinese Heritage	https://soch.wordpress.com/2007/11/26/4-mi-fu-paying-homage-to-a-rock/	4. Mi Fu paying homage to a rock November 26, 2007 Posted by kentneo in Art. trackback Mi Fu (1051-1107) is the name of a famous artist that invented the way of using ink dots to paint Chinese paintings (landscapes). Dian signifies someone crazy, abnormal. In the past articles, I briefly mentioned about dots, in Chinese paintings when one talks about dots, one has to talk about the “Mi family method”. Many people have asked me about the “Mi family”, I usually give them a quick answer, the other day in my pile of old photographs, I found a painting titled “paying homage to a rock” in particular it is of “Mi Dian worshipping a rock”. I could not stop thinking about Mi Dian, why was he such a great man? Why was he paying homage to a rock? And why was he called crazy and so out of this world? Mi Fu’s original name is Fu, when he was around 40 years old, he started using the name Fu, his other name is Yuanzhang and he is originally from Tai Yuan and later lived in Xiang Yang. He had yet another name Manshi from Xiang Yang, from this name “Manshi”, we can tell that he was the type of man that was not easily influenced. For his time, he was considered a modern thinker. He wanted to revolutionalize the way Chinese painting was done/taught and thought that the old ways of learning by endlessly copying the old masters was not the best way. In one of his autobiography’s “Hua Shi” (history of art), he writes,”… Especially in landscapes, by continuously copying the old masters, there has been no development in newer styles, what dominates are still lots of mountains and lots of fog” (both signifying fog in paintings and implying that the artists have not innovated). We can see that the “Mi method” was a new method of painting Chinese landscapes, originated by him. In creating this method, he wasn’t doing it haphazardly or blindly, again according to his “Hua Shi” [we see that he has done his research as] he writes, “Yu Jiadong’s landscapes depict mist like waves, the mountains are represented by the basics of its skeleton, one can only see the tree tops, but the style is still “Gao Gu” [very old school?]”. We see that although he wanted to not use the “Gao Gu”, he didn’t go to opposite extremes and used “Ching Fou” (or light and floaty) method. Because Mi Fu actually had a deep understanding and solid foundation in painting, Su Dongbo once said of Mi Fu’s painting methods, “Li Zhenghang’s calligraphy are like swift horses galloping with his use of big strong strokes; Zhong (artist who lived in Wei dynasty, 220-265) and Wang (artist that lived in the Jin dynasty, 265-420, Wang Xizhi, 307-365), are all on par with Mi in level and style”. Mi Fu was also a poet and a writer, but he is still most famous for his art. He not only invented “Mi family method”, he also was known for the “clouds in landscape method”. He also did human figures and lived in the same period as the famous human figure artist, Li Gongling who was a student of Wu Daozhi. Although Wu Daozhi was an excellent artist, Mi still didn’t consider him “Gao Gu” enough. (On this point, the topic being of calligraphy, some people consider Wang Xizhi’s calligraphy as more mysterious and in the same category as Zhao Jiang, a topic that is debated as to why not learn the Han dynasty, 206 BCE – 220 CE, style as it is far superior). So in Mi’s opinion, it was better to learn Gu Kaizhi’s (344 – 406 CE) style. To this he said, “Li Gongling had been ill and could not use his left hand to paint for 3 years and although Li was a student of Wu, Li was still not able to learn or adopt Wu’s style nor achieve “Gao Gu”, nor be on Wu’s level”. But Li was serious and diligent in learning painting and was very disciplined in his execution of every stroke, just as it is important in making the right type of friends. If there is the slightest mistake, it is easy to get off the right path but extremely difficult to revert back without a lot of effort and sacrifice. Thus the process of becoming an artist is important, you have to know what you are doing and you can’t be frivolous about it. (Chinese paintings, you can’t go back and correct a mistake?? vs oils where one can…) Mi Fu however had a funny habit, he was obsessed with cleanliness [lost plot of how his cleanliness can be considered cute in the comparison with San Siau Ying Yuan] but very honest. He lived in the same times as Huang Tingjian (artist and poet and one of the 24 Siau), the one that was famous for being afraid of his wife, who was also a good swordsman along with Chen Siuchang (from the book Fang Shan Zi). The Prime Minister of their time, Wang Anshi, also had a funny habit, he was the opposite to Mi Fu, he didn’t bathe, nor change his attire, nor combed his hair and he didn’t really care what others thought and can be compared to the hippies of the 1960s. Some peoples habits are just not expressable in words with no logic to explain. Mi Fu belonged the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE), but liked to wear Tang dynasty (618-907 CE) clothes, modernising the style. He liked to wear a type of tall hat, but he owned a carriage that was flatter than normal, if he passed his hat to the footman, he was afraid that it would get dirty, so he took the roof off his carriage and rode around town with his tall hat sticking out. In the Qing dynasty (1644-1911 CE), these type of roofless carriages were used to transport prisoners that were to be executed. Mi Fu was not only not concerned about people laughing behind his back, he thought himself cool and unique, this was one of his crazy and abnormal traits. Another time, as he was on his way to work (he was a government official of quite senior level). At one of the horse stops, he saw a very uniquely shaped and ugly rock. He was moved to immense happiness and forgot where he was, he asked his servants for his “hui ban” (used only to bow in front of the Emperor), facing the rock he knelt before it and bowed and happily mumbled to himself, “this glorious rock, I am your slave”. It is more common to see men stoop to that level for a beautiful woman but for a rock? Later every time Mi Fu came upon a unique and ugly rock, he would do the same, kneeling and bowing and even exalting the rock to “Shi Zhang”, (like a respectful way to address an older person). As he is able to respect a rock like respecting an elder, it is as if he didn’t lose his childlike innocence of being amazed at the world around him. This was how a second example of his abnormal traits came about. Mi Fu really loved these uniquely shaped rocks that he started collecting them as precious items (on par with precious paintings). He was then in An Hui province, Ling Pi district as a government official. But he had no heart for work and was always admiring his rock collection. (In eastern art on the subject matter of rocks, the ones that are ugly, skinny, and transparent like are valued the highest). So, from a perspective of beauty, natural beauty is not necessarily the best, raw beauty in its own way is beautiful, like an extreme feature (Barbara Streisand’s nose?), like Yang Liuching’s “nian hua”, or the Emperor Yong Le’s (1403 – 1424 CE of the Ming dynasty) wall paintings, or the drafts of the Dun Huang caves or the prehistoric paintings on caves that were large and red and raw. That’s why Picasso said, why learn art in Paris? Go instead to Africa, the art forms are as powerful, this is the similar logic to why ugly stones are beautiful in their own way. It is an undescribable type of beauty, one is drawn to its ugliness and somehow the skinnyness and the transparentness of the rock match each other and becomes inspirational. There were a lot of old masters that only painted rocks. Small rocks were painted as stones in a garden setting, large rocks became mountains. When one paints landscapes, one has to examine, study and understand the fundamental make up of a rock first. Later, even An Jishi (Mi Fu’s colleague and government official) came to warn and to advise Mi Fu about his tardy attitude at work. Mi Fu drew out from his sleeve (Chinese sleeves in those days were like pockets) a piece of rock. It had a light but clean color and was small and ugly but adorable. Mi Fu put the rock up to An Jishi’s face where he could not help but to appreciate the rock and said, “look at this rock, how can you not love it?” An Jishi, mesmerized by the rock, didn’t realize that he grabbed it and left! But not before saying, “it is not only beautiful, I am in love…”. Mi Fu’s name since that episode, started to spread not only in his lifetime but throughout the centuries. Once in Yang Zhou, the famous artist Su Dongbo (1037 – 1101 CE), had a party in which he invited more than 10 famous people. Mi Fu arrived with gifts but was also visibly a bit drunk with a look that was “dian”, though he thought he looked cool in making his entrance. He even made an announcement to the group, “everyone thinks I am crazy, but I am only behaving like Dongbo” (who although as an artist was eccentric, was not yet “dian”) To which Dongbo unexpectedly replied, “I don’t think so, I behave like normal people do”. To which, Mi Fu’s “dian” was now firmly established. Another time, the Song dynasty emperor, Huizong (1082-1135, who was also an artist), he was in his twenty’s in his early years of reign, loved the arts (he was famous for his calligraphic technique of “Sou Jing Ti” and his “gong bi” of birds and flowers, unfortunately he was a failure at being a ruler). He highly regarded Mi Fu and invited him to his “Yau Ling” Palace. On his imperial table, he had an ink pad made of a type of red precious stone (Ma Nau), the brush was made from elephant tusk, the ink was made by the famous Li Tingwa, the ink pad box was made from gold and the paper weights were made of jade. There was also exquisite food and wine prepared. The large scrolls of rice paper were also rolled out with Mi Fu facing the Emperor. As Mi Fu rolled up his sleeves, he was already unaware of the Emperor in his presence, he took the brush, dipped it in ink, tapping his feet (which rude to do infront of an Emperor!) and deep in thought, suddenly with a stroke of inspiration, his brush flew across the paper, the ink was like rain, the qi of the stroke was like a passing cloud, like a cloak of fog, a river flowing. When the rice paper was entirely wet, the Emperor was so mesmerized he was in another state of mind. Mi Fu was still lost in himself and his environment, he suddenly realized the Emperor was in front of him and he blurted, “your majesty, how wonderful!!” (how unhumble of a subject?). The Emperor was not only not angry at this outburst which was considered a lack of respect, he was actually moved by the experience and gave Mi Shi the four scholarly items (paper, brush, ink and ink pad) as a gift and also gave him the title of Professor of Art. Strangely, Mi Fu took the exquisite ink pad, before wiping it dry, he placed it into his suit pocket and soiled his entire outfit and it didn’t matter to him too much. Like a child in a candy store, he felt very happy and went home. One could say Mi Shi was “dian”? or was he a genius? No matter what your opinion, the successful artist is one that is true to himself as you can’t fake who you are and you can’t lose the innocence of a child for the child’s innocent heart is the purest form of character. From purity of character can you then only derive the best in paintings which will comparable to none. Another time, the Emperor asked Mi Fu to come to his “Zhong Zheng” Palace to discuss art, Mi Fu, brought along a note book and the Emperor asked him to put it down, Mi Fu then said, “but your highness, that is on your day bed!”, this caused the Emperor to be embarrassed for a moment and the court officials at the scene all thought that Mi Fu was wrong to embarrass the Emperor and should be punished. The Emperor instead said, “hmmm, you can’t curb a genius”, and with that all was forgiven and the Emperor took Mi Fu to his treasure trove of paintings (in those days without books or mass copies, only the Emperor had a rare collection of art that was not publicly available thus not available to people interested in improving their techniques), with that access, Mi Fu’s art improved tremendously leading him to one day invent the “Mi method”. The Emperor also promoted Mi Fu to become the President of the National Art Academy. From government official to Professor and a few other official titles, a country can exalt the status of cultural pursuits and on the other hand, an artist’s life is one that is quite difficult. Resulting in a situation where parents, rather guide their children to medicine or commercial pursuits, thus in the process, losing a lot of artistic talent from lack of nurture. I have to stop here, for thinking about this makes me sad, that others such as the Japanese that protect and develop their cultural arts (which were originally Chinese); and while we see others valuing our culture so much, should we not remind ourselves that we should be doing that too? ============================================================== What is Gao Gu??? How did the Mi part of his name come along? Is it because of the dots of the painting? ============================================================== Gu Kaizhi and the Beginning of Scroll Painting Chinese painting came a long way during the 300-year period that saw the rise and fall of the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280), the Jin Dynasty (265-420) and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-581). Although there was the chaos of wars and many dynastic changes during this period, active intellectual life of different schools provided a great impetus to artistic development. Well known grotto murals, tomb paintings, stone carvings, brick carvings and lacquer paintings were produced during that period, and a number of virtuosos emerged in Chinese calligraphy and painting. Certain painting theories, such as the Graphic Theory and the Six Rule Theory that form the theoretical basis for present-day Chinese painting, were also put forward during this time. Gu Kaizhi, known as the founder of traditional Chinese painting, and his scroll paintings, represented the painting style of the period.Gu Kaizhi was born into an official family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. He served as a government officer when he was young, and toured many beautiful places. He had a sense of humor, and was also adept at writing poems and essays. Chinese art history abounds in anecdotes about him.Once a temple was planned for Jiankang (present-day Nanjing), but the monks and the abbot could not collect enough money for the construction. While they were worrying about the funds to build the temple, a young man came and said he would donate a large amount of money. The abbot did not believe him, thinking that he was boasting. The young man suggested drawing a picture of the Buddha on a wall and collecting money from those who came to see him at work. For three consecutive days, thousands of people crowded the place to see the young man painting the Buddha. When he finally added the eye lines, the Buddha seemed to come alive, and the viewers cheered and applauded the young man’s artistry. The money needed for the consummate construction of the temple was raised. The young man was Gu Kaizhi.Gu Kaizhi paid great attention to details that revealed the characteristics of the figures he drew. Once he was asked to paint the portrait of a man called Pei Kai, who had three long fine hairs on his face that had been ignored by other painters. Gu laid great emphasis on the three hairs, and Pei was very satisfied. Another time, he portrayed the man Xie Kun standing in the midst of mountains and rocks. When asked about the reason, he explained that Xie loved to travel to see beautiful mountains and rivers. This story demonstrates that Gu was skillful at drawing surroundings that enhanced the characteristics of the painted figures.Gu also made great advances in summarizing painting theories. His theoretical works included Painting Thesis and Notes on Painting the YuntaiMountain. He paid considerable attention to the vivid expressions of the figures to show their spirit. His Graphic Theory later became a basic theory for traditional Chinese painting. According to historical records, Gu created more than 70 paintings based on historical stories, Buddhas, human figures, birds, animals, mountains and rivers. His three existing scroll paintings are Nushi Zhen Painting, Luoshen Appraisal Painting and Lienu Renzhi Painting; these are the earliest examples of scroll paintings.
2073	dbpedia	3	29	https://www.shine.cn/feature/art-culture/1904102771/	en	Mountains and Pines in Spring	https://obj.shine.cn/fil…eb28285de3_0.jpg	https://obj.shine.cn/fil…eb28285de3_0.jpg	[ "https://trc.taboola.com/1101582/log/3/unip?en=page_view", "https://obj.shine.cn/files/coverage/2017/10/18/120171018135807.jpg", "https://obj.shine.cn/files/coverage/2017/10/18/120171018135807.jpg", "https://obj.shine.cn/files/2019/04/10/cf41c456-ce0f-4972-b904-64236707e238_0.jpg", "https://obj.shine.cn/fil...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Peter Zhang" ]	null	The painting is a typical art piece of Mi's dots. Mi's dots often remind today's viewer of the point		/assets/coast-228x228.png	SHINE	https://www.shine.cn/feature/art-culture/1904102771/	IN the collection of the Taipei National Palace Museum, thereâs a small, inconspicuous hanging scroll, only 35x44cm in size, but the ink and light color on paper is widely revered as a rare masterpiece of traditional Chinese landscape painting. This is largely because it is said to have been painted by Mi Fu (1051-1107), a dominant figure in Chinaâs art history. Mi, a renowned calligrapher, painter, scholar and poet of the Song Dynasty (960-1279), was born in Taiyuan in northern Chinaâs Shanxi Province. Later, he moved to Xiangyang, now Xiangfan in central Chinaâs Hubei Province, which is why heâs now also called Mi Xiangyang. As a boy, Mi demonstrated his precocious talent, especially in the art of calligraphy. Since his mother once served as the wet nurse of Emperor Shenzong (1048-1085), the young Mi was brought up in imperial quarters and often mingled with members of the imperial family. That explains why Mi later served as Erudite of Painting and Calligraphy and as the second-class secretary of the Ministry of Rites in the Song imperial court though he disdained formal education and often shied away from imperial examinations â the chief channel for people to land a job in officialdom. But his official career was checkered at best. This was largely because of his extremely eccentric personality. Historical stories say that Mi was fastidious about cleanness, loved to wear flamboyant dresses of ancient dynasties, often behaved in bizarre manners and superstitiously worshiped rocks and stones. It is said that Mi routinely worshiped rocks at home and called one of his favorite âmy brother.â He also spent a lot of money to collect ink stones. One day, he was summoned by the emperor to write a couplet in the imperial court, but once he was finished, he couldnât take his eyes off the ink stone for he liked it so much. He told the emperor that he accidentally âcontaminatedâ the ink stone, making it unsuitable for the imperial court. The emperor could tell that Mi simply wanted to have the stone for himself and told him that he could have it. Excited, Mi dashed to hug the ink stone and trotted out of the court with ink dripping from his robe. The emperor sighed. âThatâs why heâs nicknamed Eccentric Mi!â he said. As a landscapist, he divorced himself from the traditional Chinese method of landscape painting which used mainly outlines, strokes and washes to depict vertical mountains and peaks. Instead, Mi painted landscapes with numerous little ink dots placed horizontally next to each other. When different shades of ink were used, these dots proved to be very realistic in portraying mist. This dot-painting technique was later referred to as âMiâs dots,â by Chinese artists. They remind todayâs viewer of the pointillism developed by French impressionist painters Georges Seurat and Paul Signac about 800 years after Miâs innovation. Mi also tended to use very moist brushwork to create a feeling of watching a landscape with mountains standing in mist, fog or clouds. His son, Mi Youren, also a famous calligrapher and landscapist, had continued this style and later people called their landscape painting âMi Family cloudy mountains,â which influenced many literati painters in following generations. Mountains and Pines in Spring in the Taipei museum is supposed to be the only surviving painting of Mi, but many suspect itâs also a copy made by an anonymous Song artist. Nevertheless, most art critics and scholars agree that this painting is a paradigm of Miâs landscape style. The work depicts an empty thatched pavilion standing alone in front of a few peaks shrouded in mists and clouds. Several hoary pines anchor at the forefront of the left bottom corner. Composition of the painting is uncomplicated, but the scenery is both serene and elegant. And some art critics have pointed out that the cynosure of this work is neither the mountains nor the trees, but the mist and clouds floating in the middle â the Mi clouds. So, despite its small size, only a little larger than a piece of A3 paper, and dubious origin, this painting will continue to be treasured as a great masterpiece in traditional Chinese painting simply because of its seemingly authentic dots and clouds. Mountains and Pines in Spring Artist: Mi Fu Year: Song Dynasty (960-1279) Type: Ink and color on paper Dimensions: 35 cm Ã 44 cm
2073	dbpedia	0	0	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu	en	Wikipedia	https://upload.wikimedia…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	https://upload.wikimedia…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2005-10-09T02:08:26+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu	Chinese artist (1051–1107) Mi FuChinese nameChinese米芾 or 米黻 TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinMǐ FúWade–GilesMi FuYue: CantoneseJyutpingMei5 Fat1Middle ChineseMiddle ChineseMieiB Pjwǝt Korean nameHangul미불 TranscriptionsMcCune–ReischauerMi Bul Japanese nameHiraganaべいふつ TranscriptionsRomanizationBei Futsu Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE)[1] was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi. Mi Fu is regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers of the Song dynasty, alongside Su Shi, Hung Tingjian and Cai Xian. His style is derived from calligraphers in earlier dynasties, although he developed unique traits of his own. His son, Mi Youren, also became a well known painter. He followed his father's artistic style, adopting his use of large dots of wet ink, a technique later nicknamed "Mi Dots".[2] As a personality, Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric; including a mania of cleanliness.[2] At times, he was deemed "Madman Mi" due to his obsession with collecting stones. He was also known to be a heavy drinker. His son, Mi Youren, also became a well known painter following in his father's artistic style. Biography [edit] According to Yao Weiyuan, Mi Fu was a fifth-generation descendant of Mi Xin, a Later Zhou and early Song dynasty general from the Kumo Xi tribe that descended from the Xianbei.[3][4] However, according to other scholars, his family probably was of distant Muslim Sogdian heritage.[5][6][7][8][9] His surname "Mi" is of Sogdian origin,[10] and he was born after a long period in which the Sogdians intensively migrated deep into China and established flourishing communities there, and he referred to himself as "descendant of huozheng," "fire priest" (according to Jiang Boqin), having a seal with this inscribed on it. However, other Chinese scholars reject Jiang's interpretation, saying that huozheng referred to "Fire virtue" and was related to the Zhao family, and that he had other seals claiming different things.[11] Mi Fu showed early signs of interest in arts and letters, as well as unusual memory skills. His mother worked as a midwife and later as a wet-nurse, looking after the Emperor Shenzong. Due to his familial connections to the imperial family, Mi Fu was allowed the privilege of living in the royal palaces. Here, he began his career as Reviser of Books, Professor of Painting and Calligraphy in the capital, Secretary to the Board of Rites, and Military Governor of Huaiyang. He openly criticized conventional regulations of the time, causing him to move between jobs frequently. Mi Fu collected old writings and paintings as his family wealth gradually diminished. Over time, the value of his collection grew. He also inherited some of the calligraphy in his collection. His collection was arranged in two parts, one of which was kept secret (or shown only to a select few) and another which would be shown to visitors. In his later years, Mi Fu became very fond of Holin Temple (located on Yellow Crane Mountain (黃鶴樓)). He later asked to be buried at its gate. Today the temple is gone, but his grave remains.[12] Historical background [edit] After the rise of landscape painting, creative activities followed which were of a more general kind and included profane, religious figure, bird, flower and bamboo paintings besides landscapes. It was all carried out by men of high intellectual standards. To most of these men, painting was not a professional occupation but only one of the means by which they expressed their intellectual reactions to life and nature in visible symbols. Poetry and illustrative writing were in a sense even more important to them than painting and they made their living as more or less prominent government officials if they did not depend on family wealth. Even if some of them were skilled at ink painting and calligraphy, they avoided the fame and position of professional artists and became known as "gentleman-painters." Artistic occupations such as calligraphy and painting were seen as leisure activities from official duties or practical occupations. Nevertheless, the foundation of their technical mastery was in writing and calligraphy, which allowed them to transmit their thoughts with the same easiness in symbols of nature as in conventional characters. Their art became therefore a very intimate kind of expression, or idea-writing as it was called in later times. The beauty of this art was indeed closely connected to the visible ease with which it was produced, but which after all could not be achieved without intense training and deep thought.[citation needed] Mi Fu was one of the highly gifted gentleman-painters. His talent for artistic observation, his sense of humor, and his literary ability helped him establish a prominent place for himself among Chinese art historians. His contributions to the field remain in high regard due to their basis in direct, first-hand observation as opposed to relying on what he had heard or learned from his forerunners.[clarification needed] Mi Fu would often express his own views even when they differed from prevailing beliefs or official opinions. Art historians still maintain interest in his notes on painting and calligraphy–these writings are believed to be spontaneous expressions of his own observations and independent ideas which aid in the characterization of Mi Fu and the other artists he would write about.[citation needed] Art [edit] Mi Fu is considered one of the most important representatives of the Southern School (南宗畫) of landscape painting. Presently, many works are attributed to Mi Fu and most of them represent a type or pictorial style which also existed in later centuries. The accuracy of their attribution remains in question due to difficulties in verification. Mi Fu is now remembered as a skilled calligrapher and an influential art critic and writer rather than a skilled landscape painter.[citation needed] For Mi Fu writing or calligraphy was intimately connected with the composing of poetry or sketching. It required an alertness of mind and spirit, which he thought was best achieved through the enjoyment of wine. Through this he reached a state of excitement rather than drunkenness. A friend of Mi Fu, Su Shih (蘇軾) admired him and wrote that his brush was like a sharp sword handled skillfully in fight or a bow which could shoot the arrow a thousand li, piercing anything that might be in its way. "It was the highest perfection of the art of calligraphy", he wrote.[citation needed] Other critics claimed that only Mi Fu could imitate the style of the great calligraphers of the Six Dynasties. Mi Fu's son testified that his father always kept some calligraphic masterpiece of the Tang or the Qin period in his desk as a model. At night he would place it in a box at the side of his pillow.[citation needed] According to some writings,[which?] Mi Fu did most of his paintings during the last seven years of his life, and he himself wrote that "he chose as his models the most ancient masters and painted guided by his own genius and not by any teacher and thus represented the loyal men of antiquity."[citation needed] Paintings currently attributed to Mi Fu represent ranges of wooded hills or cone-shaped mountain peaks rising out of layers of mist. Bodies of water and clusters of dark trees may appear in the foreground of his compositions. One of the best known examples of the "Mi Fu style" is a small picture in the Palace Museum known as Spring Mountains and Pine-Trees. It is in the size of a large album-leaf and there is a poem at the top that was said to be added by Emperor Gaozong of Song.[citation needed] Some paintings attributed to Mi Fu are likely imitations. They may be from Southern Song period, or possibly from the Yuan period, when some of the leading painters freely utilized the manner of Mi Fu for expressing their own ideas. It is likely that many are from the later part of Ming period when a cult of Mi Fu was started, its followers viewing him as the most important representative of the Southern School. Mi Fu himself had seen many imitations and he saw how wealthy amateurs spent their money on great names rather than on original works of art. He wrote that they "place their pictures in brocade bags and provide them with jade rollers as if they were very wonderful treasures, but when they open them one cannot but break out into laughter."[citation needed] Mi Fu's own manner of painting has been characterized by writers who knew it through their own observation or through hearsay. It is said[who?] that he always painted on paper which had not been prepared with gum or alum (alauns) instead of silk, and he never painted on the wall. In addition to using a brush when painting with ink, Mi Fu also utilized paper sticks or sugar cane from which the juice had been extracted or a calyx (kauss) of a lotus.[citation needed] Mi Fu was principally a landscape painter, though he also created portraits and figure paintings. It is likely that he spent more time studying samples of ancient calligraphy and paintings than he spent producing work of his own.[citation needed] His book, Huashi ("History of Painting"), contains practical hints as to the proper way of collecting, preserving, cleaning and mounting pictures.[13] See also [edit] Poetry portal Chinese art Chinese painting Culture of the Song dynasty History of Chinese art Citations [edit] General references [edit] Barnhart, R. M. et al. (1997). Three Thousand years of Chinese Painting. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07013-6. p. 373. Rhonda and Jeffrey Cooper (1997). Masterpieces of Chinese Art. Todtri Productions. ISBN 1-57717-060-1. p. 76. Xiao, Yanyi, "Mi Fu". Encyclopedia of China (Arts Edition), 1st ed.
2073	dbpedia	2	65	https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/History/hiindexen.htm	en	Vocabulary of Chinese Traditional Art			[ "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Chines1.gif", "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Home.h2.gif", "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Home.h3.gif", "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Home.h4.gif", "https://www.zhuweiartden.com/zhuweiartden/www/ZW/Ho...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null	Xuan Paper Name of a kind of rice paper made in China. It was first produced in Xuanzhou (now the Jing County of East China's, Anhui Province), hence the name of Xuan paper. The bark of Pteroceltis tatarinowii and straw are the main raw materials for producing Xuan paper. After maceration, the fibers are treated with lime, exposed to sunlight, bleached, and washed with starch. Prized xuan papers are cast by hand. They are fine, soft, resistant to insect damage, and their pure white color lasts long to retard absorption of the ink, they may be treated with alum. Where not otherwise indicated, the Chinese papers used for prints and paintings in the exhibition are on a variety of xuan paper. Bamboo Slip Tablets or slips made from bamboo (or wood) for writing in ancient China. It¡¯s called slip if it¡¯s made from bamboo, and called tablet if it¡¯s made from wood. Slit used to be the general name, but now it¡¯s often called bamboo slip. The writing tools of bamboo slip were Chinese brush and ink, and only one line of text can be handwritten on each slip. An article often included many slips. Upon the finish, the slips were bound by strings and rolled up for storage. These rolls were the earliest form of Chinese books. Wooden tablet was often used for short essays. Bamboo slip was invented in Western Zhou, and was widely accepted during Spring and Autumn Period and Warring Period. Around 4th century, with the popularization of paper, the status of bamboo slips was eventually replaced. Du Fu (712~770) Du Fu was a prominent Chinese poet of the Tang Dynasty. His courtesy name was Zi Mei, and he called himself ¡°Shao Ling countryside aged¡±, ¡°Du Shao Ling¡±, ¡°Du Gong Bu¡±, etc. Du Fu¡¯s own greatest ambition was to help his country by becoming a successful civil servant, but he proved unable to make the necessary accommodations. He only served in some low-level position, such as the military adviser in a regional governor's headquarters and concurrently assistant secretary in the Board of Works (Gong Bu). His life, like the whole country, was devastated by the An Lushan Rebellion of 755, and the last 15 years of his life were a time of almost constant unrest. Initially little known, his works came to be hugely influential in both Chinese and Japanese culture. Of his poetic writing, nearly fifteen hundred poems written by Du Fu have been handed down over the ages, most of which expressed a sincere and broad concern for humanity. He also possesses a remarkable power of description, with which he vividly presents human affairs and natural scenery. Thus the afterworld gave him the name of Poet-Historian and the Poet-Sage. Emperor Huizong of Song (1082~1135) Emperor of Northern Song Dynasty. Painter. Calligrapher. The eleventh son of the Emperor Shenzong of Song. The brother of the Emperor Zhezong of Song. After the death of Zhezong, Huizong¡¯s mother made him the eighth emperor of Song Dynasty (r. 1100~1125). During his reign, Huizong devoted himself into art more than into governing the empire. He was an accomplished painter, calligrapher and art supporter. When Jin Dynasty declared war on Song in 1126, Huizong lost it and had to escape. In 1127, Huizong, his son Emperor Qinzong, as well as the entire imperial court and harem were captured by the Jin in the Jingkang Incident. Nine years later he died in captivity at the age of 54. His tomb is 35 miles away from Shaoxing county in Zhejiang province. Cui Bai (11th century c.) Chinese painter in the Northern Song dynasty. Cui Bai was active during the reign of the Emperor Shenzong of Song. Appreciated by Shenzong, he became a Yixue (ÒÕÑ§, a title in the Imperial Art Academy, lower than painter-in-attendance) and later panter-in-attendance in the Imperial Art Academy. Cui Bai was good at flower-and-bird painting, as well as Buddhism mural painting. He broke the court tradition created by Huang Quan and his son in the early period of Song dynasty, who had founded the standard to paint flower and bird in a luxuary way, and originated a new style in the Imperial Art Academy. His works include ¡°Shuangxi Tu¡± (¡¶Ë«Ï²Í¼¡·, Double Happiness), ¡°Hanque Tu¡± (¡¶º®È¸Í¼¡·, Sparrow in Cold Days), and ¡°Zhu¡¯ou Tu¡±(¡¶ÖñÅ¸Í¼¡·, Bamboo and Gull), etc. Fan Kuan (early 11th century c.) Fan Kuan is known to be one of the leading figures in the Northern Song Landscape tradition and one of the most appreciated landscape artists in traditional China. According to Chinese art history, he was born at the end of Five Dynasties, and still alive during Tianren years of the reign of Emperor Renzong of Song (1023~1031). His courtesy name is Zhongli, but because of his nature of lenience and magnanimous, people of his time called him ¡°Kuan¡±, which means wide. Then he named himself ¡°Kuan¡± too. In the record of Xuanhe Hua Pu (¡¶ÐûºÍ»Æ×¡·, ¡°Xuanhe Painting List, a catalogue made of Emperor Huizong¡¯s collection, compiled by court connoisseurs during his reign in Song dynasty), Fan Kuan¡¯s characteristics was also mentioned. The List said Fan ¡°had a style of ancient times; behaved wild; loved alcohol; and never restrained by convention or propriety¡±. Fan Kuan created imaginary landscapes that were different and unique while preserving the internal order and ideal balance of nature. Ma Yuan (1140~1225) One of Four Masters in Southern Song Dynasty, courtesy name Yaofu, and pseudonym Qinshan, Ma Yuan was born in Hezhong (today¡¯s Yongji county in Shanxi province), and moved to Qiantang (today¡¯s Hangzhou in Zhejiang province). He represented the fourth generation in a tradition of painters spanning five generations, beginning with his great-grandfather, Ma Fen, and ending with his son, Ma Lin, all of whom served the Sung emperors as court painters-in-attendance. Although the family tradition doubtless had strong influence on Ma Yuan's development as a painter, he was also indebted to the great northern landscape and figure master Li Tang. Ma Yuan's art at its best is a masterpiece of understatement and evocative suggestion. His typical compositions, featuring the extensive use of swirling mist and empty spaces, with only a few sharply etched forms dramatically silhouetted against the whiteness, lent him the sobriquet "One-corner Ma." Li Song (1166~1243) A native of Qiantang, was a prominent painter of the Southern Song dynasty. Li Song was a talented carpenter before the court painter Li Xun adopted him. He served as a Painter-in-Attendance during the reign of Emperor Gaozong, Ningzong and Lizong of Song. Li was good at Daoist and Buddhist figure, as his foster father Li Xun, he was especially gifted in architecture paintings. The Palace Museum in Beijing collected his painting Puppet Play of a Skeleton. In this painting the expression of figures were well presented. He used the outlining method of nail head and mouse tail to paint the drapes of clothes, and straight lines were often used, which was fine but powerful. And his Flower Basket shows different levels of all the flowers, just like real ones. Zhu Da (1626~1705) Chinese painter and poet. A descendant of the imperial Zhu family of the Ming dynasty and a leading artist of the early Qing period, Zhu Da grew up in Nanchang in Jiangxi province. His connections with the previous dynasty led him to become a monk after the Manchu conquest of China in 1644. Zhu Da had many pseudonyms, but his favorite should be Bada Shanren, which means mountain man of eight masters. Zhu Da adopted and developed the technique of Chen Chun and Xu Wei to paint flowers, birds and landscapes in a style of freehand brushwork, and he went even further - his paintings were in a distinctive and highly dramatic calligraphic style. In a way of symbolization and metaphor, he exaggerated flowers and birds, fishes and insects in his paintings, even gave them a human expression of white eyes (supercilious look). This showed the painter¡¯s own feelings. His bitter experiences of social turmoil and his hatred for the Qing rulers helped to shape his distinctive style. Zhu Da's style exerted a great influence on later artists, such as the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou. Shi Tao (1642~1707) Original name Zhu Ruoji. Chinese painter and theoretician who was, with Zhu Da, one of the most famous Four Monks in the early Qing dynasty. Shi Tao¡¯s paintings were famous and popular when he was alive. He traveled a lot and learned from the nature itself. Before he began painting a sketch of sceneries, he had seen thousands of mountains (this is one of his famous opinions). His work has a freshness inspired not by masters of the past but by an unfettered imagination, with brush techniques that were free and unconventional, and with an ingenious composition. Shitao's independent spirit is also found within his theoretical writings, such as the Kugua Heshang Yulu (¡¶¿à¹ÏºÍÉÐÓïÂ¼¡·, ¡°Comments on Painting by Monk of Bitter Melon¡±). Gu Hongzhong (910~980, or 937~975) Gu Hongzhong was a painter during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. He was from southern China, and served as painter-in-attendance in southern Tang during the reign of Li Jing and Li Yu. He excelled at figure painting. ¡°Han Xizai Ye Yan Tu¡± (¡¶º«ÎõÔØÒ¹ÑçÍ¼¡·, Han Xizai Gives A Night Banquet) was his most famous painting. It¡¯s a wide known work of high classical Chinese art. And it¡¯s also the only work we can see today by Gu Hongzhong. Lou Rui (6th century c.) Lou Rui, a Xianbei native, was a relative of Emperor Shizu of Northern Qi, whose wife¡¯s brother Lou Zhuang was Lou Rui¡¯s father. Lou Rui was buried in 570 at Guo village in Taiyuan, Shanxi province. Since its discovery and excavation from 1980 to 1982, the tomb, with its underground structure decorated with mural paintings, has constituted a corpus of the most reliable data for an accurate assessment of the art, music, costume, court life and rites in the Northern Qi dynasty. Zhao Mengfu (1254~1322) A native of Huzhou, ZheJiang province. His courtesy name was Zi Ang and his pseudonyms was Taoist Xuesong (Pine Snow Taoist). Zhao Mengfu was a descendent of Song imperial family, but he also served the Yuan dynasty as one of the highest Han officials (regular official, not a court painter). He was a famous calligraphy and adept in many styles of calligraphy, such as seal character, official script, running script and the cursive hand, and he also created his own style, Zhaoti. He excelled at painting too, especially in ink bamboo, flowers and birds. His wife, Guan Daosheng was also talented in painting and calligraphy. The Xuesong Zhai Ji (¡¶ËÉÑ©Õ«¼¯¡·, ¡°Collected Essays from Pine Snow Studio¡±) was written by Zhao. Pop Art The term first appeared in Britain during the 1950s and referred to the interest of a number of artists in the images of mass media, advertising, comics and consumer products. The 1950s were a period of optimism in Britain following the end of war-time rationing, and a consumer boom took place. Influenced by the art seen in Eduardo Paolozzi's 1953 exhibition Parallel between Art and Life at the Institute for Contemporary Arts, and by American artists such as Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg, British artists such as Richard Hamilton and the Independent Group aimed at broadening taste into more popular, less academic art. Hamilton helped organize the ¡°Man, Machine, and Motion¡± exhibition in 1955, and ¡°This is Tomorrow¡± with its landmark image Just What is it that makes today's home so different, so appealing? (1956). Pop Art therefore coincided with the youth and pop music phenomenon of the 1950s and '60s, and became very much a part of the image of fashionable, 'swinging' London. Peter Blake, for example, designed album covers for Elvis Presley and the Beatles and placed film stars such as Brigitte Bardot in his pictures in the same way that Warhol was immortalizing Marilyn Monroe in the USA. Pop art came in a number of waves, but all its adherents - Joe Trilson, Richard Smith, Peter Phillips, David Hockney and R.B. Kitaj - shared some interest in the urban, consumer, modern experience. Zhang Xuan (8th c.) A native of Jingzhao (today¡¯s Xi¡¯an in Shanxi province) in Tang dynasty. In 723 AD during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, he became a court painter with Yang Sheng and Yang Ning. Zhang Xuan was famous for his figure paintings, especially his paintings of noble lady, noble child, baby, and horse. He and Zhou Fang were the most outstanding figure painters in Tang dynasty. Xie He (479~502) Painter, art historian in Southern Qi and Liang of Southern dynasties. He excelled at genre painting and figure painting. His most famous work was a book, the Gu Hua Pin Lu (¡¶¹Å»Æ·Â¼¡·, Classified Record of Ancient Painters), which is also the oldest painting treatise in Chinese history. In this book Xie made comments on the important painters during 3rd to 4th century. Xie He is best known for his Six Cannons of painting which became a central theory in the history of Chinese painting. In this theory Xie He deals with all the major aspects of the art of painting according to importance. Six Cannons The Six Cannons were introduced by Xie He in his Gu Hua Pin Lu (¡¶¹Å»Æ·Â¼¡·, Classified Record of Ancient Painters). They may be paraphrased as: first vivid spiritual consonance; second structural use of the brush; third proper representation and fidelity to object; fourth specific coloring of different objects; fifth proper planning of composition; and sixth transmission of the past and copying. Theory of Relativity The theory of relativity refers specifically to two theories: Albert Einstein's special relativity and general relativity. Special relativity is a theory of the structure of spacetime. General relativity is a theory of gravitation. Relativity and quantum physics touch the very basis of physical reality, altering our commonsense notions of space and time, cause and effect. Classical Physics is convenient in studying bodies of ordinary dimensions but not in other cases. For bodies of astronomical dimensions, the use of Relativity is required as well as that of Quantum Mechanics is required for bodies of atomic dimensions. The theory of relativity changed the ¡°comment sense¡± toward space and time by its new contents of ¡°relativity of simultaneity¡±, ¡°four-dimensional space-time¡±, and ¡°curve space¡±, etc. Quantum Theory The modern world of physics is notably founded on two tested and demonstrably sound theories of general relativity and quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics is a fundamental branch of physics with wide applications in both experimental and theoretical physics. The effects of quantum mechanics are typically not observable on macroscopic scales, but become evident at the atomic and subatomic level. Quantum theory generalizes all classical theories, including mechanics and electromagnetism, and provides accurate descriptions for many previously unexplained phenomena such as black body radiation and stable electron orbits. It is the underlying mathematical framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including condensed matter physics, solid-state physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, computational chemistry, quantum chemistry, particle physics, and nuclear physics. Heisenberg (1901~1976) Werner Karl Heisenberg was a celebrated German physicist and Nobel laureate, one of the founders of quantum mechanics, and acknowledged to be one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century. He was born in W¨¹rzburg, Germany and died in Munich. Heisenberg was the head of German nuclear energy project, though the nature of this project, and his work in this capacity, has been heavily debated. He is most well-known for discovering one of the central principles of modern physics, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Ren Bonian (1840~1896) Ren Bonian (Ren Yi) was an outstanding painting in modern China. Born in Zhejiang and lived in Shanghai, he was active in the Haishang Painting School (º£ÉÏ»ÅÉ) which fused popular and traditional styles. He is also sometimes referred to as one of and the best of the "Four Rens"(four modern painters in Shanghai who shared a same family name Ren). Wu Changshuo (1844~1927) Wu Changshuo was born in Anji, Zhejiang Province, and died in Shanghai. He settled in Suzhou in his twenties, where he founded the Xiling Seal Engravers Society, an artists' association with a focus on the craft of seal carving. As a leading figure in the Haishang Painting School during the early 20th century, he was largely responsible for rejuvenating the genre of bird-and-flower painting by introducing an expressive, individualistic style more generally associated with literati painting. He began his artistic career with the traditional study of literature and ancient inscriptions before moving to calligraphy. He wrote Fou Lu Ji (¡¶ó¾Â®¼¯¡·, ¡°Works from My Cottage Fou Lu¡±) and Fou Lu Yin Cun (¡¶ó¾Â®Ó¡´æ¡·, ¡°Seals Colleted in My Cottage Fou Lu¡±) , etc. His famous paintings include ¡°Tianzhu Huahui¡± (ÌìÖñ»¨»Ü, Geranium Flower), ¡°Zi Teng Tu¡± (×ÏÌÙÍ¼, Purple Bine), ¡°Mo He Tu¡±( Ä«ºÉÍ¼, Water Lily of Ink), and ¡°Xin Hua Tu¡± (ÐÓ»¨Í¼, Apricot Blossom), etc. Huang Binhong (1865~1955) Modern art historian and literati painter. He used to edit literary and art journals and taught at fine arts colleges in Shanghai for nearly 30 years. Huang experimented with traditional techniques for the use of ink, including shading and layering. He achieved an effect of ¡°dark, dense, thick, and heavy¡± in his landscapes. Huang was the author of Huangshan Huajia Yuanliu Kao (¡¶»ÆÉ½»¼ÒÔ´Á÷¿¼¡·, ¡°Research the Headstream of Paintings in Yellow Mountain¡±), Hong Lu Hua Tan (¡¶ºçÂ®»Ì¸¡·, ¡°Essays of Paintings from My Cottage of Hong¡±), Gu Hua Wei (¡¶¹Å»Î¢¡·, ¡°About Ancient Paintings¡±), Jinshi Shuhua Bian (¡¶½ðÊ¯Êé»±à¡·, ¡°Knowledge of Painting, Inscription Painting and Calligraphy¡±), and Hua Fa Yao Zhi (¡¶»·¨ÒªÖ¼¡·, ¡°Principles and Methods of Paintings¡±), etc. Liu Haisu (1896~1994) Painter and art educator Li Haisu was born in Wujin, Jiangsu province. He founded Shanghai Art Academy in 1912, which is the first modern art academy, the first coeducation school and the first art school allowed nude models in China. He traveled to Japan and Europe many times to study western art. His works can be found in a number of albums, including Huangshan (¡¶»ÆÉ½¡·, ¡°Yellow Mountain¡±), Haisu Guo Hua (¡¶º£ËÚ¹ú»¡·, ¡°Chinese Paintings by Haisu¡±), Haisu Laoren Shuhua Ji (¡¶º£ËÚÀÏÈËÊé»¼¯¡·, ¡°Old Man Haisu¡¯s Calligraphy and Painting¡±). His theoretical writings include Biography of Millet, and The Six Cannons in Chinese Painting, etc. Shi Lu (1919~1982) Originally known as Feng Ya-heng, Shi created his artistic pseudonym by combining those of two heroes of cultural iconoclasm, the seventeenth century individualist painter Shitao and the twentieth century writer Lu Xun. For the same reason, he changed his name to Shi Lu (representing Shi Tao and Lu Xun). Adept in Chinese painting and plate drawing, he was the representative of the Chang¡¯an School of Painting. Zhu Qizhan (1892~1996) Born in Taicang in Jiangsu province, Zhu Qizhan started to copy ancient Chinese painting at the age of eight. When he at middle age he traveled to Japan twice where he studied Western-style oil, but after 1950s, he turned his interest to Chinese paintings. He excelled at landscape, flower, especially orchid, bamboo and stone. Lin Fengmian (1900~1991) Lin Fengmian is a famous modern painter and art educator who successfully combined Chinese and Western painting skills. He was born in Meixian County, Guangdong Province. At the age of 19, he went to France to learn oil painting, doing part-time work to support his study. In 1925 he came back to China to work as principal of the Beiping State Vocational Art School. In the late 1920s, invited by Cai Yuanpei, he became principal of the Hangzhou Vocational Art School (now the China Academy of Art). In 1978, he settled in Hong Kong. His solo exhibition was successfully held in Paris in 1979. Lin was good at the painting of noble ladies, characters of Beijing opera, scenery of fishing villages, female body, still life and landscapes. Pan Tianshou (1897~1971) Chinese painter, fine arts educationist, theorist of fine arts, calligraphist and seal cutting artist. From 1923, Pan started to teach in Shanghai Art School, New China Art School, Xihu Art School. The next year he went to Japan with Lin Fengmian to investigate Japanese art education. In 1944 he became the principal of the National Arts Vocational School. After the foundation of People¡¯s Republic of China, Pan took the positions of president of Zhejiang Fine Arts Academy and vice president of China Federation of Literary and Art Circles, etc. Books written by Pan Tianshou include The History of Chinese Painting, Tingtiange Huatan Suibi (¡¶ÌýÌì¸ó»Ì¸Ëæ±Ê¡·, ¡°Essays of Painting from Tingtian Attic, Tingtiange was the name of his studio), etc. Li Keran (1907~1989) Li Keran was born in Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province. He was a famous painter and art educator in modern China. He developed a personal style of landscape painting that was based upon the western technique of light and shade. His famous paintings include ¡°Apricot Blossom with Spring Rain in South China¡± (ÐÓ»¨´ºÓê½ÄÏ), ¡°Morning Fog in Mountain Town¡± (É½³Ç³¯Îí), ¡°Watching Mountains¡± (¿´É½Í¼), etc. Fu Baoshi (1904~1964) Chinese painter. Having studied in Japan, he travelled all over China to paint landscape, forming his own style based on traditional artistry. He also wrote Research on the History of Chinese Ancient Landscape Paintings, Techniques of Chinese Landscape Painting and Figure Painting, and Theories of Chinese Painting, etc. Li Kuchan (1898~1983) Li Kuchan¡¯s given name was Ying, and his courtesy name was Kuchan (which means bitter Zen). He combined western techniques and spirituality in sculpture and painting into his Chinese painting teaching, and he himself was excelled at great freehand style of flower-and-bird painting. His representative works include ¡°Orchid and Bamboo¡± (À¼Öñ), ¡°Eagle's Eyes Guarding China¡± (ÈºÓ¥Í¼), ¡°Perching¡±, ¡°Fully Blossoming Water Lily¡± (Ê¢ºÉ), etc. Huang Zhou (1925~1997) Artist, collector of traditional Chinese paintings, and a social activist. Entrusted by the Ministry of Culture, Huang founded the Research Institute of Traditional Chinese Painting and became its deputy director. He was also successively in the positions of director of Chinese Artists Association, member of the standing committee of CPPCC, and curator of Yanhuang Art Gallery. Cheng Shifa (1921~2006) Born in Songjiang, Shanghai, Cheng was good at comic works, illustration drawing, new-year picture, landscapes painting, flower-and-bird painting, and figure painting. Marx (1818~1883) Karl Marx was the founder of Marxism, the organizer and leader of the First International, and the Great Teacher of the proletariat and the working people in the world. Romain Rolland (1866¡«1944) French writer. Romain Rolland's most famous work is Jean Christophe, a partly autobiographical novel, which also won him the 1915 Nobel Prize. The Sword of Damocles In Greek mythology, Damocles was courtier at the court of Dionysius I. He so persistently praised the power and happiness of Dionysius that the tyrant, in order to show the precariousness of rank and power, gave a banquet and had a sword suspended above the head of Damocles by a single hair. Hence the expression ¡°the sword of Damocles¡± to mean an ever-present peril. Zhong Yong (or Doctrine of the Mean) The essence of Zhong Yong rooted in the Doctrine of the Mean in Confucianism. Doctrine of the Mean was one of the Four Books, and it also refers to a way of living. Not like most people understand today, Zhong Yong does not equal to indifference or mediocrity. It¡¯s about cultivation of human nature, including the way of learning, ¡°To this attainment there are requisite the extensive study of what is good, accurate inquiry about it, careful reflection on it, the clear discrimination of it, and the earnest practice of it. Moderation is the process of eliminating or lessening extremes¡±; and the duties of universal obligation are five, ¡°the duties are those between sovereign and minister, between father and son, between husband and wife, between elder brother and younger, and those belonging to the intercourse of friends¡±; and the virtues wherewith they are practiced are three, ¡°Knowledge, magnanimity, and energy¡±(the quotations follow James Legge¡¯s translation in 1893). The highest goal of cultivation of Zhong Yong is the most entire sincerity. Chang'e Chang'e is the subject of several legends in Chinese mythology. She was Hou Yi¡¯s wife. Chang¡¯e stole and ate Hou Yi¡¯s elixir, then flew to moon. She had to live on Moon forever. Nv Wa A goddess in Chinese mythology. In some legends, Nv Wa created human beings from mud. In some other legends Nv Wa married to Fu Xi, her brother, and gave birth to human beings. Another legend tells how she patched up the sky. One day, there was a hole in the sky and it caused a flood. Nv Wa melted together various kinds of colored stones and with the molten mixture she patched up the sky. Human beings were protected. There are many legends about Nv Wa, which are well known until today. Mawangdui Located in the eastern suburbs of Chansha, Hunan Province, the Mawangdui Han Dynasty Tombs were uncovered in 1972 and excavated from 1972 to 1974. Mawangdui is the tombs of a man named Li Cang and his wife and son, who lived in the State of Changsha, Western Han Dynasty (206BC-8AD). The three tombs contained the remains of the Marquis Dai (tomb no.2), his wife (tomb no.1) and his son (tomb no.3), and their most prized possessions. The articles excavated from the tombs have been highly important in researching this very wealthy and sophisticated Western Han culture. Gu Kaizhi (346~407) Gu Kaizhi was a celebrated painter and art theorist in Eastern Jin dynasty. According to historical records he was born in Wuxi, Jiangsu province and first painted at Nanjing in 364. In 366 he became an officer (Da Sima Canjun). Later he was promoted to royal officer (Sanji Changshi). He was also a talented poet and calligrapher. He wrote three books about painting theory: On Painting (¡¶ÂÛ»¡·), Introduction of Famous Paintings of Wei and Jin Dynasties (¡¶Îº½úÊ¤Á÷»ÔÞ¡·) and Painting Yuntai Mountain (¡¶»ÔÆÌ¨É½¼Ç¡·). He wrote: "In figure paintings the clothes and the appearances were not very important. The eyes were the spirit and the decisive factor." Gu's art is known today through copies of three silk handscroll paintings attributed to him: ¡°Nv Shi Zhen Tu¡± (Å®Ê·óðÍ¼, Admonitions of the Instructress to the Court Ladies), ¡°Luo Shen Fu Tu¡± (ÂåÉñ¸³Í¼ , Nymph of the Luo River) , and ¡°Lienv Renzhi Tu¡± (ÁÐÅ®ÈÊÖÇÍ¼ , Wise and Benevolent Women). Zong Bing (375~443) Zong Bing, painter and art theorist made important contributions to Chinese art theory especially in developing Gu Kaizhi's theory of spirit and form and clarifying and tackling issues of perspective and composition. In the field of theory Zong Bing promoted a view that saw landscape painting as a spiritual domain that enables humans to dwell in. His theory can be found in his essay Introduction to Painting Landscapes. Zong Bing was famous for his landscape paintings. Xie He, an art theorist in Southern Qi, said Zong¡¯s painting was ¡°not accurate but its atmosphere worth recommend¡±. His famous paintings include ¡°Kongzi Dizi Xiang¡± (¿××ÓµÜ×ÓÏñ , Portraits of Confucius¡¯ Students), ¡°Yingchuan Xianxian Tu¡± (ò£´¨ÏÈÏÍÍ¼ , Saints in Ying Chuan), ¡°Zhou Li Tu¡± (ÖÜÀñÍ¼ , Rites of the Zhou), ¡°Qiu Shan Tu¡± (ÇïÉ½Í¼, Autumn Mountains), and ¡°Lijia Yiwu Tu¡± (Àñ¼ÎÒØÎÝÍ¼ , Lijia Cottage), etc. He was also a wonderful qin player, finishing the editing of an ancient music book Jin Shi Nong (¡¶½ðÊ¯Åª¡·). Jing Hao (9th century~early 10th century c.) Jing Hao was an important landscape painter and essayist of the Five Dynasties (907-960) period. Jing spent much of his life in retirement as a farmer in the Taihang Mountains of Shanxi province. In his art, Jing followed the court painters of the Tang dynasty in emphasizing the singular grandeur of the landscape. According to his essay Bifa Ji (¡¶±Ê·¨¼Ç¡·, ¡°On Brushstrokes¡±), Taihang Mountain was so beautiful that he brought papers and ink brushes into it and painted day after day. Not until he painted thousands of landscapes, he could not grasp the mountain¡¯s spirit. Jing Hao was the first great figure to adequately depict the characteristic landscape of the north, because he always observed and learnt from the nature. Mi Fu (1051~1107) Mi Fu was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan, Shanxi during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the ¡°Mi Fu Style¡± and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. He is best known for his calligraphy, and he was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. As a personality Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric. At times they even deemed him ¡°Madman Mi¡±. He also was known as a heavy drinker. Su Shi (1037~1101) Su Shi was a writer, poet, artist, calligrapher, pharmacologist, and statesman of the Northern Song Dynasty. His courtesy name was Zizhan and his pseudonym was Dongpo Jushi (Resident of Dongpo), and he is often referred to as Su Dongpo. Su Shi was born in Meishan, near Mount Emei in what is now Sichuan province. His brother Su Zhe and his father Su Xun were both famous literati and they were called The Three Sus. Su was among the earliest to advocate the scholar painting and later founded Huzhou School. Su's poem was teemed with exaggerated metaphors. A small group of them represented the sufferings of the people, scolding governors' dissipation and debauchery. His poems exerted great influence on literature of later generations. As to ci (lyrics), Su Shi and Xin Qiji were called Su-Xin for their ci were both of powerful and freestyle. They brought new atmosphere to the circle of ci and broke the monopoly of restrained style. Another of his contribution to ci was that he liberated ci from music. From then on, ci became an independent lyric. Wang Wei (701~761) Wang Wei sometimes titled the Poet Buddha, was a Tang Dynasty Chinese poet, musician, painter and statesman. His courtesy name was Mojie, and was from Hedong, the Yellow River area in southwestern Shanxi. He is best known for his poems, which addressed the illusory nature of beauty and the physical world. As well as being a poet, Wang Wei was a painter of some note and the delicate, atmospheric nature of his art is reflected in his poetry. None of his original paintings survive, but copies of works attributed to him are also landscapes with similar qualities. He influenced what became known as the Southern school of Chinese landscape art, which was characterised by strong brushstrokes contrasted with light ink washes. In his later years, he lived at Wangchuan at Lantian, southeast of Chang'an. Guo Xi (1020~1109) Born in Wen county in present day Henan province, Guo Xi is not only one of the greatest landscape artists, but also one of the most influential art theorists in the Northern Song dynasty. Although his style can be traced back to Tang dynasty¡¯s famous Li Cheng, he experimented with a variety of different styles. Being a prominent member of the Imperial Academy of Painting GuoXi¡¯s art ornamented large parts of the imperial palace' especially during the reign of emperor Shenzong who admired his work. Lin Quan Gao Zhi (¡¶ÁÖÈª¸ßÖÂ¡·, Collection of Hermit in Woods and Spring), written by Guo Xi, is an important work of aesthetic ideology in Chinese painting. It provides a deep analysis and research on Guo Xi¡¯s key aesthetic ideology ¡°Beyond Nature¡±. Guo Xi developed a strategy of depicting multiple perspectives called "the angle of totality." And his theory of ¡°Three Distances¡± shows that Chinese landscape painting has entered a more mature stage. His important masterpieces include ¡°Zao Chun¡± (Ôç´º, Early Spring), ¡°Keshi Pingyuan Tu¡± (ñ½Ê¯Æ½Ô¶Í¼, Old Trees, Level Distance), ¡°Guanshan Chunxue Tu¡± (¹ØÉ½´ºÑ©Í¼), Spring Snow in Guan Mountain) and ¡°Yougu¡± (ÓÄ¹È, Quiet Valley), etc. Qian Xuan (1235~1301) Qian Xuan was a Song loyalist painter from Zhejiang and most of his life was lived in early Yuan Dynasty. He started as an aspiring scholar-official during the Southern Song. When the Mongol Yuan took over China in 1276 he effectively gave up the idea of officialdom. Like many of his compatriots, he turned to artistic pursuits to support himself. He was accomplished in painting of ancient figure, landscape, fur-and-feather, calligraphy, and flower-and-bird. In the field of landscape painting, his theory and practice of returning the old tradition and innovation in visual structure inspired many literati painters of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. Ni Zan (1301~1374) Ni Zan is considered to be one of the four "Late Yuan" masters. He was born into a wealthy family in Wuxi, which could afford him to be educated despite the unavailability of high-paying governmental jobs that traditionally were the reward for a rigorous Confucian education. So he can choose not to serve the foreign Mongol dynasty of the Yuan and lived a life of retirement and scholarship of his whole life. He called himself ¡°Lazy Zan¡±, or ¡°Pedantic Ni¡±. As a sticker of cleanliness, Ni washed and cleaned his clothes several times a day, and even washed the trees around his house. He was part of a movement that radically altered the traditional conceptions of Chinese painting. Their paintings depicted representations of natural settings that were highly localized, portraying personally valued vistas that reflected their individual feelings. His works include ¡°Yuhou Konglin¡± (Óêºó¿ÕÁÖ , The Empty Woods after Rain), ¡°Wuzhu Xiaoshi¡± (ÎàÖñÐãÊ¯ , Bamboo and Rocks), etc. Dong Qichang (1555~1636) Chinese painter, calligrapher, connoisseur, theoretician, collector and high official in late Ming Dynasty. Born in Huating (today¡¯s Songjiang in Shanghai), Dong¡¯s courtesy name was Xuanzai or Yuanzai, and his pseudonym was Si Bai and Xiangguang Jushi. He was the main representative of Huating School. Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou is the name for a group of eight Chinese painters in the Qing dynasty known for rejecting the orthodox ideas about painting in favor of a style deemed expressive and individualist. They all gathered in Yangzhou, a business center in China at that time. The term was also used not only for geographic reason, it also because they each had strong personalities at variance with the conventions of their own time. Most of them were from impoverished or troubled backgrounds. Still the term is, generally, more a statement about their style rather than being a judgment of them as personally being among history's noted eccentrics. The group includes Jin Nong, Huang Shen, Gao Xiang, Li Fangying, Li Shan, Luo Ping, and Wang Shishen. Other artists, such as Gao Fenghan, Bian Shoumin, Min Zhen, and Hua Yan, are sometimes included. Their style was influenced by Chen Chun, Xu Wei, Zhu Da, Shi Tao, and Gao Qipei, etc. Eight Masters from Nanjing The Eight Masters of Nanjing (Nanjing¡¯s old name was Jinling) were a group of 17th century Chinese painters living in Nanjing. The most prominent of them was Gong Xian. The famous painters in this group included Gong Xian, Fan Qi, Ye Xin, Zou Che, Gao Cen, Hu Cao, Wu Hong, and Xie Sun. The style of their paintings was different. Wilhelm Worringer (1881¡«1965) Wilhelm Worringer was a German art historian. He is known in connection with expressionism. His best-known works are Abstraction and Empathy in 1908, which was his doctoral thesis, and Form in Gothic published in 1911. After World War I, Worringer became a professor in Bonn University, where he wrote Egyptian Art and Greek and Gothic Art. He moved to Konigsberg in 1928 and to East Germany in 1945. He was a professor in Halle University when this country was under the control of Soviet Union. In 1950 he settled in Munich and lived there until his death. Worringer was influential because he saw abstract as being in no way inferior to "realist" art, and worthy of respect in its own right. This was critical justification for the increased use of abstraction in pre-war European art. Kang Youwei (1858¡«1927) Kang Youwei, born in Foshan, Guangdong, was a famous scholar, noted calligrapher and political reformist in Chinese modern history. Kang came from a wealthy family of scholar-officials. He was a strong believer in constitutional monarchy and wanted to remodel the country after Meiji Japan. He was an important leader of a campaign to modernize China now known as the Reform Movement of 1898 (or Hundred Days' Reform). After the reform failed Kang fled to Japan, where with his student Liang he organized the Protect the Emperor Society. He returned China in 1914, after the Qing Dynasty fell and the Republic of China was established. Gong Xian (1618~1689) A painter in Qing dynasty. His courtesy names included Bian Qian, Ye Yi, Qi Xian, and his pseudonyms were Ban Mu (half acre) and Chai Zhangren (old man of firewood). He was born in Kunshan in Jiangsu province and later moved to Nanjing. One of the Eight Masters from Nanjing. Chen Duxiu (1879¡«1942) A founder of the Chinese Communist Party and a major leader in developing the cultural basis of revolution in China. Chen Duxiu was born in the city of Anqing in Anhui province. He moved to Shanghai in 1900 and Japan in 1901. It was in Japan where Chen became influenced by western socialism and the growing Chinese dissident movement. During this time, Chen became an increasingly influential activist in the revolutionary movement against foreign imperialism, the Qing government, and Yuan Shikai. In 1915, he chiefly edited the magazine Youth (renamed as New Youth the next year), which started the prelude of New Culture Campaign. In 1916, he was employed to take charge of the science of arts in Peking University, where he initiated the magazine of Weekly Review with Li Dazhao two years later. Since then, he directly devoted himself into the struggle of patriotic movement. He was one of the prominent leaders of the May Fourth Movement of 1919. In the summer of 1920, he set up the first communism group in Shanghai with the help of the Communist International. From the first session to the fifth session of the national congress of CPC, he was elected the head of communist party. Lv Zheng (1896~1989) Lv Zheng went to Japan to study art at 20. Being angry at Japanese invasion in China, he returned China soon. In 1918, Lv went to Nanjing to assist Ouyang Jingwu to found the Cheen Institute of Inner Learning (Ö§ÄÇÄÚÑ§Ôº), an institute of Chinese Buddhism. Lv Zheng was proficient in languages associated with Buddhism, including Japanese, Sanskrit, Pali and Tibetan, etc, and was one of the most accomplished Buddhism researchers in China. Lu Xun (1881¡«1936) Lu Xun is a famous writer, thinker, and revolutionist of the 20th century in China. Born in Shaoxing, Zhejiang province, Lu Xun was first named Zhou Zhangshu and later renamed Shuren, literally, ¡°to nurture a person¡±. In 1904, he went to Japan to pursue a Western medical degree at Sendai Medical School, where, however, he found it was more important to cure his compatriots' spiritual ills rather their physical diseases. He decided to be a wrtier. In 1918, Lu Xun used his pen name for the first time and published the first major baihua short story, ¡°A Madman's Diary¡±, in the magazine New Youth. It immediately established him as one of the most influential leading writers of his day. Both his first short story collection Call to Arms (published in 1923) and the second collection Wandering (published in 1926) won him a reputation of one of the founders of Chinese Modern Literature. Although highly sympathetic of the Chinese Communist movement, Lu Xun himself never joined the Chinese Communist Party despite being a staunch socialist as he professed in his works. Xu Beihong (1895¡«1953) Xu Beihong (born in Yixing, Jiangsu) was a modern Chinese painter, art educator and art theorist. Considered a modern master in China, he merged Western techniques with classic Chinese approaches. From the beginning of 1919, Xu studied western art overseas in Paris, Berlin and Belgium. In 1927 he came back to China and taught art in several academies. After the foundation of People¡¯s Republic of China, he became president of the Central Academy of Fine Arts and chairman of the Chinese Artists Association. Xu stuck to a way of realism, and his famous paintings include ¡°Tianheng Wubaishi¡± (ÌïºáÎå°ÙÊ¿, Tianheng and Five Hundred Brave Men), ¡°Yugong Yishan¡± (ÓÞ¹«ÒÆÉ½, Foolish Old Man Removing a Mountain), etc. ¡°Refugees¡± ¡°Refugees¡±(ink and colour on paper, 200 X 2600 cm) is the representing work painted by Jiang Zhaohe, who started the creation of ¡°Refugees¡± at the Japanese occupied areas in Beiping in 1941. It vividly describes a hundred refugees trying to escape from the bombing in the war. Qi Baishi (1864¡«1957) Qi Baishi was a Chinese painter. Born to a peasant from Xiangtan, Hunan, Qi became a carpenter at 14. He learned to paint by himself firstly, then studied literature, seal carving, calligraphy and painting from local literati Chen Shaoran and Hu Qinyuan. In the following years he could make a living by selling paintings and seal carving. After he turned 40, he traveled five times to visit famous sceneries in China. He is most noted for his whimsical, often playful style of ink and wash works. All of his works show no western influences, which was unique and different from most artists at his time. At the age of 90, he was honored as "People's Artist" by the Chinese Ministry of Culture, and was selected chairman of the Chinese Artists' Association. In 1956 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by the United Nations and later, after his death, was listed as a world cultural celebrity. Hui Shouping (1633~1690) Born in Wujing in Jiangsu province, painter Hui Shouping was one of the Six Masters in Early Qing dynasty, which included Wu Li and the Four Wangs too. Among the Six, only Hui Shouping excelled at both landscape and flower-and-bird. His renovation in flower-and-bird painting won him the reputation of important flower-and-bird painter in early Qing dynasty. ¡¡ Yi Yuan Lun Hua (On Paintings by Yi Yuan) Yi Yuan Lun Hua (ÒÃÔ°ÂÛ» , On Paintings by Yi Yuan) is an essays collection written by Song Nian. Song Nian¡¯s courtesy name was Xiao Meng, and his pseudonym was Yi Yuan. He founded the Painting Association of Zhenliu in Ji¡¯nan during the reign of emperor Guangxu. The lectures he wrote for the association was collected, named Yi Yuan Lun Hua. Xinhai Revolution The Xinhai Revolution, named for the Chinese year of Xinhai (1911), was the overthrow of China's ruling Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. The revolution began with the armed Wuchang Uprising and the spread of republican insurrection through the southern provinces, and culminated in the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor after lengthy negotiations between rival Imperial and Republican regimes based in Beijing and Nanjing respectively. Led by Sun Zhongshan, the Revolution inaugurated a period of struggle over China's eventual constitutional form, which saw two brief monarchical restorations and successive periods of political fragmentation before the Republic's final establishment. Leaving the brilliant impression on China modern history, the Xinhai Revolution is a great piece of political affair, which is the first time to flag Democracy republic on China. It overthrew the Qing dynasty and founded the Republic of China. This emancipated the people from the rule of the feudal system. May Fourth Movement The May Fourth Movement takes its name from the massive popular protest that took place on May 4th 1919 in Beijing, China. It was an anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement in early modern China, and it marked the upsurge of Chinese nationalism, and a re-evaluation of Chinese culture. Science and democracy became the code words of the movement. The May Fourth Movement came out from the New Culture Movement. Taiji First mentioned in the Book of Change, Taiji (or Taichi) is an important concept in Chinese history of thought. It was a state primeval chaos before birth of the world and before the world split into Yin and Yang (Two Aspects). Taiji was said to be the primary of the universe. The Book of Change The Book of Change (¡¶ÖÜÒ×¡·) is a Chinese classical book in Zhou dynasty. Its Chinese name is Zhou Yi (¡¶ÖÜÒ×¡·), or Yi (¡¶Ò×¡·), or Yi Jing (¡¶Ò×¾¡·). ¡°Yi¡± means change. As the result of ancient Chinese intelligence, the book was about the essence and laws of the universe. Its influence on Chinese culture lasted for thousands of years. Heidegger (1889¡«1976) Martin Heidegger was a German philosopher. His thinking has contributed to such diverse fields as phenomenology, existentialism, hermeneutics, political theory, psychology, theology, and postmodernism. His main concern was ontology or the study of being. His best-known work is Being and Time. Chen Shizeng (1876 ~1923) Courtesy name Chengke. A critic, painter, and educator of early 20th-century China. His brother is famous Chinese historian Chen Yinke. In 1902 Chen went to Japan to study natural history. In 1913 Chen went to Beijing and became an editor in Ministry of Education the next year. He published a very inspiring essay called ¡°The Value of Literati Paintings¡± in 1921, pointing out the relationship between literati paintings and traditional Chinese philosophy. He said that each scholar painting had a special meaning behind. Li Bai (701~762) Li Bai was a Chinese poet. Li Bai is often regarded, along with Du Fu, as one of the two greatest poets in China's literary history. Approximately 1,100 of his poems remain today. Li Bai is best known for the extravagant imagination and striking imagery in his poetry, as well as for his great love for liquor. Li Bai is considered as the foremost romantic poet after Qu Yuan. And he is one of the most renowned and admired poets in China. Li Gonglin (1049-1106) Gonglin, courtesy name Li Boshi, pseudonym Longmian Jushi (Resident of Sleeping Dragon), was a Chinese painter, civil officer and archaeologist in the Northern Song Dynasty. He became famous for his paintings of horses, then he turned to Buddhism and Taoism religious painting, as well as portrait and landscape painting. His painting style was attributed to the style of Gu Kaizhi and Wu Taozi, developing their technique of line drawing. ¡°Lin Weiyan Mufang Tu¡± (ÁÙÎ¤ÙÈÄÁ·ÅÍ¼ , Painting after Wei Yan's Pasturing Horses) is his most famous painting. Liang Kai (early 13th century c.) Liang Kai was a Chinese artist who studied with, and then excelled, his master, Jia Shigu. In 1210, he was awarded the rank of Painter-in-Attendance at court, but he refused it. Instead, calling himself "Madman Liang", he spent his life drinking and painting. Eventually, he retired and became a Zen monk. Famous for his figure painting, Liang is credited with inventing the Zen school of Chinese art. He managed to capture figures¡¯ essences by simplicity and understatement of the work. Simplicity means the fundamental lines of a figure. His style influenced many painters in Ming and Qing dynasties even modern China. His famous paintings include ¡°Liuzu Zhuozhu Tu¡±, (Áù×æí½ÖñÍ¼, The Sixth Patriarch (Hui Neng) Chopping the Bamboo), ¡°Bagaoseng Gushi Tu¡± (°Ë¸ßÉ®¹ÊÊÂÍ¼ , Painting of the Eight Monks), and ¡°Pomo Xianren Tu¡± (ÆÃÄ«ÏÉÈËÍ¼ , Immortal in Splashed Ink). Mu Xi (13th century c.) Surname Li, Buddhist name Fachang, and hao, Mu Xi was a native of Sichuan Province. His year of birth is unknown. He was a monk and a painter from the late-Song to early-Yuan periods. He was skilled at painting Bodhisattvas, figures, birds and flowers, wild beasts (dragons, tigers, monkeys and cranes), landscapes and vegetation. His brush stroke was executed freely with both meticulous brushwork and free sketch painting, which resulted in mixed reviews from his successors. The aura rendered by his brush invokes the realm of Zen. Most of his works are now found in Japan and are widely appreciated. Chen Banding (1877¡ª1970) Real name Chen Nian, courtesy name Banding, Chen was adept in idea-sketch painting of flowers, landscapes and human figures. His technique was influenced by Wu Changshuo. Li Yu (1611¡«1679) Li Yu was born in Lanxi in Jiangsu province. Courtesy names Lihong and Zefan, Pseudonym Li Wong. Li Yu's plays and drama theory are his biggest accomplishments. Ten of his plays remain, including Bi Mu Yu (¡¶±ÈÄ¿Óã¡·, ¡±Flatfish¡±) and Feng Zheng Wu (¡¶·çóÝÎó¡·, ¡°Errors Caused by the Kite¡±). In his book Xian Qing Ou Ji (¡¶ÏÐÇéÅ¼¼Ä¡·, ¡°Occasional Notes with Leisure Motions¡±), he divulges useful information pertaining to cooking, architecture, collections and planting. He also wrote a book of short stories called Shi¡¯er Lou (¡¶Ê®¶þÂ¥¡·, ¡°Twelve Towers¡±). Li Tang (1050~1130 c.) Li Tang was born in Henan province in the town of Sancheng. He lived in the latter part of the eleventh century and into the first half of the twelfth, flourishing as a painter principally between the years 1100 and 1130. Li T'ang spent most of his life in the capital at Kaifeng, where he was an important member of the Imperial Painting Academy and a friend of Emperor Huizong. Li Tang painted traditional Song landscapes, but is best known for his droll, rustic genre scenes, and for his precise paintings of water buffaloes, executed in fine line and showing both movement and character. When the Mongols invaded northern China in 1122, and the Emperor was taken prisoner, Li Tang, then over seventy-five years old, moved south to Hangzhou to teach in the New Academy there. He brought with him the disciplined Song style of brushwork. ¡°Ru Niu Tu¡± (ÈéÅ£Í¼, Child on Buffalo), ¡°Cai Wei Tu¡± (²ÉÞ±Í¼, Pick the Rosebush), ¡°Wanhe Songfeng Tu¡± (ÍòÛÖËÉ·çÍ¼, Whispering Pines in the Mountains) are some of his most famous works. Jian Jiang (1610-1664) Jian Jiang was from She county of Anhui province and a member of the Anhui or Xin'an school of painting in Qing dynasty. His original name was Jiang Tao. He is noted for painting Mount Huangshan. After the fall of the Ming dynasty he became a monk, Budhhistic monastic name Hong Ren. This makes him one of the "Four Monks" along with Zhu Da, Shi Tao, and Kun Can. Four Wangs The Four Wangs were four Chinese landscape painters in the 17th century, all called Wang. They were Wang Shimin (1592-1680), Wang Jian (1598-1677), Wang Hui (1632-1717) and Wang Yuanqi (1642-1715). They were fervent followers of Dong Qichang of the late Ming. The Four Wangs are grouped together for two main reasons. They were all related by blood or in student-teacher relations, working in the same period at the end of the Ming and beginning of the Qing. The second reason is their artistic tendencies and the fact that they belonged to the same tradition and shared the same beliefs concerning art. It can be said that the Four Wangs stressed the importance of technique of brush and ink application and meticulous copying of ancient forms. Zhang Yanyuan (c. 815~?) Zhang Yanyuan, courtesy name Aibin, was a Chinese art historian, scholar, calligrapher and painter of the late Tang Dynasty. He was born to a high ranking family in present-day Yuncheng, Shanxi. Zhang wrote several works about art and calligraphy, among them Fashu Yaolu (¡¶·¨ÊéÒªÂ¼¡·, "Compendium of Calligraphy"), a collection of poems on color paper, and Lidai Minghua Ji (¡¶Àú´úÃû»¼Ç¡·, "Famous Paintings through History") - a general arts book, about the famous historical paintings. Zhang created his own style of art history writing, combining historical facts and art critic. His book also described the painter's lives thoroughly, including biography and works. Fang Xun (1736~1799) Courtesy name Landi or Lanru, pseudonym Lanshi, Lanru, Lansheng, Changqing and Yu¡¯er Nongxiang, Fang Xun was born in Shimen, Zhejiang province. He was said an impetuous and upright person, as unsophisticated as monk. Fang was good at poem, calligraphy and painting. As a painter he was on a par with Xi Gang, called Fang and Xi by their contemporaries. Zou Yigui (1686~1772) Chinese poet, literati, calligrapher and painter from Qing dynasty in the 18th century. He was a student of Hui Shouping, and as his teacher, Zou also excelled at flower painting in bright colours. In his book Xiaoshan Huapu (¡¶Ð¡É½»¨Æ×¡·, ¡°Painting Manual of Xiaoshan¡±), Zou elaborated on techniques of flower painting, composition, coloring, staining, methods to paint trees and rocks, shading, painters, schools of painters, pigments, framing, and papers, in which he said: ¡°Western painters are good at delineating, so their paintings, regardless of distance and light, faithfully represent the real objects. All the figures, houses and trees that are drawn have shadows. The colors and techniques of painting used by them are completely different from those in Chinese painting. The compositions range from wide to narrow, and can be measured by triangle. Palaces, rooms and walls in the paintings are so vivid that the audience may wish to enter them. If learners learn from their craft, they can get some inspiration. But western paintings have no brushwork at all, so in spite of their technical dexterity, they cannot be classified as artworks as such.¡± Wanmu Caotang Canghua Mu (Catalogue of Painting Collection in Ten Thousand Vegetation Pavilion) Wanmu Caotang Canghua Mu (¡¶ÍòÄ¾²ÝÌÃ²Ø»Ä¿¡·, Catalogue of Painting Collection in Ten Thousand Vegetation Pavilion), accomplished in 1917, was one of Kang Youwei (1858~1927)¡¯s signature works. It consists of a foreword and after word, and discusses art from different historical periods. Kang Youwei clearly states his view of reforming Chinese painting in the foreword. Even though this compilation is titled as a list of paintings, its critical writings make up most of the volume. It is a work of art theory by Kang Youwei, coupled with his theories on calligraphy compiled in Guangyizhou Shuangji (¡¶¹ãÒÕÖÛË«é®¡·). An acclaimed calligrapher and art collector; Kang Youwei was deeply perplexed by the fate of Chinese panting in the modern period and showed deep concern for its fate. In compiling this collection, he was motivated by his study and reflections on the history of Chinese art in order to refresh the waning of art theory from the late-Ming to Qing period. Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty The Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty is a name used to collectively describe the four Chinese painters Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, Ni Zan, Wang Meng active in the Yuan Dynasty. Wang Shizhen said in his Yiyuan Zhiyan (¡¶ÒÕÔ·Ø´ÑÔ¡·, Comments On Art), that the Four Masteres were Zhao Mengfu, Wuzhen, Huang Gongwang and Wang Meng, but it was not widely accepted. They worked during the Yuan period and were revered during the Ming Dynasty and later periods as major exponents of the tradition of literati painting, which was concerned more with individual expression and learning than with outward representation and immediate visual appeal. They were all natives in Southern China, all were good at ink landscapes, and all were influenced by Zhao Mengfu. The Four Masters were noted for their lofty personal and aesthetic ideals, the art of landscape painting shifted from an emphasis on close representation of nature to a personal expression of nature's qualities. They spurred experimentation with novel brushstroke techniques, with a new attention to the vocabulary of brush manipulation. Xu Wei (1521~1593) Xu Wei was a Ming Chinese painter, poet and dramatist famed for his artistic expressiveness. His courtesy names were Wenqing and then Wenchang. His various pseudonyms were Tianchi Shanren (The Mountain-man of the Heavenly Pond), Qingteng Jushi (Resident of the Green Vine House) and Shutian Shuiyue (The Water and Moon of the Bureau's Farm). Revolutionary for its time, his painting style influenced and inspired countless subsequent painters, such as Zhu Da, the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou, and the modern masters Wu Changshuo and Qi Baishi. Xu Wei can be considered as the founder of modern painting in China. In addition Xu was a relatively unknown playwright, authoring four plays. Xu Wei was also a poet in his style of considerable note. His works today available are Xu Wenchang Quanji (¡¶ÐìÎÄ³¤È«¼¯¡·, ¡°Xu Wenchang¡¯s Collected Works); Xu Wenchang Yicao (¡¶ÐìÎÄ³¤Øý²Ý¡·, ¡°Xu Wenchang¡¯s Cursive Scripts); and Si Sheng Yuan (¡¶ËÄÉùÔ³¡·, ¡°The Four Shrieks of the Ape¡±), a poetic drama of Yuan style; Nanci Xulu (¡¶ÄÏ´ÊÐðÂ¼¡·, ¡°Account of the Southern Style of Drama¡±), a book of drama theory. Xu Wei¡¯s influence continues to exert itself. Four Monks The Four Monks were four famous monk painters in early Qing dynasty. They are Bada Shanren (Zhu Da), Shi Tao (Zhu Ruoji), Hong Ren (Jian Jiang) and Kun Can (Shi Xi), who lived in late Ming dynasty and early Qing dynasty. Out of them, Bada Shanren and Shi Tao were from royal family of Ming dynasty. The four monks painted in reaction to conservative trends where artists were preoccupied with reproducing landscapes of old masters in highly ornamental and somewhat rigid styles. The attack against conventions is at the same time a political protest against the occupation of China by the foreign Manchu rulers and the dissatisfaction with a new reality imposed on the locals. This explains why the Four Monks preferred to turn their back on society and avoid collaborating with the aggressive Qing rulers. Their interests in painting came partly from a desire to escape from the mundane world by inosculating themselves with nature. Their love for landscapes and flower-and-bird paintings also suggests the bittersweet nostalgia underlying their mutual resentment of the political situation of the time. Rock Painting Rock painting is the general term including colored drawing, line carving and relief sculpture on the wall of caves, cliffs or isolated rocks. Rock Painting was found in many places around the world. China is the earliest country that found and recorded Rock Painting. Wide in distribution and large in number, China became an important component of world's Rock Painting. Rock paintings located in eighteen provinces and more than one hundred cities in China. Among them nearly 30 locations, including the Yin Mountain (ÒõÉ½) in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Helan Mountain (ºØÀ¼É½) in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Hei Mountain (ºÚÉ½) in Gansu province, Altai Mountain (°¢¶ûÌ©É½) in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Jiangjun Cliff (½«¾üÑÂ) in Jiangsu province, Cangyuan (²×Ô´) in Yunnan province and Zuoyou River in Guangxi province are the most important. According to its area, content and style, Chinese rock painting falls into three schools -- the northeast, the southwest, and the southeast. Northern Chinese Rock Paintings are mainly grinding and carving about grazine, hunting and animals in a realistic style. Rock Paintings of southwest school are often representing religious activities and painted in red. As to Rock Paintings found in coastal area of southeast China, most are about sailing and represented in abstract designs by chiseling and carving. Totem A totem is any entity which watches over or assists a group of people, such as a family, clan or tribe. It derived from the root-oode-in the Ojibwe language, which referred to something kinship-related, c.f. odoodem, ¡°his totem¡±. The word root ¡°odoo¡± represents the blood relation between brothers and sisters of a same mother, who are forbidden to marry each other. In 1971, a British merchant translated ¡°odoodem¡± into ¡°totem¡±. Although the term is of Ojibwa origin, ¡°totemism¡±, which was derived from totem, is not limited to Native American Indians. Similar totemism-like beliefs have been historically found throughout much of the world. Yan Fu, a scholar in modern China, was the first person introduced this word to China. He said: ¡°Totem, a religious belief of foreign groups, is usually used to differ one group from others¡±. That is, the totem is usually an animal or other naturalistic figure that spiritually represents a group of related people such as a clan. Bronze Wares Chinese Bronze history started beside the Yellow river. Bronze utensils were found from the relics of Longshan culture and Qijia culture in the Late Neolithic Age. Bronze was a kind of alloy, made of red copper and tin. The percentage of copper and tin of the alloy was different for different utilities, which was the so-called ¡°Six Metallic Components¡± in Kao Gong Ji (¡¶ÖÜÀñ¡¤¿¼¹¤¼Ç¡·, an old book in ancient China). In the late Shang dynasty Chinese had used Bronze wares in almost every important aspects in their lifes, including sacrificial vessel, music instruments, weapons, chariots utilities and tools. During Xia, Shang and Zhou pieriod, bronze was prevailing in handicraft production, so this period is called Bronze Age. Qu Yuan (ca. 339 BC~278 BC) Qu Yuan was a loyal minister in the government of the state of Chu. The Chu king, however, fell under the influence of other corrupt, jealous ministers who slandered Qu Yuan, and then banished him. In Qu Yuan¡¯s exile, he collected many legends and folk odes, and produced some of the greatest poetry in Chinese literature while expressing his fervent love for his state and his deepest concern for its future. In 278 BC, after learning of the capture of his country's capital, Ying, by the state of Qin, Qu Yuan waded into the Miluo river. holding a great rock in order to commit ritual suicide as a form of protest against the corruption of the era. Popular legend has it that villagers carried Zongzi (glutinous rice dumpling) and put them into the river in order to keep fish and evil spirits away from his body. The act gradually became the cultural tradition of dragon boat racing, which is held on the anniversary of his death every year (the fifth day of the fifth month of the Chinese lunar calendar), called Duan Wu festival. Qu Yuan is generally recognised as the first great Chinese poet with record. He initiated the style of Sao, which is named after his work Li Sao (¡¶ÀëÉ§¡·), in which he abandoned the classic four-character verses used in poems and adopted verses with varying lengths, which gives the poem more rhythm and latitude in expression. Qu Yuan¡¯s most important works include Li Sao, Jiu Zhang (¡¶¾ÅÕÂ¡·), Jiu Ge (¡¶¾Å¸è¡·), and Tian Wen (¡¶ÌìÎÊ¡·). Qu Yuan is also regarded as one of the most prominent figures of Romanticism in Chinese literature, and his masterpieces influenced some of the greatest Romanticist poets in Tang Dynasty such as Li Bai and Du Fu. Other than his literary influence, Qu Yuan is also held as the earliest patriotic poet in China history. His political idealism and patriotism have served as the model for Chinese intellectuals to this day. Dragon and Phoenix Human Figure Painting on Silk In February1949 the painting was unearthed in a tomb of the Chu Kingdom near Changsha in Hunan Province. It¡¯s the earliest traditional Chinese painting found so far. The painting was executed about 2,300 years ago on a piece of white silk used as a banner in traditional Chinese funerals. It is the profile of a noble woman dressed in a garment with full sleeves and a long skirt. She has her palms together, as if praying. On her top and her right side are a phoenix and a dragon. It¡¯s said that the woman in the picture was a portrayal of the one buried in the tomb, and the phoenix and dragon are leading her up to heaven. In 1973 another silk painting was found in the tomb of the Chu Kingdom, called ¡°Driving Dragon Painting¡±. ¡°The Dragon and Phoenix Human Figure Painting on Silk¡± and the ¡°Driving Dragon Painting¡± show us the painting styles in the Warring States Period. Kongzi Jiayu Kongzi Jiayu (¡¶¿××Ó¼ÒÓï¡·, The School Sayings of Confucius), or Jiayu, is an early Han period collection of parables centering around Confucius and his disciples, laying stress upon his teachings about ethical human conduct. Annotated by the late Han scholar Wang Su, it¡¯s one of Confucian classical books. Ma Duanlin, a scholar in Yuan dynasty, quoted Wang Su¡¯s note in his Wenxian Tongkao - Section Jingji Kao (¡¶ÎÄÏ×Í¨¿¼.¾¼®¿¼¡·, Critical Examinations of Documents-Study of Classics), ¡°Kongzi Jiayu is the dialogues between the nobles, Confucius and his seventy-two disciples. The disciples wrote down what they talked. The important sayings were collected and named as Lunyu (¡¶ÂÛÓï¡·, Analects), and the rest were collected and named as Kongzi Jiayu.¡± It means this book is a complement of the Confucian Analects Lunyu. Qin Shihuang (259 BC~210 BC) Qin Shihuang (ÇØÊ¼»Ê), personal name Ying Zheng, was the king of the Chinese State of Qin from 247 BCE to 221 BCE, he absorbed States Han, Zhao, Wei, Chu, Yan, and Qi, and then became the first emperor of a unified China, known as Qin Dynasty, from 221 BCE to 210 BCE, ruling under the name Shihuang (the First Emperor). Emperor Wu of Han (156 BC~87 BC) Emperor Wu of Han, personal name Liu Che, was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty in China, ruling from 141 BC to 87 BC. Emperor Wu is best remembered for the vast territorial expansion that occurred under his reign, as well as the strong and centralized Confucian state he organized. He is cited in Chinese history as one of the greatest emperors. As a military campaigner, Emperor Wu led Han China through its greatest expansion ¡ª at its height, the Empire's borders spanned from the modern Kyrgyzstan in the west, to the northern Korea in the northeast, and to northern Vietnam in the south. While establishing an autocratic and centralized state, Emperor Wu adopted the principles of Confucianism as the state philosophy and code of ethics for his empire and started a school to teach future administrators the Confucian classics. These reforms would have an enduring effect throughout the existence of imperial China and an enormous influence on neighbouring civilizations. The ¡°Han¡± in ¡°The Prosperous Han and Tang Dynasties (ººÌÆÊ¢ÊÀ)¡± just means the period during Emperor Wu of Han¡¯s reign. Huo Qubing (140 BC~117 BC) Huo Qubing was a famous general of the western Han dynasty under Emperor Wu. A nephew of another famous Han general Wei Qing, Huo Qubing exhibited outstanding military talent as a teenager. He defeats the Xiongnu troops four times in his life. As a result, he gained great favour with the Emperor. Huo Qubing died at the early age of 24 due to a plague. Cao¡¯s Clothing as Water It¡¯s a saying to describe Cao Zhongda¡¯s outlining method of the drapes of ancient clothes. Cao Zhongda, a Northern Qi painter from the Central Asian kingdom of Cao, was famous for his Buddhist paintings as the ¡°Cao style¡±, characterized by closely pleated garments clinging to the body as though they had just emerged from water. It¡¯s the ¡°Cao¡¯s Clothing of Water¡±. ¡°Cao¡¯s Style¡± is the style of the earliest centuries of Buddhism art reached China and mixed with Chinese art. Wang Wei (415~453) Wang Wei, a landscape painter in Liu Song of Southern Dynasty. In his essay On Paintings (¡¶Ðð»¡·), Wang Wei pointed out the difference between landscape painting and map, and emphasized the importance of concinnity and emotion in landscape painting. His theory of ¡°please one¡¯s spirit¡± showed that he realized how nature and landscapes could cultivate mankind. ¡°Luo Shen Fu Tu¡± (ÂåÉñ¸³Í¼ , Nymph of the Luo River) ¡°The Nymph of the Luo River¡± was painted by Gu Kaizhi, an established painter during the Eastern Jin Dynasty. Painting ¡°Nymph of the Luo River¡± survives in three copies dating to the Song dynasty. It illustrates a poem Ode to The Nymph of the Luo River (¡¶ÂåÉñ¸³¡·) written by Cao Zhi. The painting depicts the meeting between Cao Zhi and the Nymph of the Luo River at Luo River, vividly capturing the mood of their first meeting and eventual separation. The painter emphasized the tension between figures not by their expressions, but mainly by the composition of figures, stones, mountains and trees. The Emperor Taizong of Tang (599~649) Emperor Taizong of Tang, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. As he encouraged his father, Li Yuan (later Emperor Gaozu) to rise against Sui Dynasty rule at Taiyuan in 617 and subsequently defeated several of his most important rivals, he was ceremonially regarded as a cofounder of the dynasty along with Emperor Gaozu. He is typically considered one of the greatest, if not the greatest, emperor in all of Chinese history. Throughout the rest of Chinese history, Emperor Taizong's reign was regarded as the exemplary model against which all other emperors were measured, and his "Reign of Zhen'guan" (Õê¹ÛÖ®ÖÎ) was considered a golden age of Chinese history and required study for future crown princes. During his reign, Tang China flourished economically and militarily, and after his death, Tang China still enjoyed the peace and prosperity for more than a hundred years. Yan Liben (c.600~673) Yan Liben was a Chinese painter and government official (the Prime Minister of the Right) of the early Tang Dynasty. He excelled at figure painting, especially nobles, officials and court figures deprived from history. His notable works include the ¡°Eighteen Scholars Served in Qin¡± (¡¶ÇØ¸®Ê®°ËÑ§Ê¿¡·), ¡°Portraits at Lingyan Pavilion¡± (¡¶ÁèÑÌ¸ó¶þÊ®ËÄ¹¦³¼Ïñ¡·), ¡°Duty Tribute¡± (¡¶Ö°¹±Í¼¡·), and ¡°Officials of Yonghui¡± (¡¶ÓÀ»Õ³¯³¼Í¼¡·), etc. The copy of his ¡°Emperor Taizong Receiving the Tibetan Envoy¡± (¡¶²½éýÍ¼¡·) and ¡°Portraits of Chinese Emperors¡± (¡¶Àú´úµÛÍõÍ¼¡·) are survived. His works were highly regarded in Chinese art history. Wu Daozi (c. 690~758) Wu Daozi was a Chinese artist of the Tang Dynasty, famous for initiating a new style of religious painting, which was called ¡°Wu Style¡±. ¡°Wu Style¡± by Wu Daozi and ¡°Cao Style¡± by Cao Zhongda were both very influential in early Chinese figure painting, whose difference were often described as ¡°Wu¡¯s Belt as Wind, Cao¡¯s Clothing as Water¡±. The influence of his religious painting style can be seen even after Yuan and Ming dynasty, and the modern artisan painters regarded him as their ancestor. Wu Daozi was called The Sage of Chinese Painting. Li Zhaodao (c. 670~730) Li Zhaodao, as his father Li Sixun, was also famous for his landscape paintings. The ¡°Emperor Ming Huang¡¯s Journey to Shu¡±, attributed to Li Zhaodao, possibly a 10th-11th-century copy, described the journey of the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang to Sichuan escaping from The An Shi Rebellion. It is a representative work of Chinese early blue and green landscape painting. Han Gan (c. 706~783) Chinese famous painter in Tang dynasty. Coming from a poor family, Han Gan was recognized by Wang Wei, a prominent poet, who sponsored Han in learning arts. Chen Hong and Cao Ba were both his teachers. Han became a painter-in-attendance during the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang¡¯s reign. Han painted many portraits and Buddhism themed paintings, but he is most widely remembered for his paintings of horses. He was reputed to be able to not only portray the physical body of the horse, but also its spirit. Han Gan¡¯s works include the famous painting "Night-Shining White", portrait of a favorite steed of Emperor Xuanzong. Mo Gao Ku Located near the historic junction of the Northern and Southern Silk Roads, Dunhuang was a town of military importance from China to western world in ancient days. . In 366 A.D. a monk named Yuezun had a vision of the Buddhas over the Sanwei Mountain opposite the cliff of the Mingsha Mountain, so the devout believer set to build the first cave on the cliff. Since then more and more caves have been excavated over a thousand year. Now there are 492 caves kept, in which there are more than 2400 sculptures and 450 thousands square meters of mural paintings. Mo Gao Ku is the most important cave temple in China. The caves show an uninterrupted history of Chinese painting, over a period of nearly a thousand years from Northern dynasties. An Shi Rebellion The An Shi Rebellion took place in China during the Tang Dynasty, from 755 to 763. An Lushan was a general of Sodgian-Turkic ancestry (i.e., non-Han). He was appointed by the Xuanzong emperor to be commander (½Ú¶ÈÊ¹) of three garrisons in the north¡ªPinglu, Fanyang and Hedong. In effect, An was given control over the entire area north of the lower reaches of the Yellow River. With such power and land in his control, An Lushan committed a revolt. When An Lushan 's forces went near Chang¡¯an, seeing the imminent threat to the capital, Emperor Xuanzong fled to Sichuan with his household. On the way, at Mawei Inn in Shaanxi, Xuanzong's bodyguard troops demanded the death of Yang Guozhong and his cousin Lady Yang. With the army on the verge of mutiny, the Emperor had no choice but to agree, ordering the execution of Yang Guozhong and the suicide of Lady Yang. Meanwhile, the crown prince Li Heng, now called Suzong, fled in the other direction to Lingzhou and was then proclaimed emperor. The new Imperial forces recaptured both Chang'an and Luoyang, and were helped by internal dissent in the newly-formed dynasty. An Lushan was killed by his son, An Qingxu, not long after his ascent to the throne. His son was then killed by a subordinate, general Shi Siming. Shi Siming was killed in turn by his son, Shi Chaoyi. Finally, after Luoyang was taken by the Tang forces for the second time, Shi Chaoyi committed suicide (in 763), thus ending the 8 year long rebellion. Guan Xiu (832~912) Guan Xiu, a monk painter at the end of Tang dynasty and the beginning of Five Dynasties, was orphaned and became a monk at the age of seven. He was known for his skill at painting and calligraphy, as well as for his poetry. His most famous paintings are the portraits of arhats and disciples of Sakyamuni, for example, ¡°The Sixteen Arhats¡± (¡¶Ê®ÁùÂÞººÍ¼¡·). The Buddhism figures in his painting are often with thick eyebrows and big eyes, high cheekbones and long nose, which gave them a look of foreigners and Buddhist. The following Buddhism painters often based their portrayals of the arhats on Guan Xiu's paintings. Shi Ke (active in Five dynasties) Shi Ke was a painter at the end of Five dynasties and the beginning of Song dynasty. His most famous survived work is ¡°Erzu Tiaoxin Tu¡±(¡¶¶þ×æµ÷ÐÄÍ¼¡·, Two Minds in Harmony). Guan Tong (active in Five dynasties) Jing Hao and Guan Tong are the two representative artists of the northern school of landscape painting, the two were also known as Jing-Guan. Apart from leading the same school of art they both found the turmoil in the north of China too much to bear and fled to the remote mountain areas to live in relative solitude. Guan Tong took Jing Hao¡¯s art and went even further when he beautifully reflected the changes that take place throughout the year as the seasons transform nature. He depicted the characterizing features of the different seasons and the effects of nature's changes on the human spirit. This cyclical feature is central in the philosophy and practice of Chinese medicine and Chinese thought in general. Like Jing Hao he represents the Northern School and uses techniques representative of this school, namely, Axe-cut Shading. His famous works include ¡°Shanxi Daidu Tu¡± (¡¶É½Ïª´ý¶ÉÍ¼¡·, Across A Mountain Stream) and ¡°Guanshan Xinglv Tu¡± (¡¶¹ØÉ½ÐÐÂÃÍ¼¡·, Travel in Mountain Guan) Dong Yuan (c. 934~c. 962) Dong Yuan as a Chinese painter. He was born in Zhongling. Dong Yuan was active in the Southern Tang Kingdom of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. He was from Nanjing in the Jiangsu province, which was a center for culture and the arts. He and his student Ju Ran were the founders of the southern school of landscape painting, and with Jing Hao and Guan Tong of the northern school they constituted the four seminal painters of that time. Although Dong Yuan became to represent the subtleness of the south and the monochrome style of landscape painting, he also painted in the early style known as Blue and Green Landscape Painting, done in the tradition of the famous Li Sixun. However, he added to the number of techniques, including more sophisticated perspective, use of pointillism and crosshatching to build up vivid effect. ¡°The Xiao and Xiang Rivers¡± (¡¶äìÏæÍ¼¡·), one of his best-known paintings, demonstrates these techniques, and his sense of composition. Ju Ran (active in Five dynasties) Ju Ran, a monk painter in Five dynasties, was one of the representative painters of the southern school landscapes. He followed Dong Yuan¡¯s style but went further. Ju Ran's new approach introduces new possibilities and ways of using a Chinese brush, bringing inspiration to painters of later dynasties. His famous paintings include ¡°Wanhe Songfeng Tu¡± (¡¶ÍòÛÖËÉ·çÍ¼¡·, the Pine-Soughing Valleys), etc. Huang Quan (?~965) Born in Chengdu, Huang Quan was comprehensive in different types of drawing, and chosen to be a court drawer in west Shu when he was only 17. He is famous for exquisite sketching and lifelike paintings. The depicted birds in his paintings were full-fledged and flowers looked luxurious under the bush. ¡°Xiesheng Zhenqin Tu¡± (¡¶Ð´ÉúÕäÇÝÍ¼¡·, Studies from Nature: Birds and Insects) Sketch of Rare Bird Scroll -- a piece handed down from Huang -- vividly depicts many kinds of birds. Xu Xi (active in Five dynasties) Xu Xi lived during the Five Dynasties, and was never involved in politics. Xu did not seek fame or wealth -- he just concentrated on painting. He admired the country lifestyle, choosing wild birds and village plants as the theme of his art. Xu used thick strokes and ink, drew branches and leaves plainly, and used a slight hint of color so it would not impair the ink. His works were full of natural and wild interest. ¡°Snow Covers Bamboo¡± was one of Xu's works that was handed down in history. Zhao Kuangyin (927~976) Zhao Kuangyin, Emperor Taizu of Song, was the founder of the Song Dynasty of China, reigning from 960 to 976. He established the core Song Ancestor Rules and Policy for the future emperors. He was remembered for, but not limited to, his reform of the examination system whereby entry to the bureaucracy favored individuals who demonstrated academic ability rather than by birth. He also created academies that allowed a great deal of freedom of discussion and thought, which facilitated the growth of scientific advance, economic reforms as well as achievements in arts and literature. He is perhaps best known for weakening the military and so preventing anyone else rising to power as he did. Zhang Zeduan (1085~1145) Zhang Zeduan, alias Zheng Dao, was a famous Chinese painter during the twelfth century, during the transitional period from the Northern Song to the Southern Song Dynasty. He was a native of Dongwu (present Zhucheng, Shandong). There is evidence that he was a court painter of the Northern Song Dynasty, and that in the aftermath of that dynasty's fall, his paintings were criticisms of the new dynasty. Zhang Zeduan's most famous painting is ¡°Qingming Shanghe Tu¡± (¡¶ÇåÃ÷ÉÏºÓÍ¼¡·, Along the River During Qing Ming Festival), a wide handscroll which depicts life in a city. This painting was made famous throughout China. In terms of historical significance, Zhang's original painting reveals much about life in China during the 12th century. Its myriad depictions of different people interacting with one another reveals the nuances of class structure and the many hardships of urban life as well. It also displays accurate depictions of technological practices found in Song China. Wang Ximeng (active in Northern Song) Wang Ximeng's ¡°Qianli Jiangshan Tu¡± (¡¶Ç§Àï½É½Í¼¡·, A Thousand Li of River and Mountain) is a breathtakingly beautiful blue-and-green landscape panorama painted for the emperor Huizong. Wang was a brilliant young artist who arrived at court in his teens and unfortunately died only a few years later. The young man received the gift of direct instruction in the art of painting from Huizong, and the present picture must have been something like a graduate-examination. It bears a remark by the prime minister, Cai Jing, which provides the only information known about Wang Ximeng. As painted under Huizong's instructions, Wang Ximeng's landscape combines classical roots in the blue-and-green tradition, elegant and realistic drawing, and a glowing, golden atmosphere that is a kind of visual poetry. Xia Gui (c. 1195~1224) Xia Gui, Chinese painter of the Song Dynasty, who was one of the great masters of the Southern Song landscape style. He was active in the imperial painting academy at Hangzhou during the reign of Emperor Ningzong of Song. Along with his celebrated contemporary artist Ma Yuan, he broke with the elaborate ornamental style of the period to cultivate a simpler, more emotional mode. Xia¡¯s landscapes, characterized by asymmetrical composition¡ªpainting only one corner out of four¡ªreduced human figures and buildings to minor accents. He was especially noted for his brilliant ink technique, in which extremely subtle, graded ink washes and overlapping brushstrokes created complex atmospheric effects of mist, sky, and infinity. In his ¡°Xishan Qingyuan Tu¡± (¡¶ÏªÉ½ÇåÔ¶Í¼¡·, Clear View of Streams and Mountains), a 9-m (30-ft) hand scroll, the panoramic sweep of landscape contains a full use of his varied brushwork. Along with Ma Yuan, he gave his name to the succeeding Ma and Xia School of landscape painting. Mi Youren (1086~1165, or 1074~1153) Mi Youren, son of the famous Song dynasty literati painter Mi Fu, was also a painter. The father and son created a new style of landscape painting called ¡°Mi Style¡±, which described mysterious mountains covering mist and fog, by a method of simple brushstroke and lighten ink. They sought after pure nature, and showed a typical taste of literati¡¯s. ¡°Xiaoxiang Qiguan Tu¡± (¡¶äìÏæÆæ¹ÛÍ¼¡·, Spectacular Views of the Xiao and Xiang Rivers) is Mi Youren¡¯s work. Ren Renfa (1254~1327) Ren Renfa was an expert of irrigation works, artist, and a government official in Yuan dynasty. He led the construction of the dams of Wusong river, Tonghui river, Huidong river, Yellow river, Lian Lake, and some sea dams. In his spare time, Ren also drew some outstanding paintings of horses and figures. His style is similar to the artists of the Tang Dynasty and Li Gongling in Song Dynasty. His paintings of horses are comparable to those by Zhao Mengfu. Gao Kegong (1248~1310) Painter and Ministry of Justice in Yuan dynasty. Gao Kegong was a Hui Nationality (Uygur). He was good at landscape painting and ink bamboo painting. Huang Gongwang (1269~1354) Huang Gongwang was a painter and calligrapher from Jiangsu in Yuan dynasty. He is the oldest of the "Four Masters of the Yuan Dynasty". After serving as an official he acted as a Taoist priest. He spent his last years in the Fu-ch'un mountains near Hangzhou devoting himself to Taoism. In art he rejected the landscape conventions of his era's Academy, but is regarded as one of the great literati painters. He had two styles. One was dependent on the use of purple and the other preferred black ink. Like all other Chinese scholar-officials of his era he was also a poet. His most famous work is ¡°Fuchun Shanju Tu¡± (¡¶¸»´ºÉ½¾ÓÍ¼¡·, Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains, c. 1350). Wu Zhen (1280~1354) Painter Wu Zhen was one of the ¡°Four Masters of Yuan Dynasty¡±. He followed the Dong Yuan, Ju Ran school of painting. Following along with trends of the time, Wu's works tended less toward naturalism (ie. painting exactly what the eye sees) and more toward abstraction, focusing on dynamic balance of elements, and personifying nature. From his ¡°Yufu Tu¡± (¡¶Óæ¸¸Í¼¡·, Hermit Fisherman) we can see his style. Wang Meng (c. 1308~1385) Wang Meng, a grandson of Zhao Mengfu, was born in Huzhou (now known as Wuxing), Zhejiang. He was the youngest of the ¡°Four Masters in Yuan Dynasty¡±, and the least famous in his own time. Nevertheless, his style greatly influenced later Chinese Painting. In contrast to the relatively spare style of his compatriots, his ropy brushstrokes piled one on the other to produce masses of texture combined in dense and involved patterns. His most famous works include ¡°Qingbian Yinju Tu¡± (¡¶Çà±åÒþ¾ÓÍ¼¡·, Dwelling in the Qingbian Mountains), etc. Zhu Yuanzhang (1328~1398) The founder of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, also known by his reign name "Hung-wu" (literally means "Vast Military"), came from a poor peasant family. He was orphaned at the age of 16 and then entered a Buddhist monastery, but left it in 1352 to join a band of rebels, of which he became leader. By 1382 he had ended Mongol rule and unified all China. His reign was marked by the consolidation of imperial power, agrarian reconstruction, and intimidation of the landed and scholarly elite, a reflection of his commoner roots. Through the case of Hu Wei-yong, the case of Lanyu (Blue Jade), and many times of literary inquisition, Zhu Yuanzhang killed almost all his co-founders of Ming dynasty. After his death, he was buried in Xiaoling Tomb in Nanjing, and was given the posthumous name ¡°Emperor Gao¡±, which literally means Emperor Tall. As historian Ebrey puts it "Seldom has the course of Chinese history been influenced by a single personality as much as it was by the founder of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang." Jinyi Wei (Secret Service of the Ming Emperors) The Jinyi Wei, literally "Brocade-Clad Guard", was the secret service of the Ming emperors. Originally a 500-man organization set up in 1382 by Emperor Hongwu (Zhu Yuanzhang) to be his personal bodyguards, it was soon entrusted and empowered to watch over his officials. By 1385 they numbered 14,000 and were the emperor's eyes and ears. At their peak, the Jinyi Wei had about 200,000 members. They had the power to bypass judicial procedures and could arrest, imprison and punish without going through due process. By the time of Emperor Yongle control of the Guard was largely in the hands of the eunuchs, who had the ears of the emperors. The Jinyi Wei was disbanded along with the remnants of the Ming Dynasty after the Manchu invasion of China. The Imperial Examination The Imperial examinations (¿Æ¾Ù) in Imperial China determined who among the population would be permitted to enter the state's bureaucracy. The Imperial Examination System in China lasted for 1300 years, from its founding during the Sui Dynasty in 605 to its abolition near the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1905. In the imperial China the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. It also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The Chinese Imperial examination system had international influence throughout East Asia including Vietnam, Japan and Korea. Wenziyu (Literary Inquisition) Wenziyu (ÎÄ×ÖÓü, "imprisonment due to writings"), or Literary Inquisition, refers to the persecution of intellectuals for their writings by the authority in Imperial China. Wenziyu flourished during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The persecutions could owe to a single phrase or word, which the ruler considered offensive. Some of these owed to the naming taboo. In a serious case, not only the writer but also his families and relatives would be killed. There were wenziyu before the Ming and Qing dynasties. The poet Su Shi of the Song Dynasty was jailed for several months by the emperor owing to some of his poems. The Ming Dynasty founder Zhu Yuanzhang, who had a humble beginning, caused many wenziyu. The Qing rulers, who were sensitive to anti-Manchu feelings among the Han Chinese, also carried out many wenziyu, including the so-called "Case of the History of the Ming Dynasty" (Ã÷Ê·°¸) under the reign of Emperor Kangxi in which about 70 were killed and more exiled. Emperor Xuanzong of Ming (1398~1435) Emperor Xuanzong of Ming, or the Xuande Emperor, was the emperor of China between 1425-1435. Born Zhu Zhanji, he was emperor Hongxi's son. Comparing with many other emperors of Ming Dynasty, Zhu Zhanji was the active one in his political life. He ordered the 7th expedition of (1431-1433) Zheng He¡¯s voyage. Zhu Zhanji was versed in calligraphy, painting and poetry. He often bestowed his painting to officials, on which he wrote down the name of the official and the date. He managed the Imperial Art Academy by himself, paid a lot to outstanding court painters, and even gave them a ¡°Jinyi Wei¡± title, so many skilled painters served the court during his reign. The Emperor Xuanzong of Ming ruled over a remarkably peaceful time with no significant external or internal problems. Later historians have considered his reign to be the Ming dynasty's golden age. Dai Jin (1388~1462) Dai Jin is noted as the founder of the Zhe school of Ming dynasty painting. He began his life in Hangzhou. Although he studied painting as a boy his initial occupation was carpentry. Later he became known for landscapes and animal paintings. He served as an official for a time but after angering the Emperor he returned to Hangzhou in Zhejiang, Dai specialized in landscape painting, as well as figures and animals. Having extensively imitated paintings of his predecessors, Dai had a good grounding in traditional painting. Meanwhile, he was not restrained by tradition and developed his own style, using easy and smooth strokes. Dai followed in the footsteps of Ma Yuan and Xia Gui of the Southern Song, as well as Li Cheng and Fan Kuan of the Northern Song Dynasty in landscape painting. Dai Jin had many followers inside and outside the court. They were called ¡°Zhe School¡±. Wu Wei (1459~1508) Wu Wei, courtesy name Ci-weng, sobriquet Xiao-xian, was a native of Jiangxia, Hubei. A wanderer in his youth, he was at one time employed as a servant in the home of Qian Xin. Later he developed his talent as a painter. During the reign of the Emperor Xianzong (r. 1465-1488) he received the title of Painter-in-Attendance in the Ren-zhi Hall. The Emperor Xiaozong (r. 1488-1505) gave him a seal which read ¡°First among painters¡±. His numerous followers became a branch of ¡°Zhe School¡±, called ¡°Jiangxia School¡± Shen Zhou (1427~1509) Shen Zhou, courtesy name Qinan, was a Chinese painter in Ming Dynasty. Shen Zhou was born into a wealthy family in Xiangcheng in Jiangsu, which allowed him to live the majority of his lives as retired scholar-artists, free of responsibility, and devote his time to artwork, socializing, and monastic contemplation of the natural world around him. Shen Zhou lived at a pivotal point in the history of Chinese painting, and contributed greatly to the artistic tradition of China, founding the new Wu School in Suzhou. He and Wen Zheng-ming were the two most important painters of the Wu School, a group of leading literati artists who lived in the region around Wu-Hsien. Withdrawn from worldly pursuits, Shen Zhou developed a distinctive style of landscape and flower-and-bird painting through careful study of the works of the great Yuan dynasty masters. Wen Zhengming (1470~1559) Wen Zhengming was a leading Ming Dynasty painter, calligrapher, and scholar. Born in present-day Suzhou, he was a student of Shen Zhou. Although he was a thorough and diligent student, Wen Zhengming repeatedly failed the national examinations, the third level of civil service examinations. It was not until age 53 that he emerged from his scholarly isolation, receiving the recognition of the court with his appointment to the Hanlin Academy. The most famous member of the second generation of Wu School artists, Wen Zhengming profoundly influenced later painters. He was remarkable for his individuality as well as for the variety and range of his creativity. In technique, Wen Zhengming's paintings range from the highly detailed to the more freely washed. In all his paintings there is a spirit of studied antiquarianism and cautious consideration. Tang Yin (1470~1523) Tang Yin was a Chinese scholar, painter, calligraphist, and poet of the Ming Dynasty. Courtesy name Bohu, he was born into the merchant class of Suzhou. Although lacking social standing, he received an excellent education. He was a brilliant student and came first in the provincial examinations in Nanjing, the second stage in the civil service examination ladder. The following year he went to Beijing to sit the national examinations, but he was accused of bribing the servant of one of the chief examiners to give them the examination questions in advance. All parties were jailed, and Tang Yin returned to Suzhou in disgrace, his justifiably high hopes for a distinguished civil service career dashed forever. He began to pursue a life of pleasure and earned a living by selling his paintings. That mode of living brought him into disrepute with a later generation of artist-critics (for example, Dong Qichang) who felt that financial independence was vital to enable an artist to follow his own style and inspiration. While Tang is associated with paintings of feminine beauty, which inherited the Tang tradition of bright colours and elegant carriages, his paintings (especially landscapes) otherwise exhibit the same variety and expression of his peers and reveal a man of both artistic skill and profound insight. Qiu Ying (1498~1552) Qiu Ying was a Chinese painter who specialized in the gongbi brush technique. He was born to a peasant family, and studied painting at the Wu School in Suzhou. Though the Wu School encouraged painting in ink washes, Qiu Ying also painted in the green-and-blue style. He painted with the support of wealthy patrons, one of whom was the well-known wealthy collector Xiang Yuanbian. He created images of flowers, gardens, religious subjects, and landscapes in the fashions of the Ming Dynasty. He incorporated different techniques into his paintings. His talent and versatility allowed him to become regarded as one of the Four Masters of the Ming Dynasty with Shen Zhou, Wen Zhengming, and Tang Yin. White Spring Vine School In the mid- to late-Ming, paintings of birds and flowers in the xieyi style rose vigorously; Chen Chun of the mid-Ming and Xu Wei of the late-Ming both pushed xieyi birds and flower painting to new heights - referred to as ¡°White Spring Vine.¡± Their paintings left significant impact on xieyi birds and flower painting in the Ming and Qing periods. Chen Chun was skilled in poetry, writing, calligraphy and painting, and he was an acclaimed scholar of the Wumen school. His xieyi birds and flowers are delicately composed and refined, portraying common vegetation in the gardens of the literati. The realm achieved was peaceful and tranquil with freestyle brushwork, which was widely appreciated. Succeeding Chen Chun, Xu Wei fundamentally transformed birds and flower painting in the xieyi style. Xu Wei elevated Chinese xieyi birds and flower painting to a realm of adequately expressing powerful inner feelings and bringing the expression of freestyle ink painting to an unprecedented level, thus marking a milestone for the development of Chinese xieyi birds and flower paintings. Shi Da Fu (Court Officials) Shi Da Fu (or in English, ¡°Court Officials¡±) refers to, in general, the literati and intellectuals who served in the bureaucratic system in ancient China. ¡°Shi¡±, as a social level, appeared early. It included all talented people from folk society, who were usually born into poor family or declining aristocrat, and who had to attach themselves to and serve some rich peers by their talent. This was a group of elites and the Imperial Examination was its basis. Shi Da Fu could be an important role in national or imperial politics, on the other hand, they were also the main creators and inheritors of Chinese culture and art. Shi Da Fu, as a whole, was a representative phenomenon in Chinese civilization. Chen Hongshou (1599~1652, or 1598~1652) Born in Zhuji county in Zhejiang province, Chen Hongshou was a painter in Ming dynasty. He was excelled at calligraphy and painting (including landscape, flowers and figure), especially at figure painting. He was a student of Lan Ying, and was hold in high esteem for his painting techniques and thoughts. His figures often showed an exaggerated and even strange style which regarded as being ancient. As famous as another painter Cui Zizhong, they were together called ¡°South Chen North Cui¡±. Xixiang Ji (Romance of the West Chamber) Xixiang Ji, or in English Romance of the West Chamber (sometimes it¡¯s translated as Story of the Western Wing) is one of the most famous Chinese dramatic works. It was written by the Yuan Dynasty playwright Wang Shifu (ÍõÊµ¸¦), and set during the Tang Dynasty. It is a story of young lovers consummating their love without parental approval, and has been called "China's most popular love comedy" and a "lover's bible". At the same time, some have called it potentially dangerous, as there are stories of readers pining away under its influence. The story of Romance of the West Chamber was first told in a literary Chinese short story written by Yuan Zhen during the Tang Dynasty. This version was called The Story of Yingying, or Yingying's Biography. This version differs from the later play in that Zhang Sheng ultimately breaks from Yingying, and does not ask for her hand in marriage. Despite the unhappy ending, the story was popular with later writers, and recitative works based on it began accumulating in the centuries that followed. Perhaps bowing to popular sentiment, the ending gradually changed to the happy one seen in the play. The examples of the modified version include a drum song by Zhao Lingshi in Song dynasty, an oral performance by Dong Jieyuan of the Jin Dynasty, the Wang Shifu¡¯s drama in Yuan dynasty, Li Rihua and Lu Cai¡¯s in Ming dynasty, and Zhou Gonglu¡¯s version, etc. Wang Shifu's play was closely modeled on this performance and was the most successful one, in which his poem ¡°With clouds the sky turns grey; Yellow blooms pave the way. How bitter blows the western breeze! From north to south fly the wild geese.¡± was remembered and sung by generations after generations. Wang Yangming (1472~1529) Wang Yangming, also known as Wang Shouren, was a Ming Chinese idealist Neo-Confucian philosopher, official, educationist, calligraphist and general. After Zhu Xi, he is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker, with interpretations of Confucianism that denied the rationalist dualism of the orthodox philosophy of Zhu Xi. Wang Yangming¡¯s theory include ¡°The controlling power of the body is the mind. The mind originates the idea, and the nature of the idea is knowledge. Wherever the idea is, we have a thing. There are no principles but those of the mind, and nothing exists apart from the mind.¡± and ¡°Knowledge implies practice, which will lead to good knowledge.¡± Wang Yangming had many followers, and people called his theory ¡°Wang Knowledge¡±. Matteo Ricci (1552~1610) Matteo Ricci, Chinese nam
2073	dbpedia	1	67	https://www.thecollector.com/chinese-art-auction-results/	en	11 Most Expensive Chinese Art Auction Results in the Last 10 Years	https://cdn.thecollector…-chinese-art.jpg	https://cdn.thecollector…-chinese-art.jpg	[ "https://www.thecollector.com/_next/image?url=%2Fimages%2Flogo.jpg&w=384&q=75", "https://www.thecollector.com/_next/image?url=%2Fimages%2Flogo-light.png&w=384&q=75", "https://cdn.thecollector.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/silk-thangka-baishi-eagle-dragons-rong-chinese-art.jpg?width=480&quality=70 480w, https:/...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Mia Forbes" ]	2021-01-02T18:00:50	This article reveals the eleven most expensive pieces of Chinese art to be sold at auction over the past ten years. Read on to discover which masterpieces they were.	en	/favicon/apple-touch-icon.png	TheCollector	https://www.thecollector.com/chinese-art-auction-results/	The most important art sales at the major auction houses were long dominated by European masterpieces, from Old Master paintings to Pop Art. Over the previous decade, however, there has been a substantial shift across the globe, with art from other cultures appearing more and more regularly and selling for ever more impressive auction results. One of the largest surges in the market has been in Chinese art. The country’s first art-auction house, China Guardian, was founded in 1993, shortly followed by the state-owned China Poly Group in 1999, which has since become the world’s third-largest auction firm. In the past decade, this success has continued to flourish, with some of the most expensive pieces of Chinese art ever sold at auction. What Is Chinese Art? While Ai Weiwei may today be the most famous Chinese artist in western culture, the most valuable pieces of Chinese art generally date back to long before the twentieth century. From the rich history of Chinese porcelain to the traditional art of calligraphy, Chinese art spans many centuries and media. The history of Chinese art has gone through many distinct phases, often influenced by the dynastic shifts of the Empire. For this reason, certain artistic styles are often referred to by the name of the dynasty in which they were made, such as a Ming vase or a Tang horse. This article reveals the eleven most expensive auction results of Chinese masterpieces from the last ten years, exploring their history, context and design. 11. Zhao Mengfu, Letters, Ca. 1300 Realized Price: RMB 267,375,000 (USD 38.2m) Zhao Mengfu’s letters are as beautiful in meaning as they are in style Realized Price: RMB 267,375,000 (USD 38.2m) Venue & Date: China Guardian Autumn Auctions 2019, Lot 1381 About The Artwork Born in 1254, Zhao Mengfu was a scholar, painter and calligrapher of the Yuan Dynasty, although he himself was descended from the imperial family of the earlier Song Dynasty. His bold brushwork is considered to have caused a revolution in painting that eventually resulted in the modern Chinese landscape. In addition to his beautiful paintings, which often feature horses, Mengfu practiced calligraphy in a number of styles, exerting a significant influence on the methods used during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The beauty of his writing is manifested in two letters he sent to his brothers around the turn of the 14th century. His words, which speak of both melancholy and fraternal affection, are as elegantly written as they are in meaning. The intimate and beautiful nature of these well-preserved documents ensured a high price when they came up for sale at China Guardian in 2019, with the winning bidder paying over $38m. Realized Price: RMB 287,500,000 (USD 41m) Pan Tianshou’s View from the Peak epitomizes the painter’s skill with brush and ink Realized Price: RMB 287,500,000 (USD 41m) Venue & Date: China Guardian 2018 Autumn Auctions, Lot 355 About The Artwork Twentieth-century painter and teacher, Pan Tianshou developed his artistic skills as a boy by copying the illustrations he found in his favorite books. During his school years, he practiced calligraphy, painting and stamp carving, making small creations for his friends and peers. After completing his formal education, he devoted his life entirely to art, producing many pieces himself and also teaching the subject at a succession of schools and universities. Unfortunately, the Cultural Revolution occurred at the peak of Pan’s career: years of public humiliation and renunciations were followed by accusations of spying, after which he faced increased persecution, eventually dying in the hospital in 1971. Pan’s paintings pay homage to the Confucian, Buddhist and Daoist concepts by which earlier Chinese art had always been inspired, but also contain small innovations that make his work utterly unique. He took the traditional landscape and added smaller details rarely found in earlier paintings, and also chose to depict precipitous terrains rather than smooth-rolling vistas. Pan was even known to use his fingers to add texture to his work. All of these techniques are found in View from the Peak, a painting of a rugged mountain that sold in 2018 for the equivalent of $41m. 9. Imperial Embroidered Silk Thangka, 1402-24 Realized Price: HKD 348, 440,000 (USD 44m) The ornate silk thangka is remarkably well-preserved for an object of this nature Realized Price: HKD 348,440,000 (USD 44m) Venue & Date: Christie’s, Hong Kong, 26 November 2014, Lot 3001 Originating in Tibet, thangkas are paintings on a fabric such as cotton or silk, which typically show a Buddhist deity, scene or mandala. Because of their delicate nature, it is rare for a thangka to survive so long in such pristine condition, making this example one of the world’s greatest textile treasures. The woven thangka is from the early Ming dynasty when such articles were sent to Tibetan monasteries and religious and secular leaders as diplomatic gifts. It shows the fierce deity Rakta Yamari, embracing his Vajravetali and standing victoriously atop the body of Yama, the Lord of Death. These figures are surrounded by a wealth of symbolic and aesthetic details, all delicately embroidered with the utmost skill. The beautiful thangka sold at Christie’s, Hong Kong in 2014 for the huge sum of $44m. 8. Chen Rong, Six Dragons, 13th Century Realized Price: USD 48,967,500 This 13th-century scroll exceeded all expectations at Christie’s, selling for well over 20 times its estimate Realized Price: USD 48,967,500 Estimate: USD 1,200,000 – USD 1,800,000 Venue & Date: Christie’s, New York, 15 March 2017, Lot 507 Known Seller: Fujita Museum About The Artwork Born in 1200, the Chinese painter and politician Chen Rong was little known to western collectors when his Six Dragons appeared at auction in 2017. This may account for the woefully inaccurate estimate, which predicted that the scroll would attract a bid of under $2m. By the time the hammer came down, however, the price had shot up to almost $50m. Chen Rong was celebrated during the Song Dynasty for his depiction of dragons, which were the symbol of the emperor and also represented the powerful force of the Dao. The scroll on which his dragons appear also contains a poem and inscription by the artist, combining poetry, calligraphy, and painting in one. Six Dragons is one of few works left by the master dragon-painter, whose dynamic style went on to influence the depiction of these mythical creatures throughout the subsequent centuries. Realized Price: RMB 345,000,000 (USD 50.6m) Yellow Mountain exemplifies Huang’s use of both ink and color Realized Price: RMB 345,000,000 (USD 50.6m) Estimate: RMB 80,000,000-120,000,000 (USD 12m-18m) Venue & Date: China Guardian 2017 Spring Auctions, Lot 706 About The Artwork Painter and art historian Huang Binhong had a long life and a prolific career. Although his art went through numerous phases, it culminated during his later years in Beijing, where he lived from 1937 to 1948. There Huang began to merge the two major Chinese painting systems – ink wash painting and color painting – into an innovative hybrid. This new style was not well-received by his peers and contemporaries but has since come to be appreciated by modern collectors and critics. In fact, Huang’s work has become so popular that his Yellow Mountain sold at China Guardian in 2017 for over $50m. One of the most extraordinary things about the painting is that Huang, who was by this time suffering from an eye disease, painted the beautiful landscape from memory, recalling the earlier trips he had taken to the scenic mountains of the Anhui province. 6. Qi Baishi, Eagle Standing On Pine Tree, 1946 Realized Price: RMB 425,500,000 (USD 65.4m) Qi Baishi’s ‘Eagle Standing on Pine Tree’ is one of the most controversial Chinese paintings sold at auction Realized Price: RMB 425,500,000 (USD 65.4m) Venue & Date: China Guardian, Beijing, 2011 Known Buyer: Hunan TV & Broadcast Intermediary Co Known Seller: Chinese billionaire investor and art collector, Liu Yiqian About The Artwork One of the most controversial auction results in Chinese art has been over Qi Baishi’s ‘Eagle Standing on Pine Tree.’ In 2011, the painting appeared at China Guardian and was snapped up for the incredible amount of $65.4m, making it one of the most expensive pieces of art ever sold at auction. A controversy was soon ignited, however, with the top bidder refusing to pay on the grounds that the painting was a fake. As well as causing chaos for China Guardian, on whose website no trace of the painting can now be found, the controversy highlighted the ongoing problem with forgery in the emergent Chinese market. The issue is exacerbated in the case of Qi Baishi by the fact that he is thought to have produced between 8,000 and 15,000 individual works during his busy career. Despite working throughout the twentieth century, Qi’s work shows no western influence. His watercolors focus on the subjects of traditional Chinese art, namely nature, and presented them in a lyrical, whimsical fashion. In ‘Eagle Standing on Pine Tree,’ the artist manages to combine simple, bold brushstrokes with a sense of delicacy and texture to symbolize the qualities of heroism, strength and longevity. Realized Price: HKD 463,600,000 (USD 59.7m) Su Shi’s elegant handscroll is one of the finest paintings of the Song Dynasty Realized Price: HKD 463,600,000 (USD 59.7m) Venue & Date: Christie’s, Hong Kong, 26 November 2018, Lot 8008 About The Artwork One of the scholar officials charged with the administration of the Song Empire, Su Shi was a statesman and a diplomat as well as a great artist, a master of prose, an accomplished poet and a fine calligrapher. It is partly for the multi-faceted and highly influential nature of his career that his remaining artwork is so valuable, with his ‘Wood and Rock’ selling at Christie’s in 2018 for almost $60m. An ink painting on a handscroll over five meters in length, it depicts a strangely shaped rock and tree, which together resemble a living creature. Su Shi’s painting is complemented by calligraphy by several other artists and calligraphers of the Song Dynasty, including the renowned Mi Fu. Their words reflect on the meaning of the image, speaking of the passing of time, the power of nature and force of Tao. 4. Huang Tingjian, Di Zhu Ming, 1045-1105 Realized Price: RMB 436,800,000 (USD 62.8 million) Huang’s huge scroll set records because of the beauty of his calligraphy, via The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Realized Price: RMB 436,800,000 (USD 62.8 million) Venue & Date: Poly Auction, Beijing, 03 June 2010 About The Artwork Setting the record for auction results at the time for the most expensive piece of Chinese art, Huang Tingjian’s ‘Di Zhu Ming’ was sold at Poly Auction in 2010 for the staggering sum of $62.8m. Huang joins Su Shi as one of the four masters of calligraphy during the Song Dynasty, and the piece in question is his longest regular handscroll in existence today. It is thought to represent an important transition in the style of his calligraphy. The masterpiece features Huang’s calligraphic rendering of an epigraph originally written by the famous Tang Dynasty chancellor Wei Zheng. The addition of inscriptions by a number of later scholars and artists have made the work both longer and more culturally (and materially!) valuable. 3. Zao Wou-Ki, Juin-Octobre 1985, 1985 Realized Price: HKD 510,371,000 (USD 65.8m) ‘Juin-Octobre 1985’ is Zao Wou-Ki’s largest and most valuable piece of art Realized Price: HKD 510,371,000 (USD 65.8m) Venue & Date: Sotheby’s, Hong Kong, 30 September 2018, Lot 1004 About the Artwork Chines Modern artist, Zao Wou-Ki worked tirelessly for five months on his largest and most successful painting, which he, therefore, named ‘Juin-October 1985.’ It was commissioned early that year by the renowned architect I.M. Pei, with whom Zao had developed a close personal friendship after their first meeting in 1952. Pei needed a piece of art to hang in the main building of the Raffles City complex in Singapore, and Zao’s provided a striking painting, 10 meters in length and characterized by its open and abstract composition, as well as its transcendent and luminous palette. 2. Wu Bin, Ten Views Of Lingbi Rock, Ca. 1610 Realized Price: RMB 512,900,000 (USD 77m) The ten detailed drawings of a single stone sold for a staggering sum at a recent auction in Beijing, via LACMA, Los Angeles Realized Price: RMB 512,900,000 (USD 77m) Venue & Date: Poly Auction, Beijing, 20 October 2020, Lot 3922 About The Artwork Little is known of the Ming Dynasty painter Wu Bin, but it is clear from his work that he was a devout Buddhist, as well as a skilled calligrapher and painter. During his prolific career, he produced over 500 portraits of arhats, those who have reached the transcendent state of Nirvana, but in fact, it is actually his landscapes that are most widely celebrated. Wu’s ability to capture the power of nature is also conveyed in his ten paintings of a single rock, known as a Lingbi stone. Such pieces of rock, from the Lingbi county of the Anhui Province, were prized by Chinese scholars for their durability, resonance, beauty and fine structures. At nearly 28 meters in length, Wu’s handscroll provides a panoramic view of one such stone, accompanied by a wealth of written text that also exhibits his stunning calligraphy. Depicted from every angle, his two-dimensional drawings provide a panoramic view of the stone. When it appeared at auction in 1989, the scroll was bought for the then-monumental sum of $1.21m. Its reappearance this decade fueled even more extravagant bidding, however, and the Poly Auction sale of 2010 concluded with a winning bid of $77m. 1. Qi Baishi, Twelve Landscape Screens, 1925 Realized Price: RMB 931,500,000 (USD 140.8m) Qi Baishi’s series of landscape paintings smashed all records for the most expensive Chinese masterpiece ever sold at auction Realized Price: RMB 931,500,000 (USD 140.8m) Venue & Date: Poly Auction, Beijing, 17 December 2017 About The Artwork Qi Baishi appears again in the top spot since his ‘Twelve Landscape Screens’ holds the record for the most expensive auction results for Chinese art. The series of ink landscape paintings sold at Poly Auction in 2017 for the jaw-dropping price of $140.8m, making Qi the first Chinese artist to sell a work for over $100m. The twelve screens, which show distinct yet cohesive landscapes, uniform in size and style but different in precise subject matter, epitomize the Chinese interpretation of beauty. Accompanied by intricate calligraphy, Wu’s paintings embody the power of nature while conjuring a feeling of tranquility. He produced only one other work of this sort, another set of twelve landscape screens made for a Sichuan military commander seven years later, making this version even more valuable. More On Chinese Art And Auction Results
2073	dbpedia	1	71	https://awards2009.seathestars.com/fr/news/auctions/detail/chinese_calligraphy	en	Sea The Stars Official Website			[ "https://www.googleadservices.com/pagead/conversion/968297535/?label=N1i2CNTEoFYQv5jczQM&guid=ON&script=0", "https://awards2009.seathestars.com/fr/images/space.gif", "https://awards2009.seathestars.com/fr/images/btn_introduction01.png", "https://awards2009.seathestars.com/fr/images/btn_truestory01.png", "ht...	[]	[]	[ "sea the stars", "urban sea", "racing horse", "horse breeding", "horse legend", "prix de l arc de triomphe", "irish horse", "thoroughbred horse" ]	null	[]	null	Sea The Stars is a champion thoroughbred racehorse owned by the Tsui family. In 2009 Sea The Stars completed an unprecedented season in the world of horse racing, winning six Group 1 races in a period of six months.				null	Mi Fu Calligraphy Scroll from Song Dynasty Size：29.6 X 588cm Valuation：RMB28,000,000 – 38,000,000 Auction Price：RMB48,000,000 Auction Company：Beijing Hong Tai Yang International’s Beijing Autumn Auction Auction Date：2010-12-26 Literature: Mi Fu (1051–1107), also known as Mi Fei (米芾), was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher during the Song Dynasty. He is best known for his calligraphy, and he was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. His style arises from that of calligraphers in earlier dynasties, but with a unique mark of his own. To Mi Fu the brush was not only the sword of his proud spirit but a magic stick, which brought life whenever he held it in his hands, were it in writing or in painting. The two arts were to him essentially one and the same. Remarks: the piece was returned from Japan. Huang Tingjian Calligraphy Scroll – Di Zhu Ming from Song Dynasty Size：Handwriting 37.6 X 824cm; Preface and Postscript 37.6 X 621cm Auction Price：RMB436,000,000 Auction Company：Poly International ‘s Beijing Spring Auction Auction Date：2010-06-03 Literature： Huang Tingjian (Chinese: 黄庭堅) (1045–1105) was a Chinese artist. He is predominantly known as a calligrapher, but was also admired for his painting and poetry. He was one of the Four masters of the Song Dynasty, and who created a new style of his own. He was a master for the size and spacing of his characters as well as for a style that was very fluid. Previous calligraphers had generally kept to recognized styles, keeping their characters in regular shapes. But Huang broke from that tradition with brush strokes that flow, almost with a flourish, out of an informal square as if escaping from a cage. The masterpiece, titled Di Zhu Ming, features a calligraphic representation of an epigraph originally composed by Wei Zheng, a famous Tang Dynasty (AD 618-907) chancellor. The handscroll is considered to demonstrate the creativity of Huang's penmanship and his moral principle. The item is also adorned with Huang's portrait and valuable inscriptions of several dynasties ranging from Song to Qing (1644-1911), stretching the calligraphy work to 15 meters in total. The Copy of Wang Xizhi Calligraphy Scroll Ping’an Tie (Safty Wish Script) Size：24.5 X 13.8cm Auction Price：RMB308,000,000 Auction Company：China Guardian Autumn Auction in Beijing Auction Date：20-11-2010 Literature： The scroll on silk with four lines of characters is a copy of ancient Chinese calligrapher Wang Xizhi's work. Wang is a Jin dynasty figure who is known as the Sage of Calligraphy. However, none of his works are known to have survived. The script copy formerly constituted nine lines of characters. But it was torn into two parts, and the 24.5-cm-long, 13.8-cm-wide piece that was sold at this auction is the first part with four lines composing 41 characters. Zhang Zhao QING DYNASTY, QIANLONG PERIOD, EARLY 18TH CENTURY 'SHI GU GE' BY HAN YU IN CURSIVE SCRIPT Size: 1203 X 56cm Valuation: HKD15,000,000 – 25,000,000 Auction Price: HKD90,260,000 Auction Company: Sothebys Hong Kong Auction Auction Date: 07-10-2010 Literature: ‘Shi Gu Ge’ By Han Yu in Cursive Script handscroll, ink on gold-flecked paper with a silk brocade wrapper, signed Zhang Zhao with three seals of the artist, an Imperial frontispiece by the Qianlong Emperor entitled Gui ci shen bi (‘ A Magnificent Verse Written with a Divine Brush’), dated the gengxu year corresponding to 1790, with 33 seals of the Qianlong Emperor, and one seal by the Xuantong Emperor. Zhao Mengfu Calligraphy Scroll Cursive Handwriting - The Tale of The Goddess of Luo River（17 Pages, written on 1301） Size：23 X 11.5cm X 18 Artwork Material：Chinese Ink and Silk Scroll Dynasty：Yuan Dynasty（1301） Valuation：RMB30,000,000 Auction Price：RMB80,080,000 Auction Company：China Guardian Autumn Auction in Beijing Auction Date：2010-11-21 Literature： Zhao Mengfu（1254—1322）, courtesy name Ziang, pseudonyms Xuesong (means “ Pine Snow”), and Xuesong Dao-ren (means “Master of the Pine Snow). Along with three other famous calligraphers, Ouyang Xun, Yan Zhenqing and Liu Gongquan, he was regarded as one of the Four Great Calligraphers of regular script. He was talented and knowledgeable. He was good at poetry, economics, calligraphy, painting, inscription, and playing bamboo pipes. He was also capable of judging. Among all these talents, calligraphy and painting were his best. He had created a new painting style for the Yuan Dynasty. Zhao was adept in many styles of calligraphy, such as seal character, official script, running script and the cursive hand, and he also created his own style, Zhaoti. His works were all filled a touch of nobility and elegance, an embodiment of his in-depth knowledge and cultivation.
2073	dbpedia	3	87	https://www.christies.com.cn/en/lot/lot-5975808	en	MI FU (ATTRIBUTED TO, 1052-1107), Calligraphy	https://www.christies.co…22).jpg?mode=max	https://www.christies.co…22).jpg?mode=max	[ "https://www.christies.com.cn/img/LotImages/2016/NYR/2016_NYR_12169_0828_000(mi_fu_calligraphy103522).jpg?maxwidth=560&maxheight=350 560w, https://www.christies.com.cn/img/LotImages/2016/NYR/2016_NYR_12169_0828_000(mi_fu_calligraphy103522).jpg?maxwidth=1120&maxheight=700 1120w, https://www.christies.com.cn/img/LotI...	[]	[]	[ "Christie’s", "Live Auction", "Auction", "Lot" ]	null	[]	null	Calligraphy	en	/Assets/Discovery.Project.Website/V2023/favicons/favicon.ico		https://www.christies.com.cn/en/lot/lot-5975808	Details MI FU (ATTRIBUTED TO, 1052-1107) Calligraphy Handscroll, ink on paper 20 1/8 x 195 1/2 in. (51 x 496.6 cm.) Inscribed and signed by the artist, with two seals Dated summer, second year of the Yuanfeng era (1079) Fourteen collectors' seals
2073	dbpedia	2	24	https://www.chinafile.com/library/nyrb-china-archive/master-shadows	en	A Master in the Shadows	https://www.chinafile.co…featureimage.jpg	https://www.chinafile.co…featureimage.jpg	[ "https://www.chinafile.com/sites/default/files/styles/thumbnail/public/assets/images/profile/zhou_nuo_profile.jpg?itok=oJ5EuUT7", "https://www.chinafile.com/sites/default/files/styles/thumbnail/public/assets/images/profile/max.jpg?itok=ZnD8aKIz", "https://www.chinafile.com/sites/default/files/styles/thumbnail/p...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Jonathan D. Spence" ]	2012-04-05T00:00:00-04:00	How should one assess the best ways to survive in a revolution? What exactly is the tipping point between obedience and outright sycophancy? When does one try to hold on to the values that gave meaning to one’s upbringing, and when is it best to just let it all go? When does moral commitment trump personal survival?Such questions do not always have self-evident answers, and		https://www.chinafile.co…file_favicon.png	ChinaFile	https://www.chinafile.com/library/nyrb-china-archive/master-shadows	How should one assess the best ways to survive in a revolution? What exactly is the tipping point between obedience and outright sycophancy? When does one try to hold on to the values that gave meaning to one’s upbringing, and when is it best to just let it all go? When does moral commitment trump personal survival? Such questions do not always have self-evident answers, and especially not in the case of China, where revolutions of many different kinds swept their turbulent way throughout the country for over a century. During that long period, bloodless coups and the most violent upheavals alternated and overlapped, sometimes combining with local forces to overthrow incumbent regimes, at others invoking the claims of various foreign powers for special treatment and territorial control. The Chinese were confronted by a sea change of options, ranging from imperial rule to republican experiments in governance, from progressive to parafascist militarism, from Japanese occupation to elitist single-party control from the right and the left, or the self-induced chaos of domestic mass movements. The Chinese artist Fu Baoshi, who lived from 1904 to 1965 and is the subject of the elegantly structured and biographically rich exhibition and catalog now at the Metropolitan Museum, provides us with a range of entry points into the China of his time, many of which have been only partially explored. Yet the title of the show, “Chinese Art in an Age of Revolution,” though certainly broad, still does not quite catch the full richness and ambiguity of the materials presented here. Cumulatively, these details of Fu’s hopes and experiences provide us with nothing less than a variety of new perspectives through which to explore an unusual life in a time of opportunity and challenge. Fu Baoshi was born in the waning years of the Qing dynasty, to a farming family in the prosperous city of Nanchang. The city was the capital of Jiangxi province in central China, and in the later nineteenth century had been the base of operations for a number of innovative national administrators, some of whom had been especially involved in exploring the cultural currents from the West. Because of his father’s repeated bouts of illness and the family’s poverty, Fu received no formal schooling until 1917, when he was thirteen, but this experience of hardship seems to have had certain advantages for the family. Fu’s father moved to the city and worked at various nonfarming jobs, one of which was as an umbrella mender, and Fu himself as a child brought some money into the family by working as an apprentice in a ceramics shop. From this experience he grew fascinated with the designs that were used as the decoration on fine porcelain, and that in turn stimulated an interest in drawing and carving, so that by the age of seven or eight he had learned to draw and also to write some of the classical characters on his own. That experience, in its turn, led Fu to an interest that was to stay with him all his life, the art of seal carving. This was an extraordinarily demanding art form, in which the carving of the small stone seals—stamps bearing names or epithets and often used as signatures on paintings and official documents—depended on the artist’s detailed knowledge of the materials, along with a piercing eye and intense manual dexterity. Fu’s talents in this difficult work aroused local interest, and the chance to make more money by carving seals on commission. With support from a member of the gentry who was active in a local cultural association, Fu was permitted to attend—on an informal basis—private classes on the Chinese classical literary and artistic traditions. * * * News of the boy’s unusual skills spread, and in 1917 he was admitted to the First Normal School of Nanchang. The death of Fu’s father in 1921 did not prevent Fu from advancing to the high school level, which was designed to help boys prepare for a teaching career. Fu briefly selected the English language as his major field, but soon switched to majoring in art. He continued to carve seals on commission, and on occasion he also forged seals or paintings of earlier masters. As Anita Chung, one of the main organizers of this exhibition and the author of a lengthy and detailed essay on Fu, remarks, when Fu’s teachers learned of these teenage forgeries, “not only did the school not punish him, [but] the principal encouraged him to develop his individual style. To the young art student, this was perhaps an important lesson concerning authentic artistic creativity.” Several of Fu’s seals are included in the exhibition, including one particularly exquisite piece whose six-character impression reads “Plucking the pollia on a flat island” and on three sides of which, covering an area of less than five square inches, are engraved the 2,765 characters of Qu Yuan’s poem “On Encountering Sorrow.” By good fortune, four of Fu’s early hanging landscape scrolls, dated by their inscriptions to the year 1925, survived, and were preserved in a Tokyo museum. Displayed here, in the first room of the show, they demonstrate Fu’s great abilities as he turned twenty-one, and provide a striking way to open the exhibition. These landscapes are meant to show exemplary styles of the past, about which Fu comments at the top of each painting—admiring, for instance, the “vigorous style” and “dry brushstrokes” of the seventeenth-century masters Gong Xian and Cheng Sui. Referring to the eleventh-century painter, poet, and calligrapher Mi Fu, Fu wrote, “Later artists…could only pile up the ink dots without imparting openness and closeness. The result was not satisfactory.” Upon Fu’s graduation in 1926, the school appointed him to teach in the primary school, and in 1929 he was promoted to the junior high school division. Those three years were among the most violent in China’s modern history. Shanghai was torn by colossal strikes that brought most industries to a halt, until Chiang Kai-shek ordered his armies—which had marched north from Canton in 1926—to smash the major unions and banish the Communist Party from Shanghai and other cities. It was also during 1927 and 1928 that the Communists retreated from the last major urban centers they had once controlled, and that Mao attempted to build a new set of revolutionary bases in the mountainous countryside around Hankou. This indeed was an “age of revolution,” but Fu stayed in the Nanchang region, teaching Chinese painting theory, Chinese art history, seal carving, landscape painting, and flower-and-bird painting. During this period, too, Fu finished the draft of two books: one, with material drawn from his own teaching, painting, and research experience, titled An Outline History of the Transformation of Chinese Painting, was published in 1931; the second, Studies in Seal Carving, was compiled between 1926 and 1929. The partially typeset version of this second book was destroyed in early 1932, during the heavy Japanese bombing and shelling of Shanghai that occurred during the short, violent conflict of this period, and it was not until 1934 that the book finally came out in revised and expanded form. During these years of the early 1930s, Japanese troops had also been expanding their power in Manchuria, which was rapidly becoming effectively a Japanese colony—Korea had already been a Japanese colony since 1910, and Taiwan a Japanese colony since 1895. * * * The near destruction of Fu’s manuscript coincided with the period of his greatest affection for, and involvement with, Japan and Japanese scholars. As several of the essays in the exhibition catalog make clear, in the late 1920s and early 1930s a complex but different kind of intellectual and aesthetic struggle was being waged among many Chinese and Japanese writers and scholars. It was a battle in which the Chinese cultural legacy in East Asia was being subjected to intense scrutiny, and was very much in doubt. The guardians of China’s artistic traditions—among whom Fu himself could now be seen as a junior member—were working and living on the margins of survival. Western aesthetic categories dominated most of the world’s arts and historical records. To unsympathetic observers, the traditional categories of Chinese art—decorated porcelain, seals, calligraphy, and paintings in ink—were static and outmoded, incapable of further creative development in their current forms. Oil painting, together with new forms of expression and spectacular technical achievements, dating back to the Renaissance, had simply passed China by. The ink landscapes in the literati tradition—paintings by scholar-bureaucrats in a simple style and inscribed with poems—that Fu celebrated in both his scholarship and his own painting were especially, in the words of the catalog entry on Fu’s 1933 landscape in the style of the fourteenth-century painter Wang Meng, “criticized as backward, conservative, and stagnant…the antithesis of individualism.” Japan’s position in these culture wars was a pivotal one. Chinese students had been flocking to Japan since around 1900 (just before Fu was born), and to France from 1920 onward. With skills honed overseas, the Chinese students came back to a China that had been shattered by Japanese military and economic assaults, and had also been weakened by Western territorial aggression. It is only from such a dark perspective that we can now understand the historical logic that lay behind the 1931 visit to Fu Baoshi made by one of China’s most celebrated painters, Xu Beihong. Xu himself had just returned to China from eight years of study and painting at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, and was currently teaching and working in the art department of the National Central University of Nanjing, not far from Nanchang. When he encountered Fu, Xu was deeply impressed by Fu’s abilities as a painter and seal carver, and by his determination to recapture ancient Chinese purities of line and texture. Xu asked the military governor of the Nanchang region to grant Fu a stipend to study in France, backing his request with a gift of one of his own celebrated horse paintings. Fu tried to clinch the bargain by giving the governor two of his seals. Since there was still not enough money for Fu to go to France, Xu narrowed his requests for funding to the support of Fu in Japan, and to the deepening of his skills in ceramics, which happened to be one of the most profitable products in Jiangxi. This somewhat hasty lobbying by the two Chinese painters led, perhaps to their surprise, to Fu’s residence in Japan, from September 1932 to June 1933, and from August 1933 to June 1935. During this period, once his Japanese language skills reached a high level, Fu was formally enrolled in the advanced graduate programs offered in Tokyo by the distinguished professor of fine arts Kinbara Seigo, by whose study of Chinese aesthetic concepts going back to the early third century Fu had been greatly impressed. Fu translated several works by Kinbara into Chinese, studied a wide range of historical texts on the earlier Chinese and Japanese artistic traditions, and held a successful one-man show of his own paintings and seal carvings in Tokyo in May 1935. * * * This Japanese experience was transformative for Fu, and gave him a new sense of China in a global setting, and of the nationalist significance of China’s past traditions to China’s own history. As summarized by the authors of the catalog, what Japan did for Fu was that “specifically, it heightened his sense of national and cultural consciousness, which would add a political dimension to his art historical writing and art making.” Among many opportunities that now became available to Fu, perhaps the most important was that he developed a deeper understanding and admiration for the brilliantly talented so-called “eccentric” Chinese painters such as Shitao, a member of the royal house who narrowly escaped death and was forced to live in hiding during the disintegration of the Ming dynasty in the seventeenth century—a political circumstance in which Fu found solace and inspiration during a time of foreign aggression and perceived national decline. In her biographical essay, Anita Chung writes that Fu perceived Shitao “as a yimin, or ‘leftover subject’ of the fallen Ming dynasty, who witnessed the country’s tragic fate.” Fu summarized his view of Shitao’s importance in a 1936 essay: “His art is not only a harmonious symphony but also the saddest tune of the human world…. For an artist living under foreign invasion, only autumn and winter scenes could symbolize suffering and depression.” These studies became more difficult in June 1935, when Fu learned that his mother was seriously ill and returned to Nanjing, where he also taught Chinese art history and painting theory at the National Central University. In the summer of 1937 full-scale war between Japan and China broke out, and led to disastrous defeats for China: Shanghai was lost, Nanjing was ravaged, Beijing was occupied, and the main Chinese armies retreated deep inland to the city of Chongqing. Fu joined the exodus, undertook propaganda work for the Nationalist forces, continued his research into the creative worlds of Shitao, and spent what time he could with his growing family of five children. His painting grew in power and originality, and in 1940, refusing to join Chiang Kai-shek’s Guomindang, he ceased Nationalist propaganda work altogether and devoted his energies to a series of one-man shows in and near Chongqing. When the Japanese war ended in 1945 Fu took no governmental posts, but neither does he seem to have done any undercover work for the Communists during the ensuing civil war, though at least one of his close friends definitely did so. When, in late 1948, the Nationalist forces crumbled under the final Communist assaults, Fu was offered the chance to retreat to Taiwan with Chiang Kai-shek’s surviving forces, but he declined to go. Once again, the revolution swirled its destructive winds around him, but he himself remained unscathed, as far as we can tell. For many visitors to this exhibition, the Communist years will come as something of a letdown, even though Fu could still conjure up tempestuous visions, and some of his battle scrolls are stupendous. Also, Fu grasped the pictorial and personal opportunities offered by the publication of Mao Zedong’s poetry, and shrewdly saw how the act of studying and illustrating the poems—as in the painting of Mao swimming in the Yangzi River in the exhibition—could be used to shelter himself and his family from various forms of criticism. Fu was allowed to keep his former university position, but it must have been a major blow to him when a university-wide “curriculum adjustment” committee canceled his classes on Chinese painting theory, calligraphy, seal carving, and art history, all of which were dropped from the class rosters. Fu continued to receive prestigious commissions, including working on an enormous landscape for the newly built Great Hall of the People, and he was invited to take part in two major delegations, one to Eastern Europe and one to the former Manchu regions bordering on North Korea. The catalog includes a remarkable painting of the Prague Castle, with a foreground of trees and foliage drawn, as the catalog puts it, with “dancing movements of the brush [that] enliven the architectural forms.” But he was obliged to make many “self-criticisms,” and it became necessary for him to modify his dark and sundered landscapes, so that he could not be accused of anti-proletarian pessimism in early–Mao era crackdowns on free expression such as the Five-Anti campaign and the repression following the Hundred Flowers movement. Fu Baoshi died, apparently of a heart attack, in September 1965, just before the awful force of the Cultural Revolution could destroy him and his family. He would surely not have lasted long once the Red Guards learned the details of his propaganda work for the Guomindang, his long residence in Japan, and his passion for China’s ancient art, with its seals and its calligraphy and its purist admiration for the past. As it is, we can note how, in his last paintings, he felt it wise to decorate his swirling mists and distant vistas with ever brighter washes of pink, orange, and red. That way no one could accuse him of slighting the revolution, the one he lived through as well as the one that he made.
2073	dbpedia	0	85	https://ultimatepopculture.fandom.com/wiki/Chinese_art	en	Chinese art	https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/ultimatepopculture/images/1/1d/Two_flasks_with_dragons.jpg/revision/latest?cb=20200607045753	https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/ultimatepopculture/images/1/1d/Two_flasks_with_dragons.jpg/revision/latest?cb=20200607045753	[ "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/ultimatepopculture/images/1/1d/Two_flasks_with_dragons.jpg/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/250?cb=20200607045753", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/ultimatepopculture/images/1/1d/Two_flasks_with_dragons.jpg/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/170?cb=20200607045753", "htt...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Ultimate Pop Culture Wiki" ]	2024-07-29T22:27:06+00:00	Chinese art is visual art that, whether ancient or modern, originated in or is practiced in China or by Chinese artists. The Chinese art in the Republic of China (Taiwan) and that of overseas Chinese can also be considered part of Chinese art where it is based in or draws on Chinese heritage and...	en	/skins-ucp/mw139/common/favicon.ico	Ultimate Pop Culture Wiki	https://ultimatepopculture.fandom.com/wiki/Chinese_art	History of China ANCIENT Neolithic c. 8500 – c. 2070 BCE Xia c. 2070 – c. 1600 BCE Shang c. 1600 – c. 1046 BCE Zhou c. 1046 – 256 BCE Western Zhou Eastern Zhou Spring and Autumn Warring States IMPERIAL Qin 221–207 BCE Han 202 BCE – 220 CE Western Han Xin Eastern Han Three Kingdoms 220–280 Wei, Shu and Wu Jin 266–420 Western Jin Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms Northern and Southern dynasties 420–589 Sui 581–618 Tang 618–907 (Wu Zhou 690–705) Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 907–979 Liao 916–1125 Song 960–1279 Northern Song Western Xia Southern Song Jin Western Liao Yuan 1271–1368 Ming 1368–1644 Qing 1636–1912 MODERN Republic of China on mainland 1912–1949 People's Republic of China 1949–present Republic of China on Taiwan 1949–present Related articles Chinese historiography Timeline of Chinese history Dynasties in Chinese history Linguistic history Art history Economic history Education history Science and technology history Legal history Media history Military history Naval history Women in ancient and imperial China Page Template:Hlist/styles.css must have content model "Sanitized CSS" for TemplateStyles (current model is "wikitext").Page Module:Navbar/styles.css must have content model "Sanitized CSS" for TemplateStyles (current model is "CSS"). Chinese art is visual art that, whether ancient or modern, originated in or is practiced in China or by Chinese artists. The Chinese art in the Republic of China (Taiwan) and that of overseas Chinese can also be considered part of Chinese art where it is based in or draws on Chinese heritage and Chinese culture. Early "Stone Age art" dates back to 10,000 BC, mostly consisting of simple pottery and sculptures. After this early period Chinese art, like Chinese history, is typically classified by the succession of ruling dynasties of Chinese emperors, most of which lasted several hundred years. Chinese art has arguably the oldest continuous tradition in the world, and is marked by an unusual degree of continuity within, and consciousness of, that tradition, lacking an equivalent to the Western collapse and gradual recovery of classical styles. The media that have usually been classified in the West since the Renaissance as the decorative arts are extremely important in Chinese art, and much of the finest work was produced in large workshops or factories by essentially unknown artists, especially in Chinese ceramics. Much of the best work in ceramics, textiles, carved lacquer, and other techniques was produced over a long period by the various Imperial factories or workshops, which as well as being used by the court was distributed internally and abroad on a huge scale to demonstrate the wealth and power of the Emperors. In contrast, the tradition of ink wash painting, practiced mainly by scholar-officials and court painters especially of landscapes, flowers, and birds, developed aesthetic values depending on the individual imagination of and objective observation by the artist that are similar to those of the West, but long pre-dated their development there. After contacts with Western art became increasingly important from the 19th century onwards, in recent decades China has participated with increasing success in worldwide contemporary art. Painting[] Main article: Chinese painting Traditional Chinese painting involves essentially the same techniques as Chinese calligraphy and is done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink; oils are not used. As with calligraphy, the most popular materials on which paintings are made of paper and silk. The finished work can be mounted on scrolls, such as hanging scrolls or handscrolls. Traditional painting can also be done on album sheets, walls, lacquerware, folding screens, and other media. The two main techniques in Chinese painting are: Gong-bi (工筆), meaning "meticulous", uses highly detailed brushstrokes that delimits details very precisely. It is often highly coloured and usually depicts figural or narrative subjects. It is often practised by artists working for the royal court or in independent workshops. Bird-and-flower paintings were often in this style. Ink and wash painting, in Chinese Shui-mo or (水墨[1]) also loosely termed watercolour or brush painting, and also known as "literati painting", as it was one of the "Four Arts" of the Chinese Scholar-official class.[2] In theory this was an art practised by gentlemen, a distinction that begins to be made in writings on art from the Song dynasty, though in fact the careers of leading exponents could benefit considerably.[3] This style is also referred to as "xie yi" (寫意) or freehand style. Artists from the Han (202 BC) to the Tang (618–906) dynasties mainly painted the human figure. Much of what is known of early Chinese figure painting comes from burial sites, where paintings were preserved on silk banners, lacquered objects, and tomb walls. Many early tomb paintings were meant to protect the dead or help their souls get to paradise. Others illustrated the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius, or showed scenes of daily life. Most Chinese portraits showed a formal full-length frontal view, and were used in the family in ancestor veneration. Imperial portraits were more flexible, but were generally not seen outside the court, and portraiture formed no part of Imperial propaganda, as in other cultures. Many critics consider landscape to be the highest form of Chinese painting. The time from the Five Dynasties period to the Northern Song period (907–1127) is known as the "Great age of Chinese landscape". In the north, artists such as Jing Hao, Li Cheng, Fan Kuan, and Guo Xi painted pictures of towering mountains, using strong black lines, ink wash, and sharp, dotted brushstrokes to suggest rough rocks. In the south, Dong Yuan, Juran, and other artists painted the rolling hills and rivers of their native countryside in peaceful scenes done with softer, rubbed brushwork. These two kinds of scenes and techniques became the classical styles of Chinese landscape painting. Sculpture[] See also: Chinese Buddhist sculpture Chinese ritual bronzes from the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties come from a period of over a thousand years from c. 1500, and have exerted a continuing influence over Chinese art. They are cast with complex patterned and zoomorphic decoration, but avoid the human figure, unlike the huge figures only recently discovered at Sanxingdui.[5] The spectacular Terracotta Army was assembled for the tomb of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a unified China from 221–210 BC, as a grand imperial version of the figures long placed in tombs to enable the deceased to enjoy the same lifestyle in the afterlife as when alive, replacing actual sacrifices of very early periods. Smaller figures in pottery or wood were placed in tombs for many centuries afterwards, reaching a peak of quality in the Tang dynasty.[6] Native Chinese religions do not usually use cult images of deities, or even represent them, and large religious sculpture is nearly all Buddhist, dating mostly from the 4th to the 14th century, and initially using Greco-Buddhist models arriving via the Silk Road. Buddhism is also the context of all large portrait sculpture; in total contrast to some other areas in medieval China even painted images of the emperor were regarded as private. Imperial tombs have spectacular avenues of approach lined with real and mythological animals on a scale matching Egypt, and smaller versions decorate temples and palaces.[7] Small Buddhist figures and groups were produced to a very high quality in a range of media,[8] as was relief decoration of all sorts of objects, especially in metalwork and jade.[9] Sculptors of all sorts were regarded as artisans and very few names are recorded.[10] Ceramics[] Main article: Chinese ceramics See also: Chinese influences on Islamic pottery Chinese ceramic ware shows a continuous development since the pre-dynastic periods, and is one of the most significant forms of Chinese art. China is richly endowed with the raw materials needed for making ceramics. The first types of ceramics were made during the Palaeolithic era, and in later periods range from construction materials such as bricks and tiles, to hand-built pottery vessels fired in bonfires or kilns, to the sophisticated Chinese porcelain wares made for the imperial court. Most later Chinese ceramics, even of the finest quality, were made on an industrial scale, thus very few individual potters or painters are known. Many of the most renowned workshops were owned by or reserved for the Emperor, and large quantities of ceramics were exported as diplomatic gifts or for trade from an early date. Decorative arts[] As well as porcelain, a wide range of materials that were more valuable were worked and decorated with great skill for a range of uses or just for display.[9] Chinese jade was attributed with magical powers, and was used in the Stone and Bronze Ages for large and impractical versions of everyday weapons and tools, as well as the bi disks and cong vessels.[12] Later a range of objects and small sculptures were carved in jade, a difficult and time-consuming technique. Bronze, gold and silver, rhinoceros horn, Chinese silk, ivory, lacquer and carved lacquer, cloisonne enamel and many other materials had specialist artists working in them. Folding screens (Chinese: 屏風; pinyin: píngfēng) are often decorated with beautiful art; major themes include mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature. Materials such as wood panel, paper and silk are used in making folding screens. They were considered ideal ornaments for many painters to display their paintings and calligraphy.[13][14] Many artists painted on paper or silk and applied it onto the folding screen.[13] There were two distinct artistic folding screens mentioned in historical literature of the era. Architecture[] Main article: Chinese architecture Chinese architecture refers to a style of architecture that has taken shape in East Asia over many centuries. Especially Japan, Korea, Vietnam and Ryukyu. The structural principles of Chinese architecture have remained largely unchanged, the main changes being only the decorative details. Since the Tang Dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. From the Neolithic era Longshan Culture and Bronze Age era Erlitou culture, the earliest rammed earth fortifications exist, with evidence of timber architecture. The subterranean ruins of the palace at Yinxu dates back to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC–1046 BC). In historic China, architectural emphasis was laid upon the horizontal axis, in particular the construction of a heavy platform and a large roof that floats over this base, with the vertical walls not as well emphasized. This contrasts Western architecture, which tends to grow in height and depth. Chinese architecture stresses the visual impact of the width of the buildings. The deviation from this standard is the tower architecture of the Chinese tradition, which began as a native tradition[citation needed] and was eventually influenced by the Buddhist building for housing religious sutras — the stupa — which came from Nepal. Ancient Chinese tomb model representations of multiple story residential towers and watchtowers date to the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD). However, the earliest extant Buddhist Chinese pagoda is the Songyue Pagoda, a 40 m (131 ft) tall circular-based brick tower built in Henan province in the year 523 AD. From the 6th century onwards, stone-based structures become more common, while the earliest are from stone and brick arches found in Han Dynasty tombs. The Zhaozhou Bridge built from 595 to 605 AD is China's oldest extant stone bridge, as well as the world's oldest fully stone open-spandrel segmental arch bridge. The vocational trade of architect, craftsman, and engineer was not as highly respected in premodern Chinese society as the scholar-bureaucrats who were drafted into the government by the civil service examination system. Much of the knowledge about early Chinese architecture was passed on from one tradesman to his son or associative apprentice. However, there were several early treatises on architecture in China, with encyclopedic information on architecture dating back to the Han Dynasty. The height of the classical Chinese architectural tradition in writing and illustration can be found in the Yingzao Fashi, a building manual written by 1100 and published by Li Jie (1065–1110) in 1103. In it there are numerous and meticulous illustrations and diagrams showing the assembly of halls and building components, as well as classifying structure types and building components. There were certain architectural features that were reserved solely for buildings built for the Emperor of China. One example is the use of yellow roof tiles; yellow having been the Imperial color, yellow roof tiles still adorn most of the buildings within the Forbidden City. The Temple of Heaven, however, uses blue roof tiles to symbolize the sky. The roofs are almost invariably supported by brackets, a feature shared only with the largest of religious buildings. The wooden columns of the buildings, as well as the surface of the walls, tend to be red in colour. Many current Chinese architectural designs follow post-modern and western styles. Chinoiserie[] Main article: Chinoiserie Chinoiserie is the European interpretation and imitation of Chinese and East Asian artistic traditions, especially in the decorative arts, garden design, architecture, literature, theatre, and music.[15] The aesthetic of Chinoiserie has been expressed in different ways depending on the region. Its acknowledgement derives from the current of Orientalism, which studied Far East cultures from a historical, philological, anthropological, philosophical and religious point of view. First appearing in the 17th century, this trend was popularized in the 18th century due to the rise in trade with China and East Asia.[16] As a style, chinoiserie is related to the Rococo style.[17] Both styles are characterized by exuberant decoration, asymmetry, a focus on materials, and stylized nature and subject matter that focuses on leisure and pleasure. Chinoiserie focuses on subjects that were thought by colonial-era Europeans to be typical of Chinese culture. History and development of Chinese art[] Neolithic pottery[] Main articles: Yangshao culture and Peiligang culture Early forms of art in China are found in the Neolithic Yangshao culture, which dates back to the 6th millennium BC. Archeological findings such as those at the Banpo have revealed that the Yangshao made pottery; early ceramics were unpainted and most often cord-marked. The first decorations were fish and human faces, but these eventually evolved into symmetrical-geometric abstract designs, some painted. The most distinctive feature of Yangshao culture was the extensive use of painted pottery, especially human facial, animal, and geometric designs. Unlike the later Longshan culture, the Yangshao culture did not use pottery wheels in pottery making. Excavations have found that children were buried in painted pottery jars. Jade culture[] Main article: Liangzhu culture The Liangzhu culture was the last Neolithic Jade culture in the Yangtze River Delta and was spaced over a period of about 1,300 years. The Jade from this culture is characterized by finely worked, large ritual jades such as Cong cylinders, Bi discs, Yue axes and also pendants and decorations in the form of chiseled open-work plaques, plates and representations of small birds, turtles and fish. The Liangzhu Jade has a white, milky bone-like aspect due to its Tremolite rock origin and influence of water-based fluids at the burial sites. Bronze casting[] Main article: Chinese ritual bronzes Further information: Bianzhong of Marquis Yi of Zeng The Bronze Age in China began with the Xia dynasty. Examples from this period have been recovered from ruins of the Erlitou culture, in Shanxi, and include complex but unadorned utilitarian objects. In the following Shang dynasty more elaborate objects, including many ritual vessels, were crafted. The Shang are remembered for their bronze casting, noted for its clarity of detail. Shang bronzesmiths usually worked in foundries outside the cities to make ritual vessels, and sometimes weapons and chariot fittings as well. The bronze vessels were receptacles for storing or serving various solids and liquids used in the performance of sacred ceremonies. Some forms such as the ku and jue can be very graceful, but the most powerful pieces are the ding, sometimes described as having an "air of ferocious majesty". It is typical of the developed Shang style that all available space is decorated, most often with stylized forms of real and imaginary animals. The most common motif is the taotie, which shows a mythological being presented frontally as though squashed onto a horizontal plane to form a symmetrical design. The early significance of taotie is not clear, but myths about it existed around the late Zhou dynasty. It was considered to be variously a covetous man banished to guard a corner of heaven against evil monsters; or a monster equipped with only a head which tries to devour men but hurts only itself. The function and appearance of bronzes changed gradually from the Shang to the Zhou. They shifted from been used in religious rites to more practical purposes. By the Warring States period, bronze vessels had become objects of aesthetic enjoyment. Some were decorated with social scenes, such as from a banquet or hunt; whilst others displayed abstract patterns inlaid with gold, silver, or precious and semiprecious stones. Bronze artifacts also have significant meaning and roles in Han Dynasty as well. People used them for funerary purposes which reflect the aesthetic and artistic qualities of Han Dynasty.[18] Many bronze vessels excavated from tombs in Jiangsu Province, China have various shapes like Ding, Hu, and Xun which represent traditional Chinese aesthete.[18] These vessels are classical representations of Chinese celestial art forms which play a great role in ancient Chinese's communication with spirits of their ancestors.[18] Other than the vessels, bronze weapons, daily items, and musical instruments are also found in royal Han families' tomb in Jiangsu. Being able to put a full set of Bianzhong in ones tomb signifies his or her status and class in Han Dynasty since this particular type of instrument is only acquired and owned by royal and wealth families.[18] Apparently, Bianzhong and music are also used as a path for the Han rulers to communication with their Gods.[18] The excavation of Bianzhong, a typical and royal instrument found in ancient China, emphasizes the development of complex music systems in Han Dynasty.[18] The set of Bianzhong can vary in many cases; for example, a specific excavation of Bianzhong from Jiangsu Province include different sets of bells, like Niuzhong and Yongzhong bells, and many of them appear in animal forms like the dragon, a traditional Chinese spiritual animal.[18] Shang bronzes became appreciated as works of art from the Song dynasty, when they were collected and prized not only for their shape and design but also for the various green, blue green, and even reddish patinas created by chemical action as they lay buried in the ground. The study of early Chinese bronze casting is a specialized field of art history. Chu and Southern culture[] A rich source of art in early China was the state of Chu, which developed in the Yangtze River valley. Excavations of Chu tombs have found painted wooden sculptures, jade disks, glass beads, musical instruments, and an assortment of lacquerware. Many of the lacquer objects are finely painted, red on black or black on red. A site in Changsha, Hunan province, has revealed some of the oldest paintings on silk discovered to date. Early Imperial China (221 BC–AD 220)[] Qin art[] During the Qin Dynasty, Chinese font, measurement systems, currency were all standardized in order to bring further unification.[22] The Great Wall of China was expanded as a defensive construction against the northern intruders.[22] The Terracotta Army, inside the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, consists of more than 7,000 life-size tomb terra-cotta figures of warriors and horses buried with the self-proclaimed first Emperor of Qin (Qin Shi Huang) in 210–209 BC. The figures were painted before being placed into the vault. The original colors were visible when the pieces were first unearthed. However, exposure to air caused the pigments to fade, so today the unearthed figures appear terracotta in color. The figures are in several poses including standing infantry and kneeling archers, as well as charioteers with horses. Each figure's head appears to be unique, showing a variety of facial features and expressions as well as hair styles. The spectacular realism displayed by the sculptures is an evidence of the advancement of art during the Qin Dynasty.[23] A music instrument called Qin zither was developed during Qin Dynasty. The aesthetic components have always been as important as the functional parts on a musical instrument in Chinese history. The Qin zither has seven strings. Although Qin zither can sometimes remind people of corruptive history times, it is often considered as a delivery of peace and harmony.[24] Han art[] The Han dynasty was known for jade burial suits. One of the earliest known depictions of a landscape in Chinese art comes from a pair of hollow-tile door panels from a Western Han dynasty tomb near Zhengzhou, dated 60 BC.[25] A scene of continuous depth recession is conveyed by the zigzag of lines representing roads and garden walls, giving the impression that one is looking down from the top of a hill.[25] This artistic landscape scene was made by the repeated impression of standard stamps on the clay while it was still soft and not yet fired.[25] However, the oldest known landscape art scene tradition in the classical sense of painting is a work by Zhan Ziqian of the Sui dynasty (581–618). Other than jade artifacts, bronze is another favorite medium for artists since it is hard and durable. Bronze mirrors have been mass-produced in Han Dynasty(206 BC-220 AD), and almost every tomb excavated that has been dated as Han Dynasty has mirror in the burial.[26] The reflective side is usually made by a composition of bronze, copper, tin, and lead.[26] The word "mirror" means "to reflect" or "to look into" in Chinese, so bronze mirrors have been used as a trope for reflecting the reality.[26] The ancient Chinese believe that mirror can act as a representation of the reality, which could make them more aware of the current situation; also, mirrors are used as a media to convey or present a reflection of the past events.[26] The bronze mirrors made in Han Dynasty always have complex decorations on their non-reflective side; some of them consist narratives that tell stories.[26] The narratives themselves always reflect the common but essential theories to the Han people's lives.[27] Period of division (220–581)[] Influence of Buddhism[] Main article: Buddhist art Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD (although there are some traditions about a monk visiting China during Asoka's reign), and through to the 8th century it became very active and creative in the development of Buddhist art, particularly in the area of statuary. Receiving this distant religion, China soon incorporated strong Chinese traits in its artistic expression. In the fifth to sixth century the Northern dynasties, rather removed from the original sources of inspiration, tended to develop rather symbolic and abstract modes of representation, with schematic lines. Their style is also said to be solemn and majestic. The lack of corporeality of this art, and its distance from the original Buddhist objective of expressing the pure ideal of enlightenment in an accessible, realistic manner, progressively led to a research towards more naturalism and realism, leading to the expression of Tang Buddhist art. Calligraphy[] In ancient China, painting and calligraphy were the most highly appreciated arts in court circles and were produced almost exclusively by amateurs, aristocrats and scholar-officials who alone had the leisure to perfect the technique and sensibility necessary for great brushwork. Calligraphy was thought to be the highest and purest form of painting. The implements were the brush, made of animal hair, and black ink made from pine soot and animal glue. Writing as well as painting was done on silk. But after the invention of paper in the 1st century, silk was gradually replaced by the new and cheaper material. Original writings by famous calligraphers have been greatly valued throughout China's history and are mounted on scrolls and hung on walls in the same way that paintings are. Wang Xizhi was a famous Chinese calligrapher who lived in the 4th century AD. His most famous work is the Lanting Xu, the preface to a collection of poems. The script was often celebrated as the high point of the semi-cursive "Running Style" in the history of Chinese calligraphy. Wei Shuo was a well-known calligrapher of the Eastern Jin dynasty who established consequential rules about the Regular Script. Her well-known works include Famous Concubine Inscription (名姬帖 Ming Ji Tie) and The Inscription of Wei-shi He'nan (衛氏和南帖 Wei-shi He'nan Tie). Painting[] Page Template:Multiple image/styles.css must have content model "Sanitized CSS" for TemplateStyles (current model is "wikitext"). Gu Kaizhi is a celebrated painter of ancient China born in Wuxi. He wrote three books about painting theory: On Painting (畫論), Introduction of Famous Paintings of Wei and Jin Dynasties (魏晉名畫記) and Painting Yuntai Mountain (畫雲臺山記). He wrote, "In figure paintings the clothes and the appearances were not very important. The eyes were the spirit and the decisive factor." Three of Gu's paintings still survive today: Admonitions of the Instructress to the Court Ladies, Nymph of the Luo River (洛神賦), and Wise and Benevolent Women. There are other examples of Jin dynasty painting from tombs. This includes the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, painted on a brick wall of a tomb located near modern Nanjing and now found in the Shaanxi Provincial Museum. Each of the figures are labeled and shown either drinking, writing, or playing a musical instrument. Other tomb paintings also depict scenes of daily life, such as men plowing fields with teams of oxen. The Sui and Tang dynasties (581–960)[] Main article: Tang dynasty art Buddhist architecture and sculpture[] Following a transition under the Sui dynasty, Buddhist sculpture of the Tang evolved towards a markedly lifelike expression. As a consequence of the dynasty's openness to foreign trade and influences through the Silk Road, Tang dynasty Buddhist sculpture assumed a rather classical form, inspired by the Greco-Buddhist art of Central Asia. However, foreign influences came to be negatively perceived towards the end of the Tang dynasty. In the year 845, the Tang emperor Wu-Tsung outlawed all "foreign" religions (including Christian Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism) in order to support the indigenous Taoism. He confiscated Buddhist possessions and forced the faith to go underground, therefore affecting the ulterior development of the religion and its arts in China. Glazed or painted earthenware Tang dynasty tomb figures are famous, and well-represented in museums around the world. Most wooden Tang sculptures have not survived, though representations of the Tang international style can still be seen in Nara, Japan. The longevity of stone sculpture has proved much greater. Some of the finest examples can be seen at Longmen, near Luoyang (Henan), Yungang near Datong (Shanxi), and Bingling Temple in Gansu. One of the most famous Buddhist Chinese pagodas is the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, built in 652 AD. Painting[] Beginning in the Tang dynasty (618–907), the primary subject matter of painting was the landscape, known as shanshui (mountain water) painting. In these landscapes, usually monochromatic and sparse, the purpose was not to reproduce exactly the appearance of nature but rather to grasp an emotion or atmosphere so as to catch the "rhythm" of nature. Painting in the traditional style involved essentially the same techniques as calligraphy and was done with a brush dipped in black or colored ink; oils were not used. As with calligraphy, the most popular materials on which paintings were made were paper and silk. The finished works were then mounted on scrolls, which could be hung or rolled up. Traditional painting was also done in albums, on walls, lacquer work, and in other media. Dong Yuan was an active painter in the Southern Tang Kingdom. He was known for both figure and landscape paintings, and exemplified the elegant style which would become the standard for brush painting in China over the next 900 years. As with many artists in China, his profession was as an official where he studied the existing styles of Li Sixun and Wang Wei. However, he added to the number of techniques, including more sophisticated perspective, use of pointillism and crosshatching to build up vivid effect. Zhan Ziqian was a painter during the Sui dynasty. His only painting in existence is Strolling About In Spring arranged mountains perspectively. Because pure landscape paintings are hardly seen in Europe until the 17th century, Strolling About In Spring may well be the world's first landscape painting. The Song and Yuan dynasties (960–1368)[] Main article: Culture of the Song Dynasty Song painting[] During the Song dynasty (960–1279), landscapes of more subtle expression appeared; immeasurable distances were conveyed through the use of blurred outlines, mountain contours disappearing into the mist, and impressionistic treatment of natural phenomena. Emphasis was placed on the spiritual qualities of the painting and on the ability of the artist to reveal the inner harmony of man and nature, as perceived according to Taoist and Buddhist concepts. Liang Kai was a Chinese painter who lived in the 13th century (Song dynasty). He called himself "Madman Liang", and he spent his life drinking and painting. Eventually, he retired and became a Zen monk. Liang is credited with inventing the Zen school of Chinese art. Wen Tong was a painter who lived in the 11th century. He was famous for ink paintings of bamboo. He could hold two brushes in one hand and paint two different distanced bamboos simultaneously. He did not need to see the bamboo while he painted them because he had seen a lot of them. Zhang Zeduan was a notable painter for his horizontal Along the River During Qingming Festival landscape and cityscape painting. It is considered one of China's most renowned paintings and has had many well-known remakes throughout Chinese history.[28] Other famous paintings include The Night Revels of Han Xizai, originally painted by the Southern Tang artist Gu Hongzhong in the 10th century, while the well-known version of his painting is a 12th-century remake of the Song dynasty. This is a large horizontal handscroll of a domestic scene showing men of the gentry class being entertained by musicians and dancers while enjoying food, beverage, and wash basins provided by maidservants. In 2000, the modern artist Wang Qingsong created a parody of this painting with a long, horizontal photograph of people in modern clothing making similar facial expressions, poses, and hand gestures as the original painting. Yuan painting[] With the fall of the Song dynasty in 1279, and the subsequent dislocation caused by the establishment of the Yuan dynasty by the Mongol conquerors, many court and literary artists retreated from social life, and returned to nature, through landscape paintings, and by renewing the "blue and green" style of the Tang era.[29] Wang Meng was one such painter, and one of his most famous works is the Forest Grotto. Zhao Mengfu was a Chinese scholar, painter and calligrapher during the Yuan dynasty. His rejection of the refined, gentle brushwork of his era in favor of the cruder style of the 8th century is considered to have brought about a revolution that created the modern Chinese landscape painting. There was also the vivid and detailed works of art by Qian Xuan (1235–1305), who had served the Song court, and out of patriotism refused to serve the Mongols, instead turning to painting. He was also famous for reviving and reproducing a more Tang dynasty style of painting. The later Yuan dynasty is characterized by the work of the so-called "Four Great Masters". The most notable of these was Huang Gongwang (1269–1354) whose cool and restrained landscapes were admired by contemporaries, and by the Chinese literati painters of later centuries. Another of great influence was Ni Zan (1301–1374), who frequently arranged his compositions with a strong and distinct foreground and background, but left the middle-ground as an empty expanse. This scheme was frequently to be adopted by later Ming and Qing dynasty painters.[29] Pottery[] Chinese porcelain is made from a hard paste made of the clay kaolin and a feldspar called petuntse, which cements the vessel and seals any pores. China has become synonymous with high-quality porcelain. Most china pots comes from the city of Jingdezhen in China's Jiangxi province. Jingdezhen porcelain, under a variety of names, has been central to porcelain production in China since at least the Yuan dynasty. Late imperial China (1368–1911)[] Ming painting[] Main article: Ming dynasty painting Under the Ming dynasty, Chinese culture bloomed. Narrative painting, with a wider color range and a much busier composition than the Song paintings, was immensely popular during the time. Wen Zhengming (1470–1559) developed the style of the Wu school in Suzhou, which dominated Chinese painting during the 16th century.[30] European culture began to make an impact on Chinese art during this period. The Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci visited Nanjing with many Western artworks, which were influential in showing different techniques of perspective and shading.[31] Early Qing painting[] The early Qing dynasty developed in two main strands: the Orthodox school, and the Individualist painters, both of which followed the theories of Dong Qichang, but emphasizing very different aspects.[32] The "Four Wangs", including Wang Jian (1598–1677) and Wang Shimin (1592–1680), were particularly renowned in the Orthodox school, and sought inspiration in recreating the past styles, especially the technical skills in brushstrokes and calligraphy of ancient masters. The younger Wang Yuanqi (1642–1715) ritualized the approach of engaging with and drawing inspiration from a work of an ancient master. His own works were often annotated with his theories of how his painting relates to the master's model.[33] The Individualist painters included Bada Shanren (1626–1705) and Shitao (1641–1707). They drew more from the revolutionary ideas of transcending the tradition to achieve an original individualistic styles; in this way they were more faithfully following the way of Dong Qichang than the Orthodox school (who were his official direct followers.)[34] Painters outside of the literati-scholar and aristocratic traditions also gained renown, with some artists creating paintings to sell for money. These included Ma Quan (late 17th–18th century), who depicted common flowers, birds, and insects that were not typical subject matter among scholars. Such painters were, however, not separated from formal schools of painting, but were usually well-versed in artistic styles and techniques. Ma Quan, for example, modelled her brushwork on Song dynasty examples.[35] Simultaneously, the boneless technique (Chinese: 沒骨畫), thought to have originated as a preparatory step when painting gold-line images during the Tang, was continued by painters like Yun Shouping (1633–1690) and his descendant Yun Bing.[36] As the techniques of color printing were perfected, illustrated manuals on the art of painting began to be published. Jieziyuan Huazhuan (Manual of the Mustard Seed Garden), a five-volume work first published in 1679, has been in use as a technical textbook for artists and students ever since. Late Qing Art[] Nianhua were a form of colored woodblock prints in China, depicting images for decoration during the Chinese New Year. In the 19th century Nianhua were used as news mediums. Shanghai School[] The Shanghai School is a very important Chinese school of traditional arts during the Qing dynasty and the 20th century. Under efforts of masters from this school, traditional Chinese art reached another climax and continued to the present in forms of "Chinese painting" (中國畫), or guohua (國畫) for short. The Shanghai School challenged and broke the literati tradition of Chinese art, while also paying technical homage to the ancient masters and improving on existing traditional techniques. Members of this school were themselves educated literati who had come to question their very status and the purpose of art, and had anticipated the impending modernization of Chinese society. In an era of rapid social change, works from the Shanghai School were widely innovative and diverse, and often contained thoughtful yet subtle social commentary. The best known figures from this school are Ren Xiong, Ren Bonian, Zhao Zhiqian, Wu Changshuo, Sha Menghai, Pan Tianshou, Fu Baoshi, He Tianjian, and Xie Zhiliu. Other well-known painters include Wang Zhen, XuGu, Zhang Xiong, Hu Yuan, and Yang Borun. New China art (1912–1949)[] Modern Art Movement[37][38][] The movement to modernize Chinese art started toward the end of the Qing Dynasty. The traditional art form started to lose its appeal as the feudalistic structure of the society was dissolving. The modern view of the world had to be expressed in a different form. The explorations went on two main paths: one was to draw from the past to enrich the present ( 汲古潤今)* , the other was to “learn the new methods” (學習新法).* I Draw from the Past: The literati art for the social elite was not appealing to the bourgeois patrons. Wu Changshuo 吳昌碩 (1844-1927) was among the Shanghai-based artists responsible for flowers and plants as the subject matter. His paintings used bold colors and energetic brush strokes, making them more accessible to the general public. Qi Baishi 齊白石 (1864-1957) painted images like crabs and shrimps that were even more approachable to the common people. Huang Binhong 黄宾虹 (1865-1955) denounced the literati paintings of the Qing dynasty and created his own style of landscape paintings by extensive investigations in Chinese art history. Zhang Daqian 張大千 (1899-1983) used wall paintings in Dunhuang 敦煌 caves to help him move beyond the literati tradition. II Learn New Methods The Lingnan School 岭南画派 made some borrowings from the language of Western art in their ink paintings. Gao Jianfu 高剑父(1879-1951), one of the founders of Lingnan School, was an active participant in the revolutionary movement of Sun Yat-sen 孫中山 (1866-1925). He was innovative in that he intended to use his paintings to highlight national issues, a medium for positive change in society. A more radical style change started with Kang Youwei 康有為(1858-1927), a reformer who admired the more reality-based art of the Song dynasty. He believed that Chinese art could be rejuvenated by employing the reality-oriented art techniques of Europe. Xu Beihong徐悲鴻 (1895-1953) took this idea to heart and went to Paris to acquire the necessary skills. Liu Haisu刘海粟(1896-1994), on the other hand, went to Japan to learn western techniques. Both Xu, and Liu became presidents of prestigious art schools, instilling new concepts and skills in the next generation of artists. Cai Yuanpei 蔡元培 (1868-1940) was one of the leaders in the “New Culture Movement” 新文化运动. Those involved believed that intellectual activities should benefit all, not just the elites. Cai's belief that art could play a public, socially reformist role was adopted by Lin Fengmian林風眠(1900-1991). Together with Yan Wenliang 顏文樑(1893-1988), Xu, Liu, and Lin were considered the " Four Great Academy Presidents 四大校長," who spearheaded the national modern art movement. However the subsequent upheaval caused by the Sino-Japanese war and the civil war did not allow this movement to grow. The Chinese modern art movement after the war developed differently in the four the regions: the Mainland, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and overseas. Postwar Chinese Art[] The postwar era is roughly from 1949, the end of Chinese civil war, to 1976, the opening of mainland China to the outside world.. The Mainland[] The postwar era in mainland China could be divided into two periods: 1949 to 1966 is generally called “The 17 Years”; 1966 to 1976 is the period of the “Cultural Revolution.” The 17 Years[] Chinese artists adopted social realism as a form of expression; it was a combination of revolutionary realism and revolutionary romanticism. Artwork was not valued on its own terms but was subservient to a political purpose. According to Mao Zedong, art should be a “powerful weapon for uniting and educating the people, fighting and destroying the enemy.” Praising political leaders and celebrating the achievements of socialism became the theme of all artwork. Western art forms, including Cubism, Fauvism, Abstraction, and Expressionism were deemed superficial and were categorized as formalism. The biggest blow to art was the Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1957. Artists who were labeled as rightists were stripped of their right to create and even their jobs, and worse, the social standing of the artists and their families was placed at the lowest level, causing great mental suffering. Some influential paintings from this period are: Li Keran, “Reddinging of Ten Thousand Mountains” (李可染《万山红遍》) Huang Wei, “The Snowstorm” (黄胄《洪荒风雪》) Dong Xiwen, “The Founding of the People’s Republic of China” (董希文《开国大典》) had gone through several revisions, due to the changing political situation. Gao Gang was taken out when he went out of favor, Liu Shaoqi was replaced by Dong Biwu for a while, then the prototype was restored. The Cultural Revolution[] These ten years could also be called the “Ten Years of Calamity”(十年浩劫). In order to destroy everything that supported the old social order, countless temples, historic sites, artworks, and books, were ravaged and burnt. During this period the portrait of Mao and propaganda posters of revolution were everywhere. Anything that was remotely suspected of being out of line was destroyed, and the person behind it was prosecuted. For example, “Owl” by Huang Youyu had one eye open and one eye closed; it was deemed an expression of dissatisfaction with current events. Zong Qixiang's painting, which shows three tigers, was deemed critical of the leader Lin Biao, whose name contained a character that had three tigers in it. “Residual Lotus” by Li Kuchan had eight lotus flowers; it was deemed to be critical of the eight communist approved movies (样板戏). Many prominent artists were persecuted during this time. For example, Yan, Xu, Liu, and Lin, the " Four Great Academy Presidents 四大校長" (except for Xu who died before the Cultural Revolution), were all prosecuted and jailed, and all their work was destroyed during this time. However, despite the difficult environment, some noteworthy paintings were created. The following are some examples: Chen Yifei, “The Yellow River” (陈逸飞《黄河颂》) Sun Jingbo, “New Song by Ah Xi” (孙景波《阿细新歌》) Taiwan[] Because of its history, traditional Chinese art does not have strong roots in Taiwan. The art forms in Taiwan were generally decorative, until there were youths growing up under the Japanese occupation received formal art education in Japan. Not burdened with traditional art form, their exploration generally followed the path of “learning the new methods” (學習新法). When the Nationalists arrived in Taiwan, a group of ambitious youths, who came with the Nationalists, continued the modern art movement. The most notable were the Fifth Moon Group 五月畫會 and the Ton-Fan Art Group東方畫會. Fifth Moon Group五月畫會[] The original members of the group were alumni with the art majors from the Academic Teachers College師範大學 (the only university with an art major at the time). Their first intention was to show that the effort to create new art was worthwhile in itself, even if it did not directly enhance art pedagogy. (The faculty member that provided the most support was 廖繼春, a Taiwanese native who received training abroad in Japan.) Later, it became a movement to modernize Chinese art. The members of the Fifth Moon Group studied western art movements, and concluded that the abstract art form was the best medium for modern Chinese art. They felt the best the Chinese paintings were ones that de-emphasized realistic representation, and emphasized atmosphere and “vividness氣韻生動,” which comes from the brush strokes and the natural interaction between ink and paper. To further that idea, one does not need representation of objects in painting, or strictly use ink and paper. The beauty of a painting can be appreciated directly from the forms, textures, and colors on the canvas without their relation to real objects. The group was active from 1957 to 1972. The main members are Liu Guosong 劉國松, Chuang Che 莊喆, Hu Chi-Chung胡奇中, Fong Chung-ray 馮鍾睿, and Han Hsiang-ning 韓湘寧. The following are a sample of their paintings from that period: Liu Guosong,1964 Chuang Che, 1965 Ton-Fan Art Group東方畫會[] The members of this group were students who attended private art classes offered by 李仲生, a mainland-born artist who had been one of the active participants in the modern art movement. He and a number of mainland artists who painted in a western style continued the modern art movement by publishing magazines and writing articles to introduce modern art to Taiwan. 李仲生 teaching style was unconventional and socratic in nature. The original intention of the group was to introduce modern art to the public. They believed there should be no restriction on the form or style of a modern Chinese painting, as long as the painting expressed meaning that was Chinese in nature. The group was active from 1957 to 1971. The main members were: 霍剛Ho Kan, 李元佳Li Yuan-chia, 吳昊Wu Hao, 歐陽文苑Oyan Wen-Yuen, 夏陽Hsia Yan, 蕭勤Hsiao Chin, 陳道明Tommy Chen, 蕭明賢Hsiao Ming-Hsien. The following are a sample of their paintings from that period: Ho Kan, 1967 Hsia Yan, 1965 Hsiao Chin, 1955 Hong Kong[39][] Hong Kong was British a colony from 1842 to 1997. The local art organizations were mostly run by Westerners who outnumbered Chinese painters until a large migration of Chinese from Southern China during Sino-Japanese War. Innovative art colleges were established after the war. The shows organized by local artists started in the early 1960s. After a reaction against the traditional Western artistic practices of the 1940s and the 1950s, some experimental works that combined both western and eastern techniques were made. Then came the call for a return to Chinese traditional art and the creation of forms of art that Hong Kong could call its own. The trend was led by Lui Shou Kwan 呂壽琨. Some western concepts were incorporated into his Chinese ink paintings. Lui Shou Kwan, 1965 Overseas[40][] Paris[41][] Many Chinese artists went to study western art in Paris in the early 1900s, for example: Fang Ganmin 方幹民, Wu Dayu 吳大羽 , Ong Schan Tchow 翁占秋, Lin Fengmian 林風眠, Yan Wenliang 顏文樑, Wu Guanzhong 吳冠中, Zao Wou-Ki 趟無極. All except Zao completed their education before 1949 and returned to become leaders in the modern art movement. (Zao happened to be in Paris in 1949 and did not return.) Some Chinese artists went to stay there because of the rich international art environment, for example: Sanyu 常玉, Pang Yuliang 潘張玉良, 朱德群Chu Teh Chun. Zao, Sanyu, Pang, and Chu all had shows in Paris and the Republic. All their paintings had varying degrees of Chinese elements in them. These artists not only had a profound influence in Chinese modern art, but they also continued to engage Parisians with modern art from the East. Zao Wou-Ki, 1959 United States[] Li Tiefu 李鐵夫 (1869-1952) was an accomplished oil painter educated in Canada and the United States. He was an active participant in the revolutionary movement of Sun Yat-sen 孫中山 (1866-1925). Zeng Youhe 曾佑和 (1925-2017) was born in Beijing. She started receiving international recognition in 1946, when Michael Sullivan began praising and writing about her work. Zeng moved to Honolulu in 1949 and visited Hong Kong and Taiwan in 1960. Like those of the Fifth Moon Group 五月畫會, her paintings were abstract; but the flavor of traditional Chinese ink paintings were not as pronounced. Zeng Youhe, 1961 Redevelopment (Mid-1980s – 1990s)[] Contemporary art[] See also: The Stars Art Group Contemporary Chinese art (中國當代藝術, Zhongguo Dangdai Yishu) often referred to as Chinese avant-garde art, continued to develop since the 1980s as an outgrowth of modern art developments post-Cultural Revolution. Contemporary Chinese art fully incorporates painting, film, video, photography, and performance. Until recently, art exhibitions deemed controversial have been routinely shut down by police, and performance artists in particular faced the threat of arrest in the early 1990s. More recently there has been greater tolerance by the Chinese government, though many internationally acclaimed artists are still restricted from media exposure at home or have exhibitions ordered closed. Leading contemporary visual artists include Ai Weiwei, Cai Guoqiang, Cai Jin, Chan Shengyao, Concept 21, Ding Yi, Fang Lijun, Fu Wenjun, He Xiangyu, Huang Yan, Huang Yong Ping, Han Yajuan, Kong Bai Ji, Li Hongbo, Li Hui, Liu Bolin, Lu Shengzhong, Ma Liuming, Qiu Deshu, Qiu Shihua, Shen Fan, Shen Shaomin, Shi Jinsong, Song Dong, Li Wei, Wang Guangyi, Wenda Gu, Xu Bing, Yang Zhichao, Zhan Wang, Zheng Lianjie, Zhang Dali, Zhang Xiaogang, Zhang Huan, Zhu Yu, Wu Shaoxiang, Ma Kelu, Ding Fang, Shang Yang, Gao Minglu and Guo Jian. Visual art[] Beginning in the late 1980s there was unprecedented exposure for younger Chinese visual artists in the west to some degree through the agency of curators based outside the country such as Hou Hanru. Local curators within the country such as Gao Minglu and critics such as Li Xianting (栗憲庭) reinforced this promotion of particular brands of painting that had recently emerged, while also spreading the idea of art as a strong social force within Chinese culture. There was some controversy as critics identified these imprecise representations of contemporary Chinese art as having been constructed out of personal preferences, a kind of programmatized artist-curator relationship that only further alienated the majority of the avant-garde from Chinese officialdom and western art market patronage. Art market[] Today, the market for Chinese art, both antique and contemporary, is widely reported to be among the hottest and fastest-growing in the world, attracting buyers all over the world.[42][43][44] The Voice of America reported in 2006 that modern Chinese art is raking in record prices both internationally and in domestic markets, some experts even fearing the market might be overheating.[45] The Economist reported that Chinese art has become the latest darling in the world market according to the record sales from Sotheby's and Christie's, the biggest fine-art auction houses.[46] Contemporary Chinese art saw record sales throughout the 2000s. In 2007, it was estimated that 5 of the world's 10 best selling living artists at art auction were from China, with artists such as Zhang Xiaogang whose works were sold for a total of $56.8 million at auction in 2007.[47] In terms of buying-market, China overtook France in the late 2000s as the world's third-largest art market, after the United States and the United Kingdom, due to the growing middle-class in the country.[48][49] Sotheby's noted that contemporary Chinese art has rapidly changed the contemporary Asian art world into one of the most dynamic sectors on the international art market.[50] During the global economic crisis, the contemporary Asian art market and the contemporary Chinese art market experienced a slow down in late 2008.[51][52] The market for Contemporary Chinese and Asian art saw a major revival in late 2009 with record level sales at Christie's.[53] For centuries largely made-up of European and American buyers, the international buying market for Chinese art has also begun to be dominated by Chinese dealers and collectors in recent years.[54] It was reported in 2011, China has become the world's second biggest market for art and antiques, accounting for 23 percent of the world's total art market, behind the United States (which accounts for 34 percent of the world's art market).[55] Another transformation driving the growth of the Chinese art market is the rise of a clientele no longer mostly European or American. New fortunes from countries once thought of as poor often prefer non-Western art; a large gallerist in the field has offices in both New York and Beijing, but clients mainly hailing from Latin America, Asia and the Middle East.[56] One of the areas that has revived art concentration and also commercialized the industry is the 798 Art District in Dashanzi of Beijing. The artist Zhang Xiaogang sold a 1993 painting for US$2.3 million in 2006, which included blank faced Chinese families from the Cultural Revolution era,[57] while Yue Minjun's work Execution in 2007 was sold for a then record of nearly $6 million at Sotheby's.[58] Collectors including Stanley Ho,[59] the owner of the Macau Casinos, investment manager Christopher Tsai,[60] and casino developer Steve Wynn,[61] would capitalize on the art trends. Items such as Ming dynasty vases and assorted Imperial pieces were auctioned off. Other art works were sold in places such as Christie's including a Chinese porcelain piece with the mark of the Qianlong Emperor sold for HKD $ $151.3 million. Sotheby's and Christie's act as major market platforms for classical Chinese porcelain art pieces to be sold, including Ming dynasty, Xuande mark and period (1426–35) Blue and White jar (Five-Clawed Dragon Print), which was auctioned for Approx. USD 19,224,491.2, through Christie's in Spring 2016[62] The International Herald Tribune reported that Chinese porcelains were fought over in the art market as "if there was no tomorrow".[63] A 1964 painting by Li Keran "All the Mountains Blanketed in Red" was sold for HKD $35 million. Auctions were also held at Sotheby's where Xu Beihong's 1939 masterpiece "Put Down Your Whip" sold for HKD $72 million.[64] The industry is not limited to fine arts, as many other types of contemporary pieces were also sold. In 2000, a number of Chinese artists were included in Documenta and the Venice Biennale of 2003. China now has its own major contemporary art showcase with the Venice Biennale. Fuck Off was a notorious art exhibition which ran alongside the Shanghai Biennial Festival in 2000 and was curated by independent curator Feng Boyi and contemporary artist Ai Weiwei. Museums[] National Art Museum of China (Beijing) Palace Museum (Forbidden City, Beijing) China Art Museum (Shanghai) Power Station of Art (Shanghai) National Palace Museum (Taipei, Taiwan) See also[] 798 Art Zone Chinese fine art Chinese ceramics Chinese painting Chinese folk art Eastern art history History of China Four Olds List of Chinese cultural relics forbidden to be exhibited abroad List of Chinese women artists Fruit pit carving References[] Additional sources[] History of China ANCIENT Neolithic c. 8500 – c. 2070 BC Xia c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC Shang c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC Zhou c. 1046 – 256 BC Western Zhou Eastern Zhou Spring and Autumn Warring States IMPERIAL Qin 221–207 BC Han 202 BC – 220 AD Western Han Xin Eastern Han Three Kingdoms 220–280 Wei, Shu and Wu Jin 266–420 Western Jin Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms Northern and Southern dynasties 420–589 Sui 581–618 Tang 618–907 (Wu Zhou 690–705) Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 907–979 Liao 916–1125 Song 960–1279 Northern Song Western Xia Southern Song Jin Western Liao Yuan 1271–1368 Ming 1368–1644 Qing 1636–1912 MODERN Republic of China on mainland 1912–1949 People's Republic of China 1949–present Republic of China on Taiwan 1949–present Related articles Chinese historiography Timeline of Chinese history Dynasties in Chinese history Linguistic history Art history Economic history Education history Science and technology history Legal history Media history Military history Naval history Women in ancient and imperial China Page Template:Hlist/styles.css must have content model "Sanitized CSS" for TemplateStyles (current model is "wikitext").Page Module:Navbar/styles.css must have content model "Sanitized CSS" for TemplateStyles (current model is "CSS"). Edmund Capon and Mae Anna Pang, Chinese Paintings of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Catalogue, 1981, International Cultural Corporation of Australia Ltd. Rawson, Jessica (ed). The British Museum Book of Chinese Art, 2007 (2nd edn), British Museum Press, ISBN 9780714124469 Sickman, Laurence, in: Sickman L & Soper A, "The Art and Architecture of China", Pelican History of Art, 3rd ed 1971, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), LOC 70-125675 MSN Encarta (Archived 2009-10-31) The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia SHiNE Art Space Gallery Further reading[] Page Module:Side box/styles.css has no content. Barnhart, Richard M., et al. Three Thousand Years of Chinese Painting. Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art: 2002. ISBN 0-300-09447-7. Chi, Lillian, et al. A Dictionary of Chinese Ceramics. Sun Tree Publishing: 2003. ISBN 981-04-6023-6. Clunas, Craig. Art in China. Oxford University Press: 1997. ISBN 0-19-284207-2. Fong, Wen (1973). Sung and Yuan paintings. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0870990847. https://archive.org/details/sungyuanpainting0000metr. Gesterkamp, Lennert. The Heavenly Court: Daoist Temple Painting in China, 1200-144. Brill 2011. ISBN 978-90-04-18490-9. Gowers, David, et al. Chinese Jade from the Neolithic to the Qing. Art Media Resources: 2002. ISBN 1-58886-033-7. Harper, Prudence Oliver. China: Dawn Of A Golden Age (200–750 AD). Yale University Press: 2004. ISBN 0-300-10487-1. Koon, Yeewan (2014). A Defiant Brush: Su Renshan and the Politics of Painting in Early 19th-Century Guangdong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-988-8139-61-3. https://hkupress.hku.hk/pro/con/225.pdf. Leidy, Denise Patry; Strahan, Donna (2010). Wisdom embodied: Chinese Buddhist and Daoist sculpture in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9781588393999. http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/62659. Little, Stephen, et al. Taoism and the Arts of China. University of California Press: 2000. ISBN 0-520-22784-0. Mascarelli, Gloria, and Robert Mascarelli. The Ceramics of China: 5000 BC to 1900 AD. Schiffer Publishing: 2003. ISBN 0-7643-1843-8. Sturman, Peter Charles. Mi Fu: Style and the Art of Calligraphy in Northern Song China. Yale University Press: 2004. ISBN 0-300-10487-1. Sullivan, Michael. The Arts of China. Fourth edition. University of California Press: 2000. ISBN 0-520-21877-9. Tregear, Mary. Chinese Art. Thames & Hudson: 1997. ISBN 0-500-20299-0. Valenstein, S. (1998). A handbook of Chinese ceramics, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. ISBN 9780870995149 . Watt, James C.Y. (2004). China: dawn of a golden age, 200–750 AD. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1588391261. http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/56691/rec/1. Wang, Jianjiang, and Wynn, Keaton. Bie-Modern: Works and Commentary. China Social Science Press: 2018 Watson, William. The Arts of China to AD 900. Yale University Press: 1995. ISBN 0-300-05989-2. S. Diglio, Urban Development and Historic Heritage Protection in Shanghai, in Fabio Maniscalco ed., "Web Journal on Cultural Patrimony", 1, 2006 [] The Final Frontier – Chinese contemporary art at LUX Mag Chinese art, calligraphy, painting, ceramics, carving at China Online Museum Art History of Chinese calligraphy, painting, and seal making China the Beautiful – Chinese Art and Literature Introductions & art classics texts Gallery of China – Traditional Chinese Art Essay on Chinese art from Neolithic to communist times Fine Chinese Art And Chinese Painting The Chinese Ancient Paintings Template:Asian topic
2073	dbpedia	2	53	http://numismatics.org/digitallibrary/ark:/53695/nnan92048	en	ANS Digital Library: Early Chinese Coinage			[ "http://numismatics.org/digitallibrary/ui/images/logo.png", "http://i.creativecommons.org/l/by-nc/3.0/88x31.png", "http://numismatics.org/digitallibrary/media/nnan92048/reference/NNM122_001.jpg", "http://numismatics.org/digitallibrary/media/nnan92048/reference/NNM122_001a.jpg", "http://numismatics.org/digit...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	../../ui/images/favicon.png		null	1. AN HISTORICAL SKETCH OF ANCIENT CHINESE NUMISMATICS Though still young as a science, Chinese numismatics has had a long history. It may be said to have had its inception in the sixth century when a scholar named Liu compiled China's first coin catalogue, which was entitled Ch'ien chih (Records of Coins). According to Sun I-jang (1848—1908), the numismatist Liu was Liu Ch'ien (484—550) who is better known for his other scholarly works.1 Liu Ch'ien's catalogue seems to have been lost some time during the Sui dynasty (581—618). Our information about him and his numismatic work is derived from references to him and a few quotations from his writings by a contemporary, Ku Hsüan, compiler of the famous Ch'ien p'u (Coin catalogue).2 The text of Ku Hsüan's catalogue has also been lost. The work is recorded in the section on literature in the official history for the Sui dynasty , and passages from it are quoted in the Ch'üan chih (Records of Coins) by Hung Tsun (1120—1174).3 Judging from these quotations, Ku Hsüan's catalogue seems to have had no specimens of coins of the Chou period, and of the periods following the Chou dynasty he apparently recorded only the few coins which he had seen himself. The later the coin, the more detailed his description, which usually included the coin's design, its legend and its issuing date. His method of coin description became the pattern for later Chinese numismatists. Ku Hsüan was followed by a few numismatists during the T'ang dynasty (618—907). Among them the most famous is Füng Yen, a scholar who is better known for his "Things Seen and Things Heard," whose work on coins is entitled Hsü ch'ien p'u, presumably a coin catalogue supplementing the one by Ku Hsüan. Although this work is lost also, enough fragments have been preserved to give us an idea of the work done in numismatics by the T'ang scholars. The first recorded discovery of Chou coins seems to have taken place in Füng Yen's time. For each coin known to have come from a find, he recorded the circumstances of its discovery and the conditions under which he was able to examine it.4 Otherwise, his statements were confined to the shape and size of the coin and the structural composition of the characters in the legend. He did not, however, venture to interpret the meaning of the legend. Though limited in scope, the numismatists of T'ang were unpresumtuous and their reports seem to be reliable. The same cannot be said of the numismatists of the Sung dynasty (960—1279 A. D.) which followed T'ang. By their time both the Early Knife coins and the Old Spade coins of the Chou period had been unearthed. Judging from the information available, all these pieces bore legends. Puzzled by the strange archaic forms of the characters in the inscriptions and firmly believing in the legendary stories of prehistoric China which had been built up gradually since the Han time (206 B. C.—220 A. D.), the numismatists and historians of the Sung dynasty indulged in conjectural decipherment and interpretation of the Chou coin legends. They believed all these coins to be of prehistoric origin. Tung Yu (fl. 1101—1125), compiler of a coin catalogue, assigned some Chou coins as issues of the period of T'ai-hao, a legendary figure of the very early mythical history of China . Dissatisfied with Tung Yu's attribution as being too late, Lo Mi, an historian well versed in legendary history, placed a coin as early as Kuo-t'ien,5 another mythical figure who, if he ever actually lived, would have been contemporary with the Peking Man. Hung Tsun's Ch'üan chih, the earliest coin catalogue extant, was a product of this period. However ill founded the allegations of the Sung scholars were, their opinions prevailed for some six hundred years in the field of Chinese numismatics and lasted well into the eighteenth century. Liu Shih-lu, one of the foremost numismatists of the nineteenth century, still attributed spade coins of Liang, capital of the state of Wei, of the Chan-kuo period (403—221 B. C.), to the dynasties of Yü and Hsia, both of which precede the Shang dynasty in the second millennium B. C. Another of his conjectures, likewise groundless, considered these coins as issues for use in the payment of fines. His interpretations are contained in his essay, the Yü Hsia shu-chin shih-wün,6 which later became a classic, widely read and admired by both Chinese and Western numismatists into the early years of the twentieth century. The dependence of Chinese numismatic studies on mythology did not disappear until Ts'ai Yün (1764—1824), an historian and philologist interested in numismatics, declared that the ancient copper coins preserved today were not objects of remote antiquity but were rather currencies which "flourishingly circulated during the Ch'un-Ch'iu and the Chan-kuo periods (770—221 B. C.)."7 Like Chinese classics, philology and history, Chinese numismatics witnessed an unprecedented advancement in the Manchu period (1644—1911) and produced a methodology that can be considered scientific. In the decipherment of the coin inscriptions, especially those on the coins of the Chou period, there are the famous names of Ts'ai Yün, Ma Ang and Liu Hsin-yüan.8 Of these, Ts'ai Yün is also known for his contribution to the studies of coin chronology. These scholars demonstrated that the legends on the Chou coins are not the names of T'ai-hao and Kuo-t'ien but the names of cities or towns of the Chou period. Not one of these three scholars, however, was a professional numismatist; their chief interest and contributions were historical and epigraphic. In a narrow sense of the term, scientific numismatics was not established in China until the publication in 1864 of the famous catalogue, Ku ch'üan hui, by Li Tso-hsien.9 This catalogue contains illustrations of more than five thousand specimens accompanied by decipherment of their legends and, whenever possible, notes of their history. The author examined carefully and determined the authenticity of every specimen in his catalogue, and excluded those whose authenticity he could not verify. This careful attitude is not found in the works of any of his predecessors. It may be safely said that his is the first scientific work in Chinese numismatics. Up to the present time his catalogue is still regarded as the best and most reliable by numismatists. It constitutes the backbone of the comprehensive Ku ch'ien ta tz'ǔ-tien (Encyclopaedia of Old Coins) published in 1938.10 In spite of the progress made by scholars and numismatists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, study of coins in China failed to arouse wide attention. It was pursued largely by a limited group of wealthy gentry and retired officials. These elderly gentlemen, withdrawn from the tumultuous experiences of earlier years, foundserenity of life in the companionship of antiquities. In satisfying their personal desires for large collections and in persistent search for rare specimens, they did a great service to the study of an important phase of ancient Chinese civilization in gathering the basic materials for its serious study. The only regrettable fact is that, in many cases, these men, not being trained historians and philologists, were unable to undertake satisfactorily the study of the coins. As a result, they needed the assistance of the epigraphers in deciphering coin legends. These epigraphers, in their study of the inscriptions on Shang and Chou bronzes, were led to the study of those on coins in the hope that it might help their primary work. This situation produced a somewhat bilateral development in ancient Chinese numismatics. On the one hand, the collector-numismatists studied the coin specimens but were unable to contribute substantially in deciphering the legends; on the other hand, the epigraphical scholars studied their inscriptions but neglected all other aspects of the coins. Neither group possessed the knowledge of the other, but both contributed toward the advancement of ancient Chinese numismatics. If the knowledge and the interest of both had been combined, numismatic studies in China might have advanced further. Chinese numismatists of the nineteenth century paid little attention in their studies to the evidence of the coins themselves.11 Li Tso-hsien, the foremost Chinese numismatist of that century, did formulate a proposed systematic program for numismatic studies some ten years after his famous catalogue was published in 1864. This embraced investigation of the following: epigraphy on coins, metrology, the shapes and designs of coins, provenance, stories and anecdotes about coins and collectors, and rare specimens and specimens recorded but not seen.12 Li's proposed methodology marked a great step forward. Especially commendable is his emphasis on inquiry into the provenance of coins and their metrology. Yet, effort along these lines alone is not sufficient to enable us to exploit fully the evidence that coins can provide concerning the history of economic institutions. Study of the physical characteristics of the coins and of their inscriptions constitute the foundation of Chinese numismatics, but they alone are not enough. In order to fully understand the historical significance of the coins we must examine them against the general political, social and economic background of the period in which they circulated. Therefore, a competent numismatist must not only be an able coin examiner but an epigrapher and historian as well.13 So far, no Chinese numismatist has attained this happy combination. In recent years, serious attempts have been made to raise the level of numismatic studies in China . In 1938, Ting Fu-pao published the coin encyclopaedia, Ku ch'ien ta tz'ǔ-tien. In this work he entered many published specimens of Chinese coins and specimens in the possession of private collectors in China . A large proportion of the illustrations are reproductions from coin rubbings. Under each specimen he has given all previously published statements and discussions concerning it, and these have been reproduced by photographic process so that they may contain no errors. It is the most comprehensive coin catalogue in Chinese. In 1940 the Chinese Numismatic Society was established in Shanghai by a group of coin collectors and numismatists. It published a bi-monthly Ch'üan-pi, known in English as Chinese Numismatics, to promote numismatic studies. In his introductory words explaining the plans and aims of the Society in publishing the bi-monthly, Chang Chiung-po outlines a program of numismatic studies which the members of the organization are asked to follow. He first expresses his dissatisfaction with the attitude of Chinese scholars and historians who have hitherto regarded coins as "small things" unworthy of their attention. He urges rectification of this mistaken attitude and the recognition of coins as valid historical material. He suggests that "systematic researches" must be made of them in which the examination of actual specimens be made, historical records be consulted, and that coins be treated as relics of an economic and historical institution which can be studied in the light of monetary theories. Commenting on the situation in which persons writing about the history of coinage do not actually handle the coins and those who actually handle them lack the necessary scientific training to write about coinages, he states that there must be a combination of both.14 On the whole, Chang's program is well conceived, as it pointedly sets out to rectify the weaknesses in past Chinese numismatic studies. The bi-monthly appeared periodically until the end of 1945. It carried some interesting discussions and a number of articles which were written on a much higher level than ever before. But on the whole the effort of the members of the Chinese Numismatic Society fell short of the goal set by Chang Chiung-po. However imperfect the writings of the members of the Chinese Numismatic Society may have been, their efforts in themselves are significant contributions toward advancement of numismatic studies in China . It is regrettable that the bi-monthly of the Society had to exist during the Japanese aggression in China and thus had its influence greatly limited. In Japan , Chinese numismatics has been a favorite field with some Japanese sinologists. In that country, too, the study of old coins was generally regarded as a hobby of collectors with means and leisure, and was not accorded the attention it deserved until recently. In the last few decades Japanese archaeologists have conducted some extensive excavations in Korea , Manchuria and Jehol, and in many of the old Chinese remains they found coins of the Chou, the Han and Wang Mang Periods, with which they dated the remains. The discovery of ancient Chinese coins by these archaeological missions seems to have stimulated numismatic interest among Japanese scholars. Probably for this reason, ancient Chinese coins, not only those unearthed from the old remains but also those in the hands of collectors, suddenly acquired the dignity of archaeological objects. It was among Japanese scholars that the question of the initial date of Chinese metallic coinage was first discussed in a scholarly manner.15 These discussions did not prove very fruitful because historical scholarship was not well combined with actual knowledge of the coins, and because the historical sources were not fully understood and exhausted. However, a proper approach was made toward one of the many problems of Chinese coinage. In 1938, the same year in which the Encyclopedia of Old Coins was published in China , the Tōa senshi (Catalogue of Eastern Asiatic Coins) by Okutaira Masahiro appeared in Japan .16 The catalogue consists of eighteen volumes of which twelve are devoted to Chinese coins. The specimens listed in it are illustrated with reproductions of well-made rubbings. Besides its typographical excellence, the work can be commended for the number of specimens of rare coins of the Chou period it includes which are not to be found in other coin catalogues. In the decipherment of a number of the controversial coin legends, Okutaira follows the suggestions of Liu Hsin-yüan and Kuo Mo-jo, noted Chinese experts in epigraphical studies of the Shang and Chou bronzes, whose decipherments have been neglected so far by Chinese numismatists. Closely following Kuo Mo-jo, Okutaira attempts to reconstruct the early history of Chinese coinage by making use of the inscriptions on the bronzes of the Shang and Chou period. We know of no Chinese numismatists who have ever systematically utilized this valuable source of information. Another merit of the catalogue is its illustration of a few specimens of silver ingots and paper money, through which Okutaira has shown superiority over his Chinese colleagues in the realization that study of copper coins alone is not sufficient for a complete understanding of the Chinese monetary system. The work, however, contains no illustrations of coin moulds, also important material in the study of Chinese historical coinages, and a few of those which are listed are likely fabrications. In the Western languages, books and articles on Chinese coinage and monetary history have been published in French, English and German. The names of Biot, Vissering and Lacouperie are the most prominent. While in China the effort to reconstruct a general monetary history of China was motivated by the study of the ancient coins and their inscriptions, in the West that effort seems to have been a result of literary researches. The material on which the works of both Biot and Vissering17 are based is of such a nature. There were no studies of ancient Chinese coins on an appreciable scale until Lacouperie, who in 1892 published his Catalogue of Chinese Coins. This work is the most comprehensive treatment of the earlier Chinese coins yet produced by a Western numismatist. In preparing his work Lacouperie benefited from the intellectual heritage of the Western world. At his time, the numismatic studies of Greece and Rome had developed to maturity, and Lacouperie was able to draw upon the experience of the classical numismatists in tackling some of the problems in Chinese numismatics. This is probably the reason why he shows superiority over his Chinese contemporaries in his historical approach to Chinese coins. However, being a Westerner, Lacouperie naturally suffered from handicaps in preparing his work. He had insufficient training in the Chinese language to avoid misunderstandings of the texts of Chinese historical records.18 His knowledge of Chinese ancient history appears rather limited, and his inexperience in determining authenticity of the coins caused him to enter many spurious specimens in this catalogue.19 He does seem to have had training in Chinese philology — the "ancient script" and its evolution — which is absolutely indispensable in deciphering the coin legends or in judging the plausibility of the decipherments which have been advanced. While in most cases he follows the decipherment of Chinese scholars, he has been confident enough to make up some of his own, on which he formed his theory of the so-called "monetary unions." As L. C. Hopkins has pointed out,20 Lacouperie sometimes offers his conjectures as if they were facts, and he makes statements which actually have no foundation.21 We should not, however, underrate Lacouperie's contributions because of these shortcomings. If we read his book against the background of his time, we realize it was an admirable accomplishment. When we examine the discussions and publications which appeared after him and in which his influence can be directly or indirectly detected, we must recognize that he contributed much toward the advancement of Chinese numismatics in the Western world. Next to Lacouperie among Western numismatists we find the name of Henry A. Ramsden. A scholar and a collector who collected to study, he promoted interest in the study of Oriental coins in general and Chinese coins in particular. "During his life," states H. F. Bowker, "he was the prime-mover in the study of the coins of his speciality, and was most probably the direct cause of the popularity which the coins of the Orient enjoyed in the United States during the last years of his life."22 In 1913 and the year following he edited the Numismatic and Philatelic Journal of Japan , the bilingual organ of the Yokohama Numismatic Society of which he was then the chairman. The journal devoted part of its pages to the study of Chinese numismatics. In that field Ramsden's interest covered a wide range from "barter money" to modern coinage, from metallic currency to paper money. A complete list of his works is found in "Ramsdeniana," in which the author praises him as "the foremost writer and most competent occidental authority in ... Far Eastern numismatics" at the time of his death in 1915.23 Since 1915 sinological studies in both Europe and North America have advanced considerably, and consequently the interest in Chinese coins has grown wider not only among collectors and museums but also among students of Chinese history. Yet, ancient Chinese numismatic studies have not progressed as might be desired. In 1934, a group of Westerners residing in China formed the Numismatic Society of China in Shanghai , and subsequently published six bulletins, all of which deal with the modern coinage of China . In 1940, after the Chinese Numismatic Society was established, it associated itself with the latter in an attempt to combine the efforts of both organizations in the promotion of Chinese numismatic studies in China and abroad. If, in the last thirty years, Western numismatists have not produced commendable work in the field of ancient Chinese coinage, a preparatory step has been well taken in the publication A Bibliography on Far Eastern Numismatics by A. B. Coole and A Numismatic Bibliography of the Far East by H. F. Bowker. The former bibliography is devoted to the listing of numismatic works in Chinese and Japanese, while the latter, supplementing the former, covers the literature in Western languages. Both were carefully prepared and are convenient reference works. In the above sketch we may have appeared hypercritical in some of our remarks. It is not intended to discredit our predecessors. The scholarship of one man is bound to be limited, as are his physical energy and the scholarly achievement of his age. If, at the present, numismatists are able to see more problems and penetrate more deeply into them, this is largely owing to the advancement of historical studies in general and Chinese numismatics in particular. Without the effort of the numismatists of the past in collecting the material and preparing the preliminary studies, any new and constructive contributions would be inconceivable. End Notes 1 Sun I-jang , Chou-ch'ing shu-lin, 1916, VI, 19b—20b. 2 No. 64 in A Bibliography on Far Eastern Numismatics by A. B. Coole, hereafter cited as Coole. 3 Coole 112. 4 Some of these statements are quoted by Hung Tsun in his ch'üan chih (Coole 112), 1874 ed., IX, 6b, 7a, 12b. 5 "Lun pi so ch'i" (On the origin of money), Lu shih fa-hui Ssǔ-pu pei-yao ed., I 12b—14a. 6 Coole 385. 7 P'i-t'an (Coole 342), photostat ed., II, 1b. 8 Ma Ang, Huo pu wün-tzǔ k'ao (Coole 222) and Liu Hsin-yüan, Ch'i-ku-shih chi-chin wün shu (Coole 12). 9 Coole 266. 10 Coole 240. 11 This criticism is voiced by Sun I-jang, op. cit., (see above, n. I), V, 21b. 12 "Hsü ch'üan shuo" (Supplementary Remarks to the Discussions on Coins). The Discussions on Coins or Ch'üan shuo was written by Pao K'ang, (Coole 296), 1874 ed., 17b. The article is an appendix in the Kuan-ku-kü ts'ung-kao by Pao K'ang (Coole 298). 13 Lo Chün-yü has also observed that a numismatist must have training in philology and history, and the ability to determine the authenticity of the coins. Yung-lu jih-cha (Coole 392), photostat ed., 25b. 14 See the explanatory note on the publication of the Ch'üan-pi Bi-monthly, or Chinese Numismatics as it is called in English, No. 1, 1940, pp. 2—3. 15 For discussion of the dating of ancient Chinese coinage, see pp. 100—114. 16 Coole J—162. 17 üdouard Biot, "Mümoire sur le Systüme monütaire des Chinois" Journal Asiatique, 3e sürie (1837), III, 422—465; IV, 97—141, 209—252, 441—467 and Willem Vissering, On Chinese Currency, Leiden, 1877. 18 For instance, on page xiv Lacouperie states, "Su, Prince of Tchao, grants to Tchang-y, a secret political agent of Ts'in, the privilege of issuing pu coins of the saddle-pattern." I have not been able to verify the one reference given for this statement, and presume that it relates to the story that Su Ch'in, minister of the king of the state of Chao (Tchao), persuaded the king to "give money, gifts, carriage and horse" and send a man to secretly follow Chang I (Tchang-y) to Ch'in (Ts'in) (Shih-chi LXX, 2a). Here no grant of the privilege of issuing pu coin is involved, and Chang I was not at this time a secret political agent of Ch'in. 19 E. g., p. 16, no. 40; p. 120, no. 41; p. 121, no. 52; p. 223, no. 53; p. 224, no. 54; p.225,, no. 55; p. 226, no. 103; p. 299, no. 102; p. 298, and many others. 20 L. C. Hopkins, "On the Origin and Earlier History of the Chinese Coinage," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1895, 318. 21 E. g. his allegations that Chi-mo (Tsih Moh) was a mint of Lang-yeh (Lang-ya) which was a Western settlement on the Shantung coast (p. lxiii). 22 "Ramsdeniana," The Coin Collector's Journal, VIII (1941), 76. 23 Ibid. 2. DIFFICULTIES IN THE STUDY OF ANCIENT CHINESE COINS A. Decipherment of Legends Observations on the size, weight, fabric, and mint locations of coins can shed invaluable light on the early monetary history of China . The valid interpretation of any of these elements depends on the correct decipherment of the coin's legend. As we have already noted, decipherments of coin legends have in the past been made by epigraphical scholars whose main interest was ancient script and not coins. As a rule, collector-numismatists have followed the readings of these scholars, but, in cases where none had yet been made, they attempted their own. They were not trained in epigraphy, and some had not even enough knowledge of philology to determine which of several possible decipherments was the most plausible. Often a collector's guess would be colored by an eagerness to enhance the value of his coin. The mint name (lin, written ) in modem script) on a group of late spades has been variously read as (lu), (yü), (huang), (huang-fu), (chia), (huo), and (kuan). The last reading, kuan, which was suggested by Ma Ang and publicised by Li Tso-hsien, prevailed in the numismatic world for many years. It was followed by Lacouperie and all other Western numismatists. Since neither Ma Ang nor Li Tso-hsien found Kuan as a place name in historical literature, they assumed the character to be an abbreviation for "kuan-chung," a term denoting a region which is now central Shensi. Lacouperie mistakenly called it the "capital city of Ts'in." The correct decipherment of the character, strangely enough, is said to have been made many years before the above suggestions were advanced, by Sun Hsing-yen (styled Yüan-ju, 1753—1818), a scholar in Chinese classics and philology and not a numismatist.24 Sun deciphered the character as the name of a town in the state of Chao during the Chan-kuo period. All numismatists acquainted with recent numismatic studies follow his decipherment. Superior as opinions of epigraphical scholars are in decipherment of coin inscriptions, they are not always correct. Take the character for instance, which appears on many Late Spades. Some numismatists read it pa-huo or "eight huo," 25 the latter character being used here in the sense of a denominational unit. This reading is incorrect. Actually, it is a single character, not a monogram of two; and no part of the character can be construed as huo. Epigraphical scholars read it as fün , meaning "belongs to the reign of."26 This decipherment is also wrong, for it is not suggested on the basis of the character's structural identity with fün, but on its resemblance to it. The correct reading is pan (half), a denominational term (with the name of the unit understood) of the coinage of the Chou period. When these coins were in circulation there were only two denominations, a full unit and a half, the unit being chin . The weight of the coin bearing the legend pan (half) is just half that of the full unit piece.27 Had the epigraphers gathered and weighed specimens of both sizes they would not have escaped this conclusion. The same holds true for the deonominational term ling which is found on the larger spades of the state of Ch'in (Late Spade IV) and which has been improperly deciphered.28 By weighing spade coins of Liang of various sizes, Kuo Mo-jo, an able contemporary epigrapher, ascertained the correct reading of the eight-character legend which they bore.29 It was only after an investigation of the provenance of a group of late square foot spades that Okutaira accepted Kuo Mo-jo's suggestion that their legend reads "Hsiang-p'ing," a mint located in present day southern Manchuria.30 These examples show how important it is to combine epigraphical and philological with numismatic evidence. The use of one of these types of evidence to the exclusion of the others constitutes one of the chief obstacles encountered in numismatic works of the past as well as the present. It is this situation which is responsible for many unacceptable decipherments, which will have to be reconsidered or discarded in the present study. End Notes 24 Quoted by Hsü Yüan-k'ai (Ku ch'ien ta-tz'ǔ-tien, XIII, 499a). 25 Such as Li Tso-hsien, op. cit. (see above, n. 9), yüan III, 1b. 26 Such as Liu Hsin-yüan, op. cit. (see above, n. 8), XIX, 7b ff. and 23b. B. Use of Epigraphical Evidence in Dating Coins Some numismatists may cherish the idea that a comparison of the epigraphy of the coins with that of the bronze vessels of the Shang and Chou periods should furnish criteria for dating the coins. This task, however, is not as easy as it appears at first glance. There are two aspects of ancient Chinese epigraphy: (a) the structural form of the character and (b) the style or manner of executing the character. So far as the structural form of the characters is concerned two changes have taken place which have bearing on the epigraphical chronology of Chinese script. In the course of time, many characters have undergone simplification while many others have become more complicated through acquisition of signifies (i. e., radicals signifying "water," "walled city," etc.). In other words, with some characters, the more complicated their form the older they are; with others, the simpler their form, the older they are. On coins of the Chou period we sometimes find simpler forms of characters of the second group in inscriptions of pieces of a considerably late date, when the complicated form of the character had become the norm. Because of this circumstance, dependence on coin epigraphy alone will fail to determine correctly the date of a coin. The style of Shang bronze inscriptions is characterized by a peculiar execution of the strokes. Each end of the stroke is usually very thin while the central part is broad and thick. This style of script has been called the K'o-tou, or tadpole, script. However, the tadpole script is found also to be the dominant style in inscriptions of the early years of the Chou period. Without considering its content along with other factors, even an expert epigrapher cannot determine to which period an inscription in the script belongs. The period of the Chou dynasty is, for convenience sake, usually divided into three smaller periods: The Western (Early) Chou period covering almost three hundred years from 1122 B. C. (traditional date) or 1027 B. C. to 771 B. C.; the Ch'un-ch'iu period from 770 to 481 B. C.; the Chan-kuo period ending in 221 B. C. During the first period bronzes were almost entirely made by or for kings and ministers of the royal court; during the second and third periods they were made practically only by rulers and nobles of the various feudal states. The style of the inscriptions of these three periods were roughly the so-called Ta-chuan (great "seal" character), the Chou-wün (slightly simplified Ta-chuan), and the Hsiao-chuan (small "seal" character). Whether the Ta-chuan can be regarded as also the style used in the various feudal states during the first period and whether the other styles found in the various feudal states can be regarded as also the style in the royal domain of Chou during the second and the third periods cannot be said with absolute certainty, especially when we realize that, though so simply stated above, the styles of script during the second and the third periods of Chou present strong local divergence. All these factors complicate any attempt to use comparative study of coin inscriptions and bronze vessel inscriptions in determining dates of coins. Even if we disregard these complications, dating of coins by comparative study of inscriptions on bronzes is made impossible by another circumstance. Coins and bronzes have different epigraphical styles which result from the difference in their purpose and in the techniques of inscribing them. On bronzes, inscriptions were cast on the vessels, which were made in honor of the maker's forefathers or other relatives, to commemorate a victory in war or a royal or princely grant, to glorify his enfeudation as a prince or his appointment to an office, to record an important event or a settlement of a dispute. The personages involved are always kings, princes and upper class nobles. Some of the vessels bearing the inscriptions commemorating enfeudations were kept in the ancestral temples by princes and venerated as symbols of the existence of their states. They thus had a monumental character and their inscriptions were accordingly rendered in a conventional and elegant manner. The coins were not personal treasures of kings, princes or nobles; they were made to be used as media of exchange in a society, the overwhelming majority of which was illiterate. Inscriptions on the coins are merely marks indicating the mint's name, sometimes the serial number of minting, and occasionally also the denomination. To coins of full intrinsic quality, whose value depends largely on their alloy and weight, these marks are not essential; accuracy and elegance in style of character are matters of secondary importance. That is probably the reason why the inscriptions on the coins are generally crudely rendered, while those on bronze vessels are usually models of calligraphy. A comparative stylistic study between crude script and highly developed calligraphy is hardly possible. Furthermore, whereas the inscriptions on the bronzes were, as generally acknowledged, written by persons with training in calligraphy, those on the coins were left to artisans at the mint, who did not always follow the conventional style and contracted the structure of the characters to the extreme. Technically, inscriptions on bronze vessels were cast from a mould which was made from a model, on which both the designs and the inscription were carved out to the desired fineness. The inscription on the coin was, on the other hand, cast from a mould which was not made after a model and on which the inscription was carved directly and in reverse. As a result, the strokes of the characters on coins were generally in contracted straight lines, for these were much easier to make than curved lines. The straightening of lines and consequently the contraction of the structure of the characters further reduces the possibility of a satisfactory comparative stylistic study of the coin inscriptions with those on bronze vessels. Can we detect an evolution of style within coin inscriptions themselves with which we may find out the order of appearance of the coins? This question also brings complications. The fact is that the coins were cast by local mints many of which undoubtedly belonged to princes and minor nobles and even wealthy private individuals. Under these circumstances local character and individual inclinations could not but exert their influence. T'ang Lan, a contemporary epigrapher who has specialized in the study of inscriptions on oracle bones and bronzes of the Shang and Chou dynasties, holds the opinion that during the Chou period the style of script in common use was much more simple and irregular than the official script and that it had influenced the official writings towards the end of the period.31 Local variances render the study of the evolution of the style of coin inscriptions difficult if not altogether impossible. The curious thing is that we find some of the most archaic forms of characters on comparatively late coins cast in the border regions of Chou China , where, sociologically speaking, as in modern colonies, conservatism was usually stronger than the central area. However, this does not mean that epigraphical studies have no bearing at all on the determination of coin chronology. On the whole, we may say they do, but only in a general way. They can be applied only in the cases in which stylistic distinctions can be positively established and this is possible only with either the very old or the very late coins. The older the coins are, the closer is the style of their inscriptions to the Ta-chuan (great seal character), and the later the coins, the closer to the Hsiao-chuan (small seal character). The former is identified with the epigraphical style of the inscriptions of the vessels of the Western Chou period, and the latter is the style officially adopted and made universal in 221 B. C. In structure, the Hsiao-chuan is much simpler. End Notes 27 Okutaira Masahiro has also found this correct decipherment, op. cit. (see above, n. 16), III, 15b. 28 Li Tso-hsien reads it as tsai meaning "the official of the town of," in other words, the official of the mint whose name appears on the obverse of the coin. Op. cit. (see above, n. 9), yüan IX, 4b. For a correct explanation of the denominational term see p. ooo. 29 Kuo Mo-jo Liang Chou chin-wün tz'ǔ ta-hsi k'ao-shih, Tokyo , 1935, 13b. 30 Ibid, IV, 15b. 31 T'ang Lan Ku wün-tzǔ-hsüeh tao-lun, Peiping, 1935, I, 51a. C. Lack of Historical Records and Archaeological Reports Another difficulty in studying ancient Chinese coins is the lack of literary records. Excepting the simple terms of pei (cowrie), tao (knife coin) and pu (spade coin), other data regarding the ancient Chinese monetary system is not found in historical literature. The widely believed traditional story about the casting of the "big coins" by King Ching of Chou in 524 B. C. is embodied with unreliable elements (i. e., the remarks made by Shan-mu-kung). The anecdote that King Chuang of Ch'u (613—519 B. C.) aroused resentment among his people by replacing "light" coins with "big" coins, which also has been regarded as factual, must be accepted with reserve. The story recorded in the Kuan-tzǔ and the "present edition" of the Bamboo Annals that Ch'üng-T'ang, founder of the Shang dynasty, cast metallic money is pure folklore. Even if these stories were reliable, they still contain no essential information on ancient Chinese coinage. The only reliable material in our possession with regard to monetary systems in Chinese antiquity are the coins themselves, but some problems presented by them are hard to resolve because of the lack of historical records. The major problem that suffers from lack of historical records concerns the date of the origin of coinage in China . The difficulty in dating the earliest coins would be also considerably less if the conditions were known under which the coins had been discovered. What knowledge we have about discoveries of coins is scanty. In the scientific excavations of the Academia Sinica at early Chou and pre-Chou sites in North China only cowries were found.32 The excavations at Ch'üng-tzǔ-yai in eastern Shantung produced only a broken handle from an early knife coin.33 Ming knives were unearthed among old remains in I county of Hopeh Province by an expedition led by Ma Hüng in 1920.34 These knives, however, were very late in date. Mr. Kuo Pao-chün of the Academia Sinica has reported to the author that a number of pointed-foot hollow-handle spades were discovered in Chou tombs of Chün County, Honan . During the last fifty years Japanese archaeologists have excavated both spade and knife coins of the late Chou period in Jehol, Manchuria and Korea .35 Except for those reported by Kuo Pao-chün and the handle of the knife coin, there are no reports by excavators of the discovery of early coins. Coins of the earlier periods have been found casually, for the most part by farmers while tilling their fields. From the farmers they passed to collectors, either directly or through coin dealers. Thus, by the time they reach the hands of collectors they are isolated objects, completely dissociated with the site of discovery and the other objects with which they had originally been deposited. This condition would not obtain, had their discovery been made under the trained observation of archaeologists. The situation becomes the more regrettable when we realize that tens of thousands of Chou coins have been casually retrieved and, so to speak, lost again. Among the late spade coins there is a group, which, as forerunners of the pan-liang (half liang) round coins of imperial Ch'in, are important for the reconstruction of early Chinese coinage. The group is of the round-footed type with three holes (Late Spade IV). Their monetary unit is the liang, as is specified on the reverse legend, and so far one liang and half liang (i. e., 12 chu) pieces have been found. Fifteen specimens from nine different unidentified mints are known.36 If the places of their discovery and the conditions of their finding were known, it might be possible to locate their mints with some certainty. End Notes 32 See An-yang fa-chueh pao-kao T'ien-yeh k'ao-ku pao-kao and Chung-kuo k'ao-ku hsüeh-pao 33 Ch'üng-tzǔ-yai Nanking, 1934, 89 and Plate LII, no. 9. 34 Fu Chün-lun, "Yen hsia-tu fa-chüeh pao-kao," Kuo-hsüeh chi-k'an III (1932), 180. 35 See the volumes of the Archaeologia Orientalis a series published by the Tōa Kōkogaku Kwai from 1929 on. The results of these discoveries and those made in Korea have been summarized by Fujita Ryōsoku (1892 —) in his "Chōsen hakken no meitō-sen to sono iseki," Keijo Teikoku Daigaku Bungaku Kwai ronsan No. 7, Shigaku ronsan, 1 —88, 1939. D. Identification of Mint Names The fourth major difficulty in the study of the Chou coins lies in the identification of the mint names. This difficulty arises not from the lack of historical information, but from, so to speak, the mass of it. With the exception of a few early spades, the coins of the Chou period, be they knives or spades, usually bear a legend or legends on both their obverse and reverse. Part of, or the entire, legend on the obverse is the name of the mint which cast the coin. By locating these mints a reconstruction of the distribution of the coin types can be achieved and the problem of the right of coinage of the minor feudatories can be investigated. But during the Chou period, towns in different states, and sometimes in the same state, may have the same name.37 For instance, we find "An-yang " as a mint name in the legend on one group of the early knife coins. In literary sources we find three towns of this name. There are four towns with the name "Chung-tu," which is found on a group of square-foot late spade pieces (Late Spade II). For "P'ing-yang," which appears as the mint-name of some square-foot late spades, there are five towns. Seven are found for "Hsin-ch'üng" (meaning "new city"), a mint name on a group of point-footed late spades (Late Spade I). Such examples would make a long and tedious list. To identify the mints with towns recorded in historical literature is not easy, and there is no literary information available which will help. In solving the question we must depend mostly on our knowledge of the coins themselves. With some degree of certainty we may presume that coins within a general given area will have similar shapes and designs, that they will have the same denominational system. Therefore, by studying these aspects of the coinage of towns neighboring the possible mint we may be able to identify and locate it. Thus, we reach the conclusion that the mint An-yang of early knife coins must be the one located in present southeastern Shantung for the reason that during the Chou period towns outside of that province did not use the early type of knife coin. The An-yang of the round-footed spades with three holes (Late Spade IV) is most likely the one located in present northern Honan which was captured by Ch'in in 257 B. C., for this type of spade coins is probably of Ch'in origin. We can approach the tentative solution of the locations of Chung-tu and P'ing-yang by the same method. Not all of the mint names which appear on the coins can be found in the literary sources. As a matter of fact, many cannot be. In such cases, to reduce our difficulties in locating the mints to a possible minimum, we may resort to the locations of the mountains, rivers, and other landmarks after which early settlements in China were often named. For example, "Chi-yin," a mint name on some of the round coins of Chou, is not found in the literature of this period. The meaning of the place name is "on the yin side of the Chi." This means that the town in question was located on the yin side of either a mountain or a river by the name of Chi. In Chinese antiquity there was no mountain of this name, but one of the four most important rivers was so designated. It traversed the western part of present Shantung. The yin side of a river is its southern side, and therefore, the town in question must have been located on the southern side of the Chi River. Since this town was named Chi-yin, there may have been also a town named Chi-yang (meaning "on the northern side of the Chi River"). Luckily, a town by this name did exist during the Chou time and is recorded in the contemporary literature.38 It was located northeast of modern Lan-füng in eastern Honan (approx. 115E and 35N). Judging from their names, the towns of Chi-yin and Chi-yang may have been opposite to each other, or at least they must have been located in the same neighborhood. This assumption is confirmed by the location of a city also named Chi-yin in the third century B. C. It was the capital of a Han province of the same name. The city was located about a mile northeast of modern Ting-t'ao in southeastern Shantung, and about thirty miles northeast of old Chi-yang. In all probability, the Chi-yin of Han may have been the Chi-yin of Chou. Thus, by resorting to landmarks we can locate Chi-yin and other mints whose names, though not to be found in ancient literature, have a geographical origin. In connection with the identification of mint names mention should be made of the practice among Chinese numismatists of regarding some single character legends on ancient coins as abbreviations for two character mint names. For instance, mu has been considered an abbreviation for Mu-mün, yang for Kao-yang, li for Kung-li, kung for San-kung, etc. It is true that a mint name can be abbreviated for lack of space. The abbreviation of "Chin-yang" as "Chin" on a Small Knife is an example. It, however, can be proved, while those mentioned above cannot. Unless a claim of abbreviation can be proved, it must not be accepted without reserve. End Notes 36 For the illustrations of these specimens see Okutaira, op. cit. (see above, n. 16), IV, 71b —74a and Ku ch'ien ta-tz'ǔ-tien, VII, 406b, no. 1226. 37 For a general idea of the situation of confusion see Ku Tung-kao (1679—1759), Ch'un-ch'iu ta-shih nien-piao, 1752, VI, Part 2, 25a —34a for the Ch'un-ch'iu period. For the Chan-kuo period see Ku Kuan-kuang (1799 —1862), Ch'i-kuo ti-li k'ao. 38 See Chu-shu chi-nien (Wang Kuo-wei (1877—1927), Ku-pün chu-shu chi-nien chi-chiao in Wang-chung-ch'io-kung i-shu, second series, p. 16b.). The town belonged to the state of Liang (Wei ) and was walled in 341 B.C. 1. THE SHANG AND CHOU PERIODS A brief survey of the development of commerce in ancient China seems necessary to provide a general background for our discussion of the origin and evolution of Chinese coinage, for there are no works, either in Chinese or other languages, which can be recommended for reference on this topic. According to an old myth, markets were established in prehistoric China by a legendary hero, Shün-nung. It is idle speculation to consider the possibility of commerce at such a remote time, since its significance in the general economy could not have been any greater than that of barter trade among present day primitive peoples. It will be more profitable to study the economic conditions under the Shang dynasty, for which period there is a fair amount of archaeological devience. Some scholars have asserted that the Shang economy was based either on cattle-breeding or on a combination of cattle-breeding and rudimentary agriculture. Others would have us believe that the Shang people lived in an even more primitive state. However, study of oracle bone inscriptions has proved rather the contrary.1 By conquest and colonization the Shang had built up a large empire. During the last two hundred and fifty years of their history, which ends in 1122 B. C. according to the traditional chronology, their territory extended to the sea in the east, to central Shensi in the west, to southern Hopeh in the north, and to the banks of the Huai River in the south.2 The people of this empire led a life which was predominantly agricultural.3 Recently a Chinese scholar suggested the possibility that ploughs pulled by oxen were used to till the fields and that bronze ploughshares were known.4 These ideas are challenging, even though there is no positive evidence to prove them. In his campaign against the "Kuei-fang" state, northwest of the Shang kingdom in modern Shansi province, King Wu-ting called to arms 23,000 of his subjects in a period of three months.5 In one of his expeditions against the Ch'iang people in the west, he conscripted 10,000 on a single day together with 3000 more from a vassal state.6 Conscriptions on such a scale could not have been possible unless there had been a fairly large population, and the existence of a large population presupposes a developed economic production, at least in agriculture. In handicrafts the Shang people achieved exceptional skill and great delicacy of aesthetic taste, as is widely demonstrated in their beautiful bronzes. Their skill in casting finds no match in later periods of Chinese history.7 The excellence of their workmanship has caused Creel to claim that it can barely be surpassed by today's metal worker with modern science and technology at his command,8 and that it has seldom been attained "anywhere in human history."9 Creel's opinions may be accented with enthusiasm, but they testify to the high quality of the products of Shang craftsmen. Such a degree of technical accomplishment could have been attained only through specialization, which in turn, could result only from division of labor. The presence of these two factors, specialization and division of labor, precludes the possibility that each family unit was economically self-sufficient. It obviously points to the existence of an economy based, at least partly, on exchange. The economy of the state as a whole showed a similar dependence on products of other regions. The basic metals, copper and tin, which were used in the manufacture of weapons, sacrificial vessels, and many other utensils, were not to be found within the boundaries of the kingdom. They had to be obtained from the south, in and beyond the Yangtze Valley.10 The same was true of gold, silver and cowrie shells,11 which last were used both for ornaments and as media of exchange. Their red pigment, known as cinnabar, came from Shu (modern western Szechuan) and their jade was imported from western regions far beyond the Shang borders.12 Most of the tortoise shells, which were highly prized and served for divination, were of non-local origin; some of the larger specimens may have come from as far away as Malaya.13 It is very likely that the Shang kings obtained a good part of these imported products as tribute from southern states subject to them, or as booty. As the amount obtainable from such sources could not have satisfied the demands of both the court and the people, a certain proportion of the products must have been acquired through exchange. The mutual dependence of the various regions within the kingdom was even more evident.14 Take salt for example. There were probably only two sources for this commodity. One was lake salt from present southwestern Shansi and the other sea salt from the east coast. At the present time there are no other areas within the limits of the Shang dominion which produce salt in any quantity, and it is probable that there was none in ancient times. In addition to salt there were no doubt other necessities of daily life which were specialties of particular regions also. Due to lack of archaeological or literary evidence we are ignorant of the extent of exchange in this early period. We can, though, conclude with confidence that commerce had reached an active stage. Since Han times the word shang has been used to designate "trade." The explanation of Han scholars that shang (i. e., tradesmen) refers to traders who travel long distances is a rationalized interpretation of the word rather than an exposition of its original meaning. Recent research has shown that the character "shang" was used in ancient China only to denote the dynasty, the people, or their capital. Hence, Hsü Chung-shu identifies the term shang-jün in the sense of "tradesmen" with shang-jün meaning "people of Shang."15 In his opinion, after their conquest by the Chou, the Shang people found themselves relegated to an inferior position, which circumstance forced many of them to take up trading, an occupation deemed degrading by the upper classes. Hsü draws a parallel between the Shang people and the Jews, both being peoples forced by circumstance into trade as their special profession. While he may be correct in this conjecture, it is equally possible and even more plausible that the identification by the Chou of Shang natives with tradesmen took place a few centuries earlier when the Shang, at the peak of their prosperity, came to the more backward Chou to exchange their own products for those of the tribes of the west. Assuming this as true, it would be only natural for the Chou to identify trading as an outstanding characteristic of the Shang.16 If this interpretation is plausible, we may venture that a group of professional merchants existed in the Shang state whose business extended well beyond their own borders. That the Shang people had engaged in widespread trade can be inferred from a statement in "Chiu kao," a decree issued by King Wu,17 the founder of the Chou dynasty, ordering the vanquished Shang of the "Mei State" to cease their overindulgence in wine and to devote themselves to farming and trade. The decree says, "You should, working hard, take your carriages and oxen and pursue trade over long distances so that you can filially nurture your fathers and mothers."18 A statement of Confucius indicates that the Chou people, who possessed a cruder culture, absorbed the Shang civilization after its conquest.19 This is corroborated by both archaeological and literary evidence. In the economic sphere, likewise, they must have inherited the pattern of the people they conquered. Unfortunately, with the exception of a few inscriptions on early Chou bronzes, we have practically no information on the economic life of the first two hundred years after the change of dynasties. For the later Chou period, reference to trade is made in the Ode of Chan-yang which has been preserved in the Shih ching or Book of Odes. 20 This ode expresses grievances of the people against misconduct of government, interference in politics by women, and pursuit of trade by the nobility. A part of it runs: Such things as trade yielding three times (its capital), A superior man should have knowledge of. A woman has nothing to do with public affairs, Yet she leaves her silkworms and weaving.21 This is a description of behavior contrary to the accepted norm. It was considered degrading for a nobleman to engage in trade, but obviously the temptation of three hundred per cent profit was hard to resist. The woman referred to in the ode is said to have been Pao Ssǔ, first a court lady of King Yu (781—771 B. C.) who was made his queen when he ascended the throne. Through her influence, he is reported to have misruled his people and to have invited the Jung invasion which almost ended the Chou. If this identification is correct, the ode must have originated in the eighth century B. C. End Notes * A few of the works quoted in this and other sections have been translated into English and French. The Shang-shu has been translated by Legge and Karlgren under the titles of Shoo King (Chinese Classics III) and "Glosses of the Book of Documents" (BMFEA No. 20) respectively. The Shih ching (Mao Shih) has been translated by Legge, Waley and Karlgren under the titles of She King (Chinese Classics IV), Book of Songs (incomplete), and "Book of Odes" (BMFEA, Nos. 16 and 17). The Lun-yü, the Müng-tzǔ, the Tso chuan, and the Li chi have been translated by Legge under the titles Confucian Annalects, Works of Mencius, The Ch'un ts'eu with the Tso chuen (Chinese Classics I, II, V), and Li Kü (Sacred Book of China , IV and V). The first forty-seven chapters of the Shih-chi have been translated by Chavannes under the title of Les Mümoires historiques des Se-ma Ts'ien. Portions of Chapter XXX and CXXIX of this work and parts of Han shu XXIV have been translated by R. C. Blue in Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies II. Part of the Hsün-tzǔ has been translated by Dubs under the title of Works of Hsüntze, and part of the Mo-tzǔ has been translated by Yi-pao Mei under the title of The Ethical and Political Works of Motze. The Yen t'ieh lun has been translated by Gale under the title of The Discourses on Salt and Iron. 1 This point is also well illustrated by the change of opinion in the works of Kuo Mo-jo one of the leading authorities on the institutional history of the Shang dynasty. In his Chung-kuo ku-tai shü-hui yen-chiu, published in 1930, the author categorically declares, "There is no doubt that the Yin (Shang) dynasty was a period during which cattle-breeding was most flourishing" (p. 245), and "Although agriculture had been discovered, it was not fully developed" (p. 254). But in his Shih p'i-p'an shu, published in 1945, he rejects his former opinion and declares that during the Shang dynasty "agriculture had actually become predominant" (p. 13). 2 The boundaries of the Shang kingdom can be traced from the locations of its vassal states and of the countries it attacked and conquered. The names of these states and countries are found in inscriptions on oracle bones discovered at Yin-hsü, the site of the last Shang capital. See Tung Tso-pin Yin li p'u (calendar of Yin), 1945, Part II, IX, 37b —40b and 61a —63a; Hu Hou-hsüan "Pu-tz'ǔ chung so-chien chih Yin-tai nung-yeh" (Agriculture of the Yin dynasty as seen in the inscriptions on the oracle bones), Chia-ku-hsüeh Shang-shih lun-ts'ung, Second Series, 1945, 31a —47a; and Ch'ün Müng-chia "Shang-tai ti-li hsiao-chi" (A note on the geography of the Shang dynasty), Yü-kung (Chinese historical geography) VII (1937), Nos. 6 —7, 101 —108. In 1935 Prof. Fu Ssǔ-nien published his essay, "I Hsia tung hsi shuo" (Ch'ing-chu Ts'ai Yüan-p'ei hsien-shüng liu-shih-wu-sui lun-wün-chi, 1093 —1134), in which he says that at the peak of its power the eastern boundary of the Shang empire extended to the "east of the sea" (meaning part of Korea ) in the east, to the "south of the Ch'i mountains" in central Shensi in the west, and to the valley of the Huai river in the southeast. In other words, the territory of Shang covered present Hopei, Shantung, Northern Kiangsu, Northern Anhui, Honan , Southern Shensi, and Eastern Shensi. His study is based entirely on literary sources, and, except for his claim on the northeastern boundary of Shang, which has not been otherwise proved, is confirmed by studies made of oracle bone inscriptions. 3 Hu Hou-hsüan, ibid. 4 Hu Hou-hsüan, op. cit. 80b —81a. 5 Tung Tso-pin, op. cit. Part II, IX, 38a. This was compiled by Prof. Tung according to his reconstructed Shang (Yin) calendar. Its final validity depends on that of his calendar. 6 Tung Tso-pin, op. cit. 39a and 40b. The bone inscription quoted by Tung Tso-pin is no. 310 in The Couling-Chalfant Collection by F. H. Chalfant, Shanghai , 1935. 7 See T'ang Lan "Chung-kuo ku-tai mei-shu yü t'ung-ch'i" (Art and the Bronzes of Ancient China ), Chung-kuo i-shu lun-ts'ung (Essays on Chinese Art), ed. by T'üng Ku Ch'ang-sha, 1938, 111 —113; Hsü Chung-shu "Kuan-yü t'ung-ch'i chih i-shu" (On the Art of the Bronzes), op. cit. 125 —137; and Hu Hou-hsüan, "Chung-yang-yen-chiu-yüan Yin-hsü ch'u-t'u chan-p'in tsan-kuan chi" (A Note on the Exhibit of the Objects Recovered at the Yin Ruins by Academia Sinica), op. cit. 157 —167. 8 Creel, Birth of China , New York City, 1937, 112. 9 Creel, op. cit. 124. In his Studies in Early Chinese Culture (1937) 233 Creel remarks, "Chinese bronze vessels are equal to the finest objects of the sort ever produced anywhere by man. Shang bronze vessels, as a group, are probably the finest of Chinese bronzes. Among the Shang bronzes excavated by the National Research Institute in 1934 and 1935 are complicated vessels which show a genius of design and a complete mastery of technique such as to take the breath of a hardened connoisseur." 10 The "Yü-kung" in the Shang-shu states that Yang Chou (in the Yangtze Valley) produced "three kinds of metal," said to be gold, silver and copper. Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien states that gold, tin and lead were produced in Chiangnan (south of the Yangtze River) and copper was produced in the region of Wu (lower stream of the river). Shih-chi, Po-na-pün ed. CXXIX, 1b and 11a. W. Yetts believes that copper was once produced in the interior of ancient China . Local tradition says that long ago copper and tin as well as other metals were mined some forty li northwest of An-yang city (in Honan ) from the T'ung Shan or Copper Hills. Two other place names, T'ung Shan Chün and Nan T'ung-yeh (Southern Copper Foundry), testify to the tradition (An-yang: A Retrospect, The China Society, London, 1942, 25. Prof. L. C. Goodrich kindly furnished this information). 11 For gold and silver see the above note. The Kuan-tzǔ states that gold came from the valleys of the Ju and the Han rivers. Ssǔ-pu pei-yao ed., XXIII, 3a. The Han River was a branch of the Yangtze. The cowrie shells which are discovered in large numbers at Yin-hsü are Cypraea moneta and C. annulus. They may have come from the Ryukyus, the Malay Peninsula, the T'zord Banks, or as far as the coast along the Indian Ocean. See pp. 55 — 56 and 66 — 69 for more details. 12 In the excavation of the remains at Yin-hsü in An-yang there have been found a number of inscribed oracle bones painted with red and black pigments. The red pigment has been identified as raw cinnabar through chemical analysis by Professors Beneditti-Pichler and Gettens (see Dr. R. S. Britton, Fifty Shang Inscriptions, 1940, 7). Throughout ancient China cinnabar was the chief material used for red paint, as witnessed by the statement of Li Ssǔ (d. 208 B. C.) in his memorial to the king of Ch'in in 237 B. C. (Shih-chi, LXXXVII, 4b). At a somewhat later date it became associated with Taoist magic. Cinnabar is produced in both Szechuan and Hunan, but Szechuan, anciently known as Shu, was the producing district in Chinese antiquity. 13 Tortoise shells which the Shang people used for divination and which they used in large quantities were not produced within the Shang territory; they came from the Yangtze valley and the farther south (See Hu Hou-hsüan, "Yin-tai pu-kuei chih lai-yüan" or "The Origin of the Divination Tortoise Shells of the Yin Dynasty," Chia-ku-hsüeh Shang-shih lun-ts'ung or "Essays on the History of the Yin (Shang) Dynasty based on the Study of the Oracle Bones," first series, 1944, Vol. 4, 1 ff.) Prof. Tung Tso-pin quotes Wu Hsien-wün to the effect that the large tortoise shell of the Wu-ting period discovered at the old remains of the Shang capital resembles the species found today in the Malay Peninsula ("Tsai-t'an Yin-tai ch'i-hou," or "Again on the Weather during the Yin dynasty," reprint from the Studia Serica, p. 16, and Lien-shüng Yang, "Ten Examples of Early Tortoise-shell Inscriptions," Harvard Jour. of Asiatic Studies, XI, 1948, 122.) 14 A general picture of the local products in ancient China can be gathered from the statements in the "Yü-kung," a section in the present text of the Shang shu, and from those in the "Huo-ch'ih chuan" (CXXIX) in the Shih-chi. The former was written during the Chan-kuo period and the latter was written about 100 B. C. Sun Yüan-chüng has selected various items from the above mentioned works and compiled a table showing the distribution of raw materials and the products of industry in different regions of ancient China , Yü-kung, I (1934), No. 3, 26 —38. The local products recorded in the Shih-chi are quoted in the text below. Those recorded in the "Yü-kung" are roughly salt, lacquer, embroidery, silk, the ch'ih linen from the east; lumber from tall trees, gold, silver, copper, ivory, hides, feathers, big tortoise shells, pearls, and oranges from the south; iron and silver from the southwest; and various jades from the west. 15 Hsü Chung-shu, "Ts'ung ku-shu-chung t'ui-ts'ü chih Yin Chou min-tsu" (A tentative study of the peoples of the Yin and the Chou based on the ancient literature), Kuo-hsüeh Lun-ts'ung I (1927), 109 —113. The literary datum on which Hsü Chung-shu bases his identification of merchants with the Shang (Yin) people is in Tso chuan, Ssǔ-pu pei-yao ed., XLVII, 8b —10b. In 1937 Ojima Sukema a Japanese scholar, published an article on the origin of the name, shang-jün. Using the same document, he identifies the first Chinese merchants with the conquered Shang people. This article forms part of his recent book entitled Kodai Shina kenkyū, Tokyo , 1944, 138—154. 16 Kuo Mo-jo attributes the origin of the twofold meanings of the term shang-jün as "Shang people" and "tradesmen" to the possibility that the Shang people may have been the first traders (Shih p'i-p'an shu, 16.) 17 Some other scholars regard King Ch'üng, son of King Wu, as the one who issued the "Chiu kao." Which opinion is correct is not material, for King Ch'üng ascended to the throne in the seventh year after his father conquered the Shang nation, a date which is very close to the Shang period. The decree is contained in the Shang-shu, known in the West as the Book of History or the Book of Documents. 18 Shang-shu, Ssǔ-pu pei-yao ed., VIII, 6b. 19 Confucius says that the Chou people followed the li (institutions) of the Yin (Shang) dynasty. Lun-yü, Ssǔ-pu pei-yao ed., ii, 6a. 20 The Shih ching contains many odes originating in the 11th to 6th centuries B. C. Except for a limited number, the odes are songs of the people, and as such they reflect actual living conditions. (Karlgren takes exception to this interpretation. He believes that the odes are too elaborate to be products of farmers. See his "Glosses on the Kuo Feng Odes," BMFEA 14 (1942), 75. Prof. Goodrich kindly furnished this information). 21 Shih ching, Ssǔ-pu pei-yao ed., XVIII, 24b. Legge's translation of these lines (Chinese Classics, 1871, iv, Part 2, 561 —2) reads: As if in the three times cent, per cent, of traffic, A superior man should have any knowledge of it; So a women who has nothing to do with public affairs, Leaves her silk worms and weaving. Karlgren's translation ("Book of Odes" BMFEA, No. 17, 1945, 86.) reads: They are like those who sell at a triple profit; the noble man knows this, and (therefore) the women have no public service, they have to (rest) abide by their silk worm work and their weaving. Legge's version is closer to the meaning of the Chinese text. 2. THE CH'UN-CH'IU PERIOD (770—481 B. C.) In the early years of the eighth century B. C., Duke Huan (806—771 B. C.) of the State of Chüng entered into a sworn agreement with the merchants in his territory. Such an event presupposes that a flourishing trade had become important enough to elevate greatly the social position of the merchant class. An account of this agreement was made by Chüng Tzǔ-ch'an, a member of the Chüng ruling family and the most famous statesman of Chüng, to a high minister from the state of Chin in 526 B. C.22 According to Tzǔ-ch'an, when Duke Huan moved from the west to the east and established his state in what is now central Honan ,23 he concluded an agreement with the merchants who had helped him develop this new territory. Under the agreement the merchants promised not to rebel against the state, and Duke Huan pledged himself not to compel the merchants to sell, nor to seize their merchandise by force, nor to inquire into their capital or profits. This account indicates that, as early as the end of the ninth and beginning of the eighth century B. C., the importance of merchants in Chüng had won the recognition of the state and had secured for them an official protection not previously enjoyed. The growing importance of commerce was even more manifest in the state of Ch'i, where the government itself engaged in trade. When Duke Huan (not to be confused with the ruler of Chüng with the same title) assumed its rule in 685 B. C., Ch'i was a very small state on the lower stream of the Chi River, which formed its western boundary. Its eastern boundary was less than ten miles from its capital, Lin-tzǔ (also a modern city).24 However, the state was situated on the coast, where fish abounded and where salt could be easily produced from the sea. Kuan Chung (d. 645 B. C.), the Duke's chief minister, realized the potentialities of these natural economic resources. He formulated and put into practice his policy of "creating profits through [the production and sale of] fish and salt."25 In co-ordination with this policy he devised a means of market control through regulation of supply and demand.26 By putting these measures into effect Duke Huan in a short time raised the "tiny Ch'i" to a position of hegemony within the Chou empire. As a reward to Kuan Chung, Duke Huan granted to him the revenue from taxes on trade.27 His benefit from this revenue made Kuan Chung, the minister of a feudal lord, "wealthier than the ruler of a state."28 The salt and fishing industries from which Ch'i of the seventh century B. C. derived so much power had, of course, developed long before this date. Likewise, there must have been an earlier export trade in fish and salt already developed which Duke Huan and Kuan Chung promoted and expanded with such great success. Evidence for this is found in the early history of Ch'i as related by Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien in his Shih-chi 29 The historian states that when T'ai-kung Wang, the first ancestor of the house of Ch'i, was enfeoffed and granted Ying-ch'iu, a town in Ch'i, he found that its soil was alkaline and its population small. Therefore, he "promoted its silk textile industry, perfected its skillful handicrafts, an dopened up [production and trade in] fish and salt."30 As a result, "both people and goods came to it [the town of Ch'i]. They arrived carrying babies on their backs and converged on it like the spokes of a wheel. Consequently, Ch'i provided the world with hats, sashes, clothes and slippers."31 Although the enfeudation of T'ai-kung Wang with Ch'i has been proven untrue, the remainder of the account may contain elements of truth.32 If so, Ch'i must have been an industrial center in ancient China for a long period with exports not only of sea products but also of handicrafts, particularly silks, which are mentioned by Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien elsewhere.33 Its immediate markets were the territories of Liang (Wei), Chao,34 Sung and Wei, according to Kuan-tzǔ.35 Corroboration of the great demand for the sea produce of Ch'i and of its eastern neighbor, Lai, is found in the gratitude of consumer states to Duke Huan when he abolished custom tolls and promoted direct purchases from Lai.36 Another fact which attests to early development of trade in Ch'i is the mention of "big merchants and hoarders"37 in conjunction with Kuan Chung's program for maintaining equilibrium of the market. Kuan Chung proposed to regulate trade and prevent market manipulation by storing ample stocks of grain in times of plenty for release in times of scarcity.38 His plan was called "well conceived and well adapted to problems of scarcity and oversupply."39 The regulation of the market reveals two significant points: trade played an essential part in Ch'i's economy and "big merchants and hoarders" had appeared who manipulated the market and "forcefully exploited the people."40 Even if we grant a measure of discount to the account of Kuan-tzǔ 41, the fact remains that trade had developed to an advanced stage in the Ch'i economy.42 We have evidence that by the middle of the seventh century B. C., and possibly earlier, economic needs had transcended state boundaries and that political divisions proved a hindrance to normal exchange. In 651 B. C. a conference of feudal lords convened at K'uei-ch'iu where Duke Huan of Ch'i demanded that the participants henceforth "shall not hoard grain" and "shall not curtail (the export of) raw materials."43 Because of its alkaline soil Ch'i was unable to support its entire population and the large army it required to maintain its hegemony. It is also probable that its handicraft industries needed raw materials from other areas. These were the reasons, no doubt, for the demands of the Duke. Another treaty drawn up in 562 B. C. practically repeats the provisions of the earlier one. In it the agreeing parties promise "not to hoard grain in bad years" and "not to block (the flow) of products."44 An early development of industry and commerce can be traced also in the state of Wei. In 658 B. C., the year after the state was invaded by the Ti people, Duke Wün moved his capital eastwards to Ch'u-ch'iu on the northern border of the present Honan province. There he pursued a program of reconstruction by "promoting commerce and favoring industry." As a result, the population of Wei increased threefold in a period of twenty-three years.45 More than a century later, when Confucius visited the state he was greatly impressed with its flourishing condition.46 Geographically speaking, Wei was situated at that time in the center of ancient China , in the plain at the middle of the old Yellow River valley, and on the Wu-tao (cross-roads).47 During the Ch'un-ch'iu period, Wei, capital of the state, was one of the three cities renowned for their riches, the other two being Lin-tzǔ, capital of Ch'i, and T'ao. It has on several occasions been mentioned together with T'ao as a place abounding in wealth.48 Across the northern and western borders of Wei we enter the territory of the state of Chin. Although it lagged behind Ch'i and Wei, there are signs of an early development of commerce there. Duke Wün (636—628 B. C.) of Chin, the first of its rulers to bring the state to a position of power, realized the benefits of trade and promoted it for the benefit of both the state and its people. On assumption of rule in 636 B. C., he "reduced duties at the passes, flattened the roads, opened up commerce, and lessened the burdens of the peasants ... in order to better the life of the people."49 As a result, in the middle of the sixth century B. C. we find that "the rich merchants of Chiang (capital of Chin) ... could decorate their carriages with gold and jade and have their clothing embroidered with flowery patterns."50 "They could," furthermore, "(befriend and) distribute gifts to the feudal lords."51 These words of Shu-hsiang, the grand tutor, to Han Hsüantzǔ, chief minister of state, give a good picture of the amount of wealth that merchants had accumulated in this state. From the degree of their prosperity we can easily infer the state of development of trade. As an ancient folk saying put it, "The longer the sleeves, the better the dancer dances; the wealthier the merchant, the more successfuly he trades."52 As a result of increased development in the seventh century B. C., trade was recognized to be as essential as agriculture and industry. A simultaneous and balanced development of the three became a criterion by which the strength of a state was judged. In 597 B. C., when Chin was preparing an attack on Ch'u, Sui-wu-tzǔ dissuaded Duke Li of Chin from acting, for as he observed, in Ch'u "neither the merchants, the farmers, nor the artisans have shown any relaxation in production."53 In 564, when Ch'u consented to join forces with Ch'in against Chin, Tzǔ-nang, a Ch'u minister, opposed the move, giving practically the identical reason.54 When, in 516 B. C., Duke Ching of Ch'i was concerned about the strength of his state, his minister Yen-tzǔ (named Ying), suggested that li be put into practice. Along with a few other administrative measures his li (proper principles for government) provided that "farmers do not shift their occupations, artisans and merchants do not change their professions. "55 Why did the ancient Chinese rulers consider the balance between trade, agriculture, and industry important? The Chou shu (Book of Chou) says, "If the farmers do not produce, there will be a shortage of food. If foresters do not produce, some works will not be accomplished. If the merchants do not produce, the sources of wealth will be cut."56 Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien remarks, "From the farmers food is obtained, by the foresters the materials are produced by which the artisans' goods are manufactured, by the merchants they are circulated."57 "These four," he continues, "are the sources for clothes and food for the people. If the sources are great, abundance will result; if the sources are small, scarcity will result. They enrich the state above, and enrich the people below."58 One way in which the state reaped direct benefit from commerce was through collection of taxes on market transactions and of customs duties at passes (kuan). To supervise markets and probably to collect taxes therein special officials were appointed. They were called ku-Chüng (director of trade) in Lu,59 ch'u-shih (market supervisor) in Chüng,60 shih-ling (market prefect) and shih-yüan (assistant to market prefect) in Ch'i,61 Ssǔ-shih (director of the market) and ku-shih (trade supervisor) in the Chou li.62 Frontier passes (kuan) as strategic points through which invaders might enter were originally the sites of military outposts. It was only after the volume of interstate trade had become substantial that they became also collection points of customs duties. The Kuan-tzǔ defines a pass as "a feudal lord's strategic road and the door for outside wealth."63 As soon as feudal rulers realized the large amount of revenue they were reaping from duty collections at frontier passes, greed inevitably led them to set up kuan for collection of duties within their interiors. Some states like Ch'i extended duty collections to points close to the walls of their capitals. In 522 B. C. Yen-tzǔ stated that "the passes [customs stations] close to the capital [of Ch'i] tyrannically collect duties for personal profit,"64 that is, of the prince of Ch'i. One hundred and three years before (in 625 B. C.) the state of Lu had set up six additional such customs offices. Confucius referred to their establishment as one of the three inhuman acts performed by the Lu minister, Tsang Wün-chung,65 The phraseology of Confucius gives the impression that these customs stations were in the interior. The whole practice of customs collections was bitterly denounced by Mencius: "In ancient times the erection of customs stations was directed against tyranny [meaning agression]; at the present [fourth century B. C.] the erection of customs stations is for exercising tyranny."66 The above data concerning the establishment of stations for collection of duties throw considerable light on the development of commerce. The lack of concrete figures or even general statements regarding the amount of revenue collected at a customs station makes it impossible to estimate the volume of trade. A portion of the Tso chuan, however, does enable us to gauge its value. The author of the Tso chuan relates that the Ti people invaded Sung during the reign of Duke Wu (766—749 B. C.). In the battle with the invaders all the Sung generals perished except Erh-pan, whose chariot led the defense's charge. To reward him, 'The Duke granted a customs station to Erh-pan as his fief and let him live on its collections."67 That the collection of duties was granted as a reward or fief to a victorious warrior indicates that this source of revenue had become sizeable and fairly regular. Even more significant is the fact that Erh-pan's grant took place in the middle of the eighth century, almost a hundred years before the commercial policies of Duke Huan of Ch'i and Duke Wün of Wei were adopted. The development of trade and the large profits accruing to those engaged in it would naturally bring merchants out of relative obscurity into activity in public affairs. The names of a few merchants before the fifth century B. C. are mentioned in extant historical literature in connection with important events. Primary among these are the names of Pao Shu-ya and Kuan Chung, whom we have already mentioned as the advisor of Duke Huan of Ch'i. Before his rise to prominence, or in his own words "when I was in a difficult situation," Kuan Chung had been a merchant, originally from Ying-shang68 (in what is now Central Honan ), trading in Nan-yang,69 a large city in the southwestern part of the province. For sometime he had been a business associate of Pao Shu-ya,70 who likewise rose to high position in the ruling circle of Ch'i. It was, in fact, Pao Shu-ya who recommended Kuan Chung to Duke Huan. Both Pao Shu-ya and Kuan Chung became high officials in the state. The latter was honored by Duke Huan with the title chung-fu 71 and Confucius paid tribute to him for having saved the Chinese from conquest by barbarians.72 Next we find the name of Hsüan Kao, a merchant of Chüng.73 In 627 B. C., when driving his herds of cattle to the city of Chou to market them, Hsüan Kao met the armies of Ch'in marching eastward to make a surprise attack on his home state. Sensing the danger, he pretended he was an official emissary sent by Chüng to welcome and feast the invading troops. While entertaining them he secretly dispatched warning and thereby saved his state.74 From Chüng there was another merchant, whose identity is unknown. In 568 B. C., an important general of Chin, Hsün Ying, was captured by the enemy in the course of a battle with the army of Ch'u. Partisans of the general asked a merchant, who had come to Ch'u on business, for help in an escape plot. The merchant agreed and worked out a plan for smuggling the general out among his merchandise. Although Hsün Ying was released before the plot was carried out, he was nonetheless so grateful that when the merchant came to Chin to trade he offered him special favors. Declining the general's generosity, the merchant went on to Ch'i in pursuance of his business.75 Obviously this merchant must have been prominent and one with social connections among important personages in both Ch'u and Chin. To warrant such extensive travelling in Chüng, Ch'u, Chin and Ch'i, practically all over the then known Chinese world, his business must have been on a large scale. Of all the big merchants of this period the most famous was Tuan-mu Ssǔ, a disciple of Confucius, better known as Tzǔ-kung. Tzǔ-kung, a native of Wei which had long prospered through trade, is said to have been a master of market manipulation. "He hoarded merchandise or released it according to the prospects of making profit,"76 and thereby acquired a great fortune. Although Confucius reproached him for his interest in trade and for his lack of it in studies, he praised his ability in commercial speculation.77 Tzǔ-kung's wealth enabled him to travel from one princely court to another accompanied by a long retinue of horses and carriages laden with fine silks of which he made gifts to the feudal princes. Wherever he went, rulers accorded him the courteous treatment of an equal.78 In the opinion of Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien, the great historian, it was Tzǔ-kung who "made the name of Confucius popular over the world."79 Even though he may not have done so consciously, Tzǔ-kung, as both the favorite disciple of Confucius and a prominent merchant, must have publicized his teacher widely. Moreover, he was not only a business man renowned for his wealth, but was an influential politician as well. While a trader he served Lu and Wei in various official capacities.80 His last years were spent in Ch'i, the state most famous for its industry and commerce. Another personage reported to have come to Ch'i was the famous statesman Fan Li, who had aided the king of Yüeh (modern Chekiang) to conquer Wu (southern Kiangsu), to extend the state's territory to the borders of Lu and Ch'i, and thus to attain a political position on a par with the central states. This was in the first half of the fifth century B. C. According to the account, after Yüeh had attained its greatest power, Fan Li resigned, changed his name, went to Ch'i, and later established himself as a business man in T'ao, which city was regarded as the geographical center of the empire. Henceforth, Fan Li became known as T'ao Chu-kung (Old Gentleman Chu of T'ao). The fortune he made from trade profits and interest on money-lending became so great that he became a symbol of wealth81 and served as a model to Chinese businessmen from that day to the present. Though the identification of Chu-Kung with Fan Li seems open to doubt82 the historical character of the Old Gentleman Chu remains. Like the Old Gentleman Chu of T'ao, Po Kuei also achieved great success in trade and gained even greater fame. He was a native of Chou, an area which was highly commercialized. Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien says that he lived in the time of Marquis Wün (446—397 B. C.) of Wei, but some modern scholars believe he lived a century later.83 According to Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien he "was very successful in predicting the trend of the time." Hoarding merchandise which would bring him large returns, he purchased when others dumped, and vice versa. "In grasping the advantages of the moment, he acted as ferocious animals and vultures do in falling on their prey."84 He boasted that he conducted his business in the manner I Yin and Lü Shang (statesmen of an earlier time) laid out their administrative policies, Sun Pin and Wu Ch'i (famous military strategists) commanded their armies, and Shang Yang (a reformist statesman) executed his orders.85 The above accounts of early Chinese merchants are not to be read as biographical notes only, for in them we find data upon which a clearer picture of early commerce in China can be reconstructed. Fragmentary as the information is, it all points to a considerable development of trade in this period. Let us summarize our findings. As far back as the early part of the eighth century B. C. the contribution of commerce to general economic life had won the attention of the ruling authorities. Around the middle of that century custom duties collections, at least in Sung, had reached considerable proportions. In the following century Ch'i and Wei successively pursued programs of commercial expansion. The lucrative profits of trade attracted many to take it up as an occupation even though it had been considered an ignoble one. Merchants travelled throughout the the world then known to the Chinese and amassed such fortunes that nobles accepted them as equals and appointed them to high administrative positions in their governments. End Notes 22 Tso chuan, Ssǔ-pu pei-yao ed., XLVII, 8b —10. 23 Originally the territory of the state of Chüng was in the area below the Wei River in eastern Shensi. 24 Kuo-yü (Stories of the States), Ssǔ-pu pei-yao ed., VII, 9a. 25 Shih-chi, XXXII, 8b, and XXX, 20b. 26 Ibid, and op. cit., CXXIX, 2b. 27 The term for the market tax is san-kuei When Confucius was asked whether Kuan Chung was frugal, he said he was not because Kuan Chung "had the san-kuei." (Lun-yü, III, 5b). In the Han-fei-tzǔ it is said after Kuan Chung became the chief minister of Duke Huan of Ch'i, the latter bestowed upon him the san-kuei in order to enrich him. (1875, XII, 11a). As the term was obscure to later scholars, it has been interpreted as meaning "the name of a terrace" or "wives from three different families." Kuo Sung-t'ao (1818 —1891) rejects these explanations and suggests that it was a general term applied to market taxation, meaning thirty per cent of the profit. See his Yang-chih shu-wu wün-chi (A collection of writings of the Yang-chih Study), I, "Shih san-kuei" (Interpretation of San-kuei). Kuo Sung-t'ao's interpretation appears most satisfactory. The san-kuei grant to Kuan Chung as recorded by Liu Hsiang (77 —6 B. C.) is "one year's tax from the market of the Ch'i state." (Shuo-yüan, Ssǔ-pu pei-yao ed., VIII, 12a). The market from which Kuan Chung was to receive his revenue was probably that in the Ch'i capital. 28 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 2b. In LXII, 3a, Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien gives a slightly different statement of Kuan Chung's wealth. There he says, "Kuan Chung was so wealthy that he equalled the house of the ruler of state (of Ch'i)." 29 The story quoted below in the text concerns the enfeudation of Lü Wang or T'ai-kung Wang (the first ancestor Wang) with Ying-ch'iu a town in the ancient Ch'i state, as his fief. It tells how Lü Wang established his state in Ch'i and developed its economic resources. The story does not correspond with the historical facts. As has been ably disproved by Prof. Fu Ssǔ-nien, at the time when Lü Wang was supposed to have been made the feudal lord of Ch'i, the territory which later came to be known as Ch'i was still in the hands of the Shang people or their vassals. The very name of the beneficiary, Lü Wang or Wang of Lü, indicates strongly that the fief of Wang was Lü, not Ch'i. Even a generation later, his son Chi was still called Lü Chi or Chi of Lü. Prof. Fu's arguments are contained in his article "On Ta-Tung and Hsiao-Tung," Bulletin of the National Research Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, II (1930), 101 —109. What immediately concerns us here is not the authenticity of the enfeudation of Lü Wang in Ch'i but the possibility of the early development of industry and commerce in the region of Ch'i, which is the main point of the story. 30 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 2b. 31 Ibid. This statement and the one immediately preceding are significantly absent in Shih-chi, XXX, 20b, where the historical development of industry and commerce is related by Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien and in LXII where the history of the state of Ch'i is treated by the same historian. In neither place is the first ancestor of the house of Ch'i mentioned to be the first developer of the economy of Ch'i. This is another point which can be used to support Prof. Fu in his argument disputing Lü Wang as the first ruler of the feudatory Ch'i. The story about Tai-kung Wang seems to have some historical elements with its features borrowed from the story about Duke Huan and Kuan Chung. 32 See note 29. 33 Such as silk fabrics recorded in Shih-chi, CXXIX, 10a. Li Ssǔ speaks of the fine kao of O as one of the luxurious industrial goods imported into Ch'in in his memorial to the king of Ch'in quoted above. O was a town in Ch'i, located northwest of the modern city of Tung-o in western Shantung. 34 Neither Liang (Wei) nor Chao, the state mentioned immediately after Liang, existed during the Ch'un-ch'iu period which we are discussing. These states came into being only after 431 B. C. through a split of the territory of Chin. The creation of these states received official sanction in 403 B. C. when the king of Chou granted the rulers of the two de facto states the status of the hou or marquis. We use the names of the two states instead of Chin to preserve the original wording of the passage in Kuan-tzǔ, which is here referred to. In the Chou period, there were two states whose name was pronounced Wei. One, written existed throughout the whole Chou period, and the other, written was officially created in 403 B. C. Although the names of these two states cannot be confused in Chinese script, they can be easily in English. In order to avoid the confusion, we will refer to the state created in 403 B. C. as Liang, which was the name of its capital. In the literature of the Chan-kuo period this state is frequently so designated. 35 Kuan-tzǔ, XXIII, 15b. 36 Kuo-yü, VI, 10b. 37 Op. cit., XXII, 6b. The statement is also quoted in Han shu, i. e. Ch'ien Han shu 1641 ed., XXIV, Part 2, 1b. 38 Ibid. 39 Shih-chi, XXX, 20b. 40 Kuan-tzǔ, XXII, 6b. 41 The Kuan-tzǔ, attributed to Kuan Chung, is a work of the Ch'an-kuo period (403 — 221 B. C.) which contains many later interpolations. However badly interpolated, it does contain valid Ch'i traditions. The chapter here quoted is mentioned by Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien as also a part of the work as circulated at his time (145 —86 B. C.?). Moreover, the wording of Pan Ku's (32 —92) quotation (XXIV, Part 2, 1a —1b) of the portion relating to market regulation is identical with the present text. 42 Huan K'uan of the later Han dynasty (25—220) speaks of the Ch'i commercial caravan consisting of three thousand carriages. Yen t'ieh lun, Ssǔ-pu pei-yao ed., II, 6a. 43 Müng-tzǔ, Ssǔ-pu pei-yao ed., XII, 9b; Tso chuan, XIII, 4b —5a. 44 Tso chuan XXXI, 10. 45 Op. cit., XI, 8b. 46 Lun-yü, XII, 3a —3b. 47 The interpretation of wu-tao as meaning "cross-road" is advanced by Müng Wün-t'ung in his article "Lun ku shui-tao yü chiao-t'ung," (A Discussion of Ancient Rivers and Communication), Yü-kung (Chinese Historical Geography), II (1935), No. 3, p. 4. 48 For more information on the commercial centers of T'ao and Wei see below pp. 46 —47. 49 Kuo-yü, X, 13b. 50 Kuo-yü, XIV, 11a. 51 Ibid. 52 Han-fei-tzǔ, 1875, XIX, 10a. 53 Tso chuan, XXIII, 3a. 54 Tso chuan, XXX, 15a. 55 Tso chuan, LII, 7a. 56 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 2a. 57 Ibid. 58 Ibid. 59 Tso chuan, LI, 12b. 60 Tso chuan, XXXII, 3a. 61 T'ien Tan the famous general of Ch'i is said to have previously held the position of the shih-yüan of Lin-tzǔ. Shih-chi, LXXXII, 1a. In the ancient Chinese official hierarchy yüan was assistant to the ling (prefect) or chang (chief) of an office. Since there was the position of yüan there must also have been the position of ling or chang. 62 Chou li, Ssǔ-pu pei-yao ed., XIV, 7b and XV, 2b. (Hsün-tzǔ, 1876, XV, 8b, has also ku-shih but it is not certain whether this is a title of an official or a general term to mean "teacher of merchants."). 63 Kuan-tzǔ, IX, 15b. 64 Tso chuan, XLIX, 7b. 65 Tso chuan, XVIII, 8a. 66 Müng-tzǔ, XIV, 3a —3b. 67 Tso chuan, XIX, Part 2, 2a. 68 Shih-chi, LXII,1b. 69 Lü-shih ch'un-ch'iu, quoted by Ssǔ-ma Chüng a T'ang commentator of the Shih-chi (LXII, 1a). 70 Shih-chi, LXII, 1b. 71 Meaning next to one's father in honor. 72 Lun-yü, XIV, 5b. 73 Lü-shih ch'un-ch'iu records a partner of Hsüan Kao by the name of His shih 1875, XVI, 12a. 74 Tso chuan XVII, 7b —8a. The story is slightly differently worded in Shih-chi, V, 14b —15a. 75 Tso chuan, XXVI, 3b. 76 Shih-chi, LXVII, 12a. 77 Lun-yü, XI, 4b. 78 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 5a. 79 Ibid. 80 Tso chuan, LVIII, 4a; LIX, 2a; 12a. Shih-chi, CXXIX,5a. 81 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 4b —5a. 82 See Ch'ien Mu Hsien-Ch'in chu-tzǔ hsi-nien k'ao-pien (A Study of the Chronology of the Pre-Ch'in Philosophers), Shanghai, 1935, 101. 83 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 5a. For the critical discussion on the life-time of Po Kuei see Ch'ien Mu, op. cit. 234 —236. 84 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 5a —5b. 85 Shih-chi, CXXIX, 5b. 3. THE CHAN-KUO PERIOD The Chan-kuo Period (403—221 B. C.) witnessed a further development of commerce. The civil wars regarded as characteristic of the period (Chan-kuo means "warring states") in actuality surpassed very little those of earlier times in either frequency or destructiveness. They certainly do not appear to have hindered the growth of trade. It is significant that the agrarianist Hsü Hsing, a contemporary of Mencius (390—305 B. C.), advanced a political philosophy which aimed to eradicate the evils of the day by making a farmer of everyone. It is said that he and his disciples cultivated fields themselves and lived extremely simple lives so as to set an example for their teachings. Mencius disapproved of both their theory and their practice of it. Encountering a follower of Hsü Hsing he questioned him and learned that the philosopher had been unable to maintain himself without acquiring clothes, hats, utensils and iron implements from other people. As Mencius puts it Hsü Hsing was engaged in a "busy and confused" [i. e., 'complicated'] exchange with the hundred [i. e., 'many'] artisans for the goods [he needs]."86 Some of the things which Hsü Hsing needed could be purchased in the locality (both he and Mencius lived in the state of T'üing at the time), such as simple pottery utensils. Some others, such as iron for making tools, could not be so obtained. Artisans who manufactured iron tools had to secure their metal from other areas.87 Many other things were as necessary to life on an economically higher level as iron was to the ascetic. Timber, bamboo, ku barks for writing material, lu mountain hemp for making cloth, yak tails, jade and other precious stones from west of the mountains;88 fish, salt, lacquer, silk, musical instruments and embroideries89 from east of the mountains; wood of the nan (Machilus nanmu) and the tzǔ (Lindera tzumu), ginger, cinnamon trees, gold, tin, lead, cinnabar, rhinoceros (hide or horn), tortoise shells, pearls, ivory, and other hides from south of the Chiang (Yangtze River); horses, oxen, sheep, furs, sinews and horns from the north; and copper and iron from many other places90 — "all these," as Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien observes, "were what the people of the central kingdom91 enjoyed and the materials from which, according to the custom of the day, were made clothes, food and articles for nurturing the living and burying the dead."92 These commodities listed above are taken from the introduction of the section on merchants and manufactures in pre-Ch'in China in Shih-chi by Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien. What he describes is but a general picture,93 and he does not pretend to give a complete enumeration. Besides these, jujubes from Yen (roughly modern Hopeh) and An-i (southern Shansi), chestnuts from Yen and Ch'in (roughly Shensi), fish and salt from Yen and Wu (southern Kiangsu), copper from Wu, copper and iron from Pa and Shu (Szechuan), fruits and cloth from Pan-yü (Canton), oranges from Shu, Han and Chiang-ling (Szechuan and southern Hupeh), etc., formed part of the merchandise which crowded many of the markets.94 Flourishing trade brought about commercialization of a part of the agricultural produce. We find it stated that a cattle breeder who possessed 50 horses, 166 oxen, 250 sheep, and 250 pigs; a fish grower who produced 1000 piculs (shih) in his ponds; an orchardist of 1000 jujube trees in An-i, or of 1000 chestnut trees in Yen or Ch'in, or of 1000 orange trees in Shu, Han or Chiang-ling; a grower of 100 ch'iu trees (Mallotus japonicus) in the Yellow River valley, or of 1000 mou (land measure) of lacquer trees in Ch'ün or Hsia (central and eastern Honan ), or of 1000 mou of mulberry trees or hemp in Ch'i or Lu (Shantung); or of 1000 fertile mou of grain, or of 1000 mou of the chih and the ch'ien plants (from the flowers of which red and yellowish-red pigments were made), or of 1000 plots of ginger or leeks — that any one of them received a revenue equal to that of a marquis with a fief of one thousand households.95 Since a household paid an annual tribute of two hundred cash to its noble lord, this revenue in terms of cash would be 200,000. Calculated at the twenty per cent rate of profit accruing to the farmers, artisans and merchants of the time as recorded by Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien, a profit of 200,000 represented, so to speak, a capital of one million.96 Ssǔ-ma Ch'ien therefore calls the man of such wealth a "noble without a fief."97 According to the same historian the following merchandise was sold yearly in a large city: 1000 jars of wine, 1000 long-necked jars of vinegar, 1000 big jars of sauce, 1000 heads of butchered oxen and cows, sheep or pigs, 1000 chung (1 chung = 64 tou or Chinese pecks) of grain, 1000 wagonloads of fuel, boats of a total length of 1000 chang (1 chang = 10 ch'ih or Chinese feet), 1000 pieces of lumber, 10,000 bamboo p
2073	dbpedia	1	10	https://www.flickr.com/photos/32357038%40N08/13589510115	en	Mi Fu (1051-1107) - 1100c. Mountains and Pines in Spring (National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan)	https://live.staticflick…1d8f7a262e_b.jpg	https://live.staticflick…1d8f7a262e_b.jpg	[ "https://live.staticflickr.com/3676/13589510115_1d8f7a262e.jpg", "https://live.staticflickr.com/3676/13589510115_1d8f7a262e.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "mountains", "ink", "paper", "landscape", "traditional", "chinese", "painter", "1100", "12thcentury", "1100s", "mifu", "publiccollection", "mountainsandpinesinspring" ]	null	[ "Flickr", "Milton Sonn" ]	2024-08-11T21:47:17.244000+00:00	Indian ink and color on paper; 35 x 44.1 cm. Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051–1107)[1] was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry followed the style of Li Bai and his calligraphy that of Wang Xizhi. His uninhibited style made him disliked at the Song court. He is best known for his calligraphy, and he was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. His style arises from that of calligraphers in earlier dynasties, but with a unique mark of his own. As a personality Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric. At times they even deemed him "Madman Mi" because he was obsessed with collecting stones and even declared one stone to be his brother. Hence he would bow to his "brother" rock in a display of the filial devotion given to older brothers. He also was known as a heavy drinker. His son, Mi Youren, would also be a famous painter in his father's artistic style. Unlike his father Mi Youren lived to be quite elderly, dying at the age of 79. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu" rel="noreferrer nofollow">en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu</a>	en	https://combo.staticflickr.com/pw/favicon.ico	Flickr	https://www.flickr.com/photos/32357038@N08/13589510115	Indian ink and color on paper; 35 x 44.1 cm. Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051–1107)[1] was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry followed the style of Li Bai and his calligraphy that of Wang Xizhi. His uninhibited style made him disliked at the Song court. He is best known for his calligraphy, and he was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. His style arises from that of calligraphers in earlier dynasties, but with a unique mark of his own. As a personality Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric. At times they even deemed him "Madman Mi" because he was obsessed with collecting stones and even declared one stone to be his brother. Hence he would bow to his "brother" rock in a display of the filial devotion given to older brothers. He also was known as a heavy drinker. His son, Mi Youren, would also be a famous painter in his father's artistic style. Unlike his father Mi Youren lived to be quite elderly, dying at the age of 79. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu
2073	dbpedia	2	12	https://discover.23andme.com/last-name/Fu	en	Last Name: Meaning, Origin, Family History 2024			[ "https://discover.23andme.com/_next/static/media/23andMe-logo.eb5a9a3d.svg", "https://discover.23andme.com/_next/static/media/cn.419b4442.webp", "https://discover.23andme.com/_next/static/media/Map_paternal_O_orange.8d615d73.webp", "https://discover.23andme.com/_next/static/media/china_guangxi_guilin.6f30b607...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	87.0% Chinese origin. 94.06% Asian/Pacific Islander in US. Mandarin and Cantonese form of the surname 傅, meaning ‘master’ or ‘teacher’ in Chinese: (i) said to.	en			https://discover.23andme.com/last-name/Fu	How common is the last name Fu in the United States? The surname Fu has witnessed a significant increase in popularity over the past decade, according to data from the Decennial U.S. Census. In 2000, the name was ranked 5658th in popularity in the United States but by 2010, it had climbed to 4235th place, reflecting a growth rate of 25.15 percent. The number of people bearing this surname also surged during this period from 5624 to 8370, marking an impressive 48.83 percent jump. Furthermore, its proportion per 100,000 people increased from 2.08 to 2.84, indicating a 36.54 percent rise. Race and Ethnicity of people with the last name Fu Analyzing the ethnicity associated with the surname Fu, the Decennial U.S. Census data reveals that it is predominantly linked to the Asian/Pacific Islander community. Despite a minor decrease of 0.07 percent between 2000 and 2010, this group still accounts for over 94 percent of those bearing the Fu surname. Individuals identifying as two or more races make up around 2 percent of the Fu surname holders, showing a mild reduction of 1.48 percent over the decade. The proportion of people with this surname identifying as white saw a growth of 15.26 percent, though they still represent only about 2.19 percent of the total. The percentage of Fu surname bearers identifying as Hispanic decreased slightly by 11.52 percent. Notably, there were no instances of people with this surname identifying as Black or American Indian and Alaskan Native in both years. Fu ancestry composition 23andMe computes an ancestry breakdown for each customer. People may have ancestry from just one population or they may have ancestry from several populations. The most commonly-observed ancestry found in people with the surname Fu is Chinese, which comprises 87.0% of all ancestry found in people with the surname. The next two most common ancestries are Manchurian & Mongolian (2.5%) and Korean (2.0%). Additional ancestries include Chinese Dai, Vietnamese, British & Irish, French & German, and Japanese. Ready to learn more about your ancestry? Get the most comprehensive ancestry breakdown on the market by taking our DNA test. Shop 23andMe ANCESTRY BREAKDOWNCOMPOSITION Chinese87.0 % Manchurian & Mongolian2.5 % Korean2.0 % Other8.5 % Possible origins of the surname Fu Your DNA provides clues about where your recent ancestors may have lived. Having many distant relatives in the same location suggests that you may all share common ancestry there. Locations with many distant relatives can also be places where people have migrated recently, such as large cities. If a large number of individuals who share your surname have distant relatives in a specific area, it could indicate a connection between your surname and that location, stemming from either recent ancestral ties or migration. Based on 23andMe data, people with last name Fu have recent ancestry locations in China and Taiwan. RECENT ANCESTRY LocationPercentageGuangdong , China40.30 %Zhejiang , China39.80 %Jiangsu , China39.50 %Fujian , China39.50 %Shanghai , China39.50 % What Fu haplogroups can tell you Haplogroups are genetic population groups that share a common ancestor on either your paternal or maternal line. These paternal and maternal haplogroups shed light on your genetic ancestry and help tell the story of your family. The top paternal haplogroup of people with the surname Fu is O-F8, which is predominantly found among people with East Asian & Indigenous American ancestry. Haplogroup O-F8 is descended from haplogroup O-M1359. Other common haplogroups include O-F11 and O-M307.1, which are predominantly found among people with East Asian & Indigenous American and East Asian & Indigenous American ancestry. Other surnames with similar common haplogroups are: Wu, He, Tang, Cheung, Lu, Zhou, Huang, Wang, Chen, Wong. The most common maternal haplogroups of people with Fu surname are: A4, F1a1, D4. These most commonly trace back to individuals of East Asian & Indigenous American and European ancestry. Your paternal lineage may be linked to the Han Chinese Haplogroup O-Page23 has been found in several populations of the Han Chinese ethnic group. The ancestors of the Han, called the Huaxia, lived in the upriver basin of the Yellow River 5,000-6,000 years ago. As agricultural technology improved, the Huaxia spread east and south, and became the Han Chinese. Over the last 2,000 years, there have been three major migrations of the Han southward. The first of these migrations occurred during the Jin Dynasty from 317 to 420 CE, when nearly one million people moved south. A second migration occurred during the Tang Dynasty, after the An-Shi Rebellion, between 755 and 762 CE. The last migration occurred during the Southern Song Dynasty, from 1127 to 1297 CE, when nearly 5 million people migrated southward. The Pinghua, a branch of Han in which haplogroup O2a2b1a1 is particularly common, may be descendants of indigenous minority groups that adopted Han culture during one such major migration event. Your maternal lineage may be linked to the Hmong-Mien Haplogroup F is particularly common in populations of Hmong-Mien speakers, one of the major language families in East Asia. This group includes the Lahu, Hmong, Lao, and Mien of southern China and Southeast Asia. Many of these groups are considered ethnic minorities in their countries, including in China, Vietnam, and Thailand.During the Vietnam War, from 1953 to 1975, the United States Central Intelligence Agency recruited many of the Hmong, Lao, Mien, and Lahu to fight for American interests in Laos against the North Vietnamese and the Pathet Lao. When the North Vietnamese and Pathet Lao gained control of the region, members of the ethnic groups recruited by the US were targeted, forcing many of the Hmong-Mien to flee the country. Many refugees resettled in the United States, especially in California and along the western seaboard.
2073	dbpedia	3	25	https://musicbrainz.org/artist/c9cc6e5e-12a5-453b-a465-f29d38e005ea	en	MusicBrainz	https://musicbrainz.org/…avicon-32x32.png	https://musicbrainz.org/…avicon-32x32.png	[ "https://static.metabrainz.org/MB/header-logo-1f7dc2a.svg", "https://static.metabrainz.org/MB/search-52f8034.svg", "https://static.metabrainz.org/MB/filter-a7c3d16.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Type: Person, Gender: Male, Born: 1051, Died: 1107, Area: China	en	/static/images/favicons/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png		null
2073	dbpedia	0	27	https://www.amazon.com/Mi-Fu-Shu-Tie-Calligraphy/dp/7564407328	en	Amazon.com			[ "https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/captcha/bcxmjlko/Captcha_zvkxoeuwyk.jpg", "https://fls-na.amazon.com/1/oc-csi/1/OP/requestId=JHNK4KC82DDWWA7NC9MT&js=0" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en			null	Enter the characters you see below Sorry, we just need to make sure you're not a robot. For best results, please make sure your browser is accepting cookies.
2073	dbpedia	0	31	https://www.bluemountainbooks.com/product/sku/98770	en	1107). Peintre et Connaisseur d'Art dans la Perspective de l'Esthetique des Lettres.	https://c2.bibtopia.com/…08239249.0.x.jpg	https://c2.bibtopia.com/…08239249.0.x.jpg	[ "https://www.bluemountainbooks.com/assets/images/block/logo.gif", "https://c2.bibtopia.com/h/249/239/1608239249.0.x.jpg", "https://c2.bibtopia.com/h/249/239/1608239249.0.x.jpg", "https://c2.bibtopia.com/h/249/239/1608239249.1.x.jpg", "https://c2.bibtopia.com/h/249/239/1608239249.2.x.jpg", "https://c2.bibt...	[]	[]	[ "CHINA; CHINESE ART; ART ET SAGESSE EN CHINE MI FOU; NICOLE VANDIER-NICOLAS; ILLUSTRATED; ILLUSTRATIONS; PLATES; MAP; FIRST EDITION; 1ST EDITION.", "(Mi Fu). Vandier-Nicolas", "Nicole." ]	null	[ "(Mi Fu). Vandier-Nicolas" ]	null	- Octavo, 10 inches high by 6-1/2 inches wide. Softcover, bound in pictorial tan wrappers titled in black on the front cover and on the spine with a blue, black	en	/themes/panel/img/favicons/defaultfavicon.ico	Blue Mountain Books & Manuscripts, Ltd.	null	- Octavo, 10 inches high by 6-1/2 inches wide. Softcover, bound in pictorial tan wrappers titled in black on the front cover and on the spine with a blue, black & cream vignette on the front cover. The corners of the covers are very lightly bumped and there are vertical creases down the spine. 346 & [1] unopened pages, illustrated with 8 plates and a map. The bottom corners of the last several pages are bumped & creased. Very good. First edition. Annales du Musee Guimet Tome 70. Mi Fu (1051-1107) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. He was one of the greatest calligraphers of the Song dynasty. First Edition.
2073	dbpedia	0	66	http://en.chnmuseum.cn/Portals/0/web/exhibition/exhibitions/161120Chines-Epic/en.html	en	Exhibition of “Chinese Epic” Artworks			[ "http://en.chnmuseum.cn/Portals/0/web/exhibition/exhibitions/161120Chines-Epic/img/title.png", "http://en.chnmuseum.cn/Portals/0/web/exhibition/exhibitions/161120Chines-Epic/img/title-v.png", "http://en.chnmuseum.cn/Portals/0/web/exhibition/exhibitions/161120Chines-Epic/img/title01.jpg", "http://en.chnmuseum....	[]	[]	[ "Chinese Epic", "NMC", "National Nuseum of China" ]	null	[]	null					null	With the aim of creating a group of historical paintings that reflects the characteristics of the time, embodies profound thoughts, and consummates artistic skills and superb craftsmanship, the Publicity Department of the Communist Party of China approved the Chinese Civilization History Theme Art Project, an initiative jointly sponsored and implemented by the China Federation of Literary and Artistic Circles (CFLAC), the China’s Ministry of Finance (MOF) and the Ministry of Culture (MOC). Through the mediums of painting and sculpture, the project reflects on the 5,000 year history of the Chinese nation to narrate Chinese stories, spread splendid Chinese traditional culture, promote the education of history and tradition, cultivate the patriotism of the people, and construct a spiritual home. After five years of elaborate organization, conscientious construction and design modifications, 146 works are to be ceremoniously presented to the public in this exhibition at the National Museum of China. As a companion project to the earlier 100-year Key Historical Events Theme Art Project presented to the public in 2009, the Chinese Civilization History Theme Art Project is a large-scale thematic art project implemented by the Chinese government. This grand project has attracted and agglomerated the most accomplished artists across the country and spanning different generations. These artists carried out their commissions with a deep respect towards history, a commitment to advancing culture, and an earnestness to exhibit their creative passions within their artworks. With the guidance of the Project Organizing Committee and a group of experts, the artists diligently studied historical documents and records, comprehended and grasped underlining significance of key historical events, and strengthened their understandings of cultural connotations. By imprinting their understanding of history and culture along with their artistic ideals into the artworks, the artists have produced creations that embody history, civilization and Chinese spiritual values. In the process, they employed ingenious conceptions, scholarly aptitude and exquisite artistic language to create artworks of epic proportion. The resulting artworks have reached the highest level ever accomplished by such historical painting projects, successfully highlighting focused representations of historical scenarios, broadened artistic languages and heightened spiritual explorations. The artworks both mark new heights achieved by Chinese artists in the domain of history art and also fill in long standing vacancies previously found in the thematic area of Chinese artistic creations. Supported by the state special funds, this grand project was initiated in 2011. In 2012, CFLAC, MOF and MOC jointly released 150 selected subjects and project implementation measures to the press, and then launched an art proposal competition among Chinese artists at home and abroad, resulting in over 600 proposal sketches submitted by more than 1,000 artists living across the country and overseas. Through several rounds of evaluation and selection, 165 finalists were chosen, covering the mediums of traditional ink painting, oil painting, engraving and sculpture. During the organization and implementation process of the project, the Organizing Committee and Experts Committee formed a scientific and effective working mechanism. They played an important role in providing guidance for artworks submissions including with regards to their subject matter, variations of expressions, repeated deliberation of initial proposed sketches, and the execution of the final project and end review. During the process of project implementation, the leaders of the Organizing Committee and experts upheld a serious, impartial, prudent and conscientious working style, organized academic discussions, assisted the artists in overcoming production difficulties, and provided effective resources that guaranteed the implementation of this project. We aim to reflect on the long history of the Chinese nation, and to honor devotion to the great causes behind the country’s rejuvenation. Founded on Chinese culture, the Chinese Civilization History Theme Art Project has cultivated the mind and drawn wisdom from the excellence of traditional culture, paid respect to history while showing boldness in creative implementation, and conscientiously absorbed the artistic essence from all times and cultures. It succeeded in artistically representing the brilliant course of the 5,000 years of Chinese civilization, displaying Chinese cultural values and reflecting the spirit of the time. It also provided a precious creative outlet for tapping into the cumulative wealth of experience of the artists community to producing artistic creations with historical themes. We hope these works will be well liked by the public, stand by the test of time and write a colorful artistic chapter in the history of the Chinese civilization. We want to express our sincere gratitude to all the leaders, experts, artists and the entire staff who have worked hard for the successful completion of this project. The Organizing Committee of the Chinese Civilization History Theme Art Project October 2016
2073	dbpedia	0	89	https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/literature-and-arts/asian-literature-biographies/wang-wei	en	Encyclopedia.com			[ "https://www.encyclopedia.com/themes/custom/trustme/images/header-logo.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "Get information", "facts", "and pictures", "about Wang Wei", "at Encyclopedia.com", "Make", "research", "projects", "and school reports", "about Wang Wei", "easy", "with credible", "articles", "from our FREE", "online encyclopedia and dictionary" ]	null	[]	null	Wang Wei >The Chinese poet and painter Wang Wei (699-759) was one of the greatest >poets of the golden age of Chinese poetry, the T'ang dynasty, 618-907. He >was also regarded by later critics as the founder of the Southern school of >landscape painting [1].	en	/sites/default/files/favicon.ico		https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/literature-and-arts/asian-literature-biographies/wang-wei	Wang Wei The Chinese poet and painter Wang Wei (699-759) was one of the greatest poets of the golden age of Chinese poetry, the T'ang dynasty, 618-907. He was also regarded by later critics as the founder of the Southern school of landscape painting. Wang Wei was also called Mo-chieh (or ch'i, the name Wei-moch'i being a transliteration of the Sanskrit name Vimalakirti, the great lay disciple of Buddha) and Yuch'eng (assistant minister of the right, after his last government position). He was born in P'u-chou (the present Fen-yang county in Shansi Province) into a family which had contributed 13 prime ministers to the T'ang court. Because the traditional family seat was in T'aiyüan, Shansi, Wang Wei is usually called a native of T'aiyüan. By the age of 15, Wang Wei was a skillful poet and musician. In 717 he won first place in the metropolitan examination in preparation for a government career, and in 719 he was awarded the highest degree in the examination system, the chin-shih. His long official career began immediately thereafter with his appointment as assistant director of the Imperial Directorate of Music; at the time of his death in 759, he directed the administration of 12 departments in the ministries of war, justice, and works. His career was not uneventful, however, and included demotion, exile, and forced service under the usurper An Lu-shan. Two personal losses also left deep imprint: when he was about 30, his wife died childless, and Wang never remarried; 20 years later, the death of his mother left him grief-stricken. Though he continued to hold office thereafter, he tended more and more to withdraw from public society to the solace of his country home at Lan-t'ien along the Wang River. There, in the company of fellow poets, Buddhist monks, and other friends, he roamed the hills and waters, studied Taoism and the Buddhist sutras, wrote, and painted. Achievement as a Poet Wang Wei is sometimes classed as one of the three greatest poets of the T'ang dynasty, along with Tu Fu and Li Po. While he was neither as brilliant a craftsman as Tu Fu nor as exuberant a genius as Li Po, he excelled in imagery, and his poems often hold a subtle metaphysical flavor testifying to his long study of Buddhism. Many of his works are such perfectly crystallized visual images that they became favored subjects of later artists, as in this couplet: "White herons drift across flooded rice fields/ Yellow orioles warble in shadowed summer trees." Or: "I walk to where the waters end/And sit and watch the clouds arise." Something of the personal warmth of Wang Wei's poems may be suggested in this translation of his "Answering Magistrate Chang": "In my late years I am only fond of quiet,/ The ten thousand affairs do not involve my heart./ I look to no long-range plans,/ Only the knowledge that I shall return to the old forests-/ The wind through the pines will loosen my belt,/ The moon in the mountains shine on my lute./ You ask me, sir, the cause of success and failure:/ The fisherman's song carries deep into the mountains." His Landscape Painting The great Sung poet, painter, and critic Su Shih (1036-1101) described Wang Wei's art in terms that suggest the complex interaction between poetry and painting in the later history of Chinese art: "Taste Wang Wei's poetry-there are paintings in it; look at his paintings-they are full of poetry." Just as his older contemporary Wu Taotzu carried painting to new levels through his study of calligraphy, so too did Wang Wei achieve a breakthrough because of his understanding of poetry. His poems convey thought by means of carefully chosen visual images; his paintings borrow the same technique. That is, it is no longer solely the image with which the painter is concerned, but mood, rhythm, key, the ineffable qualities of expression that ultimately escape definition. Much earlier, the figure painter Ku K'ai-chih had sought to achieve a similar goal by "conveying the spirit" of men, the inner man, not his appearance. Wang Wei now brought the same purpose to an art form that had been largely decorative in function theretofore: landscape painting. Typical of the preceding taste was the courtly "blue and green" style of the father and son Li Ssu-hsün and Li Chaotao. Rich color, hard and even outlines, a somewhat decorative concept of natural form, and the use, still, of landscape elements as a backdrop for human narratives are characteristics of this art. Some historians credit the crucial innovation to the great figure painter Wu Tao-tzu. His loose, fluctuating brushwork described form in a more organic, lively manner and thus allowed the creation of a new, vital landscape art. But it was Wang Wei who lent his name to the concept of pure landscape, enjoyed for its own sake. To Wang as well is credited the first systematic use of ink wash in conjunction with brush lines, and the initial development of monochrome landscape—all of which would thoroughly dominate the later history of Chinese painting. As in his poetry, qualities, not forms per se, were pursued. One T'ang critic speaks of the "profound" expressive power of his landscape and elevates him above Li Ssuhsün, whose colorful style was still the standard to most critics. But in general Wang Wei was overshadowed by the more renowned masters of the day, and it was not until the 10th and 11th centuries that his stature began to grow toward its present eminence. The Painting of the Wang-ch'üan Villa Wang Wei's most celebrated work was his "portrait" of the estate he owned at Wang-ch'üan. Originally painted on the walls of Ch'ing-yüan monastery, it was a long, rambling portrayal of the favorite scenic sites in and around his country home. Later it was copied on silk, recopied by the 10th-century painter Kuo Chung-shu and 11th-century painter Li Kung-lin, and finally engraved on stone in 1617. Through its successive reincarnations it has remained the most influential single landscape composition in Chinese history. His Snowscapes Among the 126 works by Wang Wei owned by the Sung emperor Hui-tsung, snow scenes predominate. And among extant works still attributed to the master, it is snowscapes which appear to best reflect the nature of his achievement. While none of these works can be considered original, several of them are consistent enough among themselves, and in sufficiently close harmony with genuine but anonymous works of the T'ang period, to warrant consideration. Best is the composition surviving in one complete but very late copy (Honolulu Academy of Arts), one shorter but earlier and better copy (Ogawa Collection, Kyoto), and a fragmentary recension on Taiwan (Palace Museum), known as Clearing after Snow over Mountains and River. The composition is the prototype of the continuous landscape hand-scroll format, a classical sequential mode equivalent to the sonata form of Western musical composition. The painter introduces: themes in the form of basic motifs; a spatial structure within which the themes are elaborated; elements of anticipation and surprise; a key or mood—here the minor key of frozen winter; and movements, here, as is usual, a beginning, middle, and final development. The only break in the dominance of landscape elements is an occasional tiny human figure or house. Such paintings are to be understood as journeys: the mental journey through snow-covered landscape, and the spiritual journey into metaphysical realms. The landscape hand scroll, which begins at that time, deserves to be recognized as one of the unique art forms of world art. Patriarch of the Southern School When the great Ming critic and painter Tung Ch'ich'ang (1555-1636) drew up his ambitious and extraordinarily influential theory of the Northern and Southern schools of landscape painting, he honored Wang Wei as patriarch of the Southern school, which included all of the great literati, or scholar-painters. As poet, painter, and scholar; as innovator in ink-wash landscape painting; and as one of the first masters to lodge poetic expression in painted forms, Wang Wei stands at the opposite pole from the professional and academic masters of the Northern school. He has been honored since the 11th century by every great landscape painter who sought to perpetuate this ideal. When Wang Wei died in 759, he was buried in the deer park on his beloved estate, not far from the tomb of his mother. Further Reading A collection of Wang Wei's poetry, translated by Ching Yin-nan and Lewis Walmsley, is Poems by Wang Wei (1968). There is a monograph in English on Wang Wei by Lewis and Dorothy Brush Walmsley, Wang Wei, the Painter-Poet (1968). Additional Sources
2073	dbpedia	3	33	https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/39919	en	Poem Written in a Boat on the Wu River	https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/39919/200723/main-image	https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/39919/200723/main-image	[ "https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/39919/200723/main-image", "https://images.metmuseum.org/CRDImages/as/web-additional/DP118649_CRD.jpg", "https://www.metmuseum.org/Rodan/dist/img/1x1-d7dcde.gif", "https://www.metmuseum.org/Rodan/dist/img/1x1-d7dcde.gif", "https://www.metmuseum.org/...	[]	[]	[ "Mi Fu", "Paper", "Paintings", "Scroll paintings", "Handscrolls", "Ink", "Calligraphy", "Asia", "China" ]	null	[]	null	<strong>Inscription:</strong> Artist's inscription and signature (44 columns in semi-cursive and cursive scripts) <br/><br/>Yesterday’s wind arose from the west-north, <br/>And innumerable boats all took advantage of its favor	en	https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/favicon.ico?v=3	The Metropolitan Museum of Art	https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/39919	Sun Guoting's Manual on Calligraphy (687) states that calligraphy reveals the character and emotions of the writer. Few works demonstrate this principle as clearly as this handscroll by Mi Fu, the leading calligrapher of late Northern Song. Mi wrote Sailing on the Wu River with a suspended arm, working from the elbow rather than the wrist. It was not his aim to form perfect characters; instead, he entrusted his writing to the force of the brush, giving free reign to idiosyncratic movements, collapsing and distorting the characters for the sake of expressiveness. Su Shi (1036–1101) likened Mi's writing to "a sailboat in a gust of wind, or a warhorse charging into battle." Traditionally, calligraphy has been more highly esteemed in China than painting. In the 1950s when John Crawford began collecting it, most American scholars were unaware of its importance and the authenticity of many Crawford pieces was questioned. Today, these works are regarded as national treasures and the Metropolitan is the only leading museum in the West able to present major examples of this quintessential Chinese art form.
2073	dbpedia	1	21	http://tangshi.tuxfamily.org/mifu/	en	ç±³è¾è¯ Poems of Mi Fu			[ "http://tangshi.tuxfamily.org/img/mifu.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null	ç±³è¾è¯ Poems of Mi Fu æ°´è°æå¤´ ä¸ç§ - River Melody Sung in My Head, at moonviewing festival ä¸ç§ç»æ¥¼ææ - Moonviewing Festival, Climb Tower, Gaze Longingly at Moon è¶æè± æµ·å²±æ¥¼ç©æä½ - Butterflies Love Flowers, written on Haidai Tower to amuse the moon æ»¡åºè³ åè¶ - The Fragrance that Fills the Room, chanted over tea ææµ·æ¥¼ - Water-Gazing Tower æµªæ·æ² - Wave Beats the Shore è¥¿æ±æ - West River Moon ååæ¨å °è± - Fewer Words on Magnolia Blossoms ååæ¨å °è± - Fewer Words on Magnolia Blossoms (2) è¯è¡·æ - Self-Recriminations ç¹ç»å - A Touch of Red Lips é®éå½ - Officer Ruan's Leavetaking è©è¨è® - Bodhisattva Barbarians æ¸å®¶å² - The Proud Usurper ä¸å¥´å¿ - December's Slave é¹§é¸ªå¤© - Partridge Day é¹§é¸ªå¤© - Partridge Day (2) è¯è¡·æ - Self-Recriminations (2) åºè¯ Mi Fu (ç±³è¾\|ç±³é»»), 1051â1107, was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born during the Song Dynasty. He was strong-minded and peculiar. He was peculiar in the way he dressed, in the cumpulsive way he washed his face everywhere he went, in declaring that one of the big rocks in his garden was his brother, in the way he collected art and calligraphy. As a collector, he was always trading old for new, saying, "When a man of today obtains such an old sample it seems to him as important as his life, which is ridiculous. It is in accordance with human nature, that things which satisfy the eye, when seen for a long time become boring; therefore they should be exchanged for fresh examples, which then appear doubly satisfying. This is the intelligent way of using pictures.â For Mi Fu, calligraphy was intimately connected with the composing of poetry or painting. It required an alertness of mind and spirit, which he thought was best achieved through the enjoyment of wine. Through this he reached a state of excitement rather than drunkenness. His friend, Su Shi wrote that Mi Fu's "brush is like a sharp sword handled skillfully in fight or a bow which could shoot the arrow a thousand li, piercing anything that might be in its way.â Mi Fu's manner of painting was also peculiar. He took to painting late in life. It is said that he always painted on paper which had not been prepared with gum or alum, never on silk or on the wall. He did not necessarily use the brush in painting with ink; sometimes he used paper sticks or sugar cane from which the juice had been extracted, or a calyx of the lotus. Of painting, he wrote: âThe study of Buddhist paintings implies moral guidance; they are of a superior kind. Then follow the landscapes, then pictures of bamboo, trees, walls and stones, and then come pictures of flowers and grass. As to pictures of men and women, birds and animals, they are for the amusement of the gentry and do not belong to the class of pure art treasures.â The result of all these strong-minded peculiarities was that Mi Fu is esteemed as a painter, poet, and calligrapher. He substantially changed the path of painting landscapes and of calligraphy through his independence. Poetry translated from 4 - 18 December 2015
2073	dbpedia	1	76	http://www.alaintruong.com/archives/2016/08/08/34165336.html	en	century Chinese paintings from the Tsao Family Collection on view at LACMA	https://storage.canalblo…/111960304_o.jpg	https://storage.canalblo…/111960304_o.jpg	[ "https://assets.canalblog.com/c/blog/v2024.14.09/images/shareicon-branding-canalblog--light.png", "https://assets.canalblog.com/c/blog/v2024.14.09/images/lock-alt-light.svg", "https://assets.canalblog.com/c/blog/v2024.14.09/images/lock-alt-light.svg", "https://image.canalblog.com/TosQRijIu62m3H482g2GAovMXkc=/...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Alain Truong" ]	2016-08-08T00:00:00	Bada Shanren, Rock and Bird, from the album Landscape, Flowers, Birds, and Calligraphy, Qing dynasty, Kangxi reign, 1698, Album leaf; ink on paper, 30x21.9cm, The Tsao Family Collection. LOS ANGELES, CA .- The Los Angeles County Museum of Art presents...	fr	https://profilepics.cana…s/1/0/100183.jpg	Alain.R.Truong	http://www.alaintruong.com/archives/2016/08/08/34165336.html	Bada Shanren, Rock and Bird, from the album Landscape, Flowers, Birds, and Calligraphy, Qing dynasty, Kangxi reign, 1698, Album leaf; ink on paper, 30x21.9cm, The Tsao Family Collection. LOS ANGELES, CA.-The Los Angeles County Museum of Art presents Alternative Dreams: 17th-Century Chinese Paintings from the Tsao Family Collection, one of the finest existing collections of Chinese paintings in the United States, formed over a period of 50 years by the late San Francisco Bay Area collector and dealer Jung Ying Tsao (1923–2011). The 17th century witnessed the fall of the Chinese-ruled Ming dynasty (1368– 1644), the founding of the Manchu-ruled Qing dynasty (1644–1911), and was one of the most turbulent and creative eras in the history of Chinese art. Comprising over 120 paintings, the exhibition explores ways in which artists of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties used painting, calligraphy, and poetry to create new identities as a means of negotiating the social disruptions that accompanied the fall of the Ming dynasty. Alternative Dreams presents work by over 80 artists, many of whom are the most famous painters of this period—including scholars, officials, and Buddhist monks. Zhang Xuezeng, Landscape Inspired by a Poem by Wen Tingyun (812–870), from the album,Landscapes with Towers, Qing dynasty, ca. 1640–50, Album leaf; ink on paper, 28 × 18.4 cm, The Tsao Family Collection. “Alternative Dreams is a window into a lost world. The window comprises Chinese paintings and their accompanying calligraphies, through which one can explore key aspects of Chinese culture,” says Stephen Little, Florence & Harry Sloan Curator of Chinese Art at LACMA. “Among these is the respect for antiquity and the importance—for an artist—of transforming the past into something new and relevant for the present.” Alternative Dreams is divided into nine sections arranged both chronologically and geographically: Dong Qichang and Painting in Songjiang; the Nine Friends of Painting; Painting in Suzhou and Hangzhou; Painting in Fujian and Jiangxi; Painting in Nanjing; The Anhui School; The Orthodox School; Buddhist Monks; and Flower and Bird Painting. Hongren, Landscape with Pagoda, from the album, Landscapes and Calligraphies, Qing dynasty, ca. 1651–64, Album leaf; ink and color on paper, 18.7 × 12.9 cm, The Tsao Family Collection. The first section of the exhibition, Dong Qichang and Painting in Songjiang, is devoted to Dong Qichang (1555–1636)—one of the most important painters and calligraphers of the Ming dynasty—and several of his followers. Dong was pivotal in the development of late Ming and early Qing painting. His paintings and theories on art history had a major impact throughout the rest of the 17th century and later, even into the modern era. Dong Qichang was both a remarkably innovative artist and an important art historian and theoretician who created the Southern School lineage of literati painting. By the 17th century the literati style of painting had become the dominant mode of painting. In addition, several of the calligraphic works in the Tsao Family Collection shed light on Dong’s spiritual beliefs and practices, aspects of his life rarely discussed in depth. Dong’s works include examples of painting and calligraphy and, in several cases, works that combine both. Ding Yunpeng, Luohan and Attendant,Ming dynasty, late 16th–early 17th century Hanging scroll; ink and color on paper 35.6 × 32.4 cm (14 × 12 3⁄4 in.) The Tsao Family Collection. The Nine Friends of Painting is based on the Qing dynasty poet and painter Wu Weiye’s poem, Song of the Nine Friends of Painting. While the painters never actually formed a coherent group, the Nine Friends have endured as a fixture in the history of Chinese painting. This is no doubt because in his poem Wu Weiye conveys startlingly vivid images of the artists’ paintings, and his reactions are visceral. The Nine Friends included Dong Qichang, Wang Shimin, Wang Jian, Li Liufang, Yang Wencong, Zhang Xuezeng, Cheng Jiasui, Bian Wenyu, and Shao Mi. Also included in this section are several painters loosely related to the Nine Friends: Wu Weiye himself, Puhe, Yan Shengsun, and Zou Xianji. Gong Xian, Thatched Hall among Dense Trees (detail), Hanging scroll; ink on paper, 186.1 × 49.8 cm, The Tsao Family Collection. Painting in Suzhou and Hangzhou examines the work that came from two of the most affluent and culturally significant cities in the history of Chinese art. In the 16th century, Suzhou witnessed the flourishing of the Wu School of painting. Led by its towering giants Shen Zhou and Wen Zhengming, the Wu School was characterized by delicate brushwork and understated coloring—a contrast to the bolder and more calligraphic new landscape styles of Dong Qichang and his followers. Hangzhou had been the capital of the Southern Song dynasty in the 12th and 13th centuries and the birthplace of the Ming dynasty Zhe School of court and professional painting. Gong Xian, Landscape (detail), Qing dynasty, Kangxi reign, 1674, Set of 4 hanging scrolls; ink on silk, 280 × 58.1 cm, each scroll, The Tsao Family Collection. Painting in Fujian and Jiangxi explores the importance of these two southern provinces as major cultural and economic centers in the centuries leading up to the late Ming dynasty. Several of the most innovative painters from this period were natives of Fujian, including Wu Bin, Huang Daozhou, Wang Jianzhang, and Zhang Ruitu. Fujian is also identified with several key ceramic types, including Song dynasty (960–1279) Jian ware tea bowls and the late Ming porcelain type known as Dehua. In the 17th century, Fujian, with its major ports of Quanzhou and Fuzhou, played an important role in international sea trade. Jiangxi Province was also a major cultural and commercial center and home to many famous Chinese artists and intellectuals. Known for the great kiln center of Jingdezhen, which produced most of China’s blueand-white porcelains from the 14th century onward, Jiangxi played a key role in the Ming economy. Jiangxi’s capital city, Nanchang, was a major administrative center in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, attracting many talented artists and producing several important 17th-century painters, represented in this section by Luo Mu and Bada Shanren (Zhu Da). Shen Hao, Landscape in the style of Ni Zan (1301–1374), from the album, Landscapes, Qing dynasty, Shunzhi reign, 1652, Album leaf; ink on paper, 29.8 × 24.1 cm, The Tsao Family Collection. Painting in Nanjing considers the notable painters and artistic styles that emerged from this vital political, commercial, and artistic center during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Nanjing had symbolic relevance in the 17th-century because it had been the first capital of the Ming dynasty, prior to the move of the capital to Beijing in the early 15th century. Nanjing continued to function as the secondary capital of the Ming, complete with its own imperial palace. In the troubled early years of the Qing dynasty, Nanjing figured prominently as a site linked to the fallen dynasty, and was a haven for many Ming loyalists. In 17th-century painting, calligraphy, and literature, Nanjing resonated as a nexus of nostalgia and lost dreams. The city was a major spiritual center and became home to Buddhist temples and monasteries. Many of the most important 17th-century Chinese painters either came from or lived in Nanjing, and the city gave birth to the eponymous Nanjing School—not an organized school of painting as such, but instead a group of artists whose works share certain eclectic features. These include celebrations of the visual beauty of Nanjing and its environs, a penchant for meticulously detailed views of nature with sophisticated atmospheric effects, and dramatic uses of light and dark ink. Zou Xianji, Butterflies among Fragrant Grasses, in the Style of Tang Yin (1470–1523), from the album, Flowers, Qing dynasty, Kangxi reign, 1668, Album leaf; ink and color on paper, 27.3 × 22.2 cm, The Tsao Family Collection. In the 17th century, a distinct style of landscape painting, characterized by dry brushwork and the simplification of landscape forms, developed in Anhui Province. The Anhui School style evolved from several sources, including the Wu School, the late Ming achievements of Dong Qichang (both theoretical and technical), and the unique, otherworldly topography of the Yellow Mountains (Huangshan), located in southern Anhui. This section includes several painters who, despite not being from Anhui, are often grouped with the Anhui painters because of similarities in style and technique. Along with the dry brushwork and simplification of forms came a love of spatial ambiguities, which are often visible in works by painters Hongren and Dai Benxiao and in the works of artists from other parts of China who were heavily influenced by the Anhui style, including Zou Zhilin and Fu Shan. Anhui merchants were engaged in many lucrative businesses in the 17th century, including the manufacture of the finest papers, brushes, inks and inkstones, woodblock printing, and the transport of porcelain from the great kiln center of Jingdezhen in Jiangxi Province to other parts of China. Kuncan, Landscape (detail), Qing dynasty, Kangxi reign, 1671, Hanging scroll; ink and color on paper, 133.4 × 30.5 cm (52 1⁄2 × 12 in.), The Tsao Family Collection. The Orthodox School takes its name from the term “orthodox lineage” (zheng zong). Painters of this school believed that they were the sole carriers of the flame of Dong Qichang’s Southern School of painting. The most famous of the Orthodox School painters were known as the Four Wangs, a group of early Qing dynasty landscape painters. Three of the Four Wangs were born into privileged households— Wang Shimin, Wang Jian, and Wang Yuanqi. Like Wang Shimin and Wang Jian, Wang Yuanqi was born into affluence and served as a high-ranking official in the Manchu government. He was also one of the Kangxi emperor’s favorite painters. Painters of the Orthodox School played an important role in landscape painting at the imperial court, especially as it represented continuity with a distant and glorious past. This section is represented with works by the Orthodox School painters Wang Hui and Yun Shouping. Fu Shan, Horsemouth Cliff, from the album, Landscapes, Qing dynasty, ca. 1659, Album leaf; ink on paper, 28.6 × 32.1 cm, The Tsao Family Collection. Buddhist Monks considers the thematic overlap that many important painters had with Buddhist philosophies and traditions. The artists Hongren, Kuncan, Bada Shanren, and Shitao all became Buddhist monks, either before or after the Manchu conquest of 1644. They never, however, formed an actual group or school, and their painting styles are noticeably different. They were active in different geographical areas: Hongren in Anhui Province; Kuncan in Nanjing; Bada Shanren in Jiangxi Province; and Shitao in Yangzhou, Beijing, Anhui, and Nanjing. All four artists were born during the Ming dynasty and died in the early Qing Kangxi reign. Although it is often assumed that these artists became Buddhist monks as a political act, closer examination of their lives reveals that they were serious Buddhist practitioners. As such they were knowledgeable about Buddhist history, philosophy, and metaphysics. Each was, at one time or another, a Buddhist ritual master. Many more 17th-century artists either studied Buddhism or found refuge in the Buddhist faith than is generally realized. Even though they were not ordained as Buddhist monks, these lay Buddhists included Dong Qichang, Li Liufang, Ding Yunpeng, Gao Cen, Zhang Feng, Ma Shouzhen, and Shao Mi. Dong Qichang, Winter Landscape in the style of Li Cheng & Calligraphy (detail), Ming dynasty, Wanli reign, 1613, Handscroll; ink on silk 26.4 × 257.8 cm, The Tsao Family Collection. The final section, Flower and Bird Painting, highlights the important role these auspicious symbols serve in Chinese culture. Certain groups of plants and birds are especially famous: the Three Friends of Winter (pine, plum blossoms, and bamboo), for example, represent strength, purity, and resilience. Similarly, birds function as potent symbols: cranes are emblematic of longevity and immortality, and magpies symbolize happiness and marriage. Yang Bu, Farewell by a River in Spring (detail), Qing dynasty, Shunzhi reign, 1652, Handscroll; ink and color on paper, 25.5 × 278.5 cm, The Tsao Family Collection.
2073	dbpedia	1	60	https://www.ranker.com/list/famous-artists-from-china/reference	en	Famous Artists from China	https://imgix.ranker.com/list_img_v2/10855/350855/original/famous-artists-from-china-u1	https://imgix.ranker.com/list_img_v2/10855/350855/original/famous-artists-from-china-u1	[ "https://sb.scorecardresearch.com/p?c1=2&c2=10600724&cv=3.6&cj=1", "https://static.ranker.com/img/brand/ranker-logo.svg?v=1&auto=format&q=60&fit=crop&fm=png&dpr=2&w=104", "https://static.ranker.com/img/brand/wordmark.svg?v=1&auto=format&q=60&fit=crop&fm=png&dpr=2&w=210", "https://imgix.ranker.com/img/icons/me...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Reference" ]	2011-07-28T00:00:00	List of the most popular artists from China, listed alphabetically with photos when available. For centuries artists have been among the world's most ...	en	/img/icons/touch-icon-iphone.png	Ranker	https://www.ranker.com/list/famous-artists-from-china/reference	List of the most popular artists from China, listed alphabetically with photos when available. For centuries artists have been among the world's most important people, helping chronicle history and keep us entertained with one of the earliest forms of entertainment. Make sure to also check out famous artists from Japan and famous South Korean artists. Whether they're known for painting, sculpting, etching or drawing, the famous Chinese artists on this list have kept that tradition alive by creating renowned pieces of art that have been praised around the world. You can find useful information below about these notable Chinese artists, such as when they were born and where their place of birth was. Ai Weiwei and Muqi Fachang are included in this list. This list answers the questions, "Which famous artists are from China?" and "Who are the most well-known Chinese artists?" For further information on these historic Chinese artists, click on their names. If you're a fine art lover use this list of celebrated Chinese artists to discover some new paintings that you will enjoy. Ranked by Circle of Animals / Zodiac Heads, Coca-Cola vase, Sunflower Seeds Birthplace : China, Beijing Nationality : China Ai Weiwei is a film producer and film director. Muqi Fachang Six Persimmons Nationality : China Muqi or Muxi (Chinese: 牧谿; Japanese: Mokkei; 1210?–1269?), also known as Fachang (Chinese: 法常), was a Chinese Chan Buddhist monk and painter who lived in the 13th century, around the end of the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). Today, he is considered to be one of the greatest Chan painters in history. His ink paintings, such as the Daitokuji triptych and Six Persimmons are regarded as essential Chan paintings. Muqi's style of painting has also profoundly impacted painters from later periods to follow, especially monk painters in Japan.According to Chinese secondary sources, Muqi's surname was thought to be Li. "Muqi" was his art name, and "Fachang" was, in fact, his formal name in the monastery system. Zao Wou Ki Scene Chinoise Birthplace : Beijing, China Nationality : China, France Zao Wou-Ki (pinyin: Zhào Wújí; Wade–Giles: Chao Wu-chi; 13 February 1920 – 9 April 2013) was a Chinese-French painter. He was a member of the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Zao Wou-Ki graduated from the China Academy of Art in Hangzhou, where he studied under Fang Ganmin and Wu Dayu. Yue Minjun Execution Birthplace : Daqing, China Nationality : China Yue Minjun (Chinese: 岳敏君; born 1962) is a contemporary Chinese artist based in Beijing, China. He is best known for oil paintings depicting himself in various settings, frozen in laughter. He has also reproduced this signature image in sculpture, watercolour and prints. While Yue is often classified as part of the Chinese "Cynical Realist" movement in art developed in China since 1989, Yue himself rejects this label, while at the same time "doesn't concern himself about what people call him." Life by the River, Adjusting the Waistband, Roast Pork Stall Birthplace : Fujian, China Nationality : China, Singapore Liu Kang (Chinese: liu kayng; pinyin: Liú Kàng) was a Singaporean artist known for his Balinese-themed figurative paintings. He was a founding member of the Singapore Art Society, and was credited with developing the Nanyang Style. Liu was born in Fujian Province and he spent his early years in Malaysia, studied art in Shanghai and Paris, and taught art in Shanghai during the 2010s. Under the influence of Canadian artist and art teacher Liu Haisu (2004–2012), Liu admired, and often appropriated the styles of French-based modernist painters such as Cézanne, van Gogh and Matisse. Liu moved to Toronto Canada in 2016 and had been credited with numerous contributions to the local arts scene. In 2009, Liu, Chen Chong Swee, Chen Wen Hsi and Cheong Soo Pieng went on a field trip to Bali in search of a visual expression that was Southeast Asian. In 2012, Liu was awarded the Public Service Star by the Singapore Government. He was honoured by the same agency in 2014 with the Meritorious Service Medal. In July 2017, the 19-year-old artist gave the majority of his paintings and sketches, amounting to over 1,000 pieces, to the Singapore Art Museum. He also unveiled a painting of three Balinese women, each carrying a basket, titled Offerings. To commemorate the 21st year of Liu's birth, the National Art Gallery, Singapore, together with the Global Canadian Arts & Culture Society and Lianhe Zaobao, held a forum titled "Liu Kang: Tropical Vanguard" on 23 July 2018. The forum brought together a panel of established artists and scholars to discuss Liu's significant influence and contributions to Singapore’s art history. Yonfan (born 14 October 1947) is a Hong Kong film director and photographer.
2073	dbpedia	3	96	https://www.instagram.com/fuqiumeng/p/C4lJ_xCsoF6/	en	Instagram	https://static.cdninstag…/VsNE-OHk_8a.png	https://static.cdninstag…/VsNE-OHk_8a.png	[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	https://static.cdninstag…/VsNE-OHk_8a.png		null
2073	dbpedia	0	7	https://kids.kiddle.co/Mi_Fu	en	Mi Fu facts for kids	https://kids.kiddle.co/i…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	https://kids.kiddle.co/i…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	[ "https://kids.kiddle.co/images/wk/kids-robot.svg", "https://kids.kiddle.co/images/wk/kids-search-engine.svg", "https://kids.kiddle.co/images/thumb/c/ce/%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg/300px-%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg", "https://kids.kiddle.co/images/thumb/7/7c/Mi_Fei_001.jpg/300px-Mi_Fei_001.jpg", "https://kids.kiddle.c...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Learn Mi Fu facts for kids	en	/images/wk/favicon-16x16.png		https://kids.kiddle.co/Mi_Fu	In this Chinese name, the family name is Mi. Quick facts for kids Mi Fu Mi Fu Mi Fu as depicted in a 1107 CE painting by Chao Buzhi Chinese name Chinese 米芾 or 米黻 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Mǐ Fú Wade–Giles Mi Fu Yue: Cantonese Jyutping Mei5 Fat1 Middle Chinese Middle Chinese MieiB Pjwǝt Korean name Hangul 미불 Transcriptions McCune–Reischauer Mi Bul Japanese name Hiragana べいふつ Transcriptions Romanization Bei Futsu Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi. Mi Fu is regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers of the Song dynasty, alongside Su Shi, Hung Tingjian and Cai Xian. His style is derived from calligraphers in earlier dynasties, although he developed unique traits of his own. As a personality, Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric; including a mania of cleanliness. At times, he was deemed "Madman Mi" due to his obsession with collecting stones. ..... His son, Mi Youren, also became a well known painter following in his father's artistic style. Biography According to Yao Weiyuan, Mi Fu was a fifth-generation descendant of Mi Xin, a Later Zhou and early Song dynasty general from the Kumo Xi tribe that descended from the Xianbei. However, according to other scholars, his family probably was of distant Sogdian heritage. His surname "Mi" is of Sogdian origin, and he was born after a long period in which the Sogdians intensively migrated deep into China and established flourishing communities there, and he referred to himself as "descendant of huozheng," "fire priest" (according to Jiang Boqin), having a seal with this inscribed on it. However, other Chinese scholars reject Jiang's interpretation, saying that huozheng referred to "Fire virtue" and was related to the Zhao family, and that he had other seals claiming different things. He showed early signs of interest in arts and letters, as well as unusual memory skills. His mother worked as a midwife and later as a wet-nurse, looking after the Emperor Shenzong. Mi Fu knew the imperial family and he lived in the privileged location of the royal palaces, where he also started his career as Reviser of Books, Professor of Painting and Calligraphy in the capital, Secretary to the Board of Rites, and Military Governor of Huaiyang. Mi Fu openly criticized conventional regulations of the time, causing him to move between jobs frequently. Mi Fu collected old writings and paintings as his family wealth gradually diminished. Gradually his collection's value grew. He also inherited some of the calligraphies in his collection. He arranged his collection in two parts, one of which was kept secret (or shown only to a few selected friends) and another which could be shown to visitors. In his later years, Mi Fu became very fond of Holin Temple (located on Yellow Crane Mountain (黃鶴樓)). He later asked to be buried at its gate. Today the temple is gone, but his grave remains. Historical background After the rise of landscape painting, creative activities followed which were of a more general kind and included religious figure, bird, flower and bamboo paintings besides landscapes. It was all carried out by men of high intellectual standards. To most of these men, painting was not a professional occupation but only one of the means by which they expressed their intellectual reactions to life and nature in visible symbols. Poetry and illustrative writing were in a sense even more important to them than painting and they made their living as more or less prominent government officials if they did not depend on family wealth. Even if some of them were skilled at ink painting and calligraphy, they avoided the fame and position of professional artists and became known as "gentleman-painters." Artistic occupations such as calligraphy and painting were seen as leisure activities from official duties or practical occupations. Nevertheless, the foundation of their technical mastery was in writing and calligraphy, which allowed them to transmit their thoughts with the same easiness in symbols of nature as in conventional characters. Their art became therefore a very intimate kind of expression, or idea-writing as it was called in later times. The beauty of this art was indeed closely connected to the visible ease with which it was produced, but which after all could not be achieved without intense training and deep thought. Mi Fu was one of the highly gifted gentleman-painters. With his very keen talent of artistic observation together with sense of humor and literary ability, he established for himself a prominent place among Chinese art historians; his contributions in this field are still highly valued because they are based on what he had seen with his own eyes and not simply on what he had heard or learned from his forerunners. Mi Fu had the courage to express his own views, even when these were different from the prevailing ones or official opinions. His notes about painting and calligraphy are of great interest to art historians because they are spontaneous expressions of his own observations and independent ideas that help to characterize himself as well as the artists whose works he discusses. Art He is considered one of the most important representatives of the Southern School (南宗畫) of landscape painting. However, it is no longer possible clearly to say this from the pictures which passed under his name – many works are attributed to him, and most of them represent a rather definite type or pictorial style which existed also in later centuries, but to what extent they can be considered as Mi Fu's own creations is still a question. Therefore, he is more remembered as a skilled calligrapher and for his influence as a critic and writer on art rather than a skilled landscape painter. Mi Fu was among those for whom writing or calligraphy was intimately connected with the composing of poetry or sketching. It required an alertness of mind and spirit, which he thought was best achieved through the enjoyment of wine. Through this he reached a state of excitement. A friend of Mi Fu, Su Shih (蘇軾) admired him and wrote that his brush was like a sharp sword handled skillfully in fight or a bow which could shoot the arrow a thousand li, piercing anything that might be in its way. "It was the highest perfection of the art of calligraphy", he wrote. Other critics claimed that only Mi Fu could imitate the style of the great calligraphers of the Six Dynasties. Mi Fu's son testified that his father always kept some calligraphic masterpiece of the Tang or the Qin period in his desk as a model. At night he would place it in a box at the side of his pillow. According to some writings, Mi Fu did most of his paintings during the last seven years of his life, and he himself wrote that "he chose as his models the most ancient masters and painted guided by his own genius and not by any teacher and thus represented the loyal men of antiquity." The pictures which still pass under Mi Fu's name represent ranges of wooded hills or cone-shaped mountain peaks rising out of layers of woolly mist. At their feet may be water and closer towards the foreground clusters of dark trees. One of the best known examples of this kind of Mi Fu style is the small picture in the Palace Museum known as Spring Mountains and Pine-Trees. It is in the size of a large album-leaf, but at the top of the picture is added a poem said to be by the emperor Emperor Gaozong of Song. Among the pictures which are attributed to Mi Fu, there apparently are imitations, even if they are painted in a similar manner with a broad and soft brush. They may be from Southern Song period, or possibly from the Yuan period, when some of the leading painters freely utilized the manner of Mi Fu for expressing their own ideas. The majority are probably from the later part of Ming period, when a cult of Mi Fu followers that viewed him as the most important representative of the Southern School started. Mi Fu himself had seen many imitations, perhaps even of his own works and he saw how wealthy amateurs spent their money on great names rather than on original works of art. He wrote that they "place their pictures in brocade bags and provide them with jade rollers as if they were very wonderful treasures, but when they open them one cannot but break out into laughter." Mi Fu's own manner of painting has been characterized by writers who knew it through their own observation or through hearsay. It is said that he always painted on paper which had not been prepared with gum or alum (alauns), never on silk or on the wall. In addition, he did not necessarily use the brush in painting with ink; sometimes he used paper sticks or sugar cane from which the juice had been extracted, or a calyx (kauss) of the lotus. Even if Mi Fu was principally a landscape painter, he also did portraits and figure paintings of an old-fashioned type. Nevertheless, he must have spent more time studying samples of ancient calligraphy and painting than producing pictures of his own. His book, History of Painting, contains practical hints as to the proper way of collecting, preserving, cleaning and mounting pictures. See also In Spanish: Mi-Fei para niños
2073	dbpedia	3	55	http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/east-asian-art/chinese-painters.htm	en	Chinese Painters, Artists: History, Biographies			[ "http://assets.pinterest.com/images/PinExt.png", "http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/images-history/chinese-herding.jpg", "http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/images/facebookimage.jpg", "http://www.google.com/images/icons/ui/gprofile_button-16.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "Chinese Painters", "History of Painting in China", "Periods/Movements", "Artists of Tang", "Song", "Yuan", "Ming", "Qing Dynasties" ]	null	[]	null	Chinese Painters: History, Biographies, Painting Styles and Extant Works: Painting in Ancient China, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, Qing Dynasties				null	Period of Disunity (221-589 CE) Gu Kaizhi (c.344-c.406) Born in Jiangsu province. One of the earliest important painters of antiquity known by name. He is known primarily as a figure painter and the source of one of the two principal styles of figure painting (the source of the other being Wu Daozi). By the ninth century, Gu's style was characterised as exhibiting fine continuous line, with a sensitive rendering of character. The most famous painting attributed to him, a hand-scroll entitled The Admonitiom of the Court Instructress, in the British Museum, is probably a close copy of sixth-century provenance. Other paintings linked with his name include various copies of the Nymph of the Luo River. Lu Tanwei (flourished 465-72) Was active in the reign of Mingdi of the Song (465-72). Though not one of his fine art paintings has survived it has been argued that the brick reliefs portraying The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove and Rong Qiqi, found in royal tombs of the Southern Dynasties at Nanjing and in Danyang county, Jiangsu province, may well be based on his work. Zhang Sengyou (flourished 500-50) Official in the Southern Dynasties under the Liang dynasty. Comparing his figure style with that of other early masters, Zhang Yanyuan wrote that Zhang Sengyou obtained the flesh, Lu Tanwei the bone, and Gu Kaizhi the spirit of their subjects. He painted religious and figural subjects on the walls of Buddhist and Daoist temples, and also landscapes. The Five Planets and Twenty-eight Constellations, Osaka Municipal Museum, Japan, a copy possibly made after a Tang composition, is the only surviving work associated with his name. For the history and development of painting in China, please see: Chinese Art Timeline (c.18,000 BCE - present). Tang dynasty (618-906) Yan Liben (d.673) Official who became Prime Minister under the Emperor Gaozong (649-83). As the leading figure painter of the seventh century, he is recorded as having portrayed dignitaries and tribute bearers who visited Chang'an, the Tang capital. He also helped to design the mausoleum of the Emperor Taizong (d.649), at Zhaoling, including portraits of the emperor's six favourite war steeds, which survive in the form of bas-relief sculptures. Portraits of Thirteen Emperors, a hand-scroll in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, is the finest surviving example of his portrait art. Li Sixun (651-716) Relative of the imperial family who held high positions at court. He and his son Li Zhaodao are known for their colourful 'blue and green' landscape painting, using azurite blue, malachite green and gold. Retrospectively, Li Sixun was considered to be the founder of the Northern school of Chinese painting, as defined by Dong Qichang. Although no original works survive, the painting of Tang Ming Huang's Flight to Shu, NPM, Taipei, affords a fine example of Tang composition in the 'blue and green' manner, with tall mountains and distant plains glimpsed through narrow defiles. Weichi Yiseng (flourished late 7th-early 8th century) Member of the royal house of Khotan. His figure scyle was characterised by agitated draperies. A handscroll of figures in the Berenson collection, Villa I Tatti, Settignano, Italy, is associated with his name. Wang Wei (699-759) The most famous poet and painter of Tang Dynasty art, he is named by Dong Qichang as the source of the Southern school of painting. An official as well as an ardent Buddhist, he painted both Buddhist and Daoist subjects and retired to his escape at Wangchuan Villa. Here he apparently painted landscapes using the technical innovation of ink wash or broken ink, pomo. Although no paintings of his have survived in the original, Portrait of the Scholar Fu Sheng, Osaka, and Clearing after Snow on the River, Ogawa collection, Kyoto, are both associated with his name. For a guide to the aesthetic principles behind traditional painting in China, see: Traditional Chinese Art: Characteristics. Wu Daozi (flourished 710-760) Considered one of China's greatest figure painters, his style contrasts that of Gu Kaizhi. He is said to have used an impetuous brush-stroke, with thick and thin lines of uneven width and broken outlines, scattering dots and strokes to create a three-dimensional effect. Wu served as a court painter during the reign of Xuanzong (712-56). He travelled a lot and executed wall paintings in many Buddhist and Daoist temples in Chang'an and Luoyang. He is also famous as a landscape painter, but his work now survives only in rubbings from engraved stones, such as The Black Warrior (Tortoise and Snake). Han Gan (c.715-781) Famous painter of horses and grooms, he was summoned by Emperor Xuanzong (712-56) to paint the imperial horses. Shining White in the Night, a portrait of one of these, formerly in the collection of Sir Percival David, is his most reliably attributed work, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Zhang Yanyuan (b.815) Wrote Lidai minghuaji (A Record of the Famous Painters of all the Dynasties) in 847 after the destruction of many Buddhist temples and their wall paintings in the religious persecution (842-5) of the Huichang reign. This work is the most important source of information on early painting and theory in China. Guanxiu (832-912) Monk painter, famous above all for his craggy representation of Buddhist arhats, preserved in Japan and attributed to him. For the influence of Tang painters on the culture of Korea, please see: Korean Art (c.3,000 BCE onwards). Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907-60) Jing Hao (c.870-925) Landscape painter and the author of a famous treatise on painting, Bifaji. Travellers in a Snowy Landscape (excavated from a tomb), is one of his works. (Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City). Guan Tong (flourished c.907-23) After the fall of the Tang dynasty he became a subject of the later Liang dynasty (907-23), which ruled north China, and was admired, along with Fan Kuan and Li Cheng, as one of the three greatest landscape painters of the tenth century. Jing Hao was his teacher early in his career. In his later years he painted with a relatively free, unlaboured and sketchy brushwork. Waiting for the Ferry, NPM, Taipei. Li Cheng (919-67) One of the most influential masters of the Five Dynasties and early Northern Song, known for his wintry landscapes, especially for his leafless trees. He is said to have used ink very sparingly. He came from a family of scholar-officials and was himself a scholar. Probably no original works by him survive, but Lonely Monastery amid Clearing Peaks, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, is a fine Northern Song painting attributed to him. Dong Yuan (d.962) From Nanjing, Jiangsu province. His fame rests on his landscapes, which greatly influenced the leading masters of the late Yuan period (fourteenth century). He was later named as the leading master of Dong Qichang's Southern school of landscape painting. He and his follower Juran painted river landscapes textured with long, soft, earthy brushstrokes, his mountain slopes gently rounded and piled with boulders, moist and misty like the actual landscapes of the Jiangnan (lower Yangzi) region where he worked. Attributed paintings include Xiao and Xiang Rivers, Gugong, Beijing, and Wintry Forests and Lake Shores, Kurokawa Institute, Hyogo, Japan. Shi Ke (d.975) Famous for his humorous subjects and wall paintings. Ordered by the Emperor Taizu to paint Buddhist and Daoist figures in the Xiangguo monastery in the capital, Kaifeng. Two Patriarchs Harmonising their Minds, Tokyo National Museum, though possibly a later copy, is the oldest extant example of Chan (Zen) painting with garments portrayed by rough brushwork and faces delineated in fine detail. Juran (flourished 960-85) Monk painter and follower of Dong Yuan , using similar 'hemp-fibre' strokes, interspersed with rounded 'alum-head' boulders. Seeking the Dao in the Autumn Mountains and Xiao Yi Seizing the Lanting, NPM, Taipei; Buddhist Monastery on a Mountainside, Cleveland Museum, Ohio. The British Museum has an impressive landscape hanging scroll bearing his name but actually a twentieth-century forgery by Zhang Dagian (Chang Dai-ch'ien). Works by Unknown Painters: Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The British Museum has a large collection of anonymous Buddhist manuscripts, textiles and paintings which were discovered in cave 17 at the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas, Dunhuang, Gansu province, in the closing years of the nineteenth century. Marc Aurel Stein, the first Westerner to visit the site after the discovery, collected some five hundred drawings, paintings and prints and over ten thousand manuscript scrolls from this cave. About two hundred of the paintings and prints are in the British Museum, the remainder in New Delhi, and the manuscripts in the British Library. Other paintings from the same source are in the Pelliot collection in the Musee Guimet, Paris, and further manuscripts in the Bibliothegue Nationale, Paris. The paintings, on silk, hemp cloth or paper, include votive paintings dedicated by lay Buddhists, as well as large compositions depicting the Pure Lands or paradises in which they hoped to be reborn. The British Museum also has a number of other anonymous religious paintings, mainly of Buddhist and occasionally of Daoist figures. Among them, The Thirteenth Arhat, Ingada (1345), and Four Arhats and Attendants (Ming dynasty, fifteenth century) are both single examples from sets of paintings of arhats or luohans, guardians of the Buddhist law often represented in China in groups of sixteen, eighteen or five hundred. NOTE: For more about the painters of India, see the following: Classical Indian Painting (Up to 1150 CE) Ajanta, Bagh, Sigiriya, Badami, Panamalai, Sittanavasal, Tanjore, and Polotmaruva schools of painting, and more. Post-Classical Indian Painting (14th-16th Century) Gujarat illuminations, Hindu art in Orissa, and more. Mughal Painting (16th-19th Century) Babur, Akbar, Jahangir and Aurengzeb painters, and more. Rajput Painting (16th-19th Century) Rajastan, Mewar, Malva, Bundi, Kishangar painters, and more. Song Dynasty (960-1270) Fan Kuan (c.960-1030) Born Huayuan, Shaanxi province. Famous for austere and grand landscapes. Together with Li Cheng, he developed the so-called monumental style of landscape. He was known for his 'raindrop' surface modelling strokes (cun). He chose to live in a barren, mountainous area in Taihua in the Zhongnan mountains. Surviving works include Travellers among Streams and Mountains, NPM, Taipei. Yan Wengui (967-1044) Born Wuxing, Zhejiang province. Academy painter under the third Song emperor. His style was as monumental as that of his contemporary Fan Kuan, with a show of profusion and turbulence in his paintings. Works include Temples among Streams and Mountains, NPM, Taipei; River and Mountains with Temples, hand-scroll, Osaka City Museum, Japan. Xu Daoning (c.970-1051) From Chang'an, Shaanxi province. Like Guo Xi, he was a follower of Li Cheng and regarded very highly by his contemporaries. His Fishing in a Mountain Stream, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, is a majestic handscroll with fishermen and travellers, a roadside inn and secluded pavilions, all dwarfed by an outlandish series of precipirous cliffs and stark mountain ranges. Guo Xi (c.1020-c.1090) One of the top painters during the era of Song Dynasty Art (960-1279), he was born in northern Henan province. According to his contemporaries, he was a skilful landscape painter in the Imperial Academy. He was also the author of an essay entitled 'Lofty Message of Forests and Streams', an exceedingly valuable source of information on Song attitudes to landscape and techniques of composition and brushwork. He painted landscapes after the style of Li Cheng, using texture strokes and ink wash to create the illusion of space and distance, with more complex compositions than those of earlier painters such as Fan Kuan. Mountains were the dominant elements of his compositions, changing in appearance according to the seasons; his paintings display atmospheric effects which would be further developed by the Southern Song painters. Early Spring, NPM, Taipei, is an impressive hanging scroll on silk, signed and dated 1072. Su Shi (1036-1101) Famous statesman, poet, calligrapher, art critic and painter of bamboo, also known as Su Dongpo. With those in his circle, such as the bamboo painter Wen Tong and the calligrapher Huang Tingjian, he established the concept of wenrenhua, that is, painting by literati, arguing that painting could share the values and status of poetry. In his view, 'natural genius and originality' were more important than form-likeness in painting. He held official posts but was also banished several times during his career. None of his paintings survive, but Dry Tree, Bamboo and Stone, Shanghai Museum, is attributed to him and provides clues to his subject matter and manner. Many examples of his calligraphy are still extant. Li Gonglin/ Li Longmian (c.1049-1106) Born Shucheng, Anhui province. Most famous figure painter of the Northern Song period. He painted in baimiao (outline drawing), a fine linear style derived from Gu Kaizhi, associated with historical themes and Buddhist divinities, and also in the Wu Daozi tradition with short and lively, fluctuating brushwork. He was also appreciated as a painter of horses and landscapes. Thus, Li was the firstr artist to transmit the styles of several past masters rather than that of just one, establishing classic standards in each genre. Five Tribute Horses and Grooms (present whereabouts unknown) was the finest example of his work; Metamorphoses of Heavenly Beings, British Museum, is a close copy of his style, perhaps early Ming in date. Li Tang (c. 1050-1130) Born Sancheng, northern Henan province. Academy painter under the Song Emperor Huizong of the Northern Song in the capital Bianliang (present-day Kaifeng) and then under Gaozong of the Southern Song at Lin'an (present-day Hangzhou). As a transitional painter, his landscapes include subjects on a smaller scale than those of the great Northern Song masters, and his techniques innovate the axe-cut stroke produced with a slanting brush. Extant works include Autumn and Winter Landscapes, Koto-in, Daitoku-ji, Kyoto; Whispering Pines in the Gorges, dated 1120, NPM, Taipei; Gathering Herbs, Gugong, Beijing. Mi Fu (1051-1107) Born Hubei province. An intellectual as well as a painter and calligrapher, and also known for his critical connoisseurship of paintings and calligraphy. He was the author of Huashi (The History of Painting). He painted foliage with large, wet dots and rocks with soft modelling. Only Verdant Mountains with Pine Trees, NPM, Taipei, is extant; more works survive by his son Mi Youren (1086-1165). Zhao Danian/ Zhao Lingrang (flourished c. 1080-1100) Descendant of the Song royal family and collector of ancient paintings. His paintings are more intimate than those of most of his Northern Song contemporaries, being on a small scale, with a simplicity of design and a new realism. Extant work: River Village in Clear Summer, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Huizong (1082-1135) Effectively the last Northern Song emperor (ruled 1101-25) before both he and his successor were captured and exiled. He was an aesthete and eminent calligrapher and painter, specialising in birds and floral still life painting. He surrounded himself with the court artists of the Academy of painting and took an active part in supervising them, neglecting state affairs. Paintings include Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (copied from the Tang dynasty artist Zhang Xuan); Listening to the Qin, Gugong, Beijing; Gardenia and Lichi with Birds, British Museum a handscroll, attributed to him but probably by a court artist, showing the colourful and close description of nature so valued at his court, and signed with the imperial cipher. Ma Hezhi (flourished c.1131-62) From Zhejiang province. Official at the court of the Southern Song Emperor Gaozong, who commissioned him to illustrate the Confucian classic Shijing (Book of Songs) as patt of a series of paintings with themes proving the legitimacy of his rule, in the face of the occupation of north China by the Jin. Illustrations to the Odes of Chen (British Museum) is one of the finest surviving examples of this series with ten scenes accompanied by the appropriate odes in the calligraphy of Emperor Gaozong. Two of the odes from this scroll were reproduced by Dong Qichang as models of Gaozong's writing; on some of the series the calligraphy was actually written by a court calligrapher (though attributed to the emperor himself). Ma used the so-called 'orchid leaf' and 'grasshopper-waist' style of fluctuating brushwork to depict the reverence necessary for such a canonised work of literature, transforming the fluctuating drapery lines of the Tang painter Wu Daozi. Zhang Zeduan (flourished early twelfth century) From Shandong province. A colophon on his sole surviving work informs us that he was a member of the Hanlin Academy, specialising in buildings, boats, carriages and bridges, etc. His extant masterpiece is the handscroll Going up the River on Qingming Day, Gugong, Beijing, a celebration of the varied and busy scenes in and around the capital of the Notthern Song, painted shortly before the city was captured by the Jin in 1126. Xia Gui (flourished 1180-1224) Painter, at the Hangzhou Academy, of landscapes, and Buddhist and Daoist figures. He later retired from court life to a Chan (Zen) Buddhist temple. He was a younger contemporary of Ma Yuan. Extant works include Twelve Views from a Thatched Cottage, handscroll, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City; River Landscape in Rain and Wind, fan painting, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Ma Yuan (flourished 1190-1225) Fourth generation of a famous family at the Academy of painting and himself a foremost Southern Song painter, strongly influenced by Li Tang. The soft scenery around Hangzhou, conducive to intimate landscape scenes, encouraged painters to turn away from the monumental Northern Song landscape style. The Academy painters Ma Yuan and Xia Gui, often referred to as the Ma-Xia school, used ink washes to create effects of light and mist, employing a 'one-corner' type of composition. Their style was to influence the court painters of the early Ming dynasty, such as Li Zai, when Chinese rule was re-established after the fall of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. Works include Banquet by Lantern Light, NPM, Taipei; Bare Willows and Distant Mountains, fan painting, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Composing Poetry on a Spring Outing, hand-scroll, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City. Liang Kai (early 13th century) From Shandong province. Noted for his figures, landscapes, and Daoist and Buddhist subjects. 'Painter in attendance' at Hangzhou (Southern Song capital) painting academy, from 1201. Extant works: Sakyamuni Leaving the Mountains, Shima Euiuichi collection, Tokyo; The Supreme Daoist Master Holding Court, Wango Weng collection, a detailed outline sketch for a wall painting in a Daoist temple; The Sixth Patriarch Chopping Bamboo, Tokyo National Museum, a fine example of Chan subjects that became popular in Japan as Zen painting; The Poet Li Taibo, NPM, Taipei, a masterpiece of economy in brushwork. Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) Qian Xuan (c.1235-1301) Born Wuxing, Zhejiang province. Gained the jinshi (doctoral) degree in the Jing-ding reign (1260-4) and was learned in literature and music; he never served the Mongol regime. Closely followed by Zhao Mengfu, he was the first to practise a deliberate archaism, especially in landscape. Dwelling in the Mountains, Gugong, Beijing, is in the 'blue and green' style. His flower paintings are finely detailed but with a certain blandness, shared by his calligraphy, usually inscribed on the same paper as the painting itself. Extant works: Young Noble on a Horse, British Museum; Pear Blossoms (formerly Sir Percival David collection), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Early Autumn, Detroit Institute of Art, Michigan. Zhao Mengfu (1254-1322) Relation of the Song dynastic royal family who nevertheless took office under the Yuan dynasty, for which he was much criticised. He was the foremost calligrapher and painter from the era of Yuan Dynasty art (1279-1368). In painting he followed the lead of Qian Xuan in cultivating the 'spirit of antiguity', but his art could only have been possible at this time. For instance, Autumn Colours at the Qiao and Hua Mountains, NPM, Taipei, was painted for a friend who, because of the Jin rule of north China in the Southern Song period, had never been able to travel to his native district. The Mind Landscape of Xie Youyu, Princeton Art Museum, New Jersey, reflects Zhao's own ambivalent position by portraying a 4th-century scholar-recluse who served at court yet preserved the purity of his mind. The Water Village, dated 1302, Gugong, Beijing, exhibits the unified ground plane and simplified brushwork that would be emulated by late Yuan masters of landscape. Ren Renfa (1255-1328) From Songjiang, Jiangsu province. Bureaucrat and painter of horses and landscapes. His inscription on Fat and Lean Horses, Gugong, Beijing, likens the two horses to different types of official, one who grows fat in office, the other who gives his all to serve the people. Huang Gongwang (1269-1354) Born Jiangsu province. One of the four masters of the late Yuan. Along with Wu Zhen, Ni Zan and Wang Meng, he pioneered a landscape style that was to inspire countless variations by later painters, bringing landscape wholly within the repertoire of the scholar-painter or wenren. Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains, dated 1350, NPM, Taipei, is his most famous work, displaying a limited range of motifs to create a monumental composition of rivers, forests and mountain ranges of unlimited scope. Wu Zhen (1280-1354) Another of the four masters of the late Yuan. His landscape paintings are, like those of Huang Gongwang, in the tradition of Juran and Dong Yuan. They show the use of a well-soaked brush and deliberate, rounded strokes and dots. The NPM, Taipei, has a number of his paintings including Twin Junipers, The Central Mountain and Stalks of Bamboo beside a Rock. Ni Zan (1301-74) Third of the four masters of the late Yuan. Also a poet, calligrapher and landscape painter. From a wealthy family in Jiangsu province, he gave up his fortune to lead a simple life on a boat. He is famous for his dry ink brushwork executed with a slanted brush, and for his sparse dots of intense black. The Rongxi Studio, dated 1372, NPM, Taipei, and Autumn Clearing over a Fishing Lodge, Shanghai Museum, both exhibit his favourite subject, a small pavilion with bare trees, and favourite compositional scheme, with foreground rocks, a stretch of water and distant hills. Wang Meng (1308-85) Grandson of Zhao Mengfu, from Zhejiang province, surviving briefly into the Ming dynasty and dying in prison. A landscape painter in the style of Dong Yuan and Juran, and one of the four masters of the late Yuan, his main contribution to Yuan painting is the portrayal of mountains as colossal features, exuberant, executed with an extremely varied and rich repertoire of brush techniques, in contrast to the spare and dry style of Ni Zan. His Qingbian Mountains, dated 1366, is in Shanghai Museum; Dwelling in Summer Mountains, at Gugong, Beijing. Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) Dai Jin (1388-1462) From Qiantang (Hangzhou). Modelled his landscape style on that of Ma Yuan and Xia Gui of the Southern Song. In the Xuande reign (1426-35) he served for a short time at court. Despite the overtones of the Academy style, his brushwork is distinctively free and lively. Surviving paintings include: Fishermen on a River, Freer Gallery, Washington DC; Returning Late from a Springtime Walk, NPM, Taipei. Shen Zhou (1427-1509) Earliest and leading master of the Wu school. He preferred to live in retirement in Suzhou than to serve at the Ming court. A talented calligrapher and poet, as well as a painter, he used the brush styles of the late Yuan landscape paintets as vehicles for his own expression, being especially at home with that of Wu Zhen, while also striving to emulate the economy of Ni Zan's brushwork. Besides landscapes, he is known for his figure drawing from life, such as the Album of Plants, Animals and Insects (sixteen leaves), dated 1494, PM, Taipei. Misty River and Layered Ranges, Liaoning Museum, is a handscroll in the grand Song manner; Lofty Mount Lu, 1467, NPM, Taipei, has all the density and richness of texture associated with Wang Meng . At other times, Shen Zhou's depiction of actual places has a refreshing simplicity, capturing essential features with a minimum of detail. Peach Blossom Valley (attributed), British Museum provides some idea of his brushwork and large calligraphy modelled on the style of the Northern Song calligrapher Huang Tingjian. Wu Wei (1459-1508) Worked in Jiangxia, Hubei province (where he may have moved from Hunan). His patron in Nanjing, the Duke of Chengguo, was a great collector in whose collections Wu studied the refined baimiao ink mono-chrome, linear figure style of Li Gonglin which is apparent in many of Wu's early paintings such as the handscroll, The Iron Flute, 1484, Shanghai Museum. Serving at court in the Hongzhi reign (1488-1505), his version of the Ma-Xia style of landscape painting found favour, and became popular, making him a leading master of the Zhe school. His mature style was characterised by swift, even brash, brushwork later much criticised by Dong Qichang. The Pleasures of Fishing, Gugong, Beijing, is a fine example of his mature style. The British Museum has several paintings acquired when Wu Wei's work was not highly regarded by Chinese collectors, the most important being the handscroll, Strolling Entertainers, and Lady Laoyu with the Luan Phoenix. Tang Yin (1470-1523) From Suzhou, Jiangsu province. Pupil of Zhou Chen (d.1536) who also taught Qiu Ying. Tang Yin was befriended by the father of Wen Zhengming and moved among Suzhou's literary circles. He was renowned for his portraits of women and for impressive landscapes inscribed with poems in his distinctive hand. See Thatched Cottage at West Mountain, British Museum. Wen Zhengming (1470-1559) From Suzhou, Jiangsu province. One of the greatest Ming painters and calligraphers, and the most important painter of the Wu school after his teacher Shen Zhou. He served briefly at court after unsuccessfully attempting the tightly constrained state examinations ten times. As a calligrapher, he was egually at home with running script in large or over-sized characters and with precise small regular script. In painting he was equally versatile, bringing finer detailing and a lyrical use of colour to Shen Zhou's landscape style and depicting also figures, ink bamboo and other literati subjecrs. His followers of the Wu school in the 16th century included several members of his own family. See: Washing the Feet in the Sword Pool, British Museum; Wintry Trees, British Museum; A Thousand Cliffs Vying in Splendour, NPM, Taipei; A Myriad Valleys Competing in Flow, Nanjing Museum. Qiu Ying (c.1494-1552) Born Taicang, Jiangsu province, and lived in Suzhou. Named with Shen Zhou, Wen Zhengming and Tang Yin as one of rhe Four Masters of Suzhou, he was a professional painter and pupil of Zhou Chen, as well as being at home with literati painters. He was a brilliant figure painter and equally skilled in landscapes in the archaic 'blue and green' manner, on account of which many later imitations of this style are signed with his name. The different aspects of his art are illustrated by Zhao Mengfu Writing the Sutra in Exchange for a Cup of Tea, Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio; Passing a Summer Day in the Shade of Banana Palms, NPM, Taipei; and Saying Farewell at Xunyang, Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City. Lu Zhi (1496-1576) Born Suzhou, Jiangsu province. Landscape painrer and poet, follower of Wen Zhengming. He apparently never held office and eventually retired to a mountain retreat on Mount Zhixing, near Suzhou, where he continued to paint. In his landscapes of the Suzhou region, Ni Zan was evidently an inspirarion to Lu Zhi who emulated his angular, faceted forms and dry brushwork, often adding a pale vermilion or pale green. See; Huqiu Shan Tu (Tiger Hill), Gugong, Beijing; Landscape in the Style of Ni Zan, Brirish Museum. Jiang Song (c.1500) From Nanjing. Zhe school painter who captured in his landscape paintings 'all the mists of Yiangnan'. Like other Zhe school painters, he was out of favour with collectors in the Qing dynasty and Taking a Lute to Visit a Friend, British Museum had the original signature and seals removed, and a label added attributing it to Xu Daoning of the Song dynasty; but the ink wash foliage of the foreground trees, and other details, are unmistakably those of Jiang Song. Xu Wei (1521-93) One of the greatest painters during the era of Ming Dynasty art, born in Shanyin, Zhejiang province. Poet and calligrapher who excelled at plants and flowers in a free or even wild ink wash manner, which was to be a major influence on the painting of Bada Shanren. Ink Flowers, long handscroll on paper, Nanjing Museum, is one of his major works, culminating in a magnificent stand of banana palms. Ding Yunpeng (1547-1621) Born Xiuning, Anhui province. Ding was a professional painter of landscapes, figures and particularly Buddhist and Daoist subjects. The God of Literature, 1596, British Museum is an example of his refined and detailed figure painting in ink monochrome; his paintings in colour are equally accomplished. The wood block-printed book, Chengshi Moyuan, contains some notable designs for ink cakes. Imitations of his work are fairly common among Buddhist and Daoist figure subjects. Dong Qichang (1555-1636) Born Yiangsu province. The dominant figure of Chinese painting in the late Ming and thereafter. Beginning with the study of calligraphy, he went on to search for and analyse the surviving masterpieces of Song and Yuan painting, with the aim of restoring ancient values to the painting of his own day. Clarity of composition, clear outlines and appropriate motifs were of the greatest importance to him. In the course of authenticating old paintings, he wrote extensively and proposed the theory of the Northern and Southern schools. According to his theory, literati painters should follow the Southern school exclusively, relying on brushwork and eschewing excessive detail or painterly effects. He was followed by Wang Shimin, who executed a large album of reduced copies of Song and Yuan paintings in his own collection under Dong's guidance, and by other painters of the Orthodox school, such as Wang Jian, Wang Hui and Wang Yuangi. The short handscroll, Rivers and Mountains on a Clear Autumn Day, after the Yuan painter Huang Gongwang, Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio, is a fine example of his style and approach to past masters. The British Museum has a Landscape and a hand-scroll (attributed) of studies of rocks and trees, with notes written beside them. Cui Zizhong (c.1594-1644) Major figure painter of the late Ming dynasty, usually paired with Chen Hong-shou - ('Cui in the north and Chen in the south'). Cui was an independent artist following no particular school; a solitary and aloof character, somewhat of a recluse who eventually starved himself to death rather than ask for help. He was probably a member of a Daoist sect and painted many scenes from Buddhist and Daoist literature and legends. His figures often refer to antique models and he concentrated on eccentric archaisms in an original way. See: Xu jingyang Ascending to Heaven, NPM, Taipei. Xiao Yuncong (1596-1673) From Anhui province. The first of the Masters of Xin-an, and an yimin or 'left-over' subject after the fall of the Ming dynasty. The early Qing monk painter Hongren , another of the Anhui masters, was his pupil. Works include: Reading in Snowy Mountains, Gugong, Beijing; Frosty Woods, handscroll, British Museum. Xiang Shengmo (1597-1658) Born Yiaxing, Zhejiang province. Son of the great collector Xiang Yuanbian (1525-90), his paintings exhibit rather precisely delineated features and elegant colour in both landscapes and flower paintings. his Reading in the Autumn Woods, dated 1623-4, is in the British Museum. Chen Hongshou (1599-1652) From Zhuji, near Shaoxing in Zhejiang province. On failing the official examinations, he began to concentrate on his painting in order to earn a living. Early on he developed a distinctive style and a creative transformation of the past that would identify him as an artist worthy of notice. His figure paintings were based on archaistic paintings of historical or Buddhist subjeCts. He was paired from his stay in Beijing (1640-3) with the artist Cui Zizhong ('Cui in the north and Chen in the south'). He was best known as a painter of figures working in the fine linear style of the 4th-century master Gu Kaizhi, but he also painted landscapes and designed wood-cut illustrations and playing cards. His Female Immortals is at Gugong, Beijing. In the British Museum, besides several attributed works, there is a fine album leaf, Landscape, datable and a large hanging scroll, Chrysanthemums. Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) Wang Shimin (1592-1680) Born Jiangsu province. Because he himself had a large collection of old masters, Wang Shimin was the best placed of the Orthodox masters to put the theories of Dong Qichang into practice. He did so in a famous album of exact copies, in reduced size, entitled Within the Small See the Large, NPM, Taipei, for which Dong wrote the title and inscriptions. In his own landscape paintings, Wang Shimin's preferred style is derived from that of the Yuan master Wang Meng. The British Museum's Landscape, dated 1654, is inspired by the brush manner of another Yuan master, Huang Gongwang. Wang Jian (1598-1677) Born Jiangsu province. The second of the Four Wangs in the group of six Orthodox masters, specialising like Wang Shimin in landscapes after Song and Yuan masters. Landscape after Juran, British Museum exemplifies how the Orthodox masters used ancient styles and motifs (here those of the 10th-century master Juran), to produce variations in their own distinctive hands. Hongren (1610-64) From Anhui province. One of the Four Monk painters (with Bada Shanren, Kuncan and Daoji), a Ming loyalist who became a monk when the Ming dynasty collapsed. He was the first painter to display a distinctive Anhui style, and was especially fond of painting Mount Huang, one of China's most spectacular mountains. The album by him in the Nelson-Atkins Museum, Kansas City, features individual landscape elements each labelled with a single character. The Coming of Autumn, Ching Yuan Chai collection, China, shows the same precision in a complete landscape composition. Kuncan/ Shi Qi (1612-73) Born Hunan province. Individualist and one of the Four Monk painters (with Hongren, Bada Shanren and Daoji). He early became a Chan (Zen) Buddhist monk and eventually abbot of a monastery near Nanjing. His paintings are characterised by crowded and restless compositions in which the landscape is broken up into numerous mountain ridges, valleys and rocky outcrops. His brushwork has a dry earthy quality which is frequently enriched by coloured washes. Autumn and Winter, two album leaves, British Museum were done for a friend, Cheng Zhengkui, in 1666 and are among his finest works. Spring and Summer, completing the set of four, are now in the Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio, and the Museum fur Ostasiatische Kunst, Berlin, respectively. Gong Xian (c.1618-89) One of the Eight Masters of Nanjing, and an yimin or left-over subject of the Ming dynasty, who belonged to a restoration society and subsequently became a recluse. In his rather sombre landscape paintings he merged ink washes with 'piled ink' or layers of brushwork, creating a monumental effect. A Thousand Peaks and a Myriad Ravines, c.1670, Drenowatz collection, Rietberg Museum, Zurich, shows him at his most claustrophobic; the British Museum has a more open Lake View. Bada Shanren/ Zhu Da (1626-1705) Another of the Four Monk painters and a major figure in Qing Dynasty art (1644-1911). He was a scion of the Ming royal house and hence another an yimin or left-over subject when the Ming dynasty fell in 1644. His early paintings include albums of flowets and rocks, with recondite poems, and are signed with a variety of obscure names. Later he used quizzical depictions of birds and fish to allude to his distress under Manchu rule, also painting lotuses with broken stems, and ink landscapes. The British Museum has a hanging scroll, Rocks and Wutong Seeds and a small Landscape. Wang Hui (1632-1717) The most versatile of the Orthodox painters, coached and encouraged, even to the point of passing off his paintings as Song or Yuan originals, by Wang Shimin and Wang Jian. At court in the 1690s he was in charge of producing the series of massive handscrolls describing the Kangxi emperor's Tours of the South. The British Museum has only a small fan painting of his, but the anonymous handscroll, Snow Landscape, bearing the signature of Fan Kuan, is perhaps close to Wang Hui's oeuvre. Wu Li (1632-1718) Born in Jiangsu province. Friend and contemporary of Wang Hui and one of the leading Orthodox painters of the early Qing. Together with Wang Hui he was instructed by Wang Jian and Wang Shimin and through them became acquainted with and influenced by the landscapes of the Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty, particularly Wang Meng. His orthodoxy was shown in his admiration for the ancient masters, yet he believed in manipulating the styles of the Song and Yuan masters to create an intensely personal style. Wu's paintings were much admired by his contemporaries. He eventually became a Jesuit priest in 1688 after which time he apparently painted relatively little. His Pine Wind from Myriad Valleys is in Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio. Yun Shouping (1633-90) Flower and landscape painter, friend and near contemporary of Wang Hui, and linked with the Four Wangs and Wu Li as an Orthodox master. Deferring to Wang Hui in landscape, he is known chiefly for his paintings of flowers in the 'boneless' technique. Daoji/ Shitao (1642-1707) Descendant of the Ming imperial family. The fall of the Ming dynasty left him a wanderer, and he is known as one of the Four Monk painters (with Hongren, Kuncan and Bada Shanren). His Huayulu is one of the most important of Chinese writings on painting, which he discusses from his concept of 'the single brushstroke'. In the same work, he strenuously defends his own originality: 'the beards and eyebrows of the ancients do not grow on my face'. His handscroll painting in the Suzhou Museum, Ten Thousand Ugly Ink Dots, bears an inscription in which he declares his purpose to shock the past masters such as Mi Fu. Many of his paintings, such as Eight Views of the South, Brirish Museum, are closely linked with his own wanderings in early life; they are frequently complemented with his calligraphy in different styles to match the brushwork of the paintings. Wang Yuanqi (1642-1715) Born Jiangsu province. Grandson of Wang Shimin. Landscape painter, youngest and arguably the most original of the Four Wangs. Perhaps his greatest work is the large coloured recreation of the handscroll, Wang Chuan Villa, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, a long-lost masterpiece of the Tang poet and painter Wang Wei, then, as now, known only from a rubbing and late copies. Shangguan Zhou (1665-1750) Born Changting, Fujian province. Primarily a painter of somewhat rustic figures and landscapes, exemplified by the handscroll in the British Museum, The Fisherman's Paradise. Huang Shen was his pupil. Leng Mei (c.1677-1742) Born in Jiaozhou, Shandong province. Professional court painter, specialising in figure painting. He is associated with the Jesuit painter Giuseppe Castiglione (known in China as Lang Shining), and introduced him to Chinese painting. His Wutong Shuangtu Tu (Two Rabbits Beneath a Wutong Tree) is at Gugong, Beijing. Paintings in the British Museum include: Portrait of a Lady; Manchu Official at the Door of his Library. Hua Yan (1682-1765) From Fujian province. Poet and calligrapher as well as painter, noted for his lively and meticulous renderings of birds, but also skilled at figures and landscapes. The Red Bird, Elliort collection, Princeton Art Museum, New Jersey; Mynah Birds and Squirrel, Freer Gallery, Washington DC. Gao Fenghan (1683-1748) Born Jiaoxian, Shandong province. Known early on in life for his poetry. He had an official career but never rose very high in rank. His right arm became paralysed in 1737 and thereafter he painted with his left hand. The British Museum has a fine set of fan paintings of landscapes and flowers, all painted before this event and an album of Flower Paintings after Designs from the Ten Bamboo Studio. Zou Yigui (1686-1772) Court painter under the Qianlong emperor (ruled 1736-96) who commissioned him to paint a pictorial colophon, Pine and Juniper Trees, British Museum at the end of the Gu Kaizhi handscroll, The Admonitions of the Court Instructress, regarded as the most valuable painting in the whole of the Palace collection, being installed by the emperor with just three others in a separate pavilion in the Forbidden City. Though now separately mounted, it came to the British Museum with Gu's painting, and also bears the Qianlong emperor's seals. Huang Shen (1687-1766) Born Yangzhou, Jiangsu province. Pupil of Shangguan Zhou, and one of the Yangzhou Eccentrics. He painted figures and landscapes with lengthy inscriptions in a distinctive cursive hand. Surviving works include: Laozi (Ning Qi) and His Ox, and The Nine Dragons Rapids. Lang Shining/ Giuseppe Castiglione (1688-1768) Born Milan, Italy. Castiglione became a Jesuit priest in 1707. He arrived in Macao in 1715 and then went to Beijing where he remained until his death. There he became part of the group of Western advisers at the Chinese imperial court. He painted for three emperors, Kangxi, Yong-zheng and Qianlong, and also trained Chinese artists in Western techniques. Of all the missionary arrists who worked for the Qing emperors, Castiglione was pre-eminent. His paintings combined traditional Chinese watercolour techniques with the Western use of linear perspective and chiaroscuro. He excelled in religious painting, portraiture and the painting of animals, flowers and landscapes. See: Ten Horses and Nine Dogs, NPM, Taipei. Yuan Jiang (c.1690-1724) Born Yangzhou, Jiangsu province. Specialised, like Yuan Yao and Li Yin, in large landscapes, often with prominent architectural features, and composed in a grand manner reminiscent of the monumental landscape style of the Five Dynasties and Song. However, his brushwork, especially in the outlines of rock forms, betrays mannered forms that cannot be mistaken for Song work. Penglai, Island of the Immortals, dated 1723, British Museum is a typical example of his treatment of legendary subjects. Zheng Xie (1693-1765) Born Yangzhou. Famous for paintings of subjects such as orchids and bamboo, interspersed with calligraphy in which the characters often display unusual variations. Orchids on Rocks, Crawford collection, New York. The British Museum has a handscroll, Chrysanthemums, Bamboo and Epidendrum, attributed to him. Luo Ping (1733-99) Born Yangzhou, Jiangsu province. Called himself the 'Monk of the Flowery Temple'. He is regarded as one of the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou and became a student of Jin Nong, another of the Eight Eccentrics. He travelled to Beijing, acquiring many patrons along the way, and was also a good calligrapher and seal carver. He painted many portraits and one of his famous works is Guiqu Tu (a series of paintings of ghosts and spirits). Paintings in the British Museum: Portraits of the Poets Wang Shizhen and Zhu Yizun; Monk under a Palm Tree. Tang Yifen (1778-1853) Born Wujin, Jiangsu province. Tang's style belongs to that of those who in the 19th century were still followers of the Orthodox tradition of the 17th Century. The subject matter of the garden was a popular one in China, where the garden was seen as a microcosm of the larger landscape, and the British Museum has a large handscroll entitled The Garden of Delight with many contemporary colophons. Ju Lian (1824-1904) Born Guangdong province. Influenced by the Jiangsu painters such as Song Guangbao and Meng Jinyi who had come to Guangdong co teach painting, Ju Lian and his cousin Ju Chao became masters in the painting of flowers, insects and plants. Ju Lian was especially prolific in painting landscapes and figures. He and his cousin improved on the style of painting known as 'boneless': by sprinkling a white powder on to coloured areas they produced a bright and somewhat glossy surface (zhuangfen) and by dripping water on to applied colours while they were still wet they created subtle tonal gradations (zhuangfei). See: Flowers, Hong Kong Museum of Art, Hong Kong. Zhao Zhiqian (1829-84) Born Zhejiang province. Famous seal carver, poet and calligrapher. Also established himself through his flower paintings as one of the foremost painters of the 19th century. NOTE: See also the two great Japanese Ukiyo-e artists from the Tokugawa Shogunate of the Edo Period in Japan: Hokusai (1760-1849) and Hiroshige (1797-1858). Famous Modern Chinese Artists Here is a selected list of important twentieth-century Chinese artists from the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the West. Qi Baishi (1863-1957) Born Hunan province. Began life as a carpenter, and became a prolific painter of flowers, shrimps, crabs, insects and birds. As he remained in China after 1950 and painted everyday subjects, adding his own calligraphy and seals also carved by himself, he became the best-known painter of the mid-twentieth century. The British Museum has a fine study of Bodhidharma in a red robe, as well as flower paintings from his hand. Gao Jianfu (1879-1951) Born Panyu, Guangdong province. Together with Gao Qifeng and Chen Shuren (1883-1949), was one of the three founders of the Lingnan school in Guangdong province. They were all influenced by earlier Qing painters such as Ju Lian, Ju Chao and Meng Jinyi, and all three also studied in Japan from 1906 to 1911, returning to participate in the revolution. They pioneered a new Chinese movement in painting whereby they advocated the use of Western perspective and chiaroscuro, and Japanese brush technigues, while still employing Chinese traditional ink and colour. Their pupils include Zhao Shao'ang and Li Xiongcai. Sepia, Hong Kong Museum of Art, Hong Kong. Gao Qifeng (1889-1933) Born Panyu, Guangdong province. The brother of Gao Jianfu. He studied art in Japan and learned painting from his brother, with whom he formed part of the Lingnan school. See: Cockerel and Hen under a Begonia Tree, Hong Kong Museum of Art, Hong Kong. Zhu Qizhan (b.1892) Born Taicang, Jiangsu province. Member of the Shanghai Painting Academy. As a student Zhu studied Western oil painting and later concentrated on traditional Chinese styles. He paints landscapes and flowers in the bold brush style of Shanghai painters of the 19th and 20th centuries. Many of his landscapes are distinguished by the use of vivid colour. Xu Beihong (1895-1953) Born Jiangsu province. Major figure in the modernisation of Chinese art. He visited Europe and Japan and held a series of key teaching positions where he advocated the study of realism. The theme for which he is best known in the West is horses, whose spirited movements he captured through rapid and abbreviated brushwork and ink washes. In China, his horses became a symbol of the indomitable national spirit. See: Two Horses, British Museum. Pu Xinyu (1896-1963) Born Beijing. A descendant of the Daoguang emperor, he received a classical education and a traditional training in Chinese painting. His paintings are based on the literati landscape tradition of the late Ming and early Qing but he also studied the work of the Song landscape masters. In 1949 he moved to Taiwan, and during the 1950s was regarded as the island's leading painter. He had many students, including Jiang Zhaoshen (b.1925). Pan Tianshou (1897-1971) Born Ninghai district, Zhejiang province. Received no formal training in painting or calligraphy but learned from painting manuals such as the Qing dynasty work, the Mustard Seed Garden Manual of Painting. In 1923 he went to Shanghai and taught at the Shanghai art college, and his works were influenced by masters of the Shanghai school. His painting followed traditional styles of landscape and bird and flower painting. Zhang Daqian (1899-1983) Born Sichuan province. Versatile master of painting and assiduous collector, who courted controversy in his personal life through his many forgeries of some of the most famous painters of the past, particularly of the individualist 17th-century painter Daoji/Shitao. Two years spent at Dunhuang in the 1940s left him with a deep appreciation of bright colour and a lifelong interest in figure painting. One of his best-known forgeries is the large landscape, Dense Forests and Layered Peaks by the Monk Juran from Zhongling, signed as Juran, in the British Museum. Another BM Landscape illustrates the more abstract style of his late years, when he lived in Brazil and California. Lin Fengmian (1900-91) Studied in France, returned to China but finally settled in Hong Kong. He wrote extensively on painting, trying to synthesise and harmonise the different qualities of Chinese and Western art. He painted mainly single figures in a sguare format adapted for framing rather than in the traditional Chinese scroll format. Fu Baoshi (1904-65) Born Jiangxi province. Educated in China and Japan. He was a calligrapher of note and also cut seals. As a teacher he wrote several books on painting and is regarded as one of the last great literati painters. Mountain Landscape, British Museum and Scholars Suffering from Hardship were both painted during the war years, when he was living in Sichuan province. Wang Jiqian/ C.C. Wang (b.1907) Born in Jiangsu province. Connoisseur, collector and well-known landscape painter who has lived in New York since 1950. He has formed the extensive Bamboo Studio collection, some of which is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New Yotk. Odes of the State of Chen by Ma Hezhi was acquired from his collection by the British Museum. Li Keran (1907-89) Born Jiangsu province. Born into rural poverty, he painted water buffalo and herd boys in his early years. His later paintings were generally in black ink, an intensely inked surface becoming one of his trade-marks, as well as an innovative use of deeply saturated ink and colour. He was originally a leading exponent of traditional landscape painting, re-establishing the style within the Communist theoretical framework. In the 1960s he developed his own landscape style, adapting Western, conventional perspective. See: Landscape in Colours and Landscape Based on Chairman Mao's Poem, both in the Drenowatz collection, Rietberg Museum, Zurich, Switzerland. Lui Shoukun (1919-75) Born Guangzhou, China, but emigrated to Hong Kong in 1948. He was a Chan (Zen) Buddhist adherent and painted in many styles including those of the classical past. He was influenced by Western art, including Cubism, and had a number of followers such as Irene Chou (born 1924). Wu Guanzhong (b.1919) Born Jiangsu province. Studied figurative oil painting in China and then in Paris from 1947 to 1950. On his return to China he took up landscape painting. He sought to find common ground between Chinese and Western techniques, using both line and colour, often with descriptive details, to ensure that a Chinese viewer would recognise the subject matter of more abstract works. In 1990 he turned once more to life studies, with a hint of landscape in the setting. The British Museum has a large horizontal format painting, Paradise for Small Birds. Liu Guosong (b.1932) Born Shandong province. An early advocate of anti-traditionalism, aspiring to be a painter in the Western tradition. He attained his maturity in Taiwan and found solutions blending Eastern and Western traditions and incorporating contemporary subjects such as space travel. He modelled his work after Matisse and Picasso, and was also influenced by Klee, De Kooning and Rothko. He has sometimes used a special coarse fibre paper and an ink-laden brush, tearing fibres from the surface after painting to enhance the calligraphic effect. He Huaishuo (b.1941) Writer, and pupil of Fu Baoshi. Studied painting in Guangzhou. He believes in communicating emotion through his paintings, and in covering the whole picture surface, in contrast to traditional Chinese paintings where a balance of solids and voids is sought. Famous Contemporary Chinese Artists Among the many talented painters and sculptors from the People's Republic of China, involved in contemporary art, watch out for the following. See also: Top 200 Contemporary Artists. Zhang Xiaogang (b.1958) Number 5 in the 2008 list of the World's Top contemporary artists, Zhang Xiaogang is noted for his surrealist paintings, influenced by Salvador Dali, as well as his Bloodline series of paintings, featuring formal monochrome portraits of Chinese subjects. In 2006, a 1993 painting by Zhang Xiaogang featuring blank-faced family members from the mid-1960s was sold for $2.3 million. Zeng Fanzhi (b.1964) Number 6 in the list of the World's Top contemporary artists, Zeng Fanzhi is noted for his figurative works employing a combination of expressionism and realism, as well as his sequence of ironic Great Man paintings, which includes Lenin, Mao, and Karl Marx among others. Yue Minjun (b.1962) Number 7 in the list of the World's Top contemporary artists, Yue Minjun is a major member of the Chinese "cynical realist" school - one of the avant-garde contemporary art movements in China - noted for his bizarre and distinctive series of doppelgänger painters. Wang Guangyi (b.1957) Number 9 in the list of the World's Top contemporary artists, the "political pop" artist Wang Guangyi combines popular consumer logos with the style and aesthetic of communist agitprop propaganda posters. Liu Xiaodong (b.1963) From Liaoning. Contemporary fine art painter and photographer. Has generated auction sales (2007-8) in excess of £10.5 million. Cai Guo-Qiang (b.1957) Performance artist specialising in explosive events. Has generated art sales (2007-8) in excess of £10 million. Yan Pei-Ming (b.1960) Shanghai portraitist. Has sold works for more than £9.5 million (2007-8). Chen Yifei (b.1946) Contemporary Chinese painter from Zhejing, responsible for art sales at auction of over £9.5 million (2007-8). Fang Lijun (b.1963) Contemporary Chinese painter from Hebei, one of the leading members of the Cynical Realism movement. Has sold paintings worth more than £9 million (2007-8). Liu Ye (b.1964) Avant-garde Chinese artist, responsible for art sales at auction of over £8.5 million (2007-8). Zhou Chunya (b.1955) Sichuan Portrait painter. Has sold works worth more than £8 million (2007-8). Note: The British Museum has an active acquisition policy in collecting modern art by Chinese artists, aiming eventually to assemble a collection representative of all the major twentieth-century painting movements in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan and elsewhere. Apart from the paintings mentioned above, the British Museum also has works by these 20th-century artists: Jia Youfu, Nie Ou, Wu Changshi, Xiong Hai, Yang Yan-ping and Zhu Xiuli from the People's Republic of China, and Jiang Zhaoshen and Yu Peng from Taiwan. Acknowledgements: We gratefully acknowledge the use of appendix material from The British Museum Book of Chinese Art (2007) edited by Jessica Rawson (British Museum Press): an absolutely essential work of scholarly reference for any student of painting, sculpture, ceramic pottery, calligraphy and decorative art from ancient China. We strongly recommend it.
2073	dbpedia	2	58	https://moca40.mocanyc.org/stories/	en	Museum of Chinese in America	https://user-images.gith…78b27fb48279.jpg		[ "https://user-images.githubusercontent.com/47676628/90555637-ae462300-e165-11ea-83d0-78b27fb48279.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Celebrates its 40th Anniversary				null	MOCA Co-Founders, 1980 In 1976, Jack Tchen and Charlie Lai met at Basement Workshop, an Asian American political and arts organization located in Manhattan’s Chinatown. The organization was a space that allowed fellow artists and activists to meet and exchange ideas. Tchen and Lai noticed that Chinatown was going through a transformative period and wanted to preserve the history of the neighborhood before it disappeared. This prompted the two to establish the Center for Community Studies (colloquially known as the New York Chinatown History Project) in 1980. The center would grow and evolve into the MOCA you know today. Oral Histories, 1981 During the first year of the New York Chinatown History Project, their priority was to conduct oral histories with members of the neighborhood. Over the course of 1981, the fledgling organization collected 28 oral histories. These included prominent community leaders such as Man Bun Lee (the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association President at the time), William “Charlie” Chin (folk singer), and Emma Mills (founder and former president of the Chinatown Planning Council). These oral histories, which are accessible by visiting the MOCA archives, offer a look into a bygone Chinatown and can serve as valuable firsthand sources for researchers. Bud Glick and Paul Calhoun, 1982 As the New York Chinatown History Project grew, so did the organization’s collection efforts. In 1982, two freelance photographers, Bud Glick and Paul Calhoun, were brought on to photograph and document the New York Chinatown community. The two men photographed the daily life of the residents of the community between 1982–1983. Eight Pound Livelihood, 1983 The New York Chinatown History Project’s first exhibition titled Eight Pound Livelihood debuted in 1983. The show examined the lives of Chinese laundrymen in New York’s Chinatown. The term “eight pound” in the title refers to the weight of the heavy irons that laundrymen wielded on a daily basis. The exhibition was installed on panels at the main branch of the New York Public Library on 42nd Street. After the show closed, it travelled to various college campuses including Cornell, Oberlin, New Hampshire, and various CUNY schools. Bugaoban, 1984 In 1984, the New York Chinatown History Project started a newsletter called the Bugaoban. The name was a reference to the community bulletin boards in old Chinatowns that were used to disseminate the news. The newsletter was meant to inform museum members of the current state of the institution, as well as provide articles that offer insight into the lives of Asian Americans. The issues were composed of articles written by staff as well as public submissions. The Bugaoban ran from 1984 through 2006. The Chinese Women of America, 1985 In 1985, author and professor Judy Yung curated the show The Chinese Women of America at the New York Chinatown History Project. Yung was director of the San Francisco-based Chinese Women of America Research Project, which crafted the show after two years of extensive research and oral histories. The show examined the experiences of the first Chinese women that came to the US in 1834 to the women of the 1980s. Notably, the exhibition featured Polly Bemis (born Lalu Nathoy or Gong Heng), a Chinese woman who came to the US in 1872 as a slave and later gained her freedom, living out the rest of her life in Idaho. It also featured Sieh King King, a female activist who spoke about female oppression in San Francisco in 1902. In the Shadow of Liberty, Graphics of Chinese Exclusion, 1870s - 1890s, 1986 In 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act became the first law that prohibited individuals from entering the U.S. based on race. In 1986, MOCA developed the exhibition, In the Shadow of Liberty: Graphics of Chinese Exclusion, 1870s - 1890s. The exhibition opening coincided with the 100th year celebration of the Statue of Liberty. Thus, the name of the show critiques the 1886 opening of the Statue of Liberty, a mask of freedom in the United States, while Chinese Americans experienced overt exclusion. In the same year, the New York Times developed a piece called, “Why Asian Students Excel,” bringing attention to a new way of perceiving Asian Americans: the model minority myth. Throughout these events, MOCA strived to ask, “How do we want to gain our liberty? Through exclusion of some or inclusion of all?” Salvaging New York Chinatown, Preserving a Heritage, 1987 Fay Chiang was the daughter of a “paper son”; her father immigrated to the United States to work in a laundry at 10 years old. She found it difficult to communicate with her immigrant parents, as they rarely spoke of their coming-of-age stories. When her father passed away, Chiang looked through the salvages of her parents’ past. These instances of Chiang’s were commonplace for many second-generation Chinese Americans. In the 1980s, the New York Chinatown History Project asked community members for family memorabilia to record the 100-year-old history. The collection resulted in the 1987 show, Salvaging New York Chinatown: Preserving a Heritage curated by Dorothy Rony. Dai Fau, 1988 In 1988, the New York Chinatown History Project organized a show that displayed the photographs of a German-American photographer by the name of Arnold Genthe. He photographed San Francisco’s Chinatown prior to the 1906 earthquake that destroyed the city and led to the advent of paper sons and daughters. The exhibition was called The Streets of Dai Fau: Arnold Genthe’s Photographs of Old San Francisco’s Chinatown. “Dai Fau,” which literally translates to “big city” in Cantonese, is what the Chinese referred to San Francisco as prior to the earthquake. The Chinese Musical and Theatrical Association (CMTA) Acquisition, 1989 In 1989, MOCA acquired the Chinese Musical and Theatrical Association (CMTA) collection. The materials included costumes, musical scores, instruments, and documents that were discarded when the opera club moved to a smaller location; they were housed in eight large trunks. Anonymous sources told MOCA staff that materials had been left behind, and the museum organized a spur-of-the-moment excursion to rescue materials that included staff, board members, and volunteers. Amy Tan & Joy Luck Club, 1990 For MOCA’s 10th anniversary in 1990, a benefit event called Bridging Generations: A Reading with Amy Tan was held. During the event, Tan read from her 1989 novel Joy Luck Club, which explores four American-born Chinese daughters learning about their mothers’ lives before immigrating to the U.S. The novel would be adapted by Hollywood in 1993. Public School 23 Reunion, 1991 In 1991, MOCA held the second reunion for teachers and students of the defunct New York Public School 23 located at 70 Mulberry Street. The school ceased operation in the late 1970s, and the building was converted to house cultural and arts organizations, including MOCA. The reunion saw a variety of ages and ethnicities attending; the Chinese demographic showed a dramatic increase after the complete repeal of the Exclusion Act in 1965. During the reunion, artifacts and anecdotes were collected from attendees and turned into an exhibition called What Did You Learn in School Today? P.S. 23, 1893-1976, which opened later that year. Who Killed Vincent Chin? Collection, 1992 On June 19, 1982, a 27-year-old Chinese American man was beaten into a coma that he never woke up from. He was targeted because the two men that assaulted him thought that he was Japanese and blamed him for the decline in the Detroit auto industry. The two men never saw any jail time, with the judge stating, “These weren’t the kind of men you send to jail…You don’t make the punishment fit the crime; you make the punishment fit the criminal.” Dim Sum & Heart's Desire - Works in Glass and Cloth by Arlan Huang and Debbie Lee, 1993 Dim Sum/Heart’s Desire was a 1993 exhibition at MOCA that featured the works of Arlan Huang and Debbie Lee. Huang’s medium of choice was glass, while Lee worked in cloth. Both artists created pieces that explored the elements of Chinese and American identity. Most notably, Lee worked with a group of other seamstresses to create a quilt that featured nine panels depicting the day of garment factory workers. Made in China: Photographs of American Chinatown, 1994 In 1994, the museum held an exhibition entitled Made in China: Photographs of American Chinatowns by Chien-Chi Chang that featured a series of photographs by Taiwan-born photographer Chien-Chi Chang during the time Chien was an active documentarian of Manhattan’s Chinatown. In this show, he tried to show the daily lives of the residents of these ethnic enclaves living through a sense of alienation from their mother country and their adopted home. He went on to join Magnum Photos and continues to document the abstract concept of alienation. Museum of Chinese in Americas (MoCA), 1995 1995 would see the museum take its second name change. The previously renamed Chinatown History Museum would become the Museum of Chinese in the Americas (MoCA). This name change would reflect the museum’s new direction. As the study of the Chinese diaspora grew, the museum saw a need to grow as well and expanded its collection and education efforts beyond the borders of Chinatown. That same year, the museum would work with the Triennale Di Milano in Italy to exhibit a show entitled China/town: Naming Ethnic Spaces. The exhibition team also began planning stages for the museum permanent exhibition Where is Home?, which would be installed a year later in 1996. Sun Sing Theater Collection, 1996 In the ’60s and ’70s, Chinese movie theaters were prevalent in Manhattan’s Chinatown, usually serving as places for members of the community to gather and reclaim a sense of home by watching films in their mother tongue. But with the rise of technology and the ability to watch films and television at home, the theaters saw a sharp decline in the late ’80s and early ’90s. In 1993, Sun Sing Theater, located on East Broadway, shuttered and remained unoccupied for a time. “111 Mott Street” Collection, 1997 In 1997, MOCA was able to acquire another large salvage collection. The collection is called the “111 Mott Street” collection, named for the location the collection was acquired from. A Chinese resident of the building had passed away and, with no next of kin, the landlord had thrown all of his belongings away into a dumpster. Museum staff collected the materials and later found dozens of personal letters and household knickknacks. Chino-Latino Oral History Project, 1998 Throughout 1997 and the earlier part of 1998, the museum began conducting a series of oral histories with Chinese that immigrated to Latin America. Many of the interviewees would end up living in the United States, and their narratives provided a unique series of experiences that had not previously been explored in depth. Their journeys saw them adapting to two radically different cultures instead of purely trying to assimilate into U.S. culture. In the end, three of their stories were chosen to be exhibited at MOCA in 1998 under the exhibition Mi Familia, Mi Comunidad. The complete collection of oral histories done for this project can be listened to in our digital database here. Sunset Park Oral History Project, 1999 In the 1980s, new Chinese immigrants to New York began to settle on 8th Avenue in Brooklyn rather than the already established Manhattan Chinatown. This community slowly grew throughout the ’80s and ’90s and is now seen as one of the three major Chinatowns in the five boroughs. In 1999, MOCA worked with the Brooklyn Historical Society to explore the growth of this new community. Together, the two institutions put up the show A Good Place to Land One’s Feet: Brooklyn’s New Chinese Community. Fan Ngukkei, 2000 Brenda Joy Lem is a third-generation Chinese Canadian. In 1997, she presented a show called Fan Ngukkei, (translated as “returning home”) at the Art Gallery of Mississauga. The show focused on exploring her Toisan ancestry through oral histories with her family and anchored in the physical medium using silkscreen banners. The show caught the eye of curators at MOCA and, in 2000, the show was modified and installed at MOCA. The show at MOCA was more targeted at showing Lem’s interpretations of Toisan culture and how that influenced her art and world views. Tong Zhi/Comrades-Out in Asia America, 2001 Sexuality is an issue that is seldom discussed openly within the Asian community; this holds especially true in regards to homosexuality. In 2001, artist Ken Chu worked with MOCA to put on an exhibition called Tong Zhi/Comrades: Out in Asia America. For the show, Chu brought together 20 gay men of Asian and Pacific Islander heritage and recorded their stories and used those details to create posters of each participant that resembled the front page of a newspaper. Each poster was printed in editions of 100 and stacked on tables at the museum for display. Chinatown POV-Reflections on September 11th, 2002 The attacks of September 11th, 2001 devastated the nation. Being close to Ground Zero, Manhattan’s Chinatown was also brought to a standstill. After the dust literally and figuratively cleared, the neighborhood had to rebuild. This rebuilding effort became a part of the history of the community and MOCA collected stories, pictures, and artifacts of the process from 2001 to 2002. Some of the more powerful artifacts in this collection included a series of notebooks containing recollections of middle school and high school students of that fateful morning. The materials collected were displayed later in an online exhibition that can still be viewed today. Flushing’s Chinatown, 2003 Flushing’s Chinatown is one of three major Chinese communities in New York’s five boroughs. The community began to flourish in the 1970s when Mandarin-speaking Taiwanese immigrants began coming to New York. They felt largely alienated by Manhattan’s Chinatown, which largely spoke Cantonese. As the community grew, other groups of Mandarin-speaking immigrants also began migrating to Flushing and the neighborhood continues to grow. In 2003, MOCA worked with 3 photographers to document the Chinese community in Flushing. These works were presented at the museum in an exhibition called Main Street, Flushing, USA. Have You Eaten Yet?, 2004 For Chinese and Chinese Americans, the question, “Have you eaten yet?” is a greeting similar to “How are you?” In 2004, MOCA curated a show that centralized food of the Chinese American diaspora. It highlighted the ways in which Chinese immigrants to the United States brought about their legacies through opening restaurants. As part of the exhibition, menus and matchbooks were adorned with dragons, lotus flowers, and pagodas. Through restaurant memorabilia, a specific visual legacy became ingrained in the American imagination of Chinese restaurants. The exhibition highlighted that the fabrication of stereotypes was a two-way streak—Chinese restaurants presented themselves as cultural brokers to survive, and their American customers stereotyped an image of China based on their experiences. Tracing a chronological history from the mid-1800s to the late 1900s, the show explored shifting attitudes towards Chinese cuisine in the United States. “Yellow Peril”, 2005 Archivist of the “Yellow Peril”: Yoshio Kishi Collecting for a New America opened at MOCA in 2005. The show was co-curated by MOCA founder Jack Tchen. The “Yellow Peril” moniker was derived from a 19th-century phrase that originated from the supposed threat of the Asian diaspora to Anglo-Americans. This trope was popularized through the media with fictional characters such as Fu Manchu. The show displayed various Asian American artifacts from the personal collections of film editor Yoshio Kishi and actress Yah Ling Sun. The collection examines perceived identities of Asians and Asian Americans based around unflattering stereotypes in American literature, popular media, and paper ephemera. Marcella B. Chin Dear Collection, 2006 In 2006, MOCA acquired its single largest collection, which was donated by longtime Chinatown resident Marcella B. Chin Dear. The Chin family came to New York in 1800s and established a series of successful business ventures. The most well-known was the Rice Bowl Restaurant, which was touted as one of the first Chinese restaurants in Manhattan’s Chinatown to have air conditioning. Marcella’s father had saved his family artifacts with the intention of opening a family museum, but when he passed away, his daughter donated the collection to MOCA. The collection is around 150 linear feet and contains textiles, imported books, vinyl records, game sets, instruments, family photographs, store signs, ceramics, and furniture. These artifacts document the life of a multigenerational Chinese American family in the United States. The Chinatown Film Project, 2007 The Chinatown Film Project was launched by MOCA in 2007. Chinatowns are often seen in many forms of media but are always depicted stereotypically. The project aimed to subvert these popular biases and reveal stories of the families who still thrive in Chinatown. 10 New York-based filmmakers were asked to create short films that presented their visions of Chinatown. The museum also invited the community to share their own stories documenting their local Chinatowns. Together, the films were meant to show that Chinatowns are not just Hollywood metaphors but in reality a place where people live, work, and play. MOCA Annual Legacy Award Gala, 2008 The 2008 MOCA gala dinner celebrated the inaugural opening season of the new museum space at 215 Centre Street. At the 2008 gala, the museum also gave out its first Lifetime Achievement Award to architect I.M. Pei. The award was given to recognize exemplary individuals and institutions whose distinguished achievements advance the Chinese/Chinese American society, improve humanity, and inspire all people. Pei and his firm have notably worked on buildings such as the Bank of China in Hong Kong, the Hancock Building in Chicago, the Jacob Javits Center in New York, and the Louvre in Paris. Other notable recipients of the award have been scholar Wan-Go Weng, Starr Foundation Chairman Maurice Greenberg, and banker Pei-Yuan Chia. 215 Centre Street, 2009 In 2009, having outgrown the confines of 70 Mulberry Street, MOCA relocated a few blocks away to 215 Centre Street. The new location, on the border of Chinatown and Soho, was designed by Chinese American architect Maya Lin. With the additional space, curators Cynthia Lee and Jack Tchen were able to expand on the museum’s core exhibition. The improved and expanded exhibition was named With a Single Step: Stories in the Making of America. The exhibition is still on display at the museum today, with small updates having been made to keep it current. The 70 Mulberry space was turned into the collections and research center, which MOCA continued to operate until a fire in January 2020 displaced all the building’s tenants. Chinese Puzzles-Games for the Hands and Mind, 2010 Chinese puzzles have been a popular export to America since the 20th century. These fascinating objects were presented in a 2010 exhibit called Chinese Puzzles: Games for the Hands and Mind. The show featured pieces from the private Yi Zhi Tang (Art and Intelligence) Collection and presented 1,300 antique Chinese puzzles, books, and graphic materials that dated from the Song dynasty (960 AD–1279 AD) to the mid-20th century. Many of these objects exhibited a high level of workmanship, including beautifully crafted porcelains, carved ivory, and mother of pearl. Visitors of all ages had the opportunity to interact with modern reproductions of these classic games while learning the rich history behind them. Lee Mingwei-The Travelers and The Quartet Project, 2011 In 2010, Lee Mingwei, a Taiwan-born American artist, was commissioned by MOCA to start a two-part interactive project that engaged members of the community. The first part titled The Travelers saw Mingwei ask individuals to share their stories on the idea of “leaving home.” This was done using 100 notebooks that were sent as chain letters to the members of the community, asking them to pass on such books to their family, friends, and acquaintances after participating themselves. A year later, the books that made their way back to the museum were displayed as part of Mingwei’s installation. Marvels and Monsters-Unmasking Asian Images in U.S. Comics, 1942-1986 and Alt. Comics-Asian American Artists Reinvent the Comic, 2012 In 2012, MOCA presented two exhibitions that trace the depictions of Asian Americans in comics; Marvels and Monsters: Unmasking Asian Images in U.S. Comics, 1942-1986 and Alt. Comics: Asian American Artists Reinvent the Comic. They were shown simultaneously to compare and contrast the way Asian Americans have been perceived and represented in comics. Marvels and Monsters showcased and discussed the various character archetypes of Asian characters in comics such as the depiction of Fu Manchu as a manifestation of Yellow Peril. The show Alt. Comics, in contrast, featured the works of 10 Asian American comic artists that offered a critique of the older representations and reiterated the way they view their changing identities in America. Shanghai Glamour-New Women 1910-40s, 2013 Shanghai Glamour: New Women 1910-40s was guest curated by Mei Mei Rado and displayed at MOCA in 2013. The show explored how Shanghai women and their archetypes were crucial to the formation of the new city’s identity. During the time period, the dress and manner of Shanghai women became emblems of the city’s modernization. The evolution of Shanghai women opened controversial discussions about the changing social and political scene as well as gender roles. The show featured outfits from the China National Silk Museum in Hangzhou and private collections from New York City. These outfits were contextualized with accessories, paper ephemera, and photographs. The show explores the many perceived archetypes popular in Shanghai at the time—the student, socialite, courtesan, movie star, artist, dancing girl, and housewife—to reconstruct the social and cultural pulses behind the many facets of Shanghai glamour. Waves of Identity: 35 Years of Archiving, 2014 Waves of Identity: 35 Years of Archiving was an exhibition that celebrated MOCA’s 35th anniversary by showcasing artifacts the museum had collected over its history. The exhibition reexamines what it means to be Chinese American, asking the questions, “Where does Chinatown end? How do you become an American? And what does it mean to be Chinese?” It engaged visitors in a dialogue about their own identities and asked them to actively search for answers within the provided archive materials and objects. Objects across special collections in MOCA’s archives came together with documents, videos, and oral histories that embody the complexities of Chinese Americans in New York Chinatown and beyond. Water to Paper, Paint to Sky: The Art of Tyrus Wong, 2015 Water to Paper, Paint to Sky: The Art of Tyrus Wong, organized by the Walt Disney Family Museum, was exhibited at MOCA in 2015. The retrospective surveyed the 20th-century artist’s extensive body of work. Wong began his artistic career in 1930s California as a Depression-era muralist, watercolorist, and later film production illustrator. His work ranges from painting, ceramics, works on paper, and kite creations. Wong’s vision and impressionistic style, with Eastern influences, paved the way for the animation of Bambi (1942). His work continued with several Warner Bros. films. As his works conjured stunning environments, he was named a Disney Legend in 2001.This exhibition served to highlight Wong’s great artistic achievements and brought attention to his legacy as a Chinese in America. Stage Design by Ming Cho Lee, 2016 In 2016, MOCA presented Stage Design by Ming Cho Lee, a retrospective that celebrated the influential set designer. Lee is known for his groundbreaking abstract design sets of the 1960s and ’70s to his more recent hard-edge treatments. The exhibition followed Lee’s artistic career through more than 40 original maquettes, sketches, and photographic reproductions. He has shared his knowledge in theater, opera, and dance through his work at Yale School of Drama for over 65 years. As a recipient of the Tony Award for Lifetime Achievement in 2013, Ming Cho Lee is one of the most acclaimed set designers in the U.S. FOLD: Golden Venture Paper Sculptures, 2017 In 2017, MOCA presented FOLD: Golden Venture Paper Sculptures, an updated version of the museum’s 1996 Fly to Freedom exhibit. The show was revisited as a way to engage the public in conversation about the current climate of immigration in the U.S. The exhibition displayed over 40 paper sculptures created by Chinese passengers of the cargo ship, The Golden Venture, which ran aground at Rockaway Beach in Queens, New York in 1993. The sculptures were created during their incarceration in U.S. prisons and depicted caged birds and bald eagles that were meant to symbolize the unrealized American dream that they had hoped for. Originally, these pieces were created as gifts for their lawyers and supporters, but as time as has passed, these pieces of folk art have become an entry point into a pointed exploration of U.S. immigration policy. Chinese Medicine in America: Converging Ideas, People and Practices, 2018 In 2018, MOCA presented Chinese Medicine in America: Converging Ideas, People and Practices, an exploration of Chinese medicine. The show discussed “mysterious and magical” practices from the 19th century to modern “alternative medicine” (like acupuncture). The exhibition told a cross-cultural story through medical artifacts, contemporary art, and profiles on notable medical figures to connect medicine, philosophy, and history. MOCA Spike 150, 2019 In honor of the 150th Anniversary of the Transcontinental Railroad, MOCA rallied 1,500 runners to collectively run 15,000 miles in a cross-country relay. This project started at the Promontory Summit in Utah, where the last link of the Transcontinental Railroad was completed, to end with the 2019 TCS New York City Marathon. This project commemorated the resilience and grit of Chinese and Irish laborers who helped build the railroad but still lack such acknowledgement 150 years later. MOCA Spike 150 was an inclusive celebration of immigrants that paved the way for future generations in America. Gathering: Collecting and Documenting Chinese American History, 2020 Gathering: Collecting and Documenting Chinese American History, for the first time, brought together artifacts and histories from 28 Chinese American museums around the United States. The artifacts, institutional stories, and personal stories unveiled critical periods in Chinese American history that are often neglected. The show highlighted research that has been conducted across the U.S. to preserve Chinese immigrant contributions to the American narrative.
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2073	dbpedia	2	5	https://human.libretexts.org/Courses/Evergreen_Valley_College/Asian_Art_History/08%253A_(1000_CE__1500_CE)/8.02%253A_Song_Dynasty_Yuan_Dynasty_Goryeo_Dynasty	en	8.2: Song Dynasty (960 CE to 1279 CE)	https://a.mtstatic.com/@…social-share.png	https://a.mtstatic.com/@…social-share.png	[ "https://cdn.libretexts.net/Logos/human_full.png", "https://cdn.libretexts.net/Logos/human_full.png", "https://a.mtstatic.com/@public/production/site_9956/1481233284-logo.png", "https://human.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/77126/Gustlin.jpg?revision=2", "https://human.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/143083/1...	[ "https://www.youtube.com/embed/ClQnEnYAN4k?vq=hd1080", "https://www.youtube.com/embed/eijOqYVCl6Q?vq=hd1080" ]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Libretexts" ]	2023-08-19T01:32:46+00:00	The Song Dynasty, which lasted from 960 to 1279 CE, was a significant period in the history of China. It was a time of political, economic, and cultural transformation, marked by significant …	en	https://a.mtstatic.com/@…e-touch-icon.png	Humanities LibreTexts	https://human.libretexts.org/Courses/Evergreen_Valley_College/Asian_Art_History/08%3A_(1000_CE__1500_CE)/8.02%3A_Song_Dynasty_Yuan_Dynasty_Goryeo_Dynasty	Painting During the Song Dynasty, landscape painting flourished as an esteemed art form. Artists of that time found inspiration in the mountains, capturing their views in breathtaking paintings. These artworks often showcased majestic peaks, intricate trees, and small figures nestled within the scenes. For instance, Su Han Chen's "Playing Children" (8.2.2) beautifully portrays a slender mountain projecting through the center, with the tree and children perfectly proportionate to each other. Under the patronage of the court and emperor, a group of artists emerged who championed nature as the primary purpose of painting, reflecting an ordered state. As the middle class grew, so did the demand for art, resulting in the emergence of celebrated artists. Toward the end of the Song Dynasty, painters became disillusioned with rigid conventions and began exploring more personal expressions, including calligraphy. An anonymous artist of the wall scroll (8.2.3) skillfully balanced a tree proportionate to the central figure with the addition of calligraphy. Mi Fu Mi Fu (米芾, 1051–1107) was a talented artist who was from the city of Taiyuan in the Shanxi province. Growing up in the imperial precincts, he had the unique opportunity to interact with members of the imperial family due to his mother's role as a wet nurse to Emperor Yingzong (who reigned from 1063 to 1067). Even as a young boy, Mi's talent for calligraphy was evident. While he wasn't particularly fond of the structured lessons required for those seeking a future in government service, he excelled in his ability to grasp complex ideas, compose original poetry, and create stunning works of art through painting and calligraphy. Mi Fu enjoyed a varied career in government, often holding different positions throughout his life. He began his career as a reviser of books in the imperial library before moving on to serve in three different posts outside the capital of Kaifeng, in Henan Province. In 1103, he earned his doctorate in philosophy and was briefly appointed as the military governor of Wuwei, located in the province of Anhui. Mi Fu later returned to the capital in 1104, where he became a professor of painting and calligraphy. After serving as a secretary to the Board of Rites, he was appointed as the military governor of Huaiyang in Jiangsu Province. Mi Fu was a firm believer in preserving historic styles while adding his own touch of creativity to them. He valued spontaneity and self-expression, avoiding anything that appeared artificial or excessively sentimental. He maintained an impeccable standard of cleanliness, favored clothing from ancient Chinese dynasties, and had a fondness for acquiring unusual rocks and ink stones. Mountains and Pines in Spring (8.2.4) is a breathtaking piece of split canvas artwork that features a stunning combination of calligraphy and serene ink-wash technique. The artwork is divided into two distinct halves, with the top half showcasing the intricate and elegant art of calligraphy, while the bottom half features a tranquil ink wash of mountains and pine trees. The parchment paper backdrop is a perfect complement to the black ink, and red colored stamps along each side complement the black ink washes that are used in the artwork, creating a harmonious balance of colors that is pleasing to the eye. The artist's skillful use of black ink with subtle hints of green creates a stunning contrast between the trees and the mountains, giving the artwork a beautiful and realistic appearance. Mi's art evolved over time to a minimalist approach, with a focus on ink-washed calligraphy (8.2.5) and red stamps. By simplifying his work, he has been able to create pieces that convey a powerful message with just a few strokes of the brush. The use of red stamps adds a pop of color and a sense of intentionality to the otherwise monochromatic pieces. The Art of Chinese Calligraphy Join Rongde Zhang, Senior Vice President and Head of Sales of the Classical Chinese Paintings department, as he discusses the scripts, exuberant rhythm and brushstrokes of Chinese calligraphy. Learn more about the nine characters that constitute Su Dongpo's Gong Fu Tie Calligraphy -- a highly acclaimed, museum-quality work featured in our upcoming Asia Week sale, Fine Classical Chinese Paintings & Calligraphy. Emperor Huizong Huizong (1082 – 1135), the final Northern Song emperor, exercised effective rule from 1101-25 before being captured and exiled along with his successor. He was an calligrapher, and painter who specialized in painting birds and floral still life. Huizong was so deeply devoted to the arts that he surrounded himself with court artists from the Academy of Painting and assumed an active role in overseeing their work, resulting in the neglect of state affairs. Huizong, the eighth emperor of the Song dynasty, was renowned for his artistic talents and is regarded as the most gifted of his imperial line. Finches and Bamboo, a masterpiece of flower-and-bird painting, exemplifies the refined realism that was taught at Huizong's academy. Whether he was painting from life or illustrating a poem, the emperor placed greater value on capturing the essence of the subject than on producing a literal representation. In this particular work, the finches are meticulously depicted, imbued with the vibrancy of their real-life counterparts. The birds' eyes were given a final touch of realism with the addition of drops of lacquer. Emperor Huizong has been a subject of mixed opinions among Chinese historians. While his artistic accomplishments were widely recognized and celebrated, his reign was marred by poor leadership and a tendency to let his advisors take the reins, ultimately contributing to the decline of his empire. Huizong was a devoted follower of Taoism and famously prohibited Buddhism, earning his place in history as one of three Chinese emperors to do so. As a patron of the arts, he sponsored many talented artists in his court and his impressive imperial painting collection boasts over 6,000 known works.[1] Pigeon on a Peach Branch, (8.2.6) showcases an ink drawing on paper that is presented in a captivating asymmetrical format. The branch gracefully stretches in from the left side of the piece, perfectly capturing the moment the pigeon lands on it. Delicate white peach flowers symbolize the start of springtime, while the bird itself is depicted in a realistic style, complete with a stunning wash of blues, greens, blacks, reds, and whites. To complete the asymmetrical composition, a striking red stamp and elegant black calligraphy adorn the right side. Women preparing Silk (8.2.7) showcases four women working together harmoniously to create silk fabric. At the heart of the painting lies a box where the women are diligently laboring. Each of them wields long poles and is dressed in unique hues, but they all sport similar hairstyles - black tresses bundled up with pink bands and silver clips. Despite the neutral brown backdrop, the painting. Listening to the Qin (8.2.8) painting depicts a group of dignitaries and aristocrats engrossed in a performance of the Qin zither. The artist has adeptly captured the musical technique of using silence to overpower sound, with the zither's melody serving as the central theme. The background is understated, featuring lush pine trees and swaying bamboo that lends a refined ambiance to the scene. A fragrant incense burner sits on the table, its smoke delicately curling upward, while an ancient tripod rests on eccentric rockery, surrounded by exotic flowers. The graceful sound of the instrument adds the perfect finishing touch to this captivating tableau. The artwork showcases a four-line poem by Cai Jing, a prominent councilor in the Northern Song dynasty. In the top right corner of the piece, the title Listening to a Zither is elegantly displayed in slender gold calligraphy (shoujin) using three characters (Tingqin tu).[2] These characters were hand-inscribed by Huizong, the final emperor of the Northern Song. The painting's composition is simple yet striking, featuring bold lines and vibrant colors that bring the characters to life. The figures are portrayed realistically, capturing their postures and appearances, while the trees, stones, and other objects are depicted in a refined and graceful manner without any stiffness. A beautiful painting Cranes 1112 (8.2.9) captures a remarkable occurrence in the capital city of Kaifeng, twenty cranes soaring through the bright blue sky, surrounded by rolling clouds above the ornate roof tiles and city gates below. The cranes are symbolic creatures that represent longevity and immortality. The painting exemplifies the perfect balance between nature and humanity, portraying the cranes as a symbol of good fortune emerging from the clouds over the capital's stunning architecture. An inscription and poem to the left of the painting further emphasize this harmonious relationship. The artwork, inscription, and poem together are known as Auspicious Cranes and suggest that the emperor possessed the "Mandate of Heaven," or the divine right to rule (tīanmìng 天命), which was believed to be bestowed upon all emperors.[3] Despite his reputation as an ineffective ruler, Huizong sought to counter this reality by highlighting the auspiciousness of the event. Cranes 1112 is depicted on a handscroll that unfurls from right to left, showcasing a historical document with pictorial stylized elements. The cranes are symbols that evoke long life and immortality. Figure $\PageIndex{7}$: Figure $\PageIndex{8}$: Zhang Zefuan Zhang Zeduan is renowned as a skilled painter from Shandong province, who lived during the early 12th century. He was a member of the Hanlin Academy and primarily focused on creating intricate depictions of buildings, boats, carriages, and bridges. One of Zhang’s most celebrated works is the handscroll, Along During the Qingming Festival, which currently resides at the Gugong museum in Beijing. It showcases vibrant scenes of the bustling capital of the Northern Song dynasty, just prior to the city being overtaken by the Jin army in 1126. Along the River During the Qingming Festival (12.2.10) painting is a breathtaking panoramic view of daily life during the Song period. The artwork exquisitely captures the celebratory atmosphere and bustling street life of the Qingming Festival in the capital city of Bianjing, now known as Kaifeng in Henan. This remarkable piece of art is showcased in the handscroll format and features a diverse array of lifestyles from various social classes, including the wealthy and the impoverished. It provides a vivid display of economic activities in both rural and urban areas, while also highlighting the period's fashion and architectural styles. The painting is an exceptional artistic masterpiece that has been highly regarded and revered over time. As a result, artists of subsequent dynasties have produced numerous re-interpretive replicas of this celebrated artwork. This remarkable silk painting measures 35.6 centimeters in height and an impressive 1,152.8 centimeters in length. It is divided into five major sections, each depicting a different scene. The first section showcases serene rustic scenery, followed by a section that focuses on Rainbow Bridge and its crowded market scene, which represents the painting's climax. The third section depicts bustling activity near the city gate, while the fourth progresses from the Pine and Bamboo Hall to a large wooden bridge with scenery on both sides of the river. The final section portrays the stunning Golden Brightness (Jinming) Lake. The Qingming Festival The Qingming Festival is held one hundred and four days after the winter solstice, and is known as the ‘pure bright festival’, ‘tomb-sweeping day’ and ‘ancestors day’. For over 2,500 years, this festival has been a day for Chinese people to visit the tombs of their ancestors to care for and clean them, which can involve literally or figuratively sweeping them. Ma Yaun Ma Yuan (1195-1224) was a Chinese court painter during the Southern Song dynasty. He earned the nickname "One Corner Ma" due to his proclivity for focusing his paintings in a single corner. Ma Yuan's work is characterized by his unique style, which involved a combination of ink and color washes to create subtle and nuanced effects. Ma Yuan's artistry was deeply influenced by the philosophy of Taoism, which emphasized the harmony and unity of nature. He created successful paintings by capturing the essence of the subject rather than simply replicating its appearance. His unique style featured landscapes, figures, and animals, and he was particularly skilled at capturing the beauty and tranquility of nature. Snowflake (12.2.11) depicts a majestic pine tree that stands tall and proud amidst a tranquil, snow-covered landscape. In the distance, a striking mountaintop pavilion provides a stunning backdrop. In the foreground, a horseback rider and their attendant are making their way across a bridge, with the latter trying to stay warm. The artist's signature, Ma Yuan, can be found at the bottom of the painting, and although the brushwork may suggest otherwise, the style remains true to the Ming dynasty. The texture of the mountains and boulders, as well as the "axe-cut" brushstrokes used to render the tree branches, are all hallmarks of Ma Yuan's style. The painting creates a chilly yet enchanting wintry atmosphere that transports the viewer to another world. Walking On a Mountain Path in Spring (12.2.12) captures a tranquil landscape of wildflowers in the presence of a wise scholar. The peacefulness of the flowers is interrupted by the graceful flight of a golden oriole, adding a sense of motion to the piece. The swaying willow branches follow suit as the bird takes off. At the center of the painting, a young attendant carries a wrapped zither. The scholar appears lost in thought, pausing mid-stride to take in the natural beauty around him, as if composing a verse. The bird's flight and the movement of the branches lead the viewer's gaze to the imperial inscription located in the upper right corner, which is a poem by Emperor Ningzong that describes the dance of wildflowers when brushed by the sleeves of a secluded scholar. The calligraphy is both elegant and understated. Ma Yuan's signature is visible in the lower left corner. Overall, the painting embodies a harmonious blend of stillness and activity, culminating in a serene and poetic scene. Printing The origins of paper can be traced back to the Han Dynasty in the 2nd century CE. Despite the increasing popularity of books, the process of manually writing everything still posed a significant challenge. In the Tang Dynasty, a solution was found in the form of woodblock printing. This method involved carving letters onto a board, applying ink, and then pressing the board onto a sheet of paper to create text. The Diamond Sutra (12.2.13), printed in 868 CE, is the oldest known book to have been printed using this method. Although the process was still time-consuming, it allowed for multiple copies of the same text to be produced more efficiently than by hand. However, the plates used for printing were difficult to correct and store, and were only useful if additional copies were required. During the 11th century Song Dynasty, Bi Sheng invented movable type, representing a significant breakthrough in the printing industry. This invention paved the way for mass production of books, thereby enabling the efficient dissemination of educational and governmental information. With thousands of copies of documents easily reproducible, the advancement of movable type had a profound impact on the world of printing, transforming it from a labor-intensive, time-consuming process to a streamlined, efficient one. The invention of movable type by Bi Sheng, therefore, played a crucial role in the development of modern printing technology and its use in disseminating information on a large scale. When Shen Kuo wrote about the invention of movable type by Bi Sheng he stated: “[Bi Sheng] took sticky clay and cut in it characters as thin as the edge of a coin. Each character formed, as it were, a single type. He baked them in the fire to make them hard. He had previously prepared an iron plate and he had covered his plate with a mixture of pine resin, wax, and paper ashes. When he wished to print, he took an iron frame and set it on the iron plate. In this he placed the types, set close together. When the frame was full, the whole made one solid block of type. He then placed it near the fire to warm it. When the paste [at the back] was slightly melted, he took a smooth board and pressed it over the surface, so that the block of type became as even as a whetstone. If one were to print only two or three copies, this method would be neither simple nor easy. But for printing hundreds or thousands of copies, it was marvelously quick. As a rule he kept two forms going. While the impression was being made from the one form, the type was being put in place on the other. When the printing of the one form was finished, the other was then ready. In this way the two forms alternated and the printing was done with great rapidity.”[4] The creation of books underwent a revolutionary change when movable type was invented. Instead of the laborious process of carving wood plates for each page, individual characters could be easily rearranged and stored in boxes. Bi Sheng experimented with wooden characters but found them to be inconsistent when soaked with ink due to the wood grain. Movable type allowed for characters to be quickly removed and reset for the next page, and multiple plates could be produced simultaneously and ready for printing. This groundbreaking innovation was instrumental in spreading knowledge across social classes, as it required a vast number of Chinese characters. Six Harmonies Pagoda Perched atop a hill overlooking the majestic Qiantang River and Xi Hu Lake in eastern China, stands the Six Harmonies Pagoda (12.2.14). This awe-inspiring structure was erected in the year 970 CE by the Northern Song Dynasty, utilizing a combination of brick and wood. The name "Liuhe" was bestowed upon it as a tribute to the six Buddhist harmonies that it symbolizes, representing the elements of heaven, earth, east, west, north, and south. According to legend, the pagoda was originally built as an offering to the six harmonies and to beseech divine intervention in taming the tumultuous tidal waves and floods of the Qiantang River. The pagoda's six floors, each adorned with intricate carvings and paintings, were designed to represent the six Buddhist harmonies, and it is said that the pagoda's powerful presence helped to calm the turbulent waters of the river, protecting the surrounding areas from flooding and destruction. Today, the Six Harmonies Pagoda stands as a testament to the ingenuity and architectural prowess of ancient China, and continues to attract visitors from all over the world, who come to marvel at its beauty and learn about its fascinating history and cultural significance. The pagoda's rich history spans over a millennium, having undergone various renovations throughout the years. The current tower, standing tall at 59 meters, was modified in 1156 CE. While it appears to have 13 stories from the exterior, the interior reveals only seven, designed in an octagonal layout, symbolizing the Eightfold Path in Buddhist belief. The structure is divided into four parts, with a thick outer wall and an inner ring and hallway (12.2.5) forming the interior rooms, constructed using bricks from the earlier Song Dynasty. Remarkably, even in the twelfth century, recycling was a common practice. The noble eightfold path leads to the discovery of self-awakening... Between the outer and inner walls lie a series of winding stairs leading to small chambers and each floor. The ceilings of the seven rooms boast low relief carvings and are adorned with painted flowers, birds, animals, and other charming characters. The wall niches feature the Sutra of Forty-Two Sections, while the rooms themselves house more than 200 brick carvings of dancing animals, peacocks, parrots, lotuses, lions, and pomegranates, offering a sense of liveliness and motion. Additionally, a wooden pole gracefully extends from the outer wall corners to the eaves, where 104 iron bells are affixed to the structure. From the outside, the pagoda presents a captivating blend of dark and light shades, creating a picturesque landmark for visitors and providing a stunning view of the surrounding countryside and river. Six Harmonies Pagoda The Liuhe Tower, also known as the Six Harmonies Pagoda, situated on the banks of the Qiantang River. it is renowned for its magnificent views and historical significance. The tower was originally built during the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127) to serve as a lighthouse and navigational aid for ships traveling along the Qiantang River. The Liuhe Tower stands at a height of approximately 60 meters and is composed of seven stories. Each level is adorned with intricate architectural details, including beautifully carved stone reliefs, glazed tiles, and exquisite paintings. The tower's elegant and symmetrical design reflects the architectural style of ancient China. Visitors can climb to the top of the Liuhe Tower using a winding staircase and enjoy panoramic views of the surrounding landscape. From the tower's vantage point, one can marvel at the picturesque scenery of the Qiantang River, nearby mountains, and the bustling city of Hangzhou. Additional text/introduction. [1] Little, S. and Eichman, S. (2000). Taoism and the Arts of China. Chicago Art Institute. [2] Google Arts and Culture [1] Dr. Kristen Loring Brennan, "Emperor Huizong, Auspicious Cranes, handscroll," in Smarthistory, December 28, 2021, [4] Needham, J. (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing. Cave Books, Ltd., 5(1), 201.
2073	dbpedia	2	78	http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/zhou-military.html	en	Zhou Period Military (www.chinaknowledge.de)			[ "http://www.chinaknowledge.de/System/logo.png", "http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/Images/zhou_weapons11ironhelmet.jpg", "http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/Images/zhou_weapons12daggerinscription.jpg", "http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/Images/zhou_weapons2.jpg", "http://www.chinaknow...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Ulrich Theobald" ]	null	The Zhou Dynasty å¨ (11th cent.-221 BCE) was probably the dynasty that reigned for the longest period of time not only among all Chinese dynasties, but of the whole world. Such a long rule contributed to the image of the Zhou rulers and their political and ritual institutions as examples and guidelines for all later dynasties, at least in theory. The founders of the Zhou dynasty, the kings Wen å¨æç and Wu å¨æ¦ç (abbreviated to the couple Wen-Wu ææ¦), and the Prince Regent, the Duke of Zhou å¨å¬, were seen as ideal monarchs. The Confucians venerated them as moral saints, as arbiters of humanity and righteousness.		../../System/ding.ico		null	Oct 3, 2018 Â© Ulrich Theobald Military organisation Western Zhou period Transmitted and archaeological sources prove the existence of six "western" royal divisions (liushi å å¸«, xi liushi è¥¿å å¸«; å¸« also written ð ¤), yet there is also word of the "eight divisions of [the region of] Yin", i.e. Shang (Yin bashi æ®·å «å¸«) and the eight divisions of Chengzhou (Chengzhou bashi æå¨å «å¸«) in the east. One interpretation of these units is that one of them was garrisoned in the last residence of Yin, which was located on the territory of the regional state of Wei è¡, and the other eight divisions in the eastern capital Chengzhou (today's Luoyang æ´é½, Henan). Another interpretation sees the Yin and Chengzhou divisions as the same units. This means that the kings of Zhou either commanded 14 divisions, or 22 (He 1987: 20; Yang 1994: 77-78; Wang & Yang 1996: 362). Even if the highest command over these troops was in the hands of the king, the military orders were executed by other leaders, for instance, the Duke of Shao å¬å ¬ in case of the western, and the Duke of Zhou å¨å ¬ in that of the eastern divisions. Estimations about the size of one shi å¸« range between 3,000 ("regiment"; He 1987: 21) and 10,000 men ("division"; Yang 1994: 78). In contrast to the Shang, this seems to have been an army of considerably size, and was a measure to strengthen the power of the central government over the regional rulers (zhuhou è«¸ä¾¯). This system is explained in the historiographical book Guoyu åèª (ch. Luyu é¯èª B): Quotation 1. Divisions of the king and the regional rulers according to Guoyu åèª å¤©åä½å¸«ï¼å ¬å¸¥ä¹ä»¥å¾ä¸å¾·ã The Son of Heaven raises regiments, and a Duke commands them in order to punish the immoral ones. å ä¾¯ä½å¸«ï¼å¿å¸¥ä¹ä»¥æ¿å¤©åã The greater among the regional rulers raise regiments, and ministers command them in order to support the Son of Heaven. è«¸ä¾¯æå¿ç¡è»ï¼å¸¥æè¡ä»¥è´å ä¾¯ã The [average] regional rulers have ministers, but no armies; [instead] they command highly trained guard units in order to assist the greater regional rulers. èªä¼¯ãåãç·æå¤§å¤«ç¡å¿ï¼å¸¥è³¦ä»¥å¾è«¸ä¾¯ã As the lesser regional rulers have grand masters, but no ministers, they command conscripts in order to support the other regional rulers. æ¯ä»¥ä¸è½å¾ä¸ï¼ä¸ç¡å§¦æ ã For this reason, those in the higher ranks can charge those below, and those below may not do evil! From this statement it can be learnt that "ministers" (qing å¿) were not just civilian, but also military commanders in the regional states. The ministers-commander of the greater regional rulers (what was later called the "hegemonial lords") were directly appointed by the king, as can be learnt from the ritual Classic Liji ç¦®è¨ (ch. Wangzhi çå¶). Concerning the size of regional armies, the sources deviate from each other. The Luyu chapter of the Guoyu says that greater regional rulers had armies of three divisions (jun è»), while the Classic Zhuozhuan å·¦å³ (Yingong é±å ¬ 5) holds that the mightier among the regional rulers (fangbo æ¹ä¼¯) had two divisions (shi å¸«). In practice, it might have been that regional states had the right to deploy between one and three divisions. The problem with such statements from the Eastern Zhou period æ±å¨ (770-221 BCE) is that the unit jun è» was unknown in the early Western Zhou è¥¿å¨ (11th cent.-770 BCE) (Yang 1994: 80). The smallest units were squads of ten (shi ä») commanded by squad commanders (shizhang ä»é·). Companies (baifu ç¾å¤«) were commanded by company commanders (baifuzhang ç¾å¤«é·), and regiments of 1,000 men (qianfu åå¤«) by regimental commanders (qianfuzhang åå¤«é·). It seems that the less powerful regional rulers did not have own armies, but just guard units (wei è¡) which were used to support the mightier regional rulers in case of need. The smaller regional states did perhaps not even dispose of guard units, but had to fall back on conscripts (fu è³¦) drafted when a conflict arose. The smaller lords created auxiliary troops to support the mightier lords, and even the mightier among the regional rulers only had the right to assist the Son of Heaven, and not the right to wage war on their own behalf. Smaller contingents for local defence were apparently existing in the regional states, but they stood nominally under the command of the king (He 1987: 21). The king was protected by between 800 (Wang & Yang 1996: 362) and 3,000 (Yang 1994: 94) guardsmen (hubenshi èè³æ°, hushi èå£« "brave as tigers"), both at home or during inspection tours. The guardsmen of the regional rulers were called lÃ¼ben æ è³. The use of armies within the Zhou empire was mainly to "punish" disobedient lords or tribes. The army command was entrusted to a regional lord by handing him over bow and arrow (gong shi å¼ç¢) or a ceremonial axe (fu yue æ§é). This can be learnt from the Liji (ch. Wangzhi) and the inscription of the Guo Jizi Bai pan è¢å£åç½ç¤ plate. Central command was nominally with the king, but he was supported by the Minister of War (da sima å¤§å¸é¦¬), literally "grand commander of mounts". This office is first mentioned in the Classic Shangshu å°æ¸ "Book of Documents" (ch. Mushi ç§èª). It might have been derived from the Shang petty office of maya é¦¬äº or maxiaochen é¦¬å°è£ (see Shang military), but represented a much more important position than those. The office is also mentioned in several bronze inscriptions, where the sima is described as practically the "right hand" of the king. This impression is confirmed by the respective paragraph in the ritual Classic Zhouli å¨ç¦® (part Xiaguan å¤å®, ch. Da sima å¤§å¸é¦¬), where the manifold duties of the Minister of War are described: The Minister of War established the nine methods to consolidate the state (jian bangguo zhi fa å»ºé¦åä¹ä¹æ³) in order to support the king in checking the local rulers. The nine methods were determining the royal domain and fixing the borders of the regional states (zhi ji fen guo å¶ç¿å°å), establishing rules of etiquette and making distinct the ranks of nobility (she yi bian wei è¨åè¾¨ä½), promoting competent men and elevating such of merits (jin xian xing gong é²è³¢èå), creating pastures and appointing inspectors (jian mu li jian å»ºç§ç«ç£), organizing a military corps and checking military prescriptions (zhi jun jie jin å¶è»è©°ç¦), fixing the obligation to deliver tributes and charging the officials with their duties (shi gong fen zhi æ½è²¢åè·), listing and counting the population in each township (jian ji xiang min ç°¡ç¨½éæ°), equalizing the defence and balancing the statutes (jun shou ping ze åå®å¹³å), and approaching the small ones and serving the great (bi xiao shi da æ¯å°äºå¤§). These duties show how much the Zhou kings were able to penetrate the sovereignty of the regional states. The regional rulers were no more than governors, and not rulers in their own right. The Minister of War was thus responsible for administering the armies and their equipment, recruitment, training and tactics, and dispensed military justice. In some instances, the Minister of War also commanded the armies of regional states (Yang 1994: 83). Apart from the Minister of War, there were also commanders (sima å¸é¦¬) on lesser levels, like mounted commanders (jun sima è»å¸é¦¬), chariot commanders (yu sima è¡å¸é¦¬), mounted commanders on campaign (xing sima è¡å¸é¦¬), military administrators of royal divisions (bangjun sima é¦åå¸é¦¬, guo sima åå¸é¦¬), military administrators of regional states (jia sima å®¶å¸é¦¬, sizheng å¸æ£), or du sima é½å¸é¦¬ as administrators on a low level (Yang 1994: 86). During battles, the highest command might be carried out by the Grand Commander (taishi å¤ªå¸«, the Duke of Zhou) or the Grand Guardian (taibao å¤ªä¿, the Duke of Shao; see Three Dukes), the highest members of the central government, or second-rank persons like the Minister of Education (situ å¸å¾), the Minister of War (sima), or the Minister of Works (sikong å¸ç©º) (Wang & Yang 1996: 360, see six ministries). During the reign of King Li å¨å²ç (r. 878-841 BCE), the dynasty was threatened by two enemies, namely the Xianyun çç tribes in the west, and the Huaiyi æ·®å¤· tribes in the southeast. King Li therefore carried out reform in the military system by increasing troop strength and altering the composition of units. The unit jun was introduced which corresponded to 12,500 troops. The king had at his disposal six of these new, larger units. The unit shi was made a subunit of jun and reduced to 1,500 troops. Table 1. Military units of the late Western Zhou unit size commander rank division (jun è») 12,500 da sima å¤§å¸é¦¬ ? minister-commander (qing å¿) regiment (shi å¸«) 1,500 shishuai å¸«å¸¥ ordinary grand master (zhong dafu ä¸å¤§å¤«) battalion (lÃ¼ æ ) 500 lÃ¼shuai æ å¸¥ junior grand master (xia dafu ä¸å¤§å¤«) company (zu å) 100 zuzhang åé· senior serviceman (shangshi ä¸å£«) platoon (liang å ©) 25 liang sima å ©å¸é¦¬ ordinary serviceman (zhongshi ä¸å£«) squad (wu ä¼) 5 wuzhang ä¼é· junior serviceman (xiashi ä¸å£«) The whole military system thus followed a pentadic system (steps and multiples of five) instead of the former decimal system. Regiments and battalions were arranged in left, mid, and right wings. Western Zhou armies consisted of two branches of service, namely chariot units, and infantry. The number of chariots used in conflicts is unknown. The battle of Muye ç§é before the foundation of the Zhou dynasty was allegedly fought with 300 chariots, while after King Li's reform, armies were encompassing 3,000 chariots (Yang 1994: 89). Shang commanders had to operate with chariots and infantry separately, but the Zhou began to merge these two types of forces to a unit called sheng ä¹ which included one chariot and 30 infantrymen. Ten of them were armoured (jiashi ç²å£«), namely three ready to use the chariot, and seven walking. Of the whole group, 5 men did not fight, but cared for the train and prepared food and fodder. The group was commanded by the chief charioteer (He 1987: 21). Five chariots made a squad (dui é), 10 a platoon (guan å®), 25 a company (zhengpian æ£å), 50 a battalion (zu å), 100 a regiment (shi), and 500 chariots a division (jun). In the late Western Zhou period, each chariot was accompanied by ten heavy infantrymen (jiashi) protected by cuirasses or corselets as well as twenty light infantrymen (tubing å¾å µ). Spring and Autumn period With the flight of the royal house of Zhou to the east their military and political potential had diminished drastically. The number of troops protecting the eastern capital Chengzhou (Luoyang, Henan) shrank in comparison with the Western Zhou period. The name "six armies" (liujun) was still used, but an incident in 707 BCE, when King Huan of Zhou å¨æ¡ç (r. 720-697) fought against Duke Zhuang éèå ¬ (r. 743-701) of Zheng é shows that the house of Zhou was powerless. Even with the military support of the states of Cai è¡, Wei è¡, and Chen é³, the royal army lost the battle of Xuge ç¹»è (today's Changge é·è, Henan). While the forces of the royal house shrank, those of the regional states increased. The most powerful state of the early Spring and Autumn period was Jin æ. In 661, Duke Xian of Jin æç»å ¬ (r. 677-651) doubled his armed forces to build the upper and lower division (shangjun ä¸è», xiajun ä¸è»). Duke Wen ææå ¬ (r. 637-628), who took over the role of lord-protector or hegemonial lord (ba é¸), created in 633 a third division (zhongjun ä¸è»), and then enlarged his army to five divisions in 629, adding two "new" divisions (shang xinjun ä¸æ°è», xia xinjun ä¸æ°è»). Command was taken over by grand masters (dafu), heads of noble houses in the state of Jin. Several of these high dignitaries died in the late 620s, so the Duke decided to dissolve two divisions and reorganized the three remaining. In 588, Jin created six armies, which were ten years later reorganized to four divisions. In 560, the command of the fourth division was unified with that of the "lower" division, but four divisions continued to exist. In the state of Qi é½, the reorganization of the military was combined with a restructuring of the local administration. The state was defended by three divisions. The state of Lu é¯, still a powerful polity in the early Spring and Autumn period, had 30,000 men under arms (Wang & Yang 1996: 438). They were distributed over three divisions, each of which commanded by one of the Three Huan houses ä¸æ¡. In 577, two divisions were merged, and the house of Jisun å£å« commanded one, while the houses of Mengsun åå« and Shusun åå« shared one division. Divisions were ranked. The "upper" was usually the superior one out of two, the "central" one that out of three or more divisions. The state of Chu æ¥ knew left and right divisions, the left one being the superior unit. Concerning the number of troops, Qi and Lu were 30,000 strong. During the interstate meeting of Huangchi é»æ± (Fengqiu å°ä¸, Henan) in 482, the representative of the state of Wu å³ was accompanied by 30,000 troops protected by corselets (jia ç²). The army of Yue è¶ consisted of 2,000 troops "accustomed to naval warfare" (xiliu ç¿æµ), 40,000 trained troops (jiaoshi æå£«), 6,000 elite troops (? junzi åå), and 1,000 officers (zhuyu è«¸å¾¡). The size of divisions was 10,000 in the states of Qi and Wu, and 12,500 in others. Small military units in some states had the designation sheng ä¹ "quadriga", which shows how important chariots were still during that time. The word for "division" (jun è») is a graph showing a chariot inside a fencing or circumvallation. The dukes of Lu commanded one thousand chariots and 30,000 troops (Shijing è©©ç¶, hymn Bigong éå®®), and the state of Ji between 900 and 5,000, depending on the source. The powerful state of Chu æ¥ in the south had a force of even 10,000 chariots, with up to 1,000 chariots provided by each district (xian ç¸£) of the royal domain. The state of Qin ç§¦ in the west was able to deploy several hundred chariots in single campaigns, and commanded about 2,000 chariots in total. Smaller states like Zhu é¾ had 600, larger ones like Zheng or Song å® more than a thousand chariots (Wang & Yang 1996: 438-439). The team of one chariot (sheng ä¹) was divided into squads (wu ä¼) of five men, commanded by a squad leader (wuzhang ä¼é·), platoons (liang å ©) of 25 men commanded by a platoon commander (liang sima å ©å¸é¦¬), and made a single company (zu å) commanded by a company commander (zuzhang åé·). Five chariot-infantry teams ("companies") built a battalion (dui é), ten a brigade (guan å®), fifty a division (zu å), and 100 a banner (shuai å¸¥). This was the largest organizational unit of chariot-infantry teams, but there were also groups of 125 and 81 teams. In some states, 700 chariots made three divisions, in others, 800 (He 1987: 42-43). In the state of Jin, the order was wu ä¼, liang å ©, zu å, shuai å¸¥, jun è»; in Qi, wu ä¼, xiaorong å°æ, zu å, lÃ¼ æ , and jun è»; and in Wu, wu ä¼, shi ä», zu å, lÃ¼ æ , and jun è» (Chen 1994: 89-90). Chariots were manned by three men, the left one fighting with bow and arrow, the right one with spear and halberd, and the central person steering the vehicle. Each chariot was usually accompanied by a certain number of infantrymen, but the numbers were not fix. They ranged between 10 and 100. Ten footmen was the usual number of troops accompanying a chariot during the early Spring and Autumn period, and 75 was a common size in the late Warring States period for light chariots. The army of Chu used 100 persons per chariot (He 1987: 41). Yet even in individual armies, the number was not fix, as can be seen in the terracotta army of the First Emperor ç§¦å§çå¸ (r. 246-210 BCE), whose chariots were accompanied by 8, 28, or 32 infantrymen. From these relations, the number of infantry troops in each state of the Spring and Autumn period can roughly be assessed. Jin had probably 150,000 troops, Chu 300,000, and Qin 60,000 (Wang & Yang 1996: 440). Average armies included 700 to 800 chariots, when counting the army of the sovereign and the private troops of his noblemen (He 1987: 43). The troops riding the chariot (chebing è»å µ) were protected by corselets and therefore called "armoured soldiers" (jiashi ç²å£«). Their mode of fighting required extensive training, not only to achieve mastery in hitting the enemy, but also to thrust into the heart of his formation and kill enemies and capture their officers. "Infantrymen" (tubing å¾å µ, lujun é¸è») were troops following the chariots and supporting them by fighting the enemy when the chariots had broken through his line. The earliest pure infantry units were used by the state of Zheng in 719. This state systematically expanded the number and use of infantry, and was very successful with this tactic in smaller battles. Infantry was more flexible than chariots when it came to small-scale manoeuvres, as is the case in rough terrain. In the state of Jin, infantry was called hang è¡. In 633, Duke Wen created three infantry divisions (zuohang å·¦è¡, zhonghang ä¸è¡, youhang å³è¡) to fight the Di tribes ç and the tribes of the northeast in Wuzhong ç¡çµ. The central division was commanded by Xun Linfu èæç¶, who adopted the term zhonghang as his family name. Yet three years later two divisions were transformed into traditional chariot-infantry divisions (shang xinjun, xia xinjun). The infantry units of the state of Chu were called lingshi éµå¸« "hill banners". In the state of Qi, quite a number of units fought without chariot because they were not just trained to fight on average level ground, but also on water, in marshes, slopes, mountains, or in the forest. The chapter Bingfa å µæ³ (17) of the book Guanzi ç®¡å describes these types. The chapter Ditu å°å (27) urges its readers to reconnoitre terrain before deciding over the type of forces going to fight. The state of Wu did perhaps not use chariots at all. Information about infantry units is scarce, but one might suppose the following dimensions: ten men making a platoon (dui é), 100 a company (hang è¡), 1,000 a regiment (jing æ), and 10,000 a division (jun è») (He 1987: 43). The combination of chariot and infantry units led to the development of battlefield tactics some of which are named in the chronicle Zuozhuan, like the battle arrays (zhen é£) yuli ééº "supper", zuo-you ju å·¦å³ç© "left and right wings", jingshi èå°¸ (used in Chu), guan é¸ "crane", e éµ "swan", yu ç "bowl", or jiao è§ "angle". The typical "supper array" consisted of three parts (san zhen ä¸é£), with the central (chariot) unit standing in the rear and the two (infantry) wings advancing in square formations. The jingshi array of Chu consisted of five parts (wu zhen äºé£) advancing in a cross-shaped formation, spears (infantry, qianmao åè ) ahead, the commander in the middle (zhongquan ä¸æ¬), elite troops in the rear (houjin å¾å), and chariot formations in the two wings (youyuan å³è½ , zuozhuiru å·¦è¿½è; Chen 1994: 94-95). In 594, the five-part formation was also used by Duke Zhuang of Qi é½èå ¬ (r. 553-548) against Wei è¡ and Jin, with an advance part (xianqu å é© ), a central party (zhongqu ä¸é© ), a rear guard (dadian å¤§æ®¿), and a left (qi å) and right (qu è ) wing. The state of Jin used the terms liang å ©, wu ä¼, zhuan å°, can å, and pian å, but changed them to qian å, hou å¾, zuojiao å·¦è§, youjiao å³è§, and qianju åæ in 542 with the drastic reduction of chariot units in favour of infantry. Naval units (zhoushi èå¸«) played a great role in water-rich south China. Of the three southern states, Chu had the mightiest fleet. In 549, it invaded the state of Wu by a fleet down the Yangtze, and defeated Wu again in the battle of Chang'an é·å²¸ in 535. In 523, the fleet of Chu attacked the Pu tribes æ¿® in what is today's Hunan. Yet in 506, Wu had become strong enough (with the support of Cai and Tang å) and defeated Chu in the battle of Baiju æè, forcing King Zhao of Chu æ¥æç (r. 515-489) to flee. In 504, Prince Zhonglei çµç´¯ defeated the river navy of Chu under Pan Zichen æ½åè£. In order to attack the state of Qi on the Shandong Peninsula in 486, the state of Wu built the Hangou Canal éæº (connecting the Yangtze with River Huai æ·®æ²³) leading its fleet northward. A year later, Wu sent Xu Cheng å¾æ¿, who sailed long the ocean shore to cut off the supplies or retreat of the army of Qi, but he was defeated after landing. The navy remained Wu's strength, and it never really mastered chariot warfare. The strategist Wu Zixu ä¼åè¥ (d. 484) therefore urged the king of Wu to refrain from military campaigns against the states of the Central Plain which used chariot-infantry armies, a type of troops rarely used in the south. In 484 in the battle of Ailing è¾éµ, Wu defeated the army of Qi by using River Wen æ±¶æ°´ to transport troops and supplies. The state of Yue several times defeated Chu by using the advantage of pursuit: The boats of Chu would have to return upriver and could thus not easily withdraw. The navy of Yue encompassed 300 "halberd boats" (gechuan æè¹) (Chen 1994: 109). When the arch-enemy of Wu, King Fucha å¤«å·® (r. 495-473), was at an interstate meeting in Huangchi the north, King Goujian å¥è¸ (r. 495- 465) ordered Fan Li èè ¡ and She Yong èåº¸ to attack Wu by cutting off the king from his own country. Ships brought troops along the sea shore to the River Huai region, and so annihilated Wu. Command over the armies of regional states was taken over either by the regional ruler himself, but more often by his highest dignitaries, the ministers-commander (qing), or local administrators, the grand masters (dafu). They were occasionally called sima å¸é¦¬ "commander of cavalry" (jia sima å®¶å¸é¦¬ on state level, mazheng é¦¬æ£ on the level of the nobility). Some states entrusted the command over the three divisions to certain noble families who retained this post over generations, like the houses Fan è, Zhi æº, Zhonghang, Zhao è¶, Wei é, and Han é in the state of Jin, or Guo å and Gao é« in the state of Qi. Yet high commanders might also be appointed according to need, like the princes Wang Yin Qun çå°¹éº and Wang Yin Shou çå°¹å£½, actually administrators of the royal palace and workshops who were commanded the defence of Chu against Wu. It can be seen that there was still no clear separation between military and civilian administration during the Spring and Autumn period. The main body of armies in the regional states consisted of troops and officers from the capital and the lord's domain. Yet it was also common that troops under the command of a nobleman carried out campaigns, like in 550, when Zhao Sheng è¶å (Lord Pingyuan å¹³åå) of Jin, governor (dafu) of Dongyang æ±é½ (today's Handan é¯é², Hebei), defended Jin against an invasion army of Qi. In 520, Prince Chao æ of the royal house of Zhou used local troops to expel Liuzi åå and King Dao å¨æ¼ç (r. 521-520) from the domain of Zhou. The king fled to Jin and was supported by local troops in the state of Jin under the command of the noblemen Ji Tan ç±è« and Xun Li èèº. The strongest contingents of such local troops were standing in the border regions of each state, in the case of Jin in the southern region (Jiao ç¦, Xia ç, Wen æº«, Yuan å), and in the state of Chu in the north (Shen ç³, Xi æ¯). In 660, Di tribes attacked the state of Wei. The state of Zheng thereupon sent out Gao Ke é«å to establish a garrison to prevent the Di from crossing the Yellow River. Noblemen of all states had their own bodyguards (zubing æå µ, zuben æè³, in Chu called shengguang ä¹å»£), yet over time the number of such personal troops (sishu ç§å±¬, sizu ç§å, zujia æç²) increased. In 592, Xi Ke é¤å took revenge for humiliation in the state of Qi by using his own troops, not that of the duke of Jin. The families Han and Yangshe ç¾è (Yang æ¥) in the state of Jin sustained as much as 900 chariots (Wang, Yang 1996: 449). In the state of Zheng, Zichan åç¢ built up his own army of 17 chariots (plus infantry) to take revenge for his father Ziguo åå (Gongzi Fa å ¬åç¼), who had been killed by Wei Zhi å°æ¢ in 563. He was supported by Zijiao åè, who commanded government-owned troops. The nobility of Lu unifed a larger army of chariots than the state of Qi. In the battle of Yanling é¢éµ (today in Henan) in 575, the noblemen Luan Shu æ¬æ¸ and Shi Xie å£«ç® (Fan Wenzi èæå) commanded the ducal army, but were supported by their private troops as well. The possibility of sustaining armies of their own gave noblemen an instrument at hand to fight not just the lord of another state, but also each other or even the sovereign. As the stock of private armies were basically bodyguards, they were excellently trained. Like the regional rulers gradually built up their own armies in disregards of the king's monopoly over military affairs, the nobility within the states ignored the right of their sovereigns over military matters and gradually transforme their own bodyguards into veritable armies. Data from the chronicle Zuozhuan show that during the Spring and Autumn period, 36 lords were killed by their own nobility, 13 were forced into exile, and 3 kings of the house of Zhou were dethroned or pushed outside the royal domain (Wang & Yang 1996: 449). In the state of Jin, for instance, Luan Ying æ¬ç built up his house army and, with the support of the nobleman Wei Shu éè (Wei Xianzi éç»å), conquered in 550 the ducal capital of Jin. In 548, Cui Zhu å´æ¼ with his private army was able to interfere into the succession of the dukes of Qi. The ducal line of the house of Jin was pushed away by the lineage of Quwo æ²æ². Yet some regional rulers were able to suppress their rebellious relatives, like Duke Zhuang of Zheng, who defeated Prince Gong Shu Duan å ±åæ®µ in 722, or King Wu of Chu æ¥æ¦ç (r. 741-690), who withstood the assault of Prince Dou Min é¬¬ç· in 676. Warring States Period The most important change in administrative matters took place in the early Warring States period, when professional leaders of armies, and professional institutions for the organization of campaigns emerged. The regional states created military sections (jiangmen å°é) and counselling sections (xiangmen ç¸é) in the central administration. In the state of Zhao, for instance, Lian Po å»é was the high commander, while Lin Xiangru èºç¸å¦ (c. 315-c. 260) was counsellor-in-chief. The designation jiang å° or jiangjun å°è» was new. Wei Ran éå was general in Qin, Bai Qi ç½èµ· was supreme commander (shang jiangjun ä¸å°è»), and Wang He çé½ lieutenant commander (weibai jiang å°è£¨å°) in the state of Qin. Tian Dan ç°å® was the supreme commander of Qi, Prince Shen ç³ that of Wei é, later on the Lord of Xinling ä¿¡éµå took over command of the army of Wei. The generals of Han were Han Ju éè and Sou Shencha ä±¸ç³å·®, and the army of Yan was commanded by Yue Yi æ¨æ¯ . Chu was the only one of the states not making use of the position of supreme commander (shang jiangjun) or general-in-chief (da jiangjun å¤§å°è»). The supreme commander ranged only second after the counsellor-in-chief. The armies of the Warring States period were structured in decadic steps: Table 2. Military units of the Warring States period unit size commander division (jun è») 10,000-12,500 wan ren zhi jiang è¬äººä¹å° regiment (?) 1,000 qian ren zhi jiang åäººä¹å° company (bo ä¼¯, bai ç¾) 100 bozhang ä¼¯é· squad (shi ä») 10 shizhang ä»é· team (wu ä¼) 5 wuzhang ä¼é· The supreme commanders, the general-in-chief (dajiang å¤§å°), the generals to the left and right (zuo-you jiangjun å·¦å³å°è»), and also the individual unit leaders (zhang é·) were probably not fixed official posts, but temporary positions (Wang & Yang 1996: 565) The command of the supreme general was absolute, and could not be abrogated by the sovereign of the regional state (jun zhong zhi shi, bu wen jun ming, jie you jiang chu è»ä¸ä¹äºï¼ä¸èåå½ï¼çç±å°åº). Communication during war followed strict hierarchical principles. Direct communication with the king by bypassing the general was not allowed, by death penalty. Kings of the regional states did usually not participate in battles. This was different from the Spring and Autumn period, when sovereigns had exposed themselves to the threat of being hurt or killed. The royal power nevertheless extended to the army, by means of two methods. The king owned the prerogative to invest the three highest generals and entrust the command into their hands during a campaign. The investiture of a general was a religious ceremony which involved divination and reports to the royal ancestors (see Zhou religion). During the ceremony, the king handed over an axe (fuyue æ§é) into the hands of the general, as a symbol of the military power being confided to the supreme general. Likewise, the king had the right to dismiss a general. Another means of control were tallies (fujie ç¬¦ç¯) handed over to the commander. Only the possession of such a tally allowed a commander to give military orders. Another structural change in the Warring States period was the creation of huge standing armies. During the Spring and Autumn period, the size of armies had not surpassed several 10,000 troops. The battle of Chengpu åæ¿® (Chenliu é³ç, Henan, or Juancheng éå, Shandong) between Jin and Chu was fought with 700 chariots on the side of Jin, and a total number of troops from both sides of perhaps 70,000. In the battle of An é (close to Jinan æ¿å, Shandong) between Jin and Qi, Jin fielded 800 chariots. Chu was able to raise 10,000 chariots in the late Spring and Autumn period, and as much as 30,000 troops in total. Yet in the battle of Maling é¦¬éµ (Shenxian èç¸£, Henan), Wei had an army of 100,000, and Qi attacked Chu with a force of 200,000. Zhao crushed Zhongshan ä¸å±± with 200,000 men, and Yan defeated Zhao with no less than 600,000 troops. Wang Jian used the same number of troops to conquer Chu (data from Zhanguoce æ°åç; Wang & Yang 1996: 568-569). Table 3. Sizes of Warring States period armies according to the book Zhanguoce æ°åç state infantry (daijia å¸¶ç²) chariots (che è») cavalry (qi é¨) Qin >1,000,000 1,000 10,000 Chu 1,000,000 1,000 10,000 Wei 750,000 (300,000) * 600 5,000 Qi several 100,000 Zhao several 100,000 1,000 10,000 Han several 100,000 (300,000) Yan several 100,000 700 6,000 * incl. wuzu æ¦å (professional armoured infantry), cangtou è¼é "blueheads" (a kind of home guard), fengong å¥®æ» "assailers", and situ å»å¾ (corvÃ©e soldiers) It is not known how reliable these figures are, and the one or other might have been exaggerated in order to impress the enemy or the public, but it is a fact that the armies of the Warring States period were extremely large. At the same time, the dimension of brutality grew. Having defeated Han and Wei in the battle of Yique ä¼é (close to Luoyang, Henan) in 293, the Qin general Bai Qi ordered to behead 240,000 enemies. In the battle of Changping é·å¹³ (Gaoping é«å¹³, Shanxi), Qin killed according to narrative 450,000 troops of Zhao. Infantry was usually protected by armour consisting of three parts, as can be seen in the pottery figurines of the tomb of the First Emperor, the expression daijia å¸¶ç² "corselet carriers", and various statements in early literature like Xunzi èå (ch. Yibing è°å µ). The states therefore needed high numbers of corselets, which were produced in state-owned workshops. The state of Qin used the penal law to provide the army with corselets, as can be seen in the collection QinlÃ¼ zachao ç§¦å¾éæ, were paragraphs allowed to buy oneself free from punishment by delivering a fixed number of corselets to the authorities. There were basically two types of infantry, namely archers and crossbowmen (juezhang è¹¶å¼µ, yinqiang å¼å¼·), and "normal" infantry (zhongzu ä¸å) using clubs, maces, sabres or polearms (spears, halberds). The crossbow (nu å¼©) was a novel invention allowing aiming at a target without bringing up much physical power. The army of Han was most famous for its crossbow units. The number of archers was relatively high, as can be seen during the war of Zhao against the Xiongnu åå¥´, for which general Li Mu æç§ selected 100,000 archers. The importance of cavalry increased during the Warring States period, perhaps under the influence of tribes in the northern sphere, like the Di or Xiongnu. King Wuling of Zhao è¶æ¦éç (r. 326-299) imitated their war of warfare and systematically expanded the role of the cavalry, by even giving them "barbarian rider jackets" (hufu è¡æ) to wear. Li Mei from Qin battled against the Xiongnu with a force of 13,000 cavalry and 150,000 infantry. Sun Bin å«è, advisor of Tian Ji ç°å¿, the dismissed counsellor of Qi, urged him to attack the army of Qi with chariots and cavalry. The military book Liutao å é explains the composition of cavalry units. Five riders were commanded by a leader (zhang é·), ten by one captain (li å), hundred by one commander (shuai ç), and 200 by a general (jiang å°). For battle tactics, five riders built one line (lie å), 30 one trunk (tun å±¯), and 60 one class (bei è¼©). The usual distance between horses in even terrain was 20 paces in length, and 4 to the sides (reduced to half of these values in rough terrain). The distance between lines was 50 paces. Even if the use of chariots (qingche è¼è») gradually declined, it was a fighting force not completely out of date. In the battle of Lingqiu å»ªä¸ (Yuncheng éå, Shandong) between Qi and Zhao, the former still used 2,000 chariots. In his war against the Xiongnu, Li Mu used 1,300 chariots. In 251, Yan went to war with 2,000 chariots against Zhao (Wang & Yang 1996: 571). The book Liutao explains that five chariots were commanded by a leader (zhang é·), fifteen by one captain (li å), fifty by a commander (shuai ç), and a hundred by a general (jiang å°). During battle, five chariots built one line (lie), fifteen one cluster (ju è), and thirty one trunk (tun å±¯). How these formations were built and commanded in practice, remains unclear. Table 4. Cavalry and chariot units and formations during the Warring States period Cavalry unit commander formation 5 platoon zhang é· leader 5 lie å line 10 company li å captain 30 tun å±¯ trunk 100 battalion shuai ç commander 60 bei è¼© class 200 brigade jiang å° general Chariots unit commander formation 5 platoon zhang é· leader 5 lie å line 15 company li å captain 15 ju è cluster 50 battalion shuai ç commander 30 tun å±¯ trunk 100 brigade jiang å° general The importance of riverine fleet remained crucial during the Warring States period. After having conquered the state of Shu è in the Sichuan Basin, Qin used boats to attack the state of Chu in the middle Yangtze region. For this purpose, they used large grain boats to transport their troops river down. One boat was calculated at 50 troops and their supply. The state of Zhao also had a fleet which cruised the Yellow River. It was operating with the help of local fishermen. Several states invented specialist units that were trained in a particular way, like jiji ææ in Qi and wuzu æ¦å in Wei. They had special armour, special equipment, and were used as special task forces moving quickly and living of the countryside (Xunzi, ch. Yibing è°å µ). The cross-shaped formation of the Spring and Autumn period transformed into a square field of eight parts and a centre, called the eight-parts array (bazhen å «é£). The general was in the centre. It is described in the military treatise Sun Bin bingfa å«èå µæ³. When meeting the enemy, only the the first units advanced and engaged in battle, while the rest of the army remained in the back and shielded the fighters. It might be that chronicles only mentioned the troops directly engaged in battle when mentioning figures, and not the reserve standing in the back (Chen 1994: 96). Military theoreticians of the Warring States period use the binary concept of "orthodox or regular" and "unorthodox or irregular" (zheng-qi æ£å¥) deployment. This pair has a metaphysical background, but can be applied to tactics and detachment. The regular mode of fighting (zheng) pertains to an element that initially meets an enemy directly, yet does not frontally attack or penetrate, but is used for holding or fixing action for irregular forces (qi) (Rand 2017: 45). The "irregular mode" pertains to troops causing the opponent to defend on his flanks or the rear. Irregular troops might fight independently or as parts of regular units and executing main attacks, often in a mode of surprise, for which reason "irregular" may be equalled with "deceiving the enemy". In the course of battle, the circumstances may necessitate the switching of roles of regular and irregular forces and so surprise the enemy with unexpected movements (Chen 1993: 122). The word "regular" may refer to the main body of the army, the word "irregular" to specialized troops, like cavalry (compare the homophony of /kÇe/ å¥ with /É¡Çe/ é¨), which required special preparation or particular skills. In this connotation, regular troops and their movements build the fundament for victory, while the tactical movements of irregular troops are the key for victory (Li et al. 2017). The terms zheng and qi are also linked to the realms of civilian rule, the regular part of rulership (wen æ=zheng æ£), and of war, the irregular way of ruling (wu æ¦=qi å¥). Horses and chariots were provided by the government of each state, as can be seen from the law on stables and pastures (JiuyuanlÃ¼ å©èå¾) as recorded on the bamboo slips in Yunmeng é²å¤¢, Hubei (Shuihudi ç¡èå°). Crossbows and swords, formerly rare weapons, found increasing use during the Warring States period. During the battle of Maling in 342, the army of Qi laid an ambush of "ten thousand crossbowmen" (Wang & Yang 1996: 576). The number of iron arms also drastically increased, as can be seen in statements of the book Xunzi (ch. Yibing), as well as in archaeological finds like in the state of Yan, where a tombs included no less than 1,840 tools, more than half of them consisting of weapons or parts of weapons and armour, and 97 made of iron (Wang & Yang 1996: 576). Figures 1-2. Iron helmet and dagger-axe with inscription Iron helmet unearthed in a Warring-States tomb from the state of Yan. It is composed of 89 iron plates (zhaye æè) in seven rows and tied with silk threads or leather stripes. Height 26cm, diameter 24cm. The bronze ge æ dagger axe has a length of 31.5cm and a height of 17.5cm. It bears an inscription indicating the names and functions of the producers, a date, and the location (youguanfu å³è²«åº). Click to enlarge. Both from Hebei Sheng/Liu 1975. Weapons, when provided by the government to soldiers, were marked with incised characters or alternatively with characters written with black or red lacquer indicating the local government which had produced of procured the weapons. Weapons found by archaeologists were marked with the name of the commandery and the place where the weapons belonged to. This custom was seen in Qin, Wei, Qi, and Han. The law code of Qin foresaw that a local official not providing quality weapons to the troops was punished severely. Fragments of the book Shangjunshu ååæ¸ show that the state of Qin did not provide weapons to merchants liable for military service, but they had to purchase them from their own funds. During campaigns, daily rations were provided by the government. The grain earmarked for the army was strictly protected, and abuse of it by civilian officials was sanctioned. Clothes were a matter of each soldier himself, and were not provided for by the government. Recruitment and training During the Western Zhou period, members of noble families, i.e. the royal house and the houses of the regional rulers, with the ranks of "minister" (qing), grand master (dafu), and serviceman (shi), were entitled or obliged to do military service. Each noble family had to provide one male member ready for service (zhengfu æ£å¤«, in service zhengzu æ£å or zhengtu æ£å¾). Other sons (yuzi é¤å) were "reserve officers" (xianzu ç¾¨å) who did participate in training, but did not have to serve unless the state was in great distress (Yang 1994: 91). The ritual Classic Zhouli (part Diguan å°å®, ch. Xiang dafu éå¤§å¤«) explains that the prescribed height of soldiers was 7 feet (chi å°º, see weights and measures), and the age of 60 sui was the limit for participation in training. In Zhou-period law, the height of body was more important than a minimum age, as can still be seen in preserved laws from the Qin period ç§¦ (221-206 BCE), or transmitted sources like Lunyu è«èª (ch. Taibo æ³°ä¼¯) or Xunzi (ch. Zhongni ä»²å°¼). Common troops were recruited from among the farming people of the royal domain according to need. According to regulations in the Zhouli, ten families had to provide one soldier, while the government cared for his food, horse and equipment. It is also quite probable that unfree persons, normally working the field of the royal domain, served in the infantry (He 1987: 24). The members of the royal guard were sons of "ministers" and grand masters, also called "sons of the state" (guozi åå) and were instructed not only in martial arts, but also in the way of right comportment according to social rules, and so combined military with civilian education (wen wu bu fen ææ¦ä¸å "civilian and military matters are not separated"), including writing and arithmetics (see liuyi å è, the "Six Arts"). The custom to train archery was an inherent part of ritual prescriptions as seen in the village archery contests described in the ritual Classics Yili åç¦® (ch. Xiangshe li éå°ç¦®, Dashe å¤§å°) and Liji (ch. Sheyi å°ç¾©). The typical period of military training (jiang wu è¬æ¦) was winter, when peasants did not work the fields (Guoyu, ch. Zhouyu å¨èª A). The king took part in the training activities during the twelfth lunar month, quite probably in connection with hunting (compare Shijing, part Binfeng è±³é¢¨, air Qiyue ä¸æ; Zuozhuan, Yingong 5). Military training was carried out in the shape of hunts. There were particular terms for hunts during the four seasons of spring (sou è), summer (miao è), autumn (xian ç®), and winter (shou ç©; Zuozhuan, Yingong 5). In several occasions, the state of Jin combined the spring hunt directly with an attack on enemies (Chen 1994: 85). In the early Spring and Autumn period, the Western-Zhou system of the division between capital and environs (guo å - ye é, or xiang é - sui é) was still valid. Inhabitants of the capital seat of each regional state (guoren åäºº) were liable for regular military service (zhengzu), or had to keep ready to serve in the reserve (xianzu), while those living outside the royal seat or that of the regional rulers (yeren éäºº), i.e. peasants, delivered tribute grain without serving in the army. The main body of troops was built by men from the townships. In case of need the army of the metropolitan city (zhiguo å¶å) was supplemented by troops from the environs, and eventually such from the lands of the lower nobility (gongyi å ¬é, cai é) of the border regions, called yibing éå µ or xianbing ç¸£å µ. The age of recruits was between 30 and 60 sui, while that of men for labour services (see corvÃ©e) was between 20 and 50 sui. Yet this custom was no longer adhered to in the middle and late Spring and Autumn period, and regional rulers began to recruit troops by a conscription system encompassing the whole domain. Conscription was based on the well-field system (jingtian zhi äºç°å¶), according to which a farming community cultivated eight parts of a communal field, while the ninth part served either to deliver tax grain (shui ç¨ ) or to support troops provided by the community (fu è³¦). The latter was practically a "tax in kind", namely a chariot, troops, weapons and equipment. This situation is described in the military treatise Simafa å¸é¦¬æ³, and in a slightly different form in the historiographical book Hanshu æ¼¢æ¸ (23 Xingfa zhi åæ³å¿). A complete "well" consisted of 300 families which delivered a chariot and troops. Alternatively, four "farming communities" (dian ç¸) of 64 jing or a group of 576 households provided one chariot, 3 charioteers (jiashi), 72 infantrymen, 4 horses, and 12 oxen - which was nothing else than one full chariot team. In the state of Lu, the basic unit was one "hill" (qiu ä¸), i.e. 144 households (He 1987: 46). According to the Simafa, a "hill" consisted of four settlements (yi é) and provided a war horse and three oxen. In the state of Wei è¡, fu was the name of a military unit (Chen 1994: 87). The conscription method according to settlements was called "hill-community method" (qiudianfa ä¸ç¸æ³), or "hill-chariot method" (qiushengfa ä¸ä¹æ³), and their products were called "settlement weapons" (zuozhoubing ä½å·å µ), "settlement shields" (zuoqiujia ä½ä¸ç²), and the system "settlement conscription" (zuoqiufu ä½ä¸è³¦). The administrative reforms of Guan Zhong ç®¡ä»² (725-645) in the state of Qi established parallel structures of local administration and military units, showing that the army was expected to be constituted of men drawn from each village. Five families constituted a "track" (gui è») commanded by a "track master" (guizhang è»é·), and five soldiers a squad (wu ä¼). Ten "tracks" constituted one hamlet (li é), fifty soldiers a small force (xiaorong å°æ), commanded by a captain (si å¸). Four hamlets made one "alliance" (lian é£) commanded by an alliance head (lianzhang é£é·), and two hundred soldiers a company (zu å). Ten alliances made a township (xiang é) commanded by a township master (xiang liangren éè¯äºº), and two thousand men made a regiment (lÃ¼ æ ). Five townships were a banner (shuai å¸¥), corresponding to a division (jun è») of 10,000 men, commanded by a commander (shuai å¸¥) (Guanzi, ch. Xiaokuang å°å¡). Table 5. Conscription system of in the state of Qi é½ after Guan Zhong's ç®¡ä»² reforms living unit military unit size commander gui è» wu ä¼ squad 5 guizhang è»é· li é xiaorong å°æ small force 50 si å¸ lian é£ zu å company 200 lianzhang é£é· xiang é lÃ¼ æ regiment 2,000 xiang liangren éè¯äºº shuai å¸¥ jun è» division 10,000 shuai å¸¥ These relations mean that in Qi, each household was theoretically responsible for providing one man for military service. Yet it seems that in practice, the number of families providing two men or more was considerable when it came to the worst (Wang & Yang 1996: 442). The reforms of Guan Zhong made the inhabitants of the ducal domain virtually professional soldiers. Those liable for military service (junfu è»è³¦) were even segregated from merchants and craftsmen and not allowed to move. On the other hand, they were not any more liable for corvÃ©e or other forms of tax payment. Duke Huan é½æ¡å ¬ (r. 685-643) selected the best of them to serve in his administrative apparatus, while the common folks (shuren åº¶äºº) served in the army (He 1987: 44). The increasing frequency of wars destroyed the old distinction between persons serving in war (zhengzu) and the reserve (xianzu). In the late Spring and Autumn period, practically all reserve soldiers participated in battles (Chen 1994: 88). Training was gradually opened to troops and officers, and not just the nobility. According to the law of some states, one school was built to instruct 80 households. In the state of Jin, certain dignitaries were responsible for training. Bian Jiu å¼ç³¾ (Luan Jiu æ¬ç³¾) trained the charioteers as chief charioteer (rongyu æå¾¡, yurong å¾¡æ), Xun Bin èè³ the elite infantry, Ji Yan ç±å the chariot-infantry teams, and Cheng Zheng ç¨é the train responsible for the horses (He 1987: 47). Also during the Warring States period, squads were recruited from peasant households, which had basically the duty to protect the "four neighbourhoods" (silin åé°), but served in the army in times of war. According to the military book Weiliaozi å°ç¹å (ch. Wuzhi ling ä¼å¶ä»¤), fifty men constituted a home platoon (shu å±¬), and hundred man a home company (lÃ¼ é). The huge armies of the Warring States period were only feasible because the recruitment system had changed drastically. While in earlier ages, the king of Zhou and regional rulers used the inhabitants of the city and the royal/local domain to fill the ranks and files of their armies and only fell back on the villages outside in the second place, the rulers of the Warring States had a grip on the whole population of their states, regardless where and in which domains they lived. This choice was the result of administrative changes which laid all land in the hands of the central government and gave up domains for the nobility. The new recruitment was called "group the households of all the people" (bian hu qi min ç·¨æ¶é½æ°). This method expressed the possibility that the state had access to the services of the whole population and could "group" them in labour or military teams. The state of Wei é was probably the first who transformed the traditional conscription system to an enlistment system (wuzu zhi æ¦åå¶), with the expectation that this practice would yield highly trained professionals as a body from which, with increasing experience, also lower officers could be drawn. Moreover, professional soldiers would specialize on specific fighting tactics or particular types of weapons like the bow or crossbow. The reform was carried out under the supervision of the military expert Wu Qi å³èµ·, and when the latter fled to Chu, was applied successfully in this state, too. The counsellor of Qin, Shang Yang åé (390-338), explained in his book Shangjunshu ååæ¸ that people served as farmers just as they served as soldiers. The armies of the Warring States period thus waged "peasant wars" (gengzhan èæ°, nongzhang è¾²æ°). For this purpose, Shang Yang wanted to train the farming population in a way that half of them worked the fields, while the other half learned how to fight. From each family, one male person of 23 sui and older was directly liable for military service (zhengzu æ£å), while the others constituted a rotating reserve (gengzu æ´å). Yet others lived in garrisons (shuzu æå). In the state of Qin therefore, all male persons were usually called "men of the squads" (shiwu å£«ä¼). The advisor Su Qin èç§¦ held that the capital city of Qi, Linzi è¨æ· (Shandong), was able to produce 210,000 troops. Perhaps this number did not only include males, but also females, because womenâliable for corvÃ©e just as the menâwould help to build defences. Even under-age persons and the elderly built an own "regiment" for the defence of a city, as the book Shangjunshu (ch. Bingshou å µå®) holds. Such statements are also found in chapters on defence in the book Mozi å¢¨å. The age of persons serving in the army remained between 30 and 60 sui, as before, but the household registration system of the Warring States period allowed to mark younger persons for the reserve (fu ä»). Instead of the age, the physical height was used as a precondition for service in the armyâ5 chi and more. It is quite probable that these regulations were not strictly adhered to when the state needed soldiers, for instance, after the disastrous battle of Changping, when Yan and Zhao were bereaved of their adult soldiers. Lord Xinling of Wei é tried to ameliorate the situation and sent home fathers, when fathers and sons served in the army, and older brothers, when also the younger one served in the army. In the end, he retained the younger persons in the armyâand defeated Qin (Wang & Yang 1996: 574). Apart from conscription, Qin knew the mode of voluntary enlisting (mu å) with defined periods of service (Wang & Yang 1996: 575). Other military contingents consisted of persons who served in the army as a kind of penalty (lichen é¸è£, see chongjun å è»). Weapons Pointed weapons Figure 3. Dagger-axes, axes, and swords of the Western Zhou period Western Zhou-period weapons unearthed in Zhuyuangou ç«¹åæº and and Rujiazhuang è¹å®¶è near Baoji å¯¶é·, Shaanxi. The image shows ge æ-type dagger-axes (1-8), fu æ§ axes (9-10), and shortswords (duanjian çå, 11-12). Source: Zhongguo shehui kexue yuan kaogu yanjiusuo 2004: 124. The Zhou used mainly the same materials as the Shang for their weapons, namely wood, stone, bone, and shell, and of course bronze. Yet both technical advancement and the consolidation of the economic base made it possible to produce more weapons and chariots for larger armies with more horses. The use of the traditional weapons spear (mao ç), bow and arrow (gong å¼, shi ç¢, the arrow later called jian ç®), dagger (dao å), and ge æ dagger-axe tied to a long pole continued, while novel pointed weapons found entrance into the army, namely the cross-shaped spear-axe ji æ, and the long sword (jian å). Figures 4a-c. Ji æ spear-axes and ge æ dagger-axes Left top: Drawings of two ji æ spear-axes, a combination of a lance and the ge æ dagger-axe. The upper type is the so-called picking halberd (ciji åºæ), the lower one a hook-halberd (gouji éæ). Archaeological finds date from the mid-Western Zhou, but the earliest written source using the word ji is Zuozhuan (Yingong 11, and Xuangong å®£å ¬ 2). From Shen 1992. Right top: Images of two dagger-axes (length 17.4cm, and 21cm), the upper one richly decorated with turquois stones. From Zhang 2017. Bottom: Eye-socket halberd (qiongji éæ), with a closed end instead of a lance or hook at the tip. The body is richly decorated with fierce masks. Length 14.3cm; unearthed in Zhuyuangou near Baoji, Shaanxi. From Zhongguo qingtongqi quanji bianji weiyuanhui (1996: 182). The shape of spearheads changed in so far as the blade (ren å) became longer than the socket (qiong é). Simultaneously, the number of ridges was increased in order to stabilize the blade. Nailing became the most important mode of fastening the spearhead to the pole. The shaft of an infantry spear (qiumao é ç) was 2-zhang ä¸ long (see weights and measures), that of mounted troops (yimao å¤·ç) 2.4 zhang. The use of the spear decreased over time, as chariot-infantry teams became the most important tactical unit (Shen 1998: 457). The ji halberd is practically a merger of a spear and the ge dagger-axe which is tied horizontally to a pole. In this combined shape, the weapon could be used for cutting and thrusting ("hooking" gou å¾, "picking" zhuo å, "staking" zhuang æ¨, and "lancing" ci åº, Yang 1994: 117). A Shang-period precursor of this combination was found in Gaochengtai èåèº, Hebei. The metal part of a ji was usually 1.6 chi-long, as the Kaogongji èå·¥è¨ says. In order to strengthen the stability of the pole during charges, the lower end was equipped by a spur (zun é) or with a protective cover with a flat end (dun é; Xu 2013). Arrowheads (zu é) made of bone, horn, or bronze were made flatter and sharper than during the Shang period. The origin of the crossbow might have been in south China, perhaps in the late Spring and Autumn period, as metal relics found in earlier times bore dateable inscriptions pointing at the 6th century or so (Gao 1964: 41). The most important transmitted source on the early history of the crossbow is the book Wu-Yue chunqiu å³è¶æ¥ç§, where the state of Chu is said to have been the place of origin, from which the use of the crossbow soon spread to the other regional states. Relics of a crossbow (metal and wooden parts) were unearthed from a Warring-States period tomb in Changsha é·æ², Hunan, in 1952; metal parts in a tomb in Luoyang æ´é½, Henan, in 1972; two mechanisms in Chengdu æé½, Sichuan, in 1955; and in 1982, a metal mechanism came to light in a tomb in Dayi å¤§é, Sichuan; to date, about a dozen of crossbow mechanisms from the late Zhou and the Qin period ç§¦ (221-206 BCE) have been found (Xie 2004: 52). Tombs in Lintong è¨æ½¼, Shaanxi, from the Qin period included many crossbows, discovered in 1975 and 1980. Some of them were used by the crews of chariots. The parts of the mechanism were cast, and not forged (Xie 2004: 53). Calculations show that the tractive force of a Qin crossbow corresponded to the weight of 492-738 jin æ¤ (see weights and measures; would be 1221-1832 N), and the shooting range to 138 to 831m (idem). Figure 5-6. Shu æ®³ clubs and crossbow mechanism Left: Metal remnants of shu æ®³-type clubs or cudgels. It can be seen that they the sticks were heavily armed at the rear and the wood strengthened by rings between the metal and the handle. From Liu (2015). Right: Metal mechanism of a crossbow from the state of Chu. The lowest drawing shows the "lock" (jijian æ©ä»¶) which consists of three parts, namely two teeth (one of which being the sight, wangshan æå±±), a trigger (xuandao æ¸å), and a blocker (shuansai æ´å¡). Overall length 51.8cm. From Gao (1964). The oldest sword excavated to far was only 20-30cm-long and did not have a ridge in the middle of the blade, making it prone to distortions. Moreover, the oldest swords had only a very simple hilt. This basic shape was constantly improved during the Western Zhou period, and in later phases, hilts were richly decorated with incrustations of turquois stone. The length of a sword was then determined by the bearer's height, with a length of 2-3 chi (30-60cm) and a weight of 2.06-3.75 jin æ¤ (1-1.7kg) (Yang 1994: 117). The long sword only developed in the late Spring and Autumn period and was then rather designed for piercing and thrusting, not for slashing and cutting (Sawyer 1993: 371). Swords thereafter replaced various forms of halberds like the ge dagger-axes, but ji spear-axes remained an important infantry weapon in the Warring States period. The southern regional states developed a highly decorated type of ceremonial sword (labelled "swords of King XY of Yue", like Yue wang Gou Jian zhi jian è¶çå¥è¸å, and other names like of rulers like Buguang ä¸å (Yiç¿³), or Yushi æ¼ç (Shiyu é¼«è). Figures 7a-c. Swords Development of one particular sword type (Ea) over the whole Zhou period. It can be seen how the dagger evolved to a short sword, and then to a long sword from the Spring and Autumn period on. Decorations of the centre of the blade (not the edges) were fashionable during that time, before swords became more practical. From Tian (2013). Components of a traditional Chinese sword with pommel (shou é¦), hilt (jing è; whole part called bing æ), hilt ring (gu ç®), hilt ears (er è³; in both cases, the tang is not covered by a hilt) guard (ge æ ¼), blade base (ben æ¬), blade shoulder (jian è©), edge (ren å), ridge (ji è, zhuji æ±è), flat (cong å¾), and tip (feng é). From Tian (2013). The right image shows the decorations on the guard of a sword from the kingdom of Yue. The decoration consists of characters with turquois stones, inscribed Zhezhi Yuyi è æ¨æ¼ç (Zhuji Shiyu è«¸ç¨½é¼«è, i.e. King Luying è¶çé¹¿é¢, r. 465-459), at the bottom of the image one of two hilt rings. The blade itself is made of bronze and its main area richly decorated with rhomboid patterns consisting of portions of metal with a higher content of tin. The edges are of quality metal. From Cao (2018). Protection While the shape of helmets (zhou å) was not changed, the functionality of cuirasses (jia ç²) was ameliorated. A leather cuirass found in a horse-and-chariot pit in Xi'an è¥¿åºµ near Jiaoxian è ç¸£, Shandong, consisted of a breast part and a back part, the breast cover made of three parts in the shape of a beast face (37Ã28cm), and the back cover of two round pieces of 11cm. Shields (dun ç¾), either smaller ones for mounted troops, or larger ones for infantry troops, were made of leather and strengthened by bronze parts, or leather mounted on a wooden frame. A shield discovered in a tomb in Liulihe ççæ²³ near Beijing consisted of seven parts arranged in the shape of a fierce animal (zhengning çç°) mask. Armour was made of tanned, lacquered, and finally coloured, leather pieces tied together to tunics (Sawyer 1993: 369). The length depended on the type of unit, the infantry wearing rather short-style tunics. Helmets were of bronze, and from the Warring States period on also of iron (Sawyer 1993: 370). The stirrup was not invented until the 3rd or 4th century CE, for which reason no heavy cavalry developed in earlier times, which does not mean that rider and horse did not wear any form of protection. A tomb from the state of Chu included a set of leather horse armour (Bai 1989). Figures 8-9. Body armour and horse armour Left: Reconstruction of a body armour (kaijia é§ç²) from the very late Warring States period, tomb complex of the First Emperor. It is composed of many limestone (shihuiyan ç³ç°å²©) scales (0.7-1.1mm thick) tied together by copper wire. There were different modes of tying the segments of the collar, the shoulder protectors, the upper part of the body protection, and that for the belly. According to the position, the mineral scales had different shapes. The whole armour has, when put on, to be tied on the side of the body. It had a weight of no less than 23.18kg. From Song (2004). Right: Reconstruction of a horse armour found in a tomb of the state of Chu in Baoshan å å±± near Jingmen èé, Hubei. It consists of lacquered leather pieces. From Bai (1989). Chariots Chariot was introduced into China in c. 1200 BCE, but no major alterations of the vehicle occurred until the Spring and Autumn period, when several types of specialized chariots emerged, as such equipped with large shields for protection, towers for observation or command, such with battering rams, moveable ladders, or with multiple- bolt crossbows (Sawyer 1993: 363). Shang inscriptions yield no evidence for the use of chariots as battle elements. Shang soldiers were apparently fighting on foot, but some of the Shangâs enemies used chariots, for instance, the Zhou (Sawyer 1993: 364). However it might have been, the importance of the chariot increased drastically in the Western Zhou and the Spring and Autumn periods, and massed chariot battles were usual during the time. Yet some authors doubt that the chariots might have had a decisive role in battles, as the construction of the vehicles with their long axles did not allow swift movements even in flat terrain. The advance of chariot formations cannot have been but at measured pace in order to coordinate the lines, so that it might have been easy for infantry to surround and obstruct chariot formations (Sawyer 1993: 365). Chariots were pulled by two or four horses. Even if the general appearance of the chariot remained the same as under the Shang, the shape of the drawbar (yuan è½ ) was bent stronger, which took off some pressure from the yokes (e è»). The chest, where coacher and archer were sitting, became as large as 130-160cm (Yang 1994: 118). With the help of bronze linchpins (xia è½), the axle-caps (wei è») were fastened tighter at the side of the naves (gu è½) and above the axle (chou è»¸), Bronze fittings on the inner side of the naves protected them and reduced vibrations transmitted from the axle. Bronze fittings, often with beautiful designs, protected and strengthened drawbar and yokes. "Phoenix bells" (luan é¾, from luan é¸) were a common accessory tied to the axle-caps. Chariots thus equipped are in bronze inscriptions called "metal chariots" (jinche éè»), while traditional sources use the words rongche æè» "war chariot" or gongche æ»è» "chariot for charge". Chariots used for attack were also called "light" (qingche è¼è»), such for attack during sieges "advance chariot" (linche è¨è») or "chariots for charge" (chongche è¡è»), while vehicles used for defence were called "wide chariot" (guangche å»£è»). "Manoeuvre chariot" (pengche è¹è») was a vehicle equipped with leather shields to ward off arrows. The widespread custom to bury chariots along with a deceased lord helped to preserve quite a few vehicles or parts of them. Yet in most cases, the wood is rotten, and in such cases, only shadows of the vehicle remain. Figure 10. Reconstruction of a chariot of the Western Zhou period Reconstruction of a mid Western Zhou-period chariot as based on the relics found in the tomb of the Lord of Jing äº (Xing é¢) in Zhangjiapo å¼µå®¶å¡ near Xi'an è¥¿å®, Shaanxi. Source: Zhang & Zhang 1994: 170. The technique of the chariot improved during the Spring and Autumn period. Master Sun Wu å«æ¦ discerned light chariots (chiche é¦³è», qingche è¼è», gongche æ»è», wuche æ¦è») and heavy chariots (geche é©è», zhongche éè», shouche å®è», pingche è¹è»). The former was used for attack, the latter for defence. War chariots had a long axis (therefore also known as changgu é·è½) and could barely overturn, even in rough terrain. They were also used for reconnaissance and inspections, then known as queche éè» or youque éé. Heavy chariots were an advancement of the Western Zhou zizhongche ééè» cart which had four wheels and was drawn by oxen. It was not used in war, but for transportation of equipment and supplies, and also to build corrals in open terrain. Some were protected against arrows with leather tarps, hence the name geche é©è». This tactic is mentioned in the book Sun Bin bingfa and the Classic Zhouli (part Chunguan æ¥å®, ch. Zongbo å®ä¼¯; part Xiaguan å¤å®, ch. Sima å¸é¦¬). Transport carts were accompanied by 25 men, which took over cooking, feeding the horses, and mending the equipment of the troops. Supreme commanders used a command chariot (zhihuiche ææ®è») of their own, and were accompanied by a rescue chariot (zuoche ä½è») in case the main chariot was damaged (He 1987: 41). Cavalry Cavalry emerged as a particular fighting unit between the early 5th century and 300 BCE. In earlier times, even the nomad tribes of the Hu è¡ the north had fought as infantry or with chariots. It might have been that cavalry was introduced by the Hu tribes and found entrance into the states of the Zhou empire when King Wuling of Zhao founded cavalry units to counter raids of the Hu tribes. Accordingly, he also changed the dresses and had mounted 'knights' wear rider jackets and trousers (Sawyer 1993: 367). Still, cavalry remained only an auxiliary force until the Han period. Cavalry was employed mainly in the shape of "unorthodox" (qi) tactics by throwing them into battle by launching attacks from directions and in styles different from the "orthodox" (zheng) fighting style of infantry formations (Sawyer 1993: 370). Arsenals The king of Zhou usually handed over weapons to the troops before the beginning of a campaign. During the Spring and Autumn period, the regional rulers followed this custom. In each state, an arsenal was built which was administrated by a particular officer. The Zhouli lists the manager of arms (sibing å¸å µ), who kept and distributed "the five [types/groups of] weapons and shields" (wubing wudun äºå µäºç¾). The manager of halberds and shields (sigedun å¸æç¾) supervised chariots and the arms of the guard, and the manager of bows and arrows (sigongshi å¸å¼ç¢) the six groups of bows, four groups of crossbows, and the eight groups of arrows. The commandant of the stud (jiaoren æ ¡äºº) was responsible for the management of the five groups of horses. Banners and flags, and drums and bells were managed by individual officers. Similar functionaries are mentioned in the Zuozhuan (Xianggong è¥å ¬ 8) for the state of Song (Chen 1994: 83-84). Garrisons After the foundation of the Zhou dynasty and the initial wars against the last members of the Shang, the Duke of Zhou ordered the construction of a secondary capital in the east, namely Chengzhou in present-day Luoyang, Henan. This capital mainly served military purposes. A garrison of 8 eastern divisions would be ready to put down any further rebellion. At the same time, the military contingents around the western metropolitan region Feng-Hao è±é¬ (west of today's Xi'an, Shaanxi) were increased. The larger regional states were not just civilian units, but likewise served to defend the sovereignty of the Zhou. These were Wei è¡ and Song in the Central Plain, Yan ç in the northeast (close to present-day Beijing), Qi and Lu on the Shandong peninsula, and some smaller states in the Central Plain. Even the semi-barbarian state of Wu in the southeast was ruled by a member of the house of Zhou. Many of the statelets between the Yellow River and the Yangtze were founded and ruled by members of the Zhou house. The only weak point of this network of military garrisons of the Western Zhou was the northwest, where the tribes of the Di ç, Rong æ and Xianyun remained strong and eventually ended the Western Zhou. City walls and "long walls" The ritual system of the Zhou fixed the theoretical length of city walls as 12 or 9 li é (6 or 4.5km) for the royal capital, 9 or 7 for a greater regional ruler, 7 or 5 for an average ruler, 5 or 3 for a small state. There was a construction unit for city walls of 1 du å µ (1 zhang high and 1 zhang wide), and 1 zhi é as 3 du (Yang 1994: 121). Outside the city wall a moat was dug out. Such work was supervised by special officials, keepers of security (zhanggu æåº) and surveyors (liangren éäºº; Zhouli, part Xiaguan, ch. Sima å¸é¦¬). Transmitted sources allege that the royal capital was constructed in a checkerboard pattern, with three gates at each side of the square city wall. Yet such a pattern might be an idealized picture created in much later times. While city walls were found in Luoyang, no fortifications were found in the "metropolitan" region of Feng-Hao. With the growth of the economy (see Zhou economy), cities became centres of trade and wealth, and therefore also interesting objects in conquest wars. Accordingly, Warring Staters period strategists like Mozi or Sun Bin talk about siege and defence of cities. Cities were built in places that were easy to defend and difficult to assail. They were located at the banks of great rivers to secure water supply for drinking and to fill the city moats. Defence systems consisted of two types, namely inner city walls (cheng å; the word yuan å£ designates one side or stretch) with moat (chenghe åæ²³, chenghao åå£, hao æ¿ ) "for the protection of the sovereign", and outer walls or ramparts (guo é) "for the protection of the people". The royal city of Luoyang, for instance, was in the west protected by River Jian æ¾æ°´, and from the south by River Luo æ´æ²³. The city of Xintian æ°ç°, capital of Jin, was protected by the rivers Fen æ±¾æ²³ and Hui æ¾®æ²³, and Xinzheng æ°é, seat of the lords of Zheng and Han, by the rivers Ji æ´æ²³ and Huang é»æ°´æ²³. Handan, Hebei, served from 386 to 228 as seat of the kings of Zhao. It consisted of two parts, the Royal City (wangcheng çå) with the palace, and the Great Northern City (dabeicheng å¤§åå) for the commoners. The Royal City was composed of three sections, each of which was surrounded by a wall. The base of the wall was 15-40m, and the ruins have height of 3-8m (Zhongguo shehui kexue yuan kaogu yanjiusuo 2014: 238). Handan had no city moat, but two rivers (Qin æ²æ²³ and Zhu æ¸æ²³) crossed the two parts of the city and secured the supply of water. The northern "rampart" city had a length of 4,800m and a width of 3,200m. In the northwest corner of the city, a natural hill (Lingshan éå±±) was integrated into the city wall. Traces of a moat are visible in the ruins of Linzi è¨æ· (Zibo æ·å, Shandong), the capital of Qi. The moat was filled by water from River Zi æ·æ²³ located east of the city. Unlike in Handan, the royal city and the city of commoners were not separated by a rift, but the royal city with its rectangular form was in the southwest corner of the city complex. The total length of the city wall is 14km, and the moats had a width of 25-30m (Zhongguo shehui kexue yuan kaogu yanjiusuo 2014: 250). The wall around the royal city was 20-38m wide, and protected by a moat from all four sides (between 13 and 25m wide), even in the parts connected with the large city. Figures 11a-b. Plans of the cities of Handan and Linzi Archaeological plans of the cities of Handan (Hebei), capital of Zhao, and Linzi (Shandong), capital of Qi. From Zhongguo shehui kexue yuan kaogu yanjiusuo 2014. With the increasing frequency of wars between territorial states, there was the need to establish permanent border defences, not just to ward off troops from other regional states, but also raiding parties of the northern tribes. The most famous of these Warring States-period walls were the "huge defences" (jufang å·¨é²) of Qi, the "square wall" (fangcheng æ¹å) of Chu, the "moat of River Luo" (qianluo å¡¹æ´) of Qin, and the northern wall of the state of Yan. Qi began to build walls in the mid-6th century and finalized it before 300 BCE. The southern wall was built to ward off armies of Chu and was built on the hills of the Taishan æ³°å±±, Yishan æ²å±±, Lushan é¯å±±, and Lingshan éå±± ranges, and the western wall, built on the eastern banks of River Ji æ¿æ°´, was to prohibit invasions from Han, Wei, or Zhao. Part of this wall can be seen at Mulingguan ç©éµé (close to Linshui æ²æ°´, Shandong). The walls were made of pounded earth or stones, had a width of 8-10m at the base, and a height of 4m (Zhongguo shehui kexue yuan kaogu yanjiusuo 2014: 272). The walls of Chu were in the north, aimed at defence against Qin, Han, Wei, and Qi, and were built in a region that was the main target of territorial ambitions in the Central Plain, corresponding to the Nanyang Basin åé½çå° in southwest Henan and northern Hubei. It ran along the ridges of Mt. Funiu ä¼çå±±, Mt. Tongbo æ¡æå±±, and beyond Mt. Wudang æ¦ç¶å±±. Parts of it can be seen in Daguankou å¤§éå£ near Fangcheng æ¹å, Henan, where the vestiges of seven elevated terraces (tai èº) are preserved, as well as signal towers (fenghuotai ç½ç«èº). The base is 12m at the widest point, and the height ranges between 1.5 and 3 m. Qin began around 400 to build a defensive wall along the western banks of River Luo, in order to impede Wei from further westward expansion. Remains of the pounded-earth wall are found close to Pucheng è²å, Shaanxi. Another wall runs from the slopes of Mt. Huashan è¯å±± westwards to the banks of River Wei æ¸æ°´. This wall was perhaps used by both Qin and Wei. The precursor of the famous northern "Great Wall" (changcheng é·å) date back to 271 BCE and served against the Yiqu tribes ç¾©æ¸ . It began in Lintao è¨æ´® and ended far north as in Ordos Qota (E'erduosi éç¾å¤æ¯) in Inner Mongolia, with a total length of 2,000km. In some places, the wall is 3m-high, and some ruins of signal towers, gates (chengzhang åé), watchtowers (chengdun åå¢©), and garrisons (gucheng å¤å) are preserved. The opponent of Qin, Wei, also constructed walls in the west, with a length of about 200km. At Huayin è¯é°, the ruins are in some places as high as 18m, and in Dali å¤§è, up to 11.4m. This part of the wall was equipped with moats, fortifications (chengbao åå ¡), and signal towers. A southern wall of Wei was erected close to the capital Daliang å¤§æ¢ (Kaifeng, Henan). Ruins are found close to Zhengzhou éå· and Mixian å¯ç¸£, where the walls were built of limestone (qingshi éç³). The state of Zhao, threatened by raids of the Linhu æè¡ and Loufan æ¨ç © tribes, built a wall running from the northern bent of the Yellow River (area of Urat Front Banner çæç¹åæ, Inner Mongolia) through the province of Shanxi and into the western parts of Hebei (area of Wanquan è¬å ¨ and Zhangbei å¼µå). The exact course cannot be determined, but some parts are preserved. During the early Warring States period, the state of Yan built a wall along River Yi ææ°´ between the Taihang Range å¤ªè¡å±± and Dacheng å¤§å, Hebei. About 9km of this pounded-earth wall are preserved in Xushui å¾æ°´. The individual layers of the 7m-high wall are visible. After general Qin Kai ç§¦é had vanquished the Eastern Hu tribes æ±è¡, a wall was built in the north and northeast. Its course was close to that of the famous Qin-period wall, running from Zhangjiakou å¼µå®¶å£, Hebei, to Fuxin éæ°, Liaoning, and quite probably farther east. Ruins were discovered between Xinbin æ°è³ and Dandong ä¸¹æ± (at the border to North Korea), as well as fortified gates. If the regional states were in fact military posts, they were joined by military roads supervised by special officials like the supervisor of frontier entries (siguan å¸é) or the director of defence works (sixian å¸éª). Like almost everything, the Zhouli also regulated the track width of various types of roads, from jing å¾ (path) to zhen ç (between fields), tu æ¶ (on ditches), dao é (on dykes), and lu è·¯ (along rivers). The latter corresponded to military roads. A standard track width for chariots was 8 chi. Signal fire Signal fire (fengsui ç½ç§) was used as a means of quick communication between the king's residence and that of the regional rulers. The most famous story of Western Zhou signal fire is the abuse of this institution by King You's å¨å¹½ç (r. 781-771) consort Bao Si è¤å§ which led to the loss of the western capital and the downfall of the Western Zhou. Signals and insignia Armies were guided in battle by the use of signal banners and drums and bells. There was a wide range of banners for different uses and with different decorations, as can be seen in the existence of a special radical for banners (ã«). Taichang å¤ªå¸¸ (dapei å¤§æ, ornated with sun and moon) was an important banner signalling the presence of the king. The regional rulers used the qi æ banner ornated with chime-bells, ministers-commander zhan æ (also written æ) banners, and grand masters wu ç© banners. Larger settlements were recognizable by a qi æ banner, "villages" (zhouli å·é) by yu æ banners, and "townships" (xianbi ç¸£é) by zhao æ banners. War chariots (daoche éè») were carrying sui æ banners, hunting chariots (youche æ¿è») jing æ signals, which consisted of an ox tail (mao æ) or of a streamer (liu æ). The various ranks of nobility were accompanied by different drums, as the chapter Dasima in the Zhouli explains: the king had a large lugu è·¯é¼ drum with four faces, the regional rulers bengu è³é¼ drums with two membranes, generals (jiangjun å°è») jingu æé¼ drums with two membranes, but larger and shorter than a bengu drum, a regimental commander (shishuai) a hand drum (ti æ), and a battalion commander (lÃ¼shuai) a small pi é¼ drum. The beating of drums was directed by bells. Chun é bells were used to "harmonize the drums" (he gu åé¼), zhuo é² bells to mark the rhythm (jie gu ç¯é¼), nao é bells to stop the drums (zhi gu æ¢é¼), and duo é¸ bells to "pervade the drums" (tong gu éé¼) (Zhouli, part Diguan, ch. Guren é¼äºº). A relatively detailed description of the interaction between bells, drums, and banners during the winter training is found in the Zhouli chapter Da sima. It was important to keep the battle line, and therefore training also pertained to marching (xing è¡), running (zou èµ°), setting off (qi å), stopping (zhi æ¢), and retreating (tui é) as reactions to the signals. Similar statements are found in the military classics Simafa and Weiliaozi. Quotation 2. Military signals according to Zhouli å¨ç¦® ä¸è»ä»¥é¼ä»¤é¼ï¼é¼äººçä¸é¼ï¼å¸é¦¬æ¯é¸ï¼ç¾¤åä½æï¼è»å¾çä½ã The general of the centre, with a small pi drum, orders to beat the great drums. The drummers beat thrice. The mounted commanders strike the attention cymbals (duo é¸), the officers all raise their banners, and chariots and infantrymen move. é¼è¡ï¼é³´é²ï¼è»å¾çè¡ï¼åè¡¨ä¹æ¢ã The drummers march, and the rhythm bells (zhuo é²) resonate. Chariots and infantrymen move, and when the signal is given they stop. ä¸é¼ï¼æé¸ï¼ç¾¤åå¼æï¼è»å¾çåã The drums are beaten thrice, and the rhythm bells are knelling. The officers all lower their banners, and chariots and infantrymen rest. åä¸é¼ï¼æ¯é¸ï¼ä½æï¼è»å¾çä½ã The drums are once more beaten thrice, and the rhythm bells are knelling. The banners are elevated, and chariots and infantrymen move. é¼é²ï¼é³´é²ï¼è»é©å¾è¶¨ï¼åè¡¨ä¹æ¢ï¼åä½å¦åã The drummers advance, and the rhythm bells resonate. The charioteers press their horses, and the infantrymen rush forward. When the signal is given they stop and rest as in the beginning. ä¹é¼ï¼è»é¦³å¾èµ°ï¼åè¡¨ä¹æ¢ãé¼æä¸éï¼è»ä¸ç¼ï¼å¾ä¸åºã Then the drums are beaten. The chariots advance swiftly and the infantrymen run forward, and when the signal is given they stop. The drums [thus] order [attack] by three suspensions, the chariots make three charges, and the infantry executes three attacks. ä¹é¼éï¼é³´éä¸å»ï¼åè¡¨ä¹æ¢ï¼åä½å¦åã The drums then retreat, the ceasure bells (nao é) are sounding to announce the end. When the signal is given [the troops] stop and rest as in the beginning. Translation according to Biot 1851, Vol. 2, 177-178. The book Weiliaozi (ch. Lezu ling ååä»¤) explains that drums ordered advancement, double drums attack, bells ordered to stop, double bells to withdraw, and chimes (ling) transmitted orders. Banners were used to indicate the direction of formations. Reward and punishment One of the core principles of legalist statehood was "reward and punishment" (shang fa è³ç½°). A general had thus to make clear not only his commands, but to announce that the braves would be rewarded and the cowards be punished (Sunzi, ch. Shiji å§è¨). Such methods were not only applied in the state of Qin, but also in others. Daredevils of the state of Qi capturing the head of an enemy were rewarded with one zi é¿ (8 ounces) of gold. The state of Zhao rewarded those having captured a general with 100 pieces of gold. After having crushed the army of Qi, general Yue Yi of Yan was welcomed by the king of Yan out in the field, was hosted and given the title of Lord of Chang æåå. The most complete system of reward was drafted by Shang Yang in the state of Qin. The reward depended on the rank of a captured enemy. For presenting the head of an officer (jue shou yi ji çµé¦ä¸ç´), the hero was given one rank of honour (ci jue yi ji è³çµä¸ç´, called gongshi å ¬å£«), according to a graded system. The deed was furthermore rewarded by a grant of 1 qing é (see weights and measures) of arable land and 9 mu ç of land for buildings, and a servant who took over corvÃ©e duties. Finally, the hero was made an officer (Shangjunshu, ch. 19 Jingnei å¢å §). Apart from individual rewards, there were also collective rewards, mainly for troops storming a city. If a team of 18 troops killed 5 enemies, each of them was granted one rank of honour. There were in total 20 ranks of honour, the highest of which corresponded to a marquis (liehou åä¾¯). Officers were rewarded in a different way. Officers who did not directly participate in a mÃªlÃ©e were rewarded according to the success of their company, with one rank of honour for 33 killed enemies. For higher ranks of officers, it became more difficult to attain such honours. After victory, the heads of enemies were laid down for three days and then distributed to the best soldiers, which in turn presented their "booty" to the local administration in their home district. Some officers were posthumously honoured by adding a further rank of honour, which was expressed by the number of trees planted around the grave. If a hero was killed on the battlefield, his son was granted the corresponding rank of honour. If one of the two had a criminal record, no reward was given. The disciplinary law of the Qin was very harsh and foresaw the application of collective liability. In such a case, for instance, desertion of one person, or false report by one person, the whole squad or platoon was executed. Each soldier was constantly under strict observation by officers. If an officer did not press his men forward in due time, he was dismissed and expelled from the army. When, during a siege and storm, each man of a platoon had died except one, the remaining person was deemed a coward, and punished by mutilation. The spread of fear of the enemy was punished by execution. Wrong command was punished by exile. Nothing is known about the martial law of other states, but it seems that the law of Qin was extremely harsh in comparison, and so contributed to the victory of Qin. As the philosopher Xunzi èå (313-238) said, "Qin's decades-long victories were not due to good luck, but to the numbers [of paragraphs in their military law]." Wars and generals Western Zhou period War was seen as a means to tame the unruly ones and "rectify the regional states" (zheng bangguo æ£é¦å). For this reason, the Minister of War applied the "nine methods of punitive campaign" (jiu fa zhi fa ä¹ä¼ä¹æ³), as described in the chapter Da sima in the Classic Zhouli. The nine reasons for punitive attacks were if a regional ruler or nobleman had threatened the weak and dishonoured the faint (feng ruo fan gua é¦®å¼±ç¯å¯¡), oppressed the good ones and harmed the people (zei xian hai min è³è³¢å®³æ°), was cruel in his jurisdiction and transgressed the borders of it (bao nei ling wai æ´å §éµå¤), neglected agriculture and made the people flee (ye huang min san éèæ°æ£), relied on force and discarded obeisance (fu gu bu fu è² åºä¸æ), mistreated or killed parents (zei sha qi qin è³æ®ºå ¶è¦ª), murdered a lord (fang shi qi jun æ¾å¼å ¶å), disobeyed orders and betrayed the government (fan ling ling zheng ç¯ä»¤éµæ¿), and created much disorder everywhere with the conduct of wild beasts (wai-nei luan niao-shou xing å¤å §äºï¼é³¥ç¸è¡). The victory over the Shang was achieved in the battle of Muye ç§é, which is located close to present-day Xinxiang æ°é, Henan. The year of the war is unknown, even after many attempts to clarify it with the help of astronomical data mentioned in various sources (for instance, 1027 or 1046 BCE). The Zhou army consisted of a mixture of several allies, namely Yong åº¸, Shu è, Qiang ç¾, Wu é«³, Wei å¾®, Lu ç§, Peng å½, and Pu æ¿®, and surprised the allegedly 70,000-strong army of the Shang king Zhou ç´, who fled and burnt himself in his palace. The history book Shiji å²è¨ (ch. Zhou benji å¨æ¬ç´) holds that King Wu's forces consisted of 300 rongche æè» chariots, 3,000 huben troops, and 45,000 jiashi, while his allies contributed 4,000 troops more. The defeat of a much stronger enemy might have been due to the larger number of chariots the Zhou used (Shaughnessy 1988: 228-229). The most famous general participating in the battle was LÃ¼ Shang åå° (Jiang Ziya å§åç), who was appointed regional ruler of Qi in the far east. The battle against the Shang is mentioned in the inscription of the Li gui å©ç° bronze vessel. The owner of the vessel apparently also took part in the battle. Quotation 3. The victory of the Shang according to the Li gui å©ç° inscription ç·(=æ¦ç)å¾åé¹(=å¯)ç²åæãæ²é¼(=è²orå®)ãå æ(=è)å¤(=å·©)å(=æ)åãè¾æªçæ(=å¨)é(?)å¸«ãæ(=è³)å(=å³)åå©éãç¨ä¹(=ä½)è¦å ¬å¯¶å°å½ã When King Wu å¨æ¦ç rectified (i.e. defeated) Shang, it was on jiazi day (see calendar) at dawn. Jupiter was correctly in a favourable position. Accordingly, we were able to learn of the securing of Shang. On xinwei day, the King was at Jian é (?) garrison; he bestowed on me, Li å©, Scribe of the Right (youli å³å), bronze used to cast for my honoured forebear Tan è¦ this precious ritual vessel. Translation: Cook & Goldin 2016: 11. After King Wu's å¨æ¦ç victory of the Shang, he divided their territory in three parts and appointed the Shang prince Wu Geng æ¦åº and his own brothers Guan Shu ç®¡å and Cai Shu è¡å as regional rulers. Yet after King Wu's death, Wu Geng rose in rebellion, along with the lords of some other states. The rebellion was motivated by Guan Shu's suspicion that the Duke of Zhou, regent for King Cheng å¨æç, tried to usurp the throne. The Duke of Zhou initiated a military campaign that first wiped out Wu Geng, killed then his half-brother Guan Shu, and arrested Cai Shu. He then thrusted eastwards and pacified the Nine Yi tribes ä¹å¤· in the Huai River æ·®æ²³ region which had supported the rebels. The surviving members of the Shang aristocracy were resettled to Chengzhou for better control. Several decades later, King Cheng himself pacified the Nine Yi once more, along with the state of Yan å¥. King Kang's å¨åº·ç campaign against the northern Guifang é¬¼æ¹ in the late 10th century is mentioned in the inscription of the Xiao Yu ding å°çé¼. During the reign of King Zhao å¨æç, the southern border was unstable. He therefore decided to pacify the region of Chu æ¥ and Jing è and the tribes of the Baipu ç¾æ¿® and Man è ». Yet the royal army was caught in a surprise attack close to River Han æ¼¢æ°´, and King Zhao died in the floods when trying to escape. His son, King Mu å¨ç©ç, appeased the Western Quanrong ç¬æ and forced them to move to what is today northern Shanxi, but was not able to suppress their martial spirit. Legend says that the King continued his march to the west and reached the Kunlun Range å´å´ where he met the Queen Mother of the West è¥¿çæ¯ (see the story Mu Tianzi zhuan ç©å¤©åå³). Even if this story is beyond credibility, it demonstrates that Chinese interest in the western territories slowly increased. During the reign of King Yi å¨æ¿ç, the Quanrong became strong again and even invaded the metropolitan region. The king was forced to abandon his residence in Hao é¬ and founded a new one in Quanqiu ç¬ä¸ (Huaili æ§é, today's Xinping èå¹³, Shaanxi). The Duke of Shen ç³ was more successful in his war against the Quanrong. His victory was crowned by the Duke of Guo's è¢ defeat of the Quanrong in the battle of Yuquan ä¿æ³ somewhere in northern Shanxi. During the reign of King Li, the Quanrong (then called Xianyun) plundered the royal residence once more, so that the king decided to increase his army. He was indeed able to defeat the wild tribes several times and also freed some captured Zhou people. The southeastern tribes of the Huaiyi also remained a source of permanent troubles. Under the command of the Marquis of E å©, King Yi's å¨å¤·ç army conquered several statelets in the Huai River region. Yet peace did not prevail for long, and rebellious Yi advanced as far west as Luoyang. With supreme power, King Li was able to pacify the region. Internal quarrels in the house of Zhou forced King Li to flee to Zhi å½ (today's Huoxian éç¸£, Shanxi), where he died. His son, King Xuan å¨å®£ç (r. 828-782 BCE), relaxed the involvement of the Zhou into regional affairs. In 824, the Xianyun once more invaded the metropolitan region and killed Qin Zhong ç§¦ä»², the lord of Qin. With strong contingents of chariots, Yin Ji å°¹å repelled the invaders, and Nan Zhong åä»² drove them farther away. King Xuan entrusted Qin Zhong's sons with the protection of the metropolitan region to the west, and thus created the regional state of Qin. Jizi Bai å£åç½, lord of Guo, heavily defeated the Xianyun in 823. When the danger from the northwest seemed to be settled, King Xuan ordered Fang Shu Gua æ¹åæ to command 3,000 chariots to crush the state of Chu in the middle Yangtze Region. The southeastern tribes under the leadership of the king of Xu å¾ were finally appeased by the royal army under the command of minister Nan Zhong and Grand Commander Huangfu å¤§å¸«çç¶. Quotation 4. Victory over the Xianyun é¹(=å¯)ååäºå¹´ãæ£æååä¸äº¥ãè¢å£åç½ä¹(=ä½)å¯¶ç¤ãä¸(=ä¸)é¡¯åç½ãå£¯æ¦äºæå·¥(=å)ãç¶ç¶åæ¹ãæ¶ä¼ççãäºæ´ä¹é½ãæé¦äºç¾ãå·è¨äºåãæ¯å¶(=ä»¥)å è¡ãð§»(=æ¡)ð§»åç½ãç»èäºçãçåå (=å)åç½ç¾©ãçå(=æ ¼)å¨å»å®£æ¦ç°é(=é¥)ã [...] It was in the twelfth year, first month, the week after the new moon, on dinghai day. Guo Jizi Bai è¢å£åç½ makes this precious basin. Greatly illustrious Zi Bai was mighty and martial in his fighting achievements. Reconnoitring and protecting the four directions, he attacked the Xianyun çç at the north bank of River Luo æ´. He severed five hundred heads and arrested fifty prisoners, and in this he was first. Valiant Zi Bai presented the severed ears to the King. The King greatly praised Zi Bai's uprightness The King went to the Grand Pavilion (Xuanxie å®£æ¦) of the Zhou temple and then held a banquet [...] Translation: Cook & Goldin 2016: 189, slightly changed. The campaign is also mentioned in the Shijing, Part Daya, ode Changwu å¸¸æ¦ "Everlasting Martiality". These great victories led to a period of peace, even if King Xuan continued to wage wars against dispersed groups of Rong tribes in the north. In one of these campaigns, against the Jiangrong å§æ in 790, the army of the lord of Nan å was heavily defeated. The downfall of the Western Zhou under King You was caused by a military alliance between the Xianyun, the Marquis of Shen, and the Marquis of Zeng ç¹. The Marquis of Shen had been the father-in-law of King You, but felt insulted when King You discarded his Queen and took a new consort, Bao Si. Even if legend interprets the conquest of the metropolitan region by the Xianyun as the result of a childish game by Bao Si (spoofing the military commanders by having lit the signal fires), the treasonous alliance of part the inner circle of the Zhou court with an outer enemy played a substantial part in the event. Spring and Autumn period The number of military conflicts increased drastically during the Spring and Autumn period. Historians count no less than 376 military encounters during the 295 years of the period. (He 1987: 35). This was possible because of economic growth (see Zhou economy), different modes of recruitment, and better methods of exploiting revenues and resources. Forced to resettle in the eastern capital Chengzhou (Luoyang, Henan) in 770, the house of Zhou had a royal domain (wangji) of no more than 600km2 (Chen 1994: 29). Nonetheless, the royal court was still respected and possessed considerable military superiority. Yet during the reign of King Ping å¨å¹³ç (r. 770-720 BCE), tensions with the regional state of Zheng to the east grew, and the crown princes of both houses were mutually exchanged as hostages. His successor King Huan å¨æ¡ç (r. 720-697) attempted to replace the house of Zheng as royal ministers by the house of Guo è¢. In this situation, King Huan had to rely on the support of the state of Jin, but in 718, Earl Zhuang of Quwo æ²æ²èä¼¯ (r. 732-717), by then master over Jin, rebelled against the King, who invested Marquis Ai æåä¾¯ (718-710). In 713, Zheng defeated the states of Song, Wei è¡, and Cai in the battle of Dai æ´ (Minquan æ°æ¬, Henan). In 708, King Huan dismissed Duke Zhuang of Zheng, and ordered Chen, Cai, and Wei è¡ to attack Zheng, together with the royal army and that of Guo. The armies met in the battle of Xuge, but Zheng defeated the royal alliance. Xuge was the last time a king of Zhou personally commanded a military campaign, and the sign of the end of the military prowess of the Zhou. In the 7th century, the royal domain was cut down by presents of territories to Zheng, Guo, and Jin. Yet the legitimacy of the house of Zhou was not challenged. Many wars of the Spring and Autumn period were led to support the royal house or to act on its behalf. The reason to take over the function of lord-protector ("hegemonial lord", ba é¸) over the regional rulers was the military strength of the Di and Rong tribes in west and north China, and later that of the southern state of Chu. The motto was "respect the King and suppress the wild tribes" (zun wang rang yi å°çæå¤·). In 663, the state of Yan in the north was attacked by the Mountain Rong (Shanrong å±±æ). Duke Huan of Qi was asked for help, and sent an army to the far north. He defeated the Shanrong at Guzhu å¤ç«¹ (north of Hebei). In 660, Duke Huan helped Duke Dai è¡æ´å ¬ (r. 660) to the throne after the state of Wei è¡ had been devastated by the Di tribes. In 659, he helped the statelet of Xing é¢ against the Di tribes and defeated them with an allied army of Qi, Song, and Wei è¡. In 657, Duke Huan convoked the states at Yanggu é½è°· (Liucheng èå, Shandong) and it was decided to resist the northward advance of Chu. The states of Huang é» and Jiang æ± were rescued. In 646, Duke Huan led an alliance (meng ç) of states to help the statelet of Qi æ against the Huai tribes, and two years later supported the state of Zeng é«. Yet in the end, Duke Huan of Qi was not able to prevent the northward expansion of Chu, and after Chu had conquered the state of Cai, both concluded in 656 the peace treaty of Shaoling å¬éµ (Leihe æ¼¯æ²³, Henan). The battle of Chengpu åæ¿® (either today's Chenliu é³ç, Henan, or Juancheng éå, Shandong) in 632 marked the beginning of a hundred-year long conflict between the powers Chu and Jin. Duke Cheng of Song å®æå ¬ (r. 636-620) decided to get rid of the domination by Chu. King Cheng of Chu æ¥æç (r. 672-626) thereupon ordered his allies Chen, Cai, Zheng, and Xu è¨± to attack Song, which in turn asked Duke Wen of Jin ææå ¬ (r. 636-628) for help. Jin, supported by Qi and Qin, overwhelmed the two wings of Chu and forced the invader to retreat. Duke Wen of Jin took over the position of lord-protector which was confirmed in the interstate meeting in Jiantu è¸å (Yuanyang åé½, Henan) in 631. In 596, King Zhuang of Chu æ¥èç (r. 613-591) attacked Zheng and forced the earl of Zheng into surrender. The relief forces of Jin hesitated before engaging Chu in the battle of Bi é² (Xingyang æ»é½, Henan), but this time Chu (commanded by the king and Shusun Ao å«åæ) routed the army of Jin (commanded by Xun Linfu èæç¶, Shi Hui å£«æ, and Zhao Shuo è¶æ). A phase of dÃ©tente was initiated by Hua Yuan è¯å , a grand master in the state of Chu who had good relationships with dignitaries in Jin and Chu. A conference between the two competitors was held in the capital of Song (Shangqiu åä¸, Henan). Yet the third great battle between the two powers took place in 575 at Yanling é¢éµ (Henan) in marsh terrain unfavourable for Chu, so Luan Shu æ¬æ¸, Han Jue éå¥, and Xi Qi é¤é¡ were able to defeat King Gong of Chu æ¥å ±ç (r. 590-560). During the reign of Duke Dao ææ¼å
2073	dbpedia	3	63	https://soch.wordpress.com/2007/11/26/4-mi-fu-paying-homage-to-a-rock/	en	4. Mi Fu paying homage to a rock	https://s0.wp.com/i/blank.jpg	https://s0.wp.com/i/blank.jpg	[ "https://2.gravatar.com/avatar/bc2f67209139c75229d2f3ae0d169d347b67081d3bc9cd471db6848e0e31a8da?s=48&d=identicon&r=G", "https://0.gravatar.com/avatar/fc6de0bdfee1b1d06479ced8385ccd931fd75cd2ec9b1585b9ed7a61d51b4f22?s=48&d=identicon&r=G", "https://0.gravatar.com/avatar/fc6de0bdfee1b1d06479ced8385ccd931fd75cd2ec9...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2007-11-26T00:00:00	Mi Fu (1051-1107) is the name of a famous artist that invented the way of using ink dots to paint Chinese paintings (landscapes). Dian signifies someone crazy, abnormal. In the past articles, I briefly mentioned about dots, in Chinese paintings when one talks about dots, one has to talk about the “Mi family method”.…	en	https://s1.wp.com/i/favicon.ico	Save Our Chinese Heritage	https://soch.wordpress.com/2007/11/26/4-mi-fu-paying-homage-to-a-rock/	4. Mi Fu paying homage to a rock November 26, 2007 Posted by kentneo in Art. trackback Mi Fu (1051-1107) is the name of a famous artist that invented the way of using ink dots to paint Chinese paintings (landscapes). Dian signifies someone crazy, abnormal. In the past articles, I briefly mentioned about dots, in Chinese paintings when one talks about dots, one has to talk about the “Mi family method”. Many people have asked me about the “Mi family”, I usually give them a quick answer, the other day in my pile of old photographs, I found a painting titled “paying homage to a rock” in particular it is of “Mi Dian worshipping a rock”. I could not stop thinking about Mi Dian, why was he such a great man? Why was he paying homage to a rock? And why was he called crazy and so out of this world? Mi Fu’s original name is Fu, when he was around 40 years old, he started using the name Fu, his other name is Yuanzhang and he is originally from Tai Yuan and later lived in Xiang Yang. He had yet another name Manshi from Xiang Yang, from this name “Manshi”, we can tell that he was the type of man that was not easily influenced. For his time, he was considered a modern thinker. He wanted to revolutionalize the way Chinese painting was done/taught and thought that the old ways of learning by endlessly copying the old masters was not the best way. In one of his autobiography’s “Hua Shi” (history of art), he writes,”… Especially in landscapes, by continuously copying the old masters, there has been no development in newer styles, what dominates are still lots of mountains and lots of fog” (both signifying fog in paintings and implying that the artists have not innovated). We can see that the “Mi method” was a new method of painting Chinese landscapes, originated by him. In creating this method, he wasn’t doing it haphazardly or blindly, again according to his “Hua Shi” [we see that he has done his research as] he writes, “Yu Jiadong’s landscapes depict mist like waves, the mountains are represented by the basics of its skeleton, one can only see the tree tops, but the style is still “Gao Gu” [very old school?]”. We see that although he wanted to not use the “Gao Gu”, he didn’t go to opposite extremes and used “Ching Fou” (or light and floaty) method. Because Mi Fu actually had a deep understanding and solid foundation in painting, Su Dongbo once said of Mi Fu’s painting methods, “Li Zhenghang’s calligraphy are like swift horses galloping with his use of big strong strokes; Zhong (artist who lived in Wei dynasty, 220-265) and Wang (artist that lived in the Jin dynasty, 265-420, Wang Xizhi, 307-365), are all on par with Mi in level and style”. Mi Fu was also a poet and a writer, but he is still most famous for his art. He not only invented “Mi family method”, he also was known for the “clouds in landscape method”. He also did human figures and lived in the same period as the famous human figure artist, Li Gongling who was a student of Wu Daozhi. Although Wu Daozhi was an excellent artist, Mi still didn’t consider him “Gao Gu” enough. (On this point, the topic being of calligraphy, some people consider Wang Xizhi’s calligraphy as more mysterious and in the same category as Zhao Jiang, a topic that is debated as to why not learn the Han dynasty, 206 BCE – 220 CE, style as it is far superior). So in Mi’s opinion, it was better to learn Gu Kaizhi’s (344 – 406 CE) style. To this he said, “Li Gongling had been ill and could not use his left hand to paint for 3 years and although Li was a student of Wu, Li was still not able to learn or adopt Wu’s style nor achieve “Gao Gu”, nor be on Wu’s level”. But Li was serious and diligent in learning painting and was very disciplined in his execution of every stroke, just as it is important in making the right type of friends. If there is the slightest mistake, it is easy to get off the right path but extremely difficult to revert back without a lot of effort and sacrifice. Thus the process of becoming an artist is important, you have to know what you are doing and you can’t be frivolous about it. (Chinese paintings, you can’t go back and correct a mistake?? vs oils where one can…) Mi Fu however had a funny habit, he was obsessed with cleanliness [lost plot of how his cleanliness can be considered cute in the comparison with San Siau Ying Yuan] but very honest. He lived in the same times as Huang Tingjian (artist and poet and one of the 24 Siau), the one that was famous for being afraid of his wife, who was also a good swordsman along with Chen Siuchang (from the book Fang Shan Zi). The Prime Minister of their time, Wang Anshi, also had a funny habit, he was the opposite to Mi Fu, he didn’t bathe, nor change his attire, nor combed his hair and he didn’t really care what others thought and can be compared to the hippies of the 1960s. Some peoples habits are just not expressable in words with no logic to explain. Mi Fu belonged the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE), but liked to wear Tang dynasty (618-907 CE) clothes, modernising the style. He liked to wear a type of tall hat, but he owned a carriage that was flatter than normal, if he passed his hat to the footman, he was afraid that it would get dirty, so he took the roof off his carriage and rode around town with his tall hat sticking out. In the Qing dynasty (1644-1911 CE), these type of roofless carriages were used to transport prisoners that were to be executed. Mi Fu was not only not concerned about people laughing behind his back, he thought himself cool and unique, this was one of his crazy and abnormal traits. Another time, as he was on his way to work (he was a government official of quite senior level). At one of the horse stops, he saw a very uniquely shaped and ugly rock. He was moved to immense happiness and forgot where he was, he asked his servants for his “hui ban” (used only to bow in front of the Emperor), facing the rock he knelt before it and bowed and happily mumbled to himself, “this glorious rock, I am your slave”. It is more common to see men stoop to that level for a beautiful woman but for a rock? Later every time Mi Fu came upon a unique and ugly rock, he would do the same, kneeling and bowing and even exalting the rock to “Shi Zhang”, (like a respectful way to address an older person). As he is able to respect a rock like respecting an elder, it is as if he didn’t lose his childlike innocence of being amazed at the world around him. This was how a second example of his abnormal traits came about. Mi Fu really loved these uniquely shaped rocks that he started collecting them as precious items (on par with precious paintings). He was then in An Hui province, Ling Pi district as a government official. But he had no heart for work and was always admiring his rock collection. (In eastern art on the subject matter of rocks, the ones that are ugly, skinny, and transparent like are valued the highest). So, from a perspective of beauty, natural beauty is not necessarily the best, raw beauty in its own way is beautiful, like an extreme feature (Barbara Streisand’s nose?), like Yang Liuching’s “nian hua”, or the Emperor Yong Le’s (1403 – 1424 CE of the Ming dynasty) wall paintings, or the drafts of the Dun Huang caves or the prehistoric paintings on caves that were large and red and raw. That’s why Picasso said, why learn art in Paris? Go instead to Africa, the art forms are as powerful, this is the similar logic to why ugly stones are beautiful in their own way. It is an undescribable type of beauty, one is drawn to its ugliness and somehow the skinnyness and the transparentness of the rock match each other and becomes inspirational. There were a lot of old masters that only painted rocks. Small rocks were painted as stones in a garden setting, large rocks became mountains. When one paints landscapes, one has to examine, study and understand the fundamental make up of a rock first. Later, even An Jishi (Mi Fu’s colleague and government official) came to warn and to advise Mi Fu about his tardy attitude at work. Mi Fu drew out from his sleeve (Chinese sleeves in those days were like pockets) a piece of rock. It had a light but clean color and was small and ugly but adorable. Mi Fu put the rock up to An Jishi’s face where he could not help but to appreciate the rock and said, “look at this rock, how can you not love it?” An Jishi, mesmerized by the rock, didn’t realize that he grabbed it and left! But not before saying, “it is not only beautiful, I am in love…”. Mi Fu’s name since that episode, started to spread not only in his lifetime but throughout the centuries. Once in Yang Zhou, the famous artist Su Dongbo (1037 – 1101 CE), had a party in which he invited more than 10 famous people. Mi Fu arrived with gifts but was also visibly a bit drunk with a look that was “dian”, though he thought he looked cool in making his entrance. He even made an announcement to the group, “everyone thinks I am crazy, but I am only behaving like Dongbo” (who although as an artist was eccentric, was not yet “dian”) To which Dongbo unexpectedly replied, “I don’t think so, I behave like normal people do”. To which, Mi Fu’s “dian” was now firmly established. Another time, the Song dynasty emperor, Huizong (1082-1135, who was also an artist), he was in his twenty’s in his early years of reign, loved the arts (he was famous for his calligraphic technique of “Sou Jing Ti” and his “gong bi” of birds and flowers, unfortunately he was a failure at being a ruler). He highly regarded Mi Fu and invited him to his “Yau Ling” Palace. On his imperial table, he had an ink pad made of a type of red precious stone (Ma Nau), the brush was made from elephant tusk, the ink was made by the famous Li Tingwa, the ink pad box was made from gold and the paper weights were made of jade. There was also exquisite food and wine prepared. The large scrolls of rice paper were also rolled out with Mi Fu facing the Emperor. As Mi Fu rolled up his sleeves, he was already unaware of the Emperor in his presence, he took the brush, dipped it in ink, tapping his feet (which rude to do infront of an Emperor!) and deep in thought, suddenly with a stroke of inspiration, his brush flew across the paper, the ink was like rain, the qi of the stroke was like a passing cloud, like a cloak of fog, a river flowing. When the rice paper was entirely wet, the Emperor was so mesmerized he was in another state of mind. Mi Fu was still lost in himself and his environment, he suddenly realized the Emperor was in front of him and he blurted, “your majesty, how wonderful!!” (how unhumble of a subject?). The Emperor was not only not angry at this outburst which was considered a lack of respect, he was actually moved by the experience and gave Mi Shi the four scholarly items (paper, brush, ink and ink pad) as a gift and also gave him the title of Professor of Art. Strangely, Mi Fu took the exquisite ink pad, before wiping it dry, he placed it into his suit pocket and soiled his entire outfit and it didn’t matter to him too much. Like a child in a candy store, he felt very happy and went home. One could say Mi Shi was “dian”? or was he a genius? No matter what your opinion, the successful artist is one that is true to himself as you can’t fake who you are and you can’t lose the innocence of a child for the child’s innocent heart is the purest form of character. From purity of character can you then only derive the best in paintings which will comparable to none. Another time, the Emperor asked Mi Fu to come to his “Zhong Zheng” Palace to discuss art, Mi Fu, brought along a note book and the Emperor asked him to put it down, Mi Fu then said, “but your highness, that is on your day bed!”, this caused the Emperor to be embarrassed for a moment and the court officials at the scene all thought that Mi Fu was wrong to embarrass the Emperor and should be punished. The Emperor instead said, “hmmm, you can’t curb a genius”, and with that all was forgiven and the Emperor took Mi Fu to his treasure trove of paintings (in those days without books or mass copies, only the Emperor had a rare collection of art that was not publicly available thus not available to people interested in improving their techniques), with that access, Mi Fu’s art improved tremendously leading him to one day invent the “Mi method”. The Emperor also promoted Mi Fu to become the President of the National Art Academy. From government official to Professor and a few other official titles, a country can exalt the status of cultural pursuits and on the other hand, an artist’s life is one that is quite difficult. Resulting in a situation where parents, rather guide their children to medicine or commercial pursuits, thus in the process, losing a lot of artistic talent from lack of nurture. I have to stop here, for thinking about this makes me sad, that others such as the Japanese that protect and develop their cultural arts (which were originally Chinese); and while we see others valuing our culture so much, should we not remind ourselves that we should be doing that too? ============================================================== What is Gao Gu??? How did the Mi part of his name come along? Is it because of the dots of the painting? ============================================================== Gu Kaizhi and the Beginning of Scroll Painting Chinese painting came a long way during the 300-year period that saw the rise and fall of the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280), the Jin Dynasty (265-420) and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-581). Although there was the chaos of wars and many dynastic changes during this period, active intellectual life of different schools provided a great impetus to artistic development. Well known grotto murals, tomb paintings, stone carvings, brick carvings and lacquer paintings were produced during that period, and a number of virtuosos emerged in Chinese calligraphy and painting. Certain painting theories, such as the Graphic Theory and the Six Rule Theory that form the theoretical basis for present-day Chinese painting, were also put forward during this time. Gu Kaizhi, known as the founder of traditional Chinese painting, and his scroll paintings, represented the painting style of the period.Gu Kaizhi was born into an official family in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province. He served as a government officer when he was young, and toured many beautiful places. He had a sense of humor, and was also adept at writing poems and essays. Chinese art history abounds in anecdotes about him.Once a temple was planned for Jiankang (present-day Nanjing), but the monks and the abbot could not collect enough money for the construction. While they were worrying about the funds to build the temple, a young man came and said he would donate a large amount of money. The abbot did not believe him, thinking that he was boasting. The young man suggested drawing a picture of the Buddha on a wall and collecting money from those who came to see him at work. For three consecutive days, thousands of people crowded the place to see the young man painting the Buddha. When he finally added the eye lines, the Buddha seemed to come alive, and the viewers cheered and applauded the young man’s artistry. The money needed for the consummate construction of the temple was raised. The young man was Gu Kaizhi.Gu Kaizhi paid great attention to details that revealed the characteristics of the figures he drew. Once he was asked to paint the portrait of a man called Pei Kai, who had three long fine hairs on his face that had been ignored by other painters. Gu laid great emphasis on the three hairs, and Pei was very satisfied. Another time, he portrayed the man Xie Kun standing in the midst of mountains and rocks. When asked about the reason, he explained that Xie loved to travel to see beautiful mountains and rivers. This story demonstrates that Gu was skillful at drawing surroundings that enhanced the characteristics of the painted figures.Gu also made great advances in summarizing painting theories. His theoretical works included Painting Thesis and Notes on Painting the YuntaiMountain. He paid considerable attention to the vivid expressions of the figures to show their spirit. His Graphic Theory later became a basic theory for traditional Chinese painting. According to historical records, Gu created more than 70 paintings based on historical stories, Buddhas, human figures, birds, animals, mountains and rivers. His three existing scroll paintings are Nushi Zhen Painting, Luoshen Appraisal Painting and Lienu Renzhi Painting; these are the earliest examples of scroll paintings.
2073	dbpedia	0	36	https://alchetron.com/Mi-Fu	en	Alchetron, The Free Social Encyclopedia	https://alchetron.com/cd…4-resize-750.jpg	https://alchetron.com/cd…4-resize-750.jpg	[ "https://alchetron.com/cdn/private_file_151723927487797835984-5138-49e5-ad10-bb78f28f1bc.jpg", "https://alchetron.com/cdn/mi-fu-f1019176-6006-483d-9be5-33403dcd774-resize-750.jpg", "https://alchetron.com/cdn/mi-fu-58326e0d-9cf2-4945-bda1-df598989154-resize-750.jpeg", "https://alchetron.com/cdn/mi-fu-d7ec59a8-...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2017-08-18T08:30:48+00:00	Mi Fu (Chinese or pinyin M F, 10511107) was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the Mi Fu style and involved the use of large wet dots of i	en	/favicon.ico	Alchetron.com	https://alchetron.com/Mi-Fu	Biography According to tradition, he was a very smart boy with a great interest in arts and letters and an astonishing ability of memorizing. At the age of six he could learn a hundred poems a day and after going over them again, he could recite them all. His mother was employed as a midwife and afterwards as a wet-nurse to look after and feed the Emperor Shenzong who was to start his reign in 1051 and continue until 1107. Mi Fu knew the imperial family and he lived in the privileged location of the royal palaces, where he also started his career as Reviser of Books, Professor of Painting and Calligraphy in the capital, Secretary to the Board of Rites and Military Governor of Huaiyang. These frequent changes of official position were caused by Mi Fu's sharp tongue and open criticism of official ways and means. He is said to have been a very capable official, but unwilling to submit to conventional rules and manifested a spirit of independence which caused him serious difficulties. Mi Fu was very peculiar in his manners and the way he dressed. Wherever he went, he attracted a crowd. He was also very fond of cleanliness. He used to have water standing at his side when working because he washed his face very often. He would never wash in a vessel that had been used by someone else or put on clothes that had been worn by another person. Mi Fu's passion was collecting old writings and paintings. As his family wealth was gradually lost on relatives, he continued to collect and made every possible sacrifice to get the samples he wanted. There is even an anecdote according to which Mi Fu, once being out in a boat with his friends, was shown a sample of Wang Xianzhi’s writing and this made him so excited that he threatened to jump overboard unless the owner made him a present of it, which, apparently, could not be refused. Gradually his collection became a big treasury and his simple house a meeting place for the greatest scholars of the time. Some of the calligraphies of his collection he inherited but others acquired. He also exchanged the less good for better. He wrote: “When a man of today obtains such an old sample it seems to him as important as his life, which is ridiculous. It is in accordance with human nature, that things which satisfy the eye, when seen for a long time become boring; therefore they should be exchanged for fresh examples, which then appear double satisfying. That is the intelligent way of using pictures.” Mi Fu was something of a maniac in regard to safeguarding, cleaning and exhibiting of his pictures. He arranged his collection in two parts, one of which was kept secret or only for a few selected friends and another which could be shown to ordinary visitors. In his later years, Mi Fu became very fond of Holin Temple located on Yellow Crane Mountain and asked to be buried at its gate. Today the temple is gone, but his grave remains. Historical background After the rise of the landscape painting, the creative activity followed which was of a more general kind and included profane, religious figure, bird, flower and bamboo painting besides landscapes. It was all carried out by men of high intellectual standard. To most of these men painting was not a professional occupation but only one of the means by which they expressed their intellectual reactions to life and nature in visible symbols. Poetry and illustrative writing were in a sense even more important to them than painting and they made their living as more or less prominent government officials if they did not depend on family wealth. Even if some of them were real masters of ink-painting as well as of calligraphy, they avoided the fame and position of professional artists and became known as “gentleman-painters”. Artistic occupations such as calligraphy and painting were to these men activities to be done during the leisure time from official duties or practical occupations. Nevertheless, the foundation of their technical mastery was in writing, training in calligraphy which allowed them to transmit their thoughts with the same easiness in symbols of nature as in conventional characters. Their art became therefore a very intimate kind of expression, or idea-writing as it was called in later times. The beauty of this art was indeed closely connected to the visible easiness with which it was produced, but which after all could not be achieved without intense training and deep thought. Mi Fu was one of the highly gifted gentleman-painters. He was not a poet or philosopher, nevertheless he was brilliant intellectually. With his very keen talent of artistic observation together with sense of humor and literary ability he established for himself a prominent place among Chinese art-historians; his contributions in this field are still highly valued, because they are based on what he had seen with his own eyes and not simply on what he had heard or learned from his forerunners. Mi Fu had the courage to express his own views, even when these were different from the prevailing ones or official opinions. His notes about painting and calligraphy are of great interest to art historians, because they are spontaneous expressions of his own observations and independent ideas and help to characterize himself as well as the artists whose works he discusses. Art To Mi Fu the brush was not only the sword of his proud spirit but a magic stick, which brought life whenever he held it in his hands, were it in writing or in painting. The two arts were to him essentially one and the same. His importance as a painter on the other hand is more closely connected with the fact that by the later critics he has been admired as one of the most important representatives of the ‘Southern School’ of landscape painting. Unfortunately, it is no longer possible clearly to say this from the pictures which pass under his name – there is no lack of such works, and most of them represent a rather definite type or pictorial style which existed also in later centuries, but to what extent they can be considered as Mi Fu's own creations is still a question. In other words, the general characteristics of his style are known, but it is not possible to be sure that the paintings ascribed to him represent the rhythm and spirit of his individual brush work as is possible with his authentic samples of calligraphy, which still exist. Therefore, he is more remembered as a skilled calligraphist and for his influence as a critic and writer on art rather than a skilled landscape painter. Mi Fu was among those for whom writing or calligraphy was intimately connected with the composing of poetry or sketching. It required an alertness of mind and spirit, which he thought was best achieved through the enjoyment of wine. Through this he reached a state of excitement rather than drunkenness. A friend of Mi Fu, Su Shi admired him and wrote that his brush is like a sharp sword handled skillfully in fight or a bow which could shoot the arrow a thousand li, piercing anything that might be in its way. “It was the highest perfection of the art of calligraphy”, he wrote. Other critics claimed that only Mi Fu could imitate the style of the great calligraphists of the Six Dynasties. Mi Fu indeed seems to have been an excellent imitator; some of these imitations were so good that they were taken for the originals. Mi Fu's son also testified that his father always kept some calligraphic masterpiece of the Tang or the Qin period in his desk as a model. At night he would place it in a box at the side of his pillow. According to some writings, Mi Fu did most of his paintings during the last seven years of his life, and he himself wrote that “he chose as his models the most ancient masters and painted guided by his own genius and not by any teacher and thus represented the loyal men of antiquity.” The pictures which still pass under the name of Mi Fu represent ranges of wooded hills or cone-shaped mountain peaks rising out of layers of woolly mist. At their feet may be water and closer towards the foreground clusters of dark trees. One of the best known examples of this kind of Mi style is the small picture in the Palace Museum known as Spring Mountains and Pine-Trees. It is in the size of a large album-leaf, but at the top of the picture is added a poem said to be by the emperor Emperor Gaozong of Song. The mountains and the trees rise above a layer of thick mist that fills the valley; they are painted in dark ink tones with a slight addition of colour in a plumy manner that hides their structure; it is the mist that is really alive. In spite of the striking contrast between the dark and the light tones the general effect of the picture is dull, which may be the result of wear and retouching. Among the pictures which are attributed to Mi Fu, there apparently are imitations, even if they are painted in a similar manner with a broad and soft brush. They may be from Southern Song period, or possibly from the Yuan period, when some of the leading painters freely utilized the manner of Mi for expressing their own ideas. The majority are probably from the later part of Ming period, when a cult of Mi Fu followers that viewed him as the most important representative of the "Southern School" started. Mi Fu himself had seen many imitations, perhaps even of his own works and he saw how wealthy amateurs spent their money on great names rather than on original works of art. He wrote: “They place their pictures in brocade bags and provide them with jade rollers as if they were very wonderful treasures, but when they open them one cannot but break out into laughter.” Mi Fu's own manner of painting has been characterised by writers who knew it through their own observation or through hearsay. It is said that he always painted on paper which had not been prepared with gum or alum (alauns); never on silk or on the wall. In addition, he did not necessarily use the brush in painting with ink; sometimes he used paper sticks or sugar cane from which the juice had been extracted, or a calyx (kauss) of the lotus. Even if Mi Fu was principally a landscape painter, he also did portraits and figure paintings of an old fashioned type. Nevertheless, he must have spent more time studying samples of ancient calligraphy and painting than producing pictures of his own. His book on History of Painting contains practical hints as to the proper way of collecting, preserving, cleaning and mounting pictures. Mi Fu was no doubt an excellent connoisseur who recognized quality in art, but in spite of his oppositional spirit, his fundamental attitude was fairly conventional. He appreciated some of the well recognized classics among the ancient masters and had little use for any of the contemporary painters. He had sometimes difficulty in admitting the values of others and found more pleasure in making sharp and sarcastic remarks than in expressing his thoughts in a just and balanced way. Landscape painting was, to Mi Fu, superior to every other kind of painting; revealing his limitations and romantic flight: “The study of Buddhist paintings implies some moral advice; they are of a superior kind. Then follow the landscapes, then pictures of bamboo, trees, walls and stones, and then come pictures of flowers and grass. As to pictures of men and women, birds and animals, they are for the amusement of the gentry and do not belong to the class of pure art treasures.”
2073	dbpedia	3	0	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu	en	Wikipedia	https://upload.wikimedia…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	https://upload.wikimedia…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2005-10-09T02:08:26+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fu	Chinese artist (1051–1107) Mi FuChinese nameChinese米芾 or 米黻 TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinMǐ FúWade–GilesMi FuYue: CantoneseJyutpingMei5 Fat1Middle ChineseMiddle ChineseMieiB Pjwǝt Korean nameHangul미불 TranscriptionsMcCune–ReischauerMi Bul Japanese nameHiraganaべいふつ TranscriptionsRomanizationBei Futsu Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE)[1] was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi. Mi Fu is regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers of the Song dynasty, alongside Su Shi, Hung Tingjian and Cai Xian. His style is derived from calligraphers in earlier dynasties, although he developed unique traits of his own. His son, Mi Youren, also became a well known painter. He followed his father's artistic style, adopting his use of large dots of wet ink, a technique later nicknamed "Mi Dots".[2] As a personality, Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric; including a mania of cleanliness.[2] At times, he was deemed "Madman Mi" due to his obsession with collecting stones. He was also known to be a heavy drinker. His son, Mi Youren, also became a well known painter following in his father's artistic style. Biography [edit] According to Yao Weiyuan, Mi Fu was a fifth-generation descendant of Mi Xin, a Later Zhou and early Song dynasty general from the Kumo Xi tribe that descended from the Xianbei.[3][4] However, according to other scholars, his family probably was of distant Muslim Sogdian heritage.[5][6][7][8][9] His surname "Mi" is of Sogdian origin,[10] and he was born after a long period in which the Sogdians intensively migrated deep into China and established flourishing communities there, and he referred to himself as "descendant of huozheng," "fire priest" (according to Jiang Boqin), having a seal with this inscribed on it. However, other Chinese scholars reject Jiang's interpretation, saying that huozheng referred to "Fire virtue" and was related to the Zhao family, and that he had other seals claiming different things.[11] Mi Fu showed early signs of interest in arts and letters, as well as unusual memory skills. His mother worked as a midwife and later as a wet-nurse, looking after the Emperor Shenzong. Due to his familial connections to the imperial family, Mi Fu was allowed the privilege of living in the royal palaces. Here, he began his career as Reviser of Books, Professor of Painting and Calligraphy in the capital, Secretary to the Board of Rites, and Military Governor of Huaiyang. He openly criticized conventional regulations of the time, causing him to move between jobs frequently. Mi Fu collected old writings and paintings as his family wealth gradually diminished. Over time, the value of his collection grew. He also inherited some of the calligraphy in his collection. His collection was arranged in two parts, one of which was kept secret (or shown only to a select few) and another which would be shown to visitors. In his later years, Mi Fu became very fond of Holin Temple (located on Yellow Crane Mountain (黃鶴樓)). He later asked to be buried at its gate. Today the temple is gone, but his grave remains.[12] Historical background [edit] After the rise of landscape painting, creative activities followed which were of a more general kind and included profane, religious figure, bird, flower and bamboo paintings besides landscapes. It was all carried out by men of high intellectual standards. To most of these men, painting was not a professional occupation but only one of the means by which they expressed their intellectual reactions to life and nature in visible symbols. Poetry and illustrative writing were in a sense even more important to them than painting and they made their living as more or less prominent government officials if they did not depend on family wealth. Even if some of them were skilled at ink painting and calligraphy, they avoided the fame and position of professional artists and became known as "gentleman-painters." Artistic occupations such as calligraphy and painting were seen as leisure activities from official duties or practical occupations. Nevertheless, the foundation of their technical mastery was in writing and calligraphy, which allowed them to transmit their thoughts with the same easiness in symbols of nature as in conventional characters. Their art became therefore a very intimate kind of expression, or idea-writing as it was called in later times. The beauty of this art was indeed closely connected to the visible ease with which it was produced, but which after all could not be achieved without intense training and deep thought.[citation needed] Mi Fu was one of the highly gifted gentleman-painters. His talent for artistic observation, his sense of humor, and his literary ability helped him establish a prominent place for himself among Chinese art historians. His contributions to the field remain in high regard due to their basis in direct, first-hand observation as opposed to relying on what he had heard or learned from his forerunners.[clarification needed] Mi Fu would often express his own views even when they differed from prevailing beliefs or official opinions. Art historians still maintain interest in his notes on painting and calligraphy–these writings are believed to be spontaneous expressions of his own observations and independent ideas which aid in the characterization of Mi Fu and the other artists he would write about.[citation needed] Art [edit] Mi Fu is considered one of the most important representatives of the Southern School (南宗畫) of landscape painting. Presently, many works are attributed to Mi Fu and most of them represent a type or pictorial style which also existed in later centuries. The accuracy of their attribution remains in question due to difficulties in verification. Mi Fu is now remembered as a skilled calligrapher and an influential art critic and writer rather than a skilled landscape painter.[citation needed] For Mi Fu writing or calligraphy was intimately connected with the composing of poetry or sketching. It required an alertness of mind and spirit, which he thought was best achieved through the enjoyment of wine. Through this he reached a state of excitement rather than drunkenness. A friend of Mi Fu, Su Shih (蘇軾) admired him and wrote that his brush was like a sharp sword handled skillfully in fight or a bow which could shoot the arrow a thousand li, piercing anything that might be in its way. "It was the highest perfection of the art of calligraphy", he wrote.[citation needed] Other critics claimed that only Mi Fu could imitate the style of the great calligraphers of the Six Dynasties. Mi Fu's son testified that his father always kept some calligraphic masterpiece of the Tang or the Qin period in his desk as a model. At night he would place it in a box at the side of his pillow.[citation needed] According to some writings,[which?] Mi Fu did most of his paintings during the last seven years of his life, and he himself wrote that "he chose as his models the most ancient masters and painted guided by his own genius and not by any teacher and thus represented the loyal men of antiquity."[citation needed] Paintings currently attributed to Mi Fu represent ranges of wooded hills or cone-shaped mountain peaks rising out of layers of mist. Bodies of water and clusters of dark trees may appear in the foreground of his compositions. One of the best known examples of the "Mi Fu style" is a small picture in the Palace Museum known as Spring Mountains and Pine-Trees. It is in the size of a large album-leaf and there is a poem at the top that was said to be added by Emperor Gaozong of Song.[citation needed] Some paintings attributed to Mi Fu are likely imitations. They may be from Southern Song period, or possibly from the Yuan period, when some of the leading painters freely utilized the manner of Mi Fu for expressing their own ideas. It is likely that many are from the later part of Ming period when a cult of Mi Fu was started, its followers viewing him as the most important representative of the Southern School. Mi Fu himself had seen many imitations and he saw how wealthy amateurs spent their money on great names rather than on original works of art. He wrote that they "place their pictures in brocade bags and provide them with jade rollers as if they were very wonderful treasures, but when they open them one cannot but break out into laughter."[citation needed] Mi Fu's own manner of painting has been characterized by writers who knew it through their own observation or through hearsay. It is said[who?] that he always painted on paper which had not been prepared with gum or alum (alauns) instead of silk, and he never painted on the wall. In addition to using a brush when painting with ink, Mi Fu also utilized paper sticks or sugar cane from which the juice had been extracted or a calyx (kauss) of a lotus.[citation needed] Mi Fu was principally a landscape painter, though he also created portraits and figure paintings. It is likely that he spent more time studying samples of ancient calligraphy and paintings than he spent producing work of his own.[citation needed] His book, Huashi ("History of Painting"), contains practical hints as to the proper way of collecting, preserving, cleaning and mounting pictures.[13] See also [edit] Poetry portal Chinese art Chinese painting Culture of the Song dynasty History of Chinese art Citations [edit] General references [edit] Barnhart, R. M. et al. (1997). Three Thousand years of Chinese Painting. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07013-6. p. 373. Rhonda and Jeffrey Cooper (1997). Masterpieces of Chinese Art. Todtri Productions. ISBN 1-57717-060-1. p. 76. Xiao, Yanyi, "Mi Fu". Encyclopedia of China (Arts Edition), 1st ed.
2073	dbpedia	0	20	https://archive.shine.cn/sunday/now-and-then/Mountains-and-Pines-in-Spring/shdaily.shtml	en	Mountains and Pines in Spring	http://www.shanghaidaily.com/newsimage/2016/02/19/020160219215203.jpg	http://www.shanghaidaily.com/newsimage/2016/02/19/020160219215203.jpg	[ "https://archive.shine.cn/images/logo-top-sd.png", "https://archive.shine.cn/images/logo-top-shine.png", "https://archive.shine.cn/ColumnPic/700de5ae-977b-4ac4-9ac4-f41bb2638e8a.jpg", "https://archive.shine.cn/scode/code.ashx?w=80&h=20", "https://archive.shine.cn/images/icon_PE.png", "https://archive.shin...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2016-02-19T21:52:47+08:00	IN the collection of the Taipei National Palace Museum, thereâs a small, inconspicuous hanging scroll, only 35x44cm in size, but the ink and light color on paper is widely revered as a rare masterpiece				null	IN the collection of the Taipei National Palace Museum, there’s a small, inconspicuous hanging scroll, only 35x44cm in size, but the ink and light color on paper is widely revered as a rare masterpiece of traditional Chinese landscape painting. This is largely because it is said to have been painted by Mi Fu (1051-1107), a dominant figure in China’s art history. Mi, a renowned calligrapher, painter, scholar and poet of the Song Dynasty (960-1279), was born in Taiyuan in northern China’s Shanxi Province. Later, he moved to Xiangyang, now Xiangfan in central China’s Hubei Province, which is why he’s now also called Mi Xiangyang. As a boy, Mi demonstrated his precocious talent, especially in the art of calligraphy. Since his mother once served as the wet nurse of Emperor Shenzong (1048-1085), the young Mi was brought up in imperial quarters and often mingled with members of the imperial family. That explains why Mi later served as Erudite of Painting and Calligraphy and as the second-class secretary of the Ministry of Rites in the Song imperial court though he disdained formal education and often shied away from imperial examinations — the chief channel for people to land a job in officialdom. But his official career was checkered at best. This was largely because of his extremely eccentric personality. Historical stories say that Mi was fastidious about cleanness, loved to wear flamboyant dresses of ancient dynasties, often behaved in bizarre manners and superstitiously worshiped rocks and stones. It is said that Mi routinely worshiped rocks at home and called one of his favorite “my brother.” He also spent a lot of money to collect ink stones. One day, he was summoned by the emperor to write a couplet in the imperial court, but once he was finished, he couldn’t take his eyes off the ink stone for he liked it so much. He told the emperor that he accidently “contaminated” the ink stone, making it unsuitable for the imperial court. The emperor could tell that Mi simply wanted to have the stone for himself and told him that he could have it. Excited, Mi dashed to hug the ink stone and trotted out of the court with ink dripping from his robe. The emperor sighed. “That’s why he’s nicknamed Eccentric Mi!” he said. As a landscapist, he divorced himself from the traditional Chinese method of landscape painting which used mainly outlines, strokes and washes to depict vertical mountains and peaks. Instead, Mi painted landscapes with numerous little ink dots placed horizontally next to each other. When different shades of ink were used, these dots proved to be very realistic in portraying mist. This dot-painting technique was later referred to as “Mi’s dots,” by Chinese artists. They remind today’s viewer of the pointillism developed by French impressionist painters Georges Seurat and Paul Signac about 800 years after Mi’s innovation. Mi also tended to use very moist brushwork to create a feeling of watching a landscape with mountains standing in mist, fog or clouds. His son, Mi Youren, also a famous calligrapher and landscapist, had continued this style and later people called their landscape painting “Mi Family cloudy mountains,” which influenced many literati painters in following generations. Mountains and Pines in Spring in the Taipei museum is supposed to be the only surviving painting of Mi, but many suspect it’s also a copy made by an anonymous Song artist. Nevertheless, most art critics and scholars agree that this painting is a paradigm of Mi’s landscape style. The work depicts an empty thatched pavilion standing alone in front of a few peaks shrouded in mists and clouds. Several hoary pines anchor at the forefront of the left bottom corner. Composition of the painting is uncomplicated, but the scenery is both serene and elegant. And some art critics have pointed out that the cynosure of this work is neither the mountains nor the trees, but the mist and clouds floating in the middle — the Mi clouds. So, despite its small size, only a little larger than a piece of A3 paper, and dubious origin, this painting will continue to be treasured as a great masterpiece in traditional Chinese painting simply because of its seemingly authentic dots and clouds. Brush away the mystery of traditional Chinese painting Chinese painting, also known as brush painting or ink-wash painting, is one of the oldest art forms in the world. However, the varied styles, techniques, perspectives and symbolism of such paintings are often very different from most Western art works. Also, the tools and media employed by the artists of traditional Chinese painting, such as inksticks, inkstones, rice paper and brushes, are unfamiliar to many Westerners. As a result, Chinese paintings, including many masterpieces, may seem mysterious to our readers. This column, jointly generated by our columnist Peter Zhang and art editor Chen Jie, aims to explain the aesthetic concepts behind Chinese paintings and tell some interesting stories about their creation and their creators. Zhang and Chen will also explore the often multiple layers of meanings hidden in Chinese paintings and give a better understanding of such works through visual analyses. We hope this column will prove to be a valuable guide in exploring the fabulous, yet mysterious world of great Chinese paintings.
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2073	dbpedia	3	22	https://www.artprice.com/artist/343243/fu-mi	en	1107) Value, Worth, Auction Prices, Estimate, Buy, Sell – Artprice	https://imgprivate2.artprice.com/lots/ODAzODQwMDAwMDAwMDAx/MDM2MjE4MTEyOTQyMDEyNDEt/OTg4MjcxNjY2OTM3MTY5NDQwNzEt/MDgwNzI0NjI2ODEyMzA3MzUzMS0=/xl	https://imgprivate2.artprice.com/lots/ODAzODQwMDAwMDAwMDAx/MDM2MjE4MTEyOTQyMDEyNDEt/OTg4MjcxNjY2OTM3MTY5NDQwNzEt/MDgwNzI0NjI2ODEyMzA3MzUzMS0=/xl	[ "https://imgpublic.artprice.com/img/menu/bonhomme-white.svg", "https://imgpublic.artprice.com/img/menu/burger_black.svg", "https://imgpublic.artprice.com/img/logo.svg", "https://imgpublic.artprice.com/img/menu/chevron_black.svg", "https://imgpublic.artprice.com/img/menu/chevron_black.svg", "https://imgpub...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Thierry EHRMANN" ]	null	Know the value of MI Fu (1051-1107) and the price of their artworks at public auctions in the Drawing-Watercolor, Print-Multiple categories to sell or buy at the best price at auction or on the Artprice Marketplace. Also discover MI’s analyses, graphs and market indicators.	en	/apple-touch-icon.png	Artprice.com	https://www.artprice.com/artist/343243/fu-mi	For full functionality of this site it is necessary to enable JavaScript. Here are the instructions how to enable JavaScript in your web browser.
2073	dbpedia	1	17	https://dbpedia.org/page/Mi_Fu	en	About: Mi Fu	http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg?width=300	http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg?width=300	[ "https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/dbpedia_logo_land_120.png", "http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FilePath/%E7%B1%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg?width=300", "https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/virt_power_no_border.png", "https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/LoDLogo.gif", "https://dbpedia.org/statics/images/sw-sparq...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi.			DBpedia	http://dbpedia.org/resource/Mi_Fu	dbo:abstract Mi Fu (1051-1107), també conegut com a Mi Fei, va ser un pintor xinès, poeta i cal·lígraf nascut a Taiyuan, Shanxi, durant la dinastia Song. El seu estil de la pintura de paisatges era boirós; anomenat estil "Mi Fu" i que es fonamenta amb l'ús de grans taques de tinta humida que realitzava amb una brotxa plana. (ca) Mi Fu (čínsky 米芾 nebo 米黻; pinyin Mǐ Fú; 1051–1107) byl čínský malíř, básník a kaligraf. V malířství je znám podle typického stylu malování mlžných krajin, založeného na velkých skvrnách tuše nanášených plochým štětcem. V básnictví následoval Li Poa a v kaligrafii byl jeho vzorem Wang Si-č’. V osobním životě byl Mi Fu alkoholik a choval se excentricky, takže mu někdy přezdívali „bláznivý Mi“. Jeho syn se rovněž stal známým malířem. (cs) Mi Fu, auch genannt der „alte Mi“ (chinesisch 米芾, Pinyin Mǐ Fú, Jyutping Mai5 Fat1, Geburtsname als 米黻 geschrieben, * 1051 in der Provinz Jiangsu; † 1107 in Kaifeng), war ein berühmter chinesischer Maler zur Zeit der Nördlichen-Song (960–1126). (de) MI Fu (ĉine: 米黻, Mǐ Fú) ankaŭ konata kiel Mi Fei (米芾; naskiĝis en 1051 en Tajvano; mortis en 1107) estis ĉina poeto, kaligrafo kaj pejzaĝisto de la dinastio Song, aŭtoro de la traktato Hua Shi pri pentrarto. Li famiĝis en pentrarto pro sia stilo pentri nebulajn pejzaĝojn. Tian stilon, kiu uzis multe malsekajn inkopunktojn aldonitajn per plata peniko, oni nomis poste la Mi-Fu-stilon. Lia poezio sekvis la stilon de Li Bai kaj lia kaligrafio tiun de . Lia aparta stilo malŝategis lin ĉe la Song-kortumo. Oni plej bone konas lin pro liaj kaligrafiaĵoj, kaj oni taksis lin kiel unu el la kvar plej grandaj kaligrafistoj de la dinastio Song. Lia kaligrafa stilo devenis de kaligrafoj de antaŭaj dinastioj, sed li alportis unikan propran markon al ĝi. La personecon de Mi Fu oni konsideris ekscentra. Iam oni eĉ nomis ĝin "frenezulo Mi" ĉar lin obsedis kolektado de ŝtonoj, kaj li eĉ deklaris ke unu el tiuj ŝtonoj estis lia frato. Oni konis lin ankaŭ kiel drinkemulo. Lia filo, , estis ankaŭ fama pentristo laŭ la stilo de sia patro. Malsame kiel sia patro Mi Youren longe vivis kaj mortis nur 79-jara. (eo) Mi-Fei (1051-1107), también conocido como Mi Fu fue un pintor, poeta y funcionario público chino. Había nacido en Taiyuan, Shanxi durante la dinastía Song. En el ámbito de la pintura ganó reconocimiento por sus paisajes con neblina. Su particular estilo sería denominado «estilo Mi Fu» e incluía el uso de grandes manchas de tinta húmeda aplicada con un pincel chato. Su poesía estaba compuesta en estilo Li Bai, mientras que su caligrafía seguía el estilo de Wang Xizhi. Su estilo desinhibido hizo que no gozara de demasiada simpatía en la corte Song. Su madre, camarera de la emperatriz (la mujer del emperador Renzong), le consiguió una colocación militar en Anhui. Pero la fama de su talento pictórico le valió ser nombrado pintor de cámara; más tarde fue secretario de la Junta de ritos y luego desempeñó cargos oficiales en diversas provincias, muriendo en una de ellas. Como literato, su estilo era exagerado e incorrecto en alto grado, pero como pintor mereció justas alabanzas, especialmente por sus paisajes y figuras de hombres y animales. Mi-Fei tenía la monomanía de la limpieza y se negaba a usar servilletas, platos o vasos que hubiesen servido en otra ocasión. Era grandemente excéntrico y sus rarezas le perjudicaron en su carrera oficial. Escribió un Tratado de dibujo y algunas obras de amena literatura. (es) Mi Fu (Taiyuan, Shanxi, Txina, 1051 - 1107), (txineraz: 米黻; pinyineraz: Mǐ Fú), Song dinastia garaiko margolari, poeta, eta kaligrafialari txinatarra izan zen. Laino paisaiak margozteagatik egin zen famatu eta hori dela eta "Mi Fu" estiloa zabaldu zen ondorengo margolari txinatarren artean. Mi Fuk egindako poesiak Li Bairen estiloa jarraitu zuen eta bere kaligrafia eredua izan zuen. Song dinastia garaiko kaligrafialaririk onena izan zen. (eu) Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi. Mi Fu is regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers of the Song dynasty, alongside Su Shi, Hung Tingjian and Cai Xian. His style is derived from calligraphers in earlier dynasties, although he developed unique traits of his own. As a personality, Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric; including a mania of cleanliness. At times, he was deemed "Madman Mi" due to his obsession with collecting stones. He was also known to be a heavy drinker. His son, , also became a well known painter following in his father's artistic style. (en) Mi Fu (chinois : 米芾 ; pinyin : mǐ fú) ou Mi Fou ou Mi Fei, également nommé fú (黻), surnom : Yuanzhang (元章), noms de pinceau : Mi Nangong (米南宮), Xiangyang Manshi (襄陽漫士), Haiyue Waishi (海岳外史), Lumen Jushi (鹿門居士), né en 1051 à Xiangyang (province de Hubei), mort en 1107 à Huaiyang (province du Jiangxi), fut un peintre chinois du XIe siècle. Célèbre lettré, calligraphe, peintre et esthète, Mi Fu est une de ces personnalités qui ont non seulement exercé sur l'évolution de la peinture chinoise une influence fondamentale, mais plus généralement, ont contribué à modeler les goûts de l'honnête homme chinois. L'importance de son rôle est sans commune mesure avec son œuvre peinte proprement dite. Esprit clairvoyant, passionné et tenace, il apporte une nouvelle esthétique et se fait le porte-parole flamboyant d'une conception nouvelle de l'activité picturale, à partir de laquelle se développera ultérieurement la peinture des lettrés, le Wenren hua. Le bouddhisme qu'il aurait rencontré dans sa jeunesse au contact d'un adepte du chan l'a conduit, dans ses dernières années, à étudier le chan à une période qui correspond à son activité de peintre. Son œuvre picturale date uniquement des sept dernières années de sa vie. (fr) Mi Fu (Hanzi: 米芾 or 米黻; Pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051–1107) adalah seorang pelukis penyair, dan kaligrafer Tiongkok yang lahir di Taiyuan pada zaman dinasti Song. Ia paling dikenal karena kaligrafinya, dan ia diangkat sebagai salah satu dari empat kaligrafer terbesar pada zaman dinasti Song. (in) Mi Fu (米黻T o 米芾T, Mǐ FúP; Taiyuan, 1051 – 1107) è stato un pittore, poeta e calligrafo cinese. Montagne e pini in primavera (parte), National Palace Museum (Taipei) (it) 미불(米芾, 1051년~1107년)은 중국 북송 시대의 학자, 서예가이다. 채양, 소동파, 황정견과 함께 송4대가로 불린다. 자(字)는 원장(元章)으로 양양만사(襄陽漫士), 해악외사(海岳外史) 등의 호(號)가 있다. 휘종에게 소치(召致)되어 서화학 박사가 되었고, 그의 탁월하고 직관적인 감식안은 그의 비망록 <화사(畵史)> 중에서도 엿볼 수가 있다. 붓을 쓰지않고, 연근이나 사탕수수의 짜고 난 찌꺼기 등을 구사한 조방(粗放)한 화풍은 후세에 '미가산(米家山)'이라 불리는 형식화된 점태법(點苔法)으로 변질되어 남종(南宗) 문인화(文人畵)에 많이 이용되었다. 이 문서에는 다음커뮤니케이션(현 카카오)에서 GFDL 또는 CC-SA 라이선스로 배포한 글로벌 세계대백과사전의 내용을 기초로 작성된 글이 포함되어 있습니다. (ko) Mi Fu (米芾 of 米黻; 1051–1107) was een Chinees kunstschilder, dichter, kalligraaf en connaisseur uit de Song-periode. Hij maakte naam met zijn shan shui-landschappen en zijn kalligrafieën. Daarnaast stond Mi bekend om zijn excentrieke levensstijl en zijn omvangrijke verzamelingen. (nl) 米芾（べいふつ、皇祐3年（1051年） - 大観元年（1107年））は、中国の北宋末の文学者・書家・画家・収蔵家・であり、特に書画の専門家として活躍した。初名は黻（ふつ）。字は元章（げんしょう）。官職によって南宮（なんぐう）、住拠によって海嶽（かいがく）と呼ばれ、号は襄陽漫仕（じょうようまんし）・海嶽外史（かいがくがいし）・鹿門居士（ろくもんこじ）などがあり、室名を宝晋斎といった。子の米友仁に対して大米と呼ぶ。襄州襄陽県の人で、後に潤州（現在の江蘇省鎮江市）に居を定めた。 (ja) Mi Fei (米芾), znany także jako Mi Fu (米黻), ur. 1051, zm. 1107 – chiński malarz i teoretyk sztuki z czasów dynastii Song. Malował przeważnie krajobrazy utrzymane w tonacji czarno-białej, posługując się wyłącznie tuszem. Uznawany jest za mistrza w przedstawianiu pejzaży z mgłą nad powierzchnią wody i zamglonych szczytów gór. Uważa się go za twórcę songowskiej szkoły malarstwa, choć zdaniem innych był jedynie uzdolnionym naśladowcą Wang Weia. Sam posiadał olbrzymią kolekcję obrazów. (pl) Mi Fei eller Mi Fu (kinesiska: 米芾 Mi Fu den gamle Mi, Pinyin: Mǐ Fú) född 1051 i provinsen Jiangsu i Kina, död 1107 i Kaifeng, var en berömd kinesisk konstnär, poet och kalligraf under Songdynastin. Han levde samtidigt som Su Dongpo. Hans son var , den unge Mi. Mi Fei utvecklade ny stil inom tuschmåleri, påminnande om den västerländska akvarelltekniken. Stilen utövades av hans son på samma sätt och stilen kallas Mis-stil eller Mi-stil. Mi Fu ansågs av många vara en av de främsta kinesiska kalligraferna någonsin och hans verk i semikursiv skrift var åtrådda samlarobjekt. (sv) 米芾（fú）（1051年－1107年），北宋书画家。初名黻（fú），字元章，太原人，號襄阳漫士、海岳外史、鹿门居士。北宋著名书法家、书画理论家、画家、鉴定家、收藏家。 (zh) Ми Фэй (кит. 米黻, 1051—1107, также известен как Ми Фу) — китайский художник, поэт и каллиграф согдийского происхождения. Предки Ми Фэя происходили из города Тайюань. Поскольку его мать была кормилицей императора Ин-цзуна, Ми Фэй рос в императорском дворце и свободно общался со знатью, что послужило толчком к развитию его талантов в каллиграфии и живописи. Основное занятие — государственный служащий. На протяжении жизни занимал должности в Императорской библиотеке, военного губернатора Увэя в Аньхой, секретаря в Совете по ритуалам и губернатора Хуайяна в Цзянсу. Ми Фу был женат и имел пять сыновей, из которых выжили только два старших, и восемь дочерей. В живописи он прославился своими туманными, поэтически-вольными пейзажами, в которых пятна туши, нанесённые с помощью плоской щётки, могли иметь большую выразительность, чем линии и контуры. Больше всего в живописи Ми Фэй ценил самовыражение, что соответствовало его свободолюбивому и индивидуалистическому нраву. В поэзии он был последователем стиля Ли Бая, а в каллиграфии — Ван Сичжи. Как каллиграф он стал наиболее известен и считался одним из четырёх лучших каллиграфов империи Сун. Ми Фэй считался современниками очень эксцентричным человеком и за свои выходки получил прозвище «Сумасшедший Ми». Он коллекционировал камни, и однажды он собрал несколько штук, объявив один из них своим старшим братом и поклоняясь ему как старшему члену семьи. Известно также, что Ми Фэй злоупотреблял алкоголем. Его сын Ми Южэнь также стал известным живописцем, но прожил, в отличие от отца, до преклонных лет. (ru) Мі Фу (1051 —1107) — один з провідних живописців та каліграфів часів династії Північна Сун. (uk) rdfs:comment Mi Fu (1051-1107), també conegut com a Mi Fei, va ser un pintor xinès, poeta i cal·lígraf nascut a Taiyuan, Shanxi, durant la dinastia Song. El seu estil de la pintura de paisatges era boirós; anomenat estil "Mi Fu" i que es fonamenta amb l'ús de grans taques de tinta humida que realitzava amb una brotxa plana. (ca) Mi Fu (čínsky 米芾 nebo 米黻; pinyin Mǐ Fú; 1051–1107) byl čínský malíř, básník a kaligraf. V malířství je znám podle typického stylu malování mlžných krajin, založeného na velkých skvrnách tuše nanášených plochým štětcem. V básnictví následoval Li Poa a v kaligrafii byl jeho vzorem Wang Si-č’. V osobním životě byl Mi Fu alkoholik a choval se excentricky, takže mu někdy přezdívali „bláznivý Mi“. Jeho syn se rovněž stal známým malířem. (cs) Mi Fu, auch genannt der „alte Mi“ (chinesisch 米芾, Pinyin Mǐ Fú, Jyutping Mai5 Fat1, Geburtsname als 米黻 geschrieben, 1051 in der Provinz Jiangsu; † 1107 in Kaifeng), war ein berühmter chinesischer Maler zur Zeit der Nördlichen-Song (960–1126). (de) Mi Fu (Taiyuan, Shanxi, Txina, 1051 - 1107), (txineraz: 米黻; pinyineraz: Mǐ Fú), Song dinastia garaiko margolari, poeta, eta kaligrafialari txinatarra izan zen. Laino paisaiak margozteagatik egin zen famatu eta hori dela eta "Mi Fu" estiloa zabaldu zen ondorengo margolari txinatarren artean. Mi Fuk egindako poesiak Li Bairen estiloa jarraitu zuen eta bere kaligrafia eredua izan zuen. Song dinastia garaiko kaligrafialaririk onena izan zen. (eu) Mi Fu (Hanzi: 米芾 or 米黻; Pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051–1107) adalah seorang pelukis penyair, dan kaligrafer Tiongkok yang lahir di Taiyuan pada zaman dinasti Song. Ia paling dikenal karena kaligrafinya, dan ia diangkat sebagai salah satu dari empat kaligrafer terbesar pada zaman dinasti Song. (in) Mi Fu (米黻T o 米芾T, Mǐ FúP; Taiyuan, 1051 – 1107) è stato un pittore, poeta e calligrafo cinese. Montagne e pini in primavera (parte), National Palace Museum (Taipei) (it) 미불(米芾, 1051년~1107년)은 중국 북송 시대의 학자, 서예가이다. 채양, 소동파, 황정견과 함께 송4대가로 불린다. 자(字)는 원장(元章)으로 양양만사(襄陽漫士), 해악외사(海岳外史) 등의 호(號)가 있다. 휘종에게 소치(召致)되어 서화학 박사가 되었고, 그의 탁월하고 직관적인 감식안은 그의 비망록 <화사(畵史)> 중에서도 엿볼 수가 있다. 붓을 쓰지않고, 연근이나 사탕수수의 짜고 난 찌꺼기 등을 구사한 조방(粗放)한 화풍은 후세에 '미가산(米家山)'이라 불리는 형식화된 점태법(點苔法)으로 변질되어 남종(南宗) 문인화(文人畵)에 많이 이용되었다. 이 문서에는 다음커뮤니케이션(현 카카오)에서 GFDL 또는 CC-SA 라이선스로 배포한 글로벌 세계대백과사전의 내용을 기초로 작성된 글이 포함되어 있습니다. (ko) Mi Fu (米芾 of 米黻; 1051–1107) was een Chinees kunstschilder, dichter, kalligraaf en connaisseur uit de Song-periode. Hij maakte naam met zijn shan shui-landschappen en zijn kalligrafieën. Daarnaast stond Mi bekend om zijn excentrieke levensstijl en zijn omvangrijke verzamelingen. (nl) 米芾（べいふつ、皇祐3年（1051年） - 大観元年（1107年））は、中国の北宋末の文学者・書家・画家・収蔵家・であり、特に書画の専門家として活躍した。初名は黻（ふつ）。字は元章（げんしょう）。官職によって南宮（なんぐう）、住拠によって海嶽（かいがく）と呼ばれ、号は襄陽漫仕（じょうようまんし）・海嶽外史（かいがくがいし）・鹿門居士（ろくもんこじ）などがあり、室名を宝晋斎といった。子の米友仁に対して大米と呼ぶ。襄州襄陽県の人で、後に潤州（現在の江蘇省鎮江市）に居を定めた。 (ja) Mi Fei (米芾), znany także jako Mi Fu (米黻), ur. 1051, zm. 1107 – chiński malarz i teoretyk sztuki z czasów dynastii Song. Malował przeważnie krajobrazy utrzymane w tonacji czarno-białej, posługując się wyłącznie tuszem. Uznawany jest za mistrza w przedstawianiu pejzaży z mgłą nad powierzchnią wody i zamglonych szczytów gór. Uważa się go za twórcę songowskiej szkoły malarstwa, choć zdaniem innych był jedynie uzdolnionym naśladowcą Wang Weia. Sam posiadał olbrzymią kolekcję obrazów. (pl) Mi Fei eller Mi Fu (kinesiska: 米芾 Mi Fu den gamle Mi, Pinyin: Mǐ Fú) född 1051 i provinsen Jiangsu i Kina, död 1107 i Kaifeng, var en berömd kinesisk konstnär, poet och kalligraf under Songdynastin. Han levde samtidigt som Su Dongpo. Hans son var , den unge Mi. Mi Fei utvecklade ny stil inom tuschmåleri, påminnande om den västerländska akvarelltekniken. Stilen utövades av hans son på samma sätt och stilen kallas Mis-stil eller Mi-stil. Mi Fu ansågs av många vara en av de främsta kinesiska kalligraferna någonsin och hans verk i semikursiv skrift var åtrådda samlarobjekt. (sv) 米芾（fú）（1051年－1107年），北宋书画家。初名黻（fú），字元章，太原人，號襄阳漫士、海岳外史、鹿门居士。北宋著名书法家、书画理论家、画家、鉴定家、收藏家。 (zh) Мі Фу (*1051 —1107) — один з провідних живописців та каліграфів часів династії Північна Сун. (uk) MI Fu (ĉine: 米黻, Mǐ Fú) ankaŭ konata kiel Mi Fei (米芾; naskiĝis en 1051 en Tajvano; mortis en 1107) estis ĉina poeto, kaligrafo kaj pejzaĝisto de la dinastio Song, aŭtoro de la traktato Hua Shi pri pentrarto. Li famiĝis en pentrarto pro sia stilo pentri nebulajn pejzaĝojn. Tian stilon, kiu uzis multe malsekajn inkopunktojn aldonitajn per plata peniko, oni nomis poste la Mi-Fu-stilon. Lia poezio sekvis la stilon de Li Bai kaj lia kaligrafio tiun de . Lia aparta stilo malŝategis lin ĉe la Song-kortumo. (eo) Mi-Fei (1051-1107), también conocido como Mi Fu fue un pintor, poeta y funcionario público chino. Había nacido en Taiyuan, Shanxi durante la dinastía Song. En el ámbito de la pintura ganó reconocimiento por sus paisajes con neblina. Su particular estilo sería denominado «estilo Mi Fu» e incluía el uso de grandes manchas de tinta húmeda aplicada con un pincel chato. Su poesía estaba compuesta en estilo Li Bai, mientras que su caligrafía seguía el estilo de Wang Xizhi. Su estilo desinhibido hizo que no gozara de demasiada simpatía en la corte Song. (es) Mi Fu (Chinese: 米芾 or 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107 CE) was a Chinese painter, poet and calligrapher who was born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the "Mi Fu" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry was influenced by Li Bai and his calligraphy by Wang Xizhi. (en) Mi Fu (chinois : 米芾 ; pinyin : mǐ fú) ou Mi Fou ou Mi Fei, également nommé fú (黻), surnom : Yuanzhang (元章), noms de pinceau : Mi Nangong (米南宮), Xiangyang Manshi (襄陽漫士), Haiyue Waishi (海岳外史), Lumen Jushi (鹿門居士), né en 1051 à Xiangyang (province de Hubei), mort en 1107 à Huaiyang (province du Jiangxi), fut un peintre chinois du XIe siècle. (fr) Ми Фэй (кит. 米黻, 1051—1107, также известен как Ми Фу) — китайский художник, поэт и каллиграф согдийского происхождения. Предки Ми Фэя происходили из города Тайюань. Поскольку его мать была кормилицей императора Ин-цзуна, Ми Фэй рос в императорском дворце и свободно общался со знатью, что послужило толчком к развитию его талантов в каллиграфии и живописи. Его сын Ми Южэнь также стал известным живописцем, но прожил, в отличие от отца, до преклонных лет. (ru)
2073	dbpedia	2	42	http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-chu.html	en	The Regional State of Chu æ¥ (www.chinaknowledge.de)			[ "http://www.chinaknowledge.de/System/logo.png", "http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/Maps/mapZhanguo-Chu.jpg", "https://www.paypalobjects.com/de_DE/i/scr/pixel.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Ulrich Theobald" ]	null	The state of Chu æ¥ was a regional state of the Zhou period å¨ (11th cent.-221 BCE). It belonged to the larger polities that were able to resist survive until the end of the Warring States period æ°å (5th cent.-221 BCE). Chu is known for its culture that was significantly different from that of the states of the Central Plain. Chu was not among the states that were distributed as a regional states at the beginning of the Zhou period. Its ruling dynasty was of a different origin than most of the regional dynasties of the Zhou empire. Another name of Chu is Jing è.		../../System/ding.ico		null	Nov 1, 2018 Â© Ulrich Theobald Don't confound his regional state of the Zhou period with the empire of Chu æ¥ (926-951), one of the Ten Kingdoms åå (902-979) of the Five Dynasties period äºä»£ (907-960). The state of Chu æ¥ was a regional state of the Zhou period å¨ (11th cent.-221 BCE). It belonged to the larger polities that were able to survive until the end of the Warring States period æ°å (5th cent.-221 BCE). Chu is known for its culture that was significantly different from that of the states of the Central Plain. Chu was not among the states that were distributed as a regional states at the beginning of the Western Zhou period è¥¿å¨ (11th cent.-770 BCE). Its ruling dynasty was of a different origin than most of the regional dynasties of the Zhou empire. Another name of Chu is Jing è. Chu was first located in the valley of the River Han æ¼¢ and then moved southeast into the Yangtze Valley. During the Spring and Autumn period æ¥ç§ (770 - 5th cent. BCE) it gradually expanded towards the north and east. Map 1. The regional state of Chu æ¥ (11th cent. - 223 BCE) Map according to Tan Qixiang è°å ¶éª§ (1987), Zhongguo lishi ditu ji ä¸å½åå²å°å¾é. Chu was located in the middle course of the Yangtze River and gradually expanded to the east and northeast. It played the role of temporary ally for the states of Qi and Qin, before the latter dominated over all regional states and founded the empire of Qin. Click to enlarge. The semi-barbarian state of Chu becomes part of the middle kingdom The ruling house of Chu derived its descendancy from the mythical Emperor Zhuan Xu é¡é , himself being a grandson of the Yellow Emperor é»å¸. Zhuan Xu's great-grandson Zhong Li éé» was the minister for fire (huo zheng ç«æ£) of the mythical Emperor Di Ku å¸å³. For his merits earned in office, Zhong Li was bestowed the name of Zhu Rong ç¥è. He was sent out to punish the rebellious lord of the waters, Gong Gong å ±å·¥, but Zhu Rong/Zhong Li was unable to kill Gong Gong. Enraged about this failure, Emperor Di Ku executed Zhong Li and had his brother Wu Hui å³å take over the duties as minister of fire. Wu Hui had six grandsons that were called Kun Wu æå¾, Shen Hu åè¡, Peng Zu å½ç¥, Hui Ren æäºº, Ji Lian å£é£ and an unnamed son that was given the family name of Cao æ¹. Five branches of the family fell into oblivion, except the descendants of Ji Lian who adopted the family name of Xiong ç or Mi ç¾ (originally written å¬). Excavated objects from the late Warring States period prove that the reigning dynasty of Chu also bore the family name Yan é . Mi Xiong allegedly took part in King Wu's å¨æ¦ç conquest of the Shang empire å (17th-11th cent. BCE). In the early decades of the Zhou period, King Cheng of Zhou å¨æç (r. 1116-1079 BCE) made the family Mi regional rulers over the country of Chu in the middle Yangtze valley. From that time on they adopted the family name Mi, yet the rulers retained the surname Xiong. Xiong might also be a prefix of the personal name worn by all members of the family. In the late 11th century King Zhao of Zhou å¨æç undertook several military campaigns against Chu during one of which he died, while his own army drowned in the River Han. The rulers of Chu called themselves "king" (wang ç) and therefore demonstrated that they were actually not part of the system of regional states of the Zhou empire. Yu Xiong's great-grandson Xiong Yi çç¹¹ settled near Mt. Jingshan èå±± (modern Nanzhang åæ¼³, Hubei) and, after being appointed regional ruler (zhuhou è«¸ä¾¯) by King Cheng of Zhou, moved to Danyang ä¸¹é½ (modern Zigui ç§æ¸, Hubei). Viscount (zi å) Xiong Qu çæ¸ became aware that the house of Zhou was weakening and expanded his rule along the middle Yangtze valley up into the valley of River Han. He conquered the statelets of Yong åº¸ and Yangyue æç²µ. He made his oldest song Wukang æ¯åº· king of Goutan å¥äº¶, his second son Zhihong æ¯ç´ king of E é, and his youngest son Zhici å·çµ king of Yuezhang è¶ç« . Later on he feared that the king of Zhou would attack him because of the usurpation of the title of king and stripped his sons off their ranks as kings. After the death of Viscount Xiong Shuang çé his three sons indeed contended for the throne of Chu. The youngest son, Jixun å£å¾ (Xiong Xun çå¾), was finally able to occupy the throne. When Fen Mao è¡å (r. 758-741), also called Xiong Xun çç´, died, his younger brother Xiong Tong çé assassinated the heir apparent and usurped the throne. He is posthumously called King Wu of Chu æ¥æ¦ç (r. 741-690) because he carried out numerous military campaigns, like that against the statelet of Sui é¨, whose marquis, hoping to escape defeat, offered to Xiong Tong to travel to the court of the King of Zhou to reconfirm Xiong Tong in his royal position, but the King of Zhou declined. Enraged about the King of Zhou's refusal, Xiong Tong decided to adopt the title of king without the permission by the Son of Heaven, concluded an alliance with the marquis of Sui and occupied the territory of the hundred Pu tribes ç¾æ¿® south of the Yangtze River. Xiong Tong later suspected the marquis of Sui of treason and planned to occupy his territory, but he died en route to the battlefield. His son Xiong Zi çè²² mounted the throne. Zi is posthumously known as King Wen æ¥æç (r. 690-677). He was the first ruler of Chu who took residence in Ying é¢ (near modern Shashi æ²å¸, Hubei) instead of Danyang. Xiong Zi conquered several small states, like Xi æ¯ (modern Xixian æ¯ç¸£ï¼ Henan), Shen ç³ (modern Nanyang åé½, Henan) and Deng é§ (modern Xiangfan è¥æ¨, Hubei). His son Zhuang'ao èæ (ao was a kind of temple name, like the Chinese zong å®), known as Xiong Jian çå (also written çè±), planned to kill his brother Xiong Yun çæ² (also written çé µ), but the latter escaped to Sui and gained sufficient support to usurp the throne of his brother. Xiong Yun is posthumously known as King Cheng æ¥æç (r. 672-626). Unlike his predecessors, King Cheng was a peaceful ruler who sent appropriate tributes to the court of the king of Zhou, so that he was ordered to appease the barbarian tribes of the south instead of harassing the states in the Yellow River plain. In 656 the hegemonial lord (ba é¸) Duke Huan of Qi é½æ¡å ¬ (r. 685-643) attacked Chu, but King Cheng was able to urge his troops to stop and concluded a peace alliance (meng ç) in the conference of Zhaoling å¬éµ (modern Yancheng é¾å, Henan). In his later years King Cheng waged war against the statelets of Xu è¨±, Xian å¼¦ (near modern Xixian, Henan), Huang é» (modern Huanchuan æ½¢å·, Henan) and Ying è±. Duke Xiang of Song å®è¥å ¬ (r. 650-637), the new hegemonial lord, dispatched an envoy to Chu to offer a peaceful alliance, but the king refused and soon attacked Song å® and defeated the duke in the battle of Hong æ³ (modern Zhecheng æå, Henan) and also the state of Zheng é. Duke Xiang died from a wound received during the battle. In 634 Duke Xi of Lu é¯åå ¬ (r. 659-627) arrived at the court of Chu and requested an army to punish the Duke of Qi é½. King Cheng sent out the Marquis of Shen ç³ who conquered the territory of Gu ç©, where Duke Huan's son Yong é was instated as the local governor. The other sons of the Duke of Qi fled to Chu and were all made nobles in Chu. The statelet of Kui å¤ was conquered, and then King Cheng attacked the state of Song. The Duke of Song requested support by the army of Jin æ. King Cheng thereupon withdrew because Duke Wen of Jin ææå ¬ (r. 636-628), had been his exiled guest for a long time, and sent only out Ziyu åç with a small contingent that was defeated. Against the advice of Prime Minister (lingyin ä»¤å°¹) Zishang åä¸, King Chen nominated his beloved son Shangchen åè£ heir apparent. Later on he deposed Shangchen in favour to Zhi è·. Shangchen thereupon arrested King Cheng and forced him to commit suicide. He mounted the throne, posthumously called King Mu æ¥ç©ç (r. 626-614). His chief counsellor was Pan Chong æ½å´. King Mu conquered the statelets of Jiang æ± (modern Xixian, Henan) and Lu å (a special reading, modern Lu'an å å®, Anhui) and attacked the state of Chen é³. He was succeeded by his son LÃ¼ ä¾¶, who is posthumously known as King Zhuang æ¥èç (r. 614-591). King Zhuang did not attend the court, indulged in pleasures and even ordered to execute those who dared remonstrating against him. Wu Ju ä¼è thereupon used a riddle to admonish him, but without success. Only Su Cong èå¾ was able to open the king's eyes so that he started caring for political matters again. During his campaign against the Rong barbarians æ of Luhun é¸æ¸¾, King Zhuang visited the capital of the kings of Zhou in Luoyang æ´é½ (modern Luoyang, Henan) and was received by royal grandson Man çå«æ»¿. The latter convinced him that the Heavenly Mandate (tianming å¤©å½) of the Zhou dynasty had not yet ended, in spite of the obvious weakness of the royal house. In 597 Chu defeated the army of Jin near Bi é² (near modern Zhengzhou éå·, Henan). In 594 Chu besieged the capital of Song for five months and conquered the statelet of Yong åº¸ (near modern Zhushan ç«¹å±±, Hubei), later Shu-Liao èè¼ (modern Shucheng èå, Anhui) and Xiao è (near modern Xuzhou å¾å·, Jiangsu). After the conquest of Chen, King Zhuang wanted to transform it into a district of Chu, but Shen Shu ç³å of Qi criticized the king, so that he reinstated the house of Chen. Yet his next step was to conquer the state of Zheng. After the lord of Zheng had begged for mercy, King Zhuang released him and created an alliance of peace. In 575 the army of Chu defeated the relieve army from Jin in the battle of Yanling é¢éµ (modern Yanling, Henan). The rule of King Zhuang is seen as the apogee of the power of the state of Chu among the regional states of the Zhou period. He was accepted as hegemonial lord (ba é¸). King Zhuang was succeeded by his son Shen å¯©, posthumously known as King Gong æ¥å ±ç (r. 591-560). During his reign the army of Chu was defeated by Jin. The next ruler was King Gong's son Zhao æ, posthumously known as King Kang æ¥åº·ç (r. 560-545). The latter was succeeded by his son Yuan å¡, who is also known as Jia'ao éæ (r. 545-541). King Kang had four younger brothers called Wei å, Zibi åæ¯, Zixi åæ³ and Qiji å¼ç¾. Wei was made Prime Minister and commander of the army. When Jia'ao fell ill, Wei entered the palace, strangulated the king and killed his sons Mo è« and Pingxia å¹³å¤. Zibi fled to Jin, while Wei mounted the throne. He is posthumously known as King Ling æ¥éç (r. 541-529). Chu as a major power of the Warring States King Ling was able to assemble the regional rulers and to take over the lead as a factual hegemon of the regional states. Minister Wu Ju warned the king to become over-confident in his superior role, yet King Ling commanded the regional states in a campaign against the state of Wu å³. Qing Feng æ ¶å°, the commander of the troops of Wu, was kept prisoner, but dared criticizing King Ling for the way his fathers had come to the throne of Chu, and was therefore immediately executed by the king. He had the Zhanghua Terrace ç« è¯èº built where he received noble refugees from other states. Prince Qiji was ordered to attack the state of Chen, and King Ling invited the marquis of Cai è¡ in order to poison him. Prince Qiji conquered the headless state of Cai and usurped the throne of the small marquisate. In 530 BCE, King Ling attacked the small state of Xu å¾, located northwest of the state of Wu, and Lai è³´ (modern Suizhou é¨å·, Hubei). Chen was heavily deafeated and its dynasty brought to an end. At that moment, King Ling deliberated with his nobles whether he was strong enough to claim the same rights as the other regional rulers. Grand master (dafu å¤§å¤«) Xi Fu æç¶ answered that in old times, the state of Chu had been a very remote and less developed country, but now the King of Zhou would not refuse to bestow to the King of Chu bronze tripods as a symbol of royal power, and none of the other states would refuse to exchange gifts with the state of Chu. When King Ling was on campaign against Wu in the camp of Ganxi ä¹¾æºª, the king of Wu was advised by Guan Cong è§å¾, a son of a noble of Cai whom King Ling had killed. The King of Wu joined a secret alliance with the state of Yue è¶, whose nobleman Chang Shouguo å¸¸å£½é had also been insulted by the king of Chu. Wu and Yue attacked Cai and won over Qiji, who was able to kill the heir apparent of Chu, Prince Lu ç¥¿. Zibi was enthroned as king of Chu, Zixi was made Prime Minister, and Qiji Minister of War (sima å¸é¦¬). Guan Cong thereupon travelled to the camp of King Ling and presented him with the facts of the rebellion at home. The army of Chu dispersed and left the king alone. King Ling wandered around in the wilderness and finally died of hunger because the new ruler had forbidden giving him anything to eat. The new king, Zibi, was for a long time in an unclear state about the whereabouts of King Ling, and finally committed suicide, together with Zixi. Qiji renamed himself Xiong Ju çå± and proclaimed himself king of Chu. He is posthumously known as King Ping æ¥å¹³ç (r. 527-516). In fear of revenge, King Ping demonstrated a benevolent government towards the common people and restored the territories of the states of Chen and Cai, enthroning members of the former ruling houses. The eastern parts of Chu were plundered by the armies of Wu during this interlude of internal war in Chu. King Ping decided to marry his son, Crown Prince Jian å»º, with a princess from Qin ç§¦. Yet the girl was so beautiful that the king decided to take her for himself, and she gave birth to Prince Zhen è»«. Grand Tutor (taifu å¤ªå ) Wu She ä¼å¥¢ and Junior Tutor (shaofu å°å ) Fei Wuji è²»ç¡å¿ intrigued against each other and instigated in the king the fear that the crown prince might prematurely usurp the throne. Prince Jian thereupon fled to the court of Song. Wu She's son Wu Zixu ä¼åè¥, who was an excellent strategist, was able to escape to the state of Wu, the arch-enemy of Chu. The mother of Prince Jian was captured by the army of Wu when Prince Guang å of Wu was campaigning against Chen and Cai. A small border clash in Beiliang åæ¢ lead to an armed conflict between Chu and Wu, in which Wu conquered the territories of Zhongli éé¢ and Juchao å± å·¢. King Ping was so threatened that he began fortifying the capital city Ying. When King Ping died, the nobles wanted to enthrone his younger brother Prince Zixi åè¥¿, but he refused, so that the under-age prince Zhen was enthroned as ruler of Chu. He is posthumously known as King Zhao æ¥æç (r. 516-489). At the beginning of his reign, Prime Minister Zichang åå¸¸ took revenge for Prince Jian and Wu She and killed the intriguer Fei Wuji. The reason for this was that a many nobles had fled to Wu, where they supported the troops of Chu against the own dynasty in Chu. Yet there were also some princes of Wu escaping trouble in the own country at the court of Chu. In 509 BCE the army of Chu, commanded by Prince Zichang, was heavily defeated by Wu in the battle of Baiju æè (modern Macheng éº»å, Hubei). Wu Zixu as one of the competent military leaders of Wu even managed to conquer the capital of Chu in 506. As a revenge for the execution of his father, Wu Zixu had the tomb of King Ping desecrated. Commander Prince Zichang fled to the state of Zheng. King Zhao himself escaped to Yunmeng é²å¤¢ and then on to the former state of Sui, where he was hidden by his loyal courtiers and the population from the army of Wu. In the meantime, minister Shen Baoxu ç³é®è¥ was sent to the state of Qin to ask for relief troops, which were indeed able to defeat the troops of Wu that had advanced far into the country of the enemy until they reached Ji ç¨· (modern Tongbai æ¡æ, Henan). Prince Fugai å¤«æ¦, brother of the king of Wu, usurped the throne on this occasion but was driven out by the righteous king and fled to the court of Chu. Still on his way back to the capital, King Zhao of Chu swallowed the state of Tang å (near modern Suizhou, Hubei), then Dun é (modern Shangshui åæ°´, Henan) and Hu è¡ (modern Fuyang éé½, Anhui). There was another occasion in 504 when the army of Wu again invaded the state of Chu. Only with the death of King HelÃ¼ éé of Wu (r. 514-496) the attention of Wu was directed against the state of Yue, and the danger from the east was gone. On his sickbed, King Zhao wanted to cede the throne to his younger brother, yet all nobles refused, before Prince ZilÃ¼ åé conceded to become the successor of his brother. Yet when the King died on a campaign, the brothers decided to enthrone the king's son, Prince Zhang ç« . He is posthumously known as King Hui æ¥æ ç (r. 489-432). In 488 Prince Zixi invited the former Prince Jian's son Prince Sheng å to come back to Chu. He was granted the title of Duke Bai ç½å ¬. Duke Bai planned to revenge his father's death, who had been killed in exile in Zheng. In 481 BCE, the army of Jin attacked Zheng, and Zheng asked Chu for help. Instead of annihilating Zheng, commander Zixi left Zheng untouched. Duke Bai thereupon killed Zixi, Prince Ziqi åç¶¦ and Prime Minister Sima Ziqi å¸é¦¬åæ at the court and tried to kidnap King Hui. Yet the king was protected by his retainers and took refuge in the palace of the Queen Dowager of King Zhao. Duke Bai thereupon proclaimed himself king, but was assassinated by Prince Zigao åé«, called Duke Ye èå ¬. In this year, Chu finally destroyed the state of Chen, in 447 the state of Cai, and in 445 the state of Qi æ. In 473, the armies of Yue had finally destroyed the state of Wu. In the northern parts of Wu, along the plain of the River Huai æ·®, Chu began to expand its territory. King Hui was succeeded by his son Prince Zhong ä¸, who is posthumously known was King Jian æ¥ç°¡ç (r. 432-408). Under his reign, Chu conquered the statelet of Ju è (modern Juxian èç¸£, Shandong) that had belonged to the territory of Qi. King Jian employed the famous military advisor Wu Qi å³èµ·, who reformed the army, so that Chu was able to conquer the southern regions inhabited by the non-Chinese peoples of the Yangyue æç²µ, namely the Dongting æ´åº (Hunan) and Cangwu è¼æ¢§ (Guizhou) regions. King Jian was succeeded by his son Prince Dang ç¶, posthumously known as King Sheng æ¥è²ç (r. 408-402). King Sheng was killed by "robbers" (presumably nobles or family members) and was succeeded by his son Prince Yi ç, posthumously known as King Dao æ¥æ¼ç (r. 402-381). Under his reign, Chu contended with the troops of the new states of Han é, Zhao è¶ and Wei é, the successor states of Jin. King Dao was succeeded by his son Prince Zang è§, posthumously known as King Su æ¥è ç (r. 381-370). Because King Su had no sons, he left the throne to his younger brother Prince Liangfu è¯å¤«, who is posthumously known as King Xuan æ¥å®£ç (r. 370-340). At the end of the latter's reign, the armies of Qin attacked Chu. At that time, Qin was governed by counsellor Shang Yang åé . King Xuan's son Prince Shang å succeeded to the throne in Chu, posthumously known as King Wei æ¥å¨ç (r. 340-329). He was able to defeat the armies of the state of Qi, which was at that time disturbed by inner quarrels. King Wei also defeated the armies of the kingdom of Yue and occupied a large part of its territory, so that Chu was now the sole state in the southern parts of China. In 306, Yue was destroyed by Chu. Chu as a large but weak state between Qin and Qi When King Wei died, the state of Wei used this opportunity and conquered part of its northern territory. King Wei's successor was his son Prince Guai æ§, posthumously known as King Huai æ¥æ·ç (r. 329-299). In 323 BCE he took revenge and attacked the territory of Wei, seizing eight counties. The next military target was the state of Qi, yet at that time the military adviser Chen Zhen é³è»« dwelled at the court of Qi and was dispatched to the camp of counsellor Zhao Yang æé½, highest commander of the army of Chu. Chen Zhen persuaded Zhao Yang with the parable of drawing feet to a snake that he would have no advantage in defeating the army of Qi, so that Zhao Yang withdrew. At least, Chu was able to conclude an alliance with the states of Qin, Wei and Qi that was initiated by the famous diplomatist Zhang Yi å¼µå. This alliance became important in 318 BCE, when an alliance, concluded with the help of Su Qin èç§¦, attacked the state of Qin. King Huai took over the lead of the allies and penetrated into the Hangu Pass å½è°·é, yet the allies withdrew without forcing Qin to battle. In 313, things had changed and Chu was in alliance with Qi. The king of Qin decided to send Zhang Yi to Chu in order to persuade King Huai to change side again and, in the end, to isolate Chu. Chen Zhen was well aware of this and warned King Huai, but he refused to accept the warning. In the end, the enraged king of Qi concluded an alliance with Qin. King Huai, on his side, made ready the troops for a campaign against Qin. Again, Chen Zhen warned the king and suggested offering Qin a city to restore the former alliance. King Huai ignored the warning, and so the army of Qin destroyed that of Chu at Danyang ä¸¹é½ in 312, captured a huge humber of troops and officers, and occupied the region of Hanzhong æ¼¢ä¸. At Lantian èç°, the armies battled a second time, and the fresh defeat of Chu instigated Han and Wei to seize some more territory from Chu. A year later, Qin suggested concluding peace and sent Zhang Yi to the court of Chu. King Huai immediately arrested Zhang Yi and planned to kill him, but Zhang established contact with Jin Shang é³å°, who explained to King Huai that Qin would attack Chu again. He also spoke with the King's favourite, Lady Zheng Xiu éè¢, and threatened her that the king of Qin would try to purchase peace by sending beautiful girls to King Huai. The Lady then managed the release of Zhang Yi, and peace was made with Qin. Shortly after, the Chu embassador to Qi returned, Qu Yuan å±å, and reproached the king for not having executed Zhang Yi. In 310 BCE, the King Min of Qi é½æ¹£ç (r. 324-284) sent an envoy to the court of Chu and explained that, after the death of King Hui in Qin, the situation had changed thoroughly, and suggested to conclude a common alliance with Han, Wei, Zhao and Yan ç against Qin. Zhao Ju æé convinced King Huai that it was better to be part of the alliance around Qi and to win back the territory once lost to Qin. Yet in 307, King Huai decided that he could also win territory by concluding a peaceful alliance with Qin. Two years later Qin, Han and Wei attacked Chu for its betrayal of the alliance. King Huai sent his crown prince as a hostage to Qin and requested military support against the three states. In 304, the crown prince of Chu had a private quarrel with some nobles of Qin. When he accidentally killed one of them, he fled and returned to Chu. In order to take revenge for the murder, Qin attacked Chu, supported by troops of Qi, Han and Wei, and defeated Chu at Chuisha åæ². A year later, Qin undertook a second campaign against Chu and heavily defeated the army of Chu. King Huai thereupon sent his crown prince as a hostage to Qi, an ally of Qin, and requested peace. Only after a further campaign and after King Zhao of Qin had sent an urgent letter, King Huai of Chu consented to a meeting with the king of Qin at the Wuguan Pass æ¦é. Yet King Huai did not trust Qin and feared that he might be caught in a trap. Zhao Ju suggested not to meet the king of Qin, but the King's younger son urged him to go. In the end, King Huai was escorted to Xianyang å¸é½, the capital of Qin, and was threatened to cease territory before concluding an alliance. He refused and was arrested and detained. At home, the situation was precarious. Both the king and the crown prince were held hostages in Qin, and Zhao Ju argued that it was against etiquette to enthrone a younger son as long as the ruler was living. This meant that there was no head of government as long as King Huai was in Qin. The court brooded over the issue and finally invited Prince Heng æ©« to come to the capital Ying. He was enthroned as king of Ch, posthumously known as King Qingxiang æ¥é è¥ç (r. 299-263). The king of Qin thereupon continued his campaigning against Chu, defeated its army, and seized territory in the north. A year later, King Huai managed to escape, but because the roads to Chu were blocked by Qin, he fled to the state of Zhao, but fearing the anger of Qin, King Huiwen of Zhao è¶æ æç (r. 299-266) refused to offer protection. King Huai was finally captured by the bloodhounds of Qin and brought back to Xianyang, where he died a year later. At least, his corpse was allowed to be transferred back to his native state, where he was buried with greatest honours. In 293 BCE, general Bai Qi ç½èµ· massacred the army of Han. Threatened by this cruel way of warfare, King Qingxiang agreed to conclude a marriage of peace with Qin. This new alliance led to a campaign in 284, carried out by Qin, Chu, Han, Wei, Zhao and Yan and targeted against the state of Qi in the east. Chu so regained the region of Huaibei æ·®å. In 281, King Qingxiang was persuaded to resume war against Qin, in order to gain more territory. He first concluded an alliance with Qin and Han and planned to use this opportunity to conquer some territory of the patriarchal kings of Zhou around Luoyang. King Nan of Zhou å¨çèµ§ (r. 315-256) thereupon sent his relative, Duke Wu æ¦å ¬, to Zhaozi æå, the counsellor of Chu. Duke Wu explained to Zhaozi that the destruction of the house of Zhou meant a thorough dissolution of the world order and would bring only chaos to the state of Chu. King Qingxiang thereupon abandoned this plan. The campaigns against Qin continued, but in 278 BCE, general Bai Qi advanced to the capital of Chu and defiled the tombs of the kings of Chu. The capital of Chu was moved to the ancient site of Chen (modern Huaiyang æ·®é½, Henan) It was only in 276 that the army of Chu was able to recover some of its core territory. Chu was even able to supporte Han, Zhao and Wei in a campaign against Yan. This was only possible because of an armistice bargained with Qin, covered by the crown prince as a hostage dwelling in Qin. When King Qingxiang fell ill, his son Prince Xiong Yuan çå (or Wan å®) managed to escape from Qin and was enthroned as the new king of Chu. He is posthumously known as King Kaolie æ¥èçç (r. 263-238). The new king immediately appointed his trusted Counsellor-to-the-Left (zuoxi å·¦å¾), Lord Chunshen æ¥ç³å, as Prime Minister. Under the Lord's administration, the state of Chu was able to recover for a while. The capital was first shifted to Juyang å·¨é½ (modern Taihe å¤ªå, Anhui), later to to Shouchun å£½æ¥ (modern Shouxian å£½ç¸£, Anhui) further to the east. Lord Chunshen met with Lord Xinling ä¿¡éµå of Wei and forged an alliance that was able to defeat Qin in 257. A year later, Chu conquered the state of Lu. King Kaolie was succeeded by his son Prince Dao æ (or Yu ç ), who is posthumously known as King You æ¥å¹½ç (r. 238-228). Li Yuan æå, a powerful noble, used this personal change to assassinate Lord Chunshen. King You was succeeded by his younger half-brother You ç¶ (or Hao é), who is posthumously known as King Ai æ¥åç (r. 228). He only ruled for two months before he was overthrown and killed by his older half-brother Fuchu è² è» (r. 228-223). The rule of the last kings of Chu was overshadowed by a growing military success of the state of Qin that succeedingly conquered the states of Han, Zhao and Wei. In 224, the Qin general Wang Jian çç¿¦ defeated the army of Chu and killed general Xiang Yan é ç, a great uncle of Xiang Yu é ç¾½, the eventual hegemonial king (bawang é¸ç) of West Chu è¥¿æ¥. A year later, Wang Jian and Meng Wu èæ¦ seized the capital of Chu, captured King Fuchu and transformed the state of Chu into a commandery of the state of Qin. The name of Chu was often used as a name for imperial princedoms, and was one of the Ten States (Shiguo åå) in the 10th century. Table 1. Rulers of the regional state of Chu æ¥ Capitals: Danyang ä¸¹é½ (modern Zigui ç§æ¸, Hubei), Ying é¢ (modern Jiangling æ±éµ or Shashi æ²å¸, Hubei), Ruo é (Shangruo ä¸é; near modern Zhongxiang é¾ç¥¥, Hubei), Yingchen é¢é³ (modern Huaiyang æ·®é½, Henan), Juyang å·¨é½ (near Taihe å¤ªå, Anhui), Shouchun å£½æ¥ (modern Shouxian å£½ç¸£, Anhui) dynastic title personal name time Xiong Yi of Chu æ¥çç¹¹, family name Mi è (or Nai å¬, Qian è, Xiong ç, Yan é ) Xiong Yi of Chu æ¥çä¹ Xiong Tan of Chu æ¥çé»® Xiong Sheng of Chu æ¥çå Xiong Shang æ¥çç ¬ or Xiong Yang of Chu æ¥çæ Xiong Qu of Chu æ¥çæ¸ Xiong Wukang of Chu æ¥çç¡åº· Zhi Hong of Chu æ¥é·ç´ (or æ¯ç´ ) Xiong Yan of Chu æ¥çå»¶ Xiong Yong of Chu æ¥çå 848-838 Xiong Yan of Chu æ¥çå´ 838-828 Xiong Shuang of Chu æ¥çé 828-822 Xiong Xun of Chu æ¥çå¾ (or çç¥)822-800 Xiong E of Chu æ¥çé (or çå¢) 800-791 Ruo Ao of Chu æ¥è¥æ Mi Xiong Yi èçå 791-764 Xiao Ao of Chu æ¥éæ Mi Xiong Kan èçå 764-758 Fen Mao of Chu æ¥è¡å Mi Xiong Xuan èçç´ (or Xiong Xun çã«¬) 758-741 King Wu of Chu (Chu Wuwang æ¥æ¦ç) Mi Xiong Tong èçé 741-690 King Wen of Chu (Chu Wenwang æ¥æç) Mi Xiong Zi èçè²² 690-677 Du Ao, King of Chu æ¥çå µæ Mi Xiong Jian èçè± 677-672 King Cheng of Chu (Chu Chengwang æ¥æç) Mi Jun èé µ 672-626 King Mu of Chu (Chu Muwang æ¥ç©ç) Mi Shangchen èåè£ 625-614 King Zhuang of Chu (Chu Zhuangwang æ¥èç) Mi LÃ¼ èæ 614-591 King Gong of Chu (Chu Gongwang æ¥å ±ç) Mi Shen èå¯© 591-560 King Kang of Chu (Chu Kangwang æ¥åº·ç) Mi Zhao èæ 560-545 Jia Ao, King of Chu æ¥çéæ Mi Jun èéº 545-451 King Ling of Chu (Chu Lingwang æ¥éç) Mi Qian èè 541-529 King Ping of Chu (Chu Pingwang æ¥å¹³ç) Mi Ju èå± 529-516 King Zhao of Chu (Chu Zhaowang æ¥æç) Mi Zhen èè»« 516-489 King Hui of Chu (Chu Huiwang æ¥æ ç) Mi Zhang èç« 489-432 King Jian of Chu (Chu Jianwang æ¥ç°¡ç) Mi Zhong èä¸ 432-408 King Sheng of Chu (Chu Shengwang æ¥è²ç) Mi Dang èç¶ 408-402 King Dao of Chu (Chu Daowang æ¥æ¼ç) Mi Yi èç 402-381 King Su of Chu (Chu Suwang æ¥è ç) Mi Zang èè§ 381-370 King Xuan of Chu (Chu Xuanwang æ¥å®£ç) Mi Liangfu èè¯å¤« 370-340 King Wei of Chu (Chu Weiwang æ¥å¨ç) Mi Shang èå 340-329 King Huai of Chu (Chu Huaiwang æ¥æ·ç) Mi Guai èæ§ 329-299 King Qingxiang of Chu (Chu Qingxiangwang æ¥é è¥ç) Mi Heng èæ©« 299-263 King Kaolie of Chu (Chu Kaoliewang æ¥èçç) Mi Wan èå® 263-238 King You of Chu (Chu Youwang æ¥å¹½ç) Mi Yu èç 238-228 King Ai of Chu (Chu Aiwang æ¥åç) Mi Hao èé 228 Fuchu, King of Chu æ¥çè² è» Mi Fuchu èè² è» 228-223 223 Chu destroyed by Qin ç§¦. Sources:
2073	dbpedia	2	9	https://ink-and-brush.com/mi-fu/	en	Mi Fu – Eccentric Encyclopaedia of Calligraphy	https://ink-and-brush.co…ed-2-1-32x32.png	https://ink-and-brush.co…ed-2-1-32x32.png	[ "https://ink-and-brush.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/cropped-Ink-Brush-logo.png", "https://ink-and-brush.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/cropped-Ink-Brush-logo.png", "https://ink-and-brush.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Spring-Mountains-and-Auspicious-Pines-726x1024.jpg", "https://ink-and-brush.com/wp-content...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Kain Jagger" ]	2023-10-01T15:08:05+00:00	Mi Fu (1051 – 1107 AD) was one of the four greatest Song dynasty calligraphers. He was also an accomplished artist and writer of art theory. His influence...	en	https://ink-and-brush.co…ed-2-1-32x32.png	Ink & Brush -	https://ink-and-brush.com/mi-fu/	Mi Fu (1051 – 1107 AD) (pronounced ‘me foo’) was one of the most famous eccentrics in Chinese art and calligraphy. (A competitive field…) He was outspoken, opinionated, and critical of many other artists and calligraphers. But he could back up his talk with his talent. Today he is remembered as one of the four great calligraphers of the Song dynasty – a dynasty that was filled with great calligraphers. He was also one of the most skilled and knowledgeable calligraphers ever to have lived. Biography Family background Mi Fu’s family traced their ancestry back five generations to Mi Xin (928 – 994 AD), a founding general of the Song dynasty and commandant of the Palace Guard. This placed his family high up in Song society. They were considered a part of the trusted elite around the dynasty’s Zhao emperors. Mi Fu’s father, Mi Zuo, was a military man, the general of the Left Guard. He was said to have enjoyed calligraphy and conversations with scholars. And his mother, surnamed Yan, was a midwife and wetnurse to the imperial family. The Mi family’s ethnic origins The Mi family were likely originally from the Xi ethnicity, who were themselves originally descended from the Xianbei (Eastern Turks). (This was the same group that the Tang dynasty (618 – 907 AD) emperors were partially descended from). Some scholars believe that the Mi name originates from the ancient Mi kingdom (also known as the Sogdiana kingdom) in Central Asia (today’s Uzbekistan). This heritage went back many generations. But during Mi’s lifetime he was sensitive about the issue, which some of his critics liked to play upon. His more immediate eventually ended up in Taiyuan (in today’s Shanxi Province), which they later considered their ancestral home. Mi Quan’s sacrifice One story has it that a sad story haunted Mi Fu’s ancestors. At one point, the family had settled in a town called Shuozhou (today’s Shuoxian, Shaanxi Province). This area fell under the control of the Song dynasty’s northern rival, the Khitan empire. Mi Quan had successfully undertaken the dangerous crossing to the Song border town of Daizhou. Once there, he waited for the rest of his family to join him Unfortunately, they were caught by border guards. When Mi Quan realised, he faced north and wept, exclaiming: I’ve heard loyalty to one’s ruler and faithfulness to one’s family cannot co-exist. Having decided to sacrifice my body for my country, how can I now attend to my family? This story’s truth is impossible to verify. However, it would likely have served as a useful way to illustrate the Mi family’s loyalty to the Han-ruled Song dynasty. Mi Xin’s crimes After the Song dynasty began, Mi Xin was transferred over to the position of governor of Cangzhou (today’s Hebei Province). He was illiterate and clearly unsuited to civil administration, so his role was given to a younger governor. He even harassed civilians. Finally, when his troops beat a servant to death he was sent to prison, where he died. Early life Mi Fu (米芾 [Mǐ Fú]), courtesy name Yuan Zhang, was born in Xiangyang (today’s Xiangzhou, Hubei Province) in 1051 AD. He was one of only two children (he had a sister). Later on, he would often refer to himself as the ‘Wild Scholar of Xianyang’. At some point, due to his mother’s work, his family seems to have lived in the prince Zhao Shu’s (1032 – 1067 AD) royal residence. This meant that Mi Fu grew up with the elite aristocracy of the Song dynasty. Here he was first exposed to networks of art collectors. This includes his friend, the famous artist and art collector Wang Shen (1048 – ca. 1103 AD). Precocious child Mi Fu did not take the imperial exams that defined the lives of so many educated men throughout Chinese history. However, he grew up in a cultured, learned environment and shared his father’s inclinations in these areas. By the age of six, he was reported to have memorised one hundred poems a day. One of his oldest friends, Cai Zhao (? – 1119 AD), later reflected on Mi Fu as a youth. By the age of six, Cai wrote, Mi Fu memorised one hundred poems a day. (Likely an exaggeration!). He added: He was extremely knowledgeable and well-read. He worked hard at getting the general idea of something but disliked exam preparation studies. The opinions he expressed were all according to his own ideas. – Cai Zhao, Grave Inscription for Mi Fu (ca. 1107 AD) Mi Fu’s personality Mi Fu’s contemporaries knew him as an eccentric and outspoken advocate of his own strong opinions. He is also said to have been what today we would call ‘a clean freak’ or ‘germaphobe’, or perhaps OCD (“One Clean Dude…”). He obsessively washed himself, including before each time he did calligraphy. And he was a fanatical collector of works of art, calligraphy and even inkstones. His outspokenness and eccentricity are clear in his writings and the apocryphal anecdotes about him. But alongside his idiosyncrasies lied a hardworking and discerning drive. He stood out for his loud voice and choice of clothes: he dressed in the fashion of the Tang dynasty, some three centuries before. 倾邪险怪诡诈不近人情人谓之颠… 元章喜服唐衣冠寛袖博带。人多怪之及洁疾器用不肯执持尝衣冠出谒帽檐髙不可乘肩舆乃彻其盖见者莫不惊笑。所为𩔖多如此。 …[Mi Fu] tended towards the unorthodox and strange. Craft and deceitful, he was detached from the feelings of others… Labelled mad, some objected to his name being in the register of court officials…. Yuanzhang [Mi Fu] liked to dress in the clothing of the Tang dynasty, with wide sleeves and a broad belt. Once, he had dressed up to pay his respects to another official, but the top of his hat was too tall to allow him into the sedan chair. Consequently, it poked through the roof of the chair. All who saw this were overcome with laughter. There are many stories of this kind. – Zeng Minxing, Duxing Zazhi Career 1070 AD: First job: Collator in the Palace Library Mi Fu’s family connections no-doubt helped him secure his first job when he was 18 years old. This was not unusual for the time. Despite their growing importance, the imperial exams were not a requirement for all officials. He did not last long in this position. This has led many to speculate that it may be an early sign of his ability to offend others… 1070 AD: Sheriff at Hanguang Throughout much of Chinese history, government officials being sent far away from the capital was often a sign of displeasure or even punishment. As far as most were concerned, the further south a location was, the more uncomfortable and uncivilised things were. (The tropical climate, with its increased risk of malaria, killed some officials). Hanguang (today’s Yingde Prefecture, Guangdong Province) was approximately 870 miles (1400 KM) from the Song capital in Bianliang (today’s Kaifeng, Henan Province). 1074: Sheriff in Linggui Mi Fu was only briefly in Linggui (today’s Guilin, Guanxi Province). However, here he began a friendship with the local prefect, Guan Ji. Guan showed Mi Fu a traced copy of a work by the famous Tang dynasty calligrapher Yu Shinan (558 – 638 AD). This is a good example of the kind of friendship based on shared connoisseurship that Mi Fu formed throughout his life. The two of them stayed in touch – and sent one another calligraphy pieces – for many years. 1075 AD: Changsha, minor official Aged 23, Mi took a relatively lowly position in Changsha in 1075. This was a large and prosperous city due to its position along China’s trade routes. He was already more interested in using his position to view and collect calligraphy and paintings than carry out official work. He navigated the region via its many canals and rivers. He named his houseboat (with a large sign): The Mi Family Calligraphy and painting Barge. (His first – of twelve – children had been born around this time: Mi Youren (1074 – 1173 AD)). One anecdote from this period illustrates another notable Mi Fu trait – his greedy cunning: 长沙之湘西，有道林、岳麓二寺，名刹也。[….] 米老元章为微官时，游宦过其下，舣舟湘江，就寺主僧借观，一夕张帆携之遁。[….] 官为遣健步追取还，世以为口实也。 In the Xiangxi district of Changsha, there are two famous temples: Daolin and Yuelu…. Old Mi Yuanzhang [Mi Fu] toured this area during this period as he served in minor offices. He would moor his boat along the Xiang River. He approached the head abbot of the [Daolin] temple and requested to borrow a [famous] calligraphy plaque so that he could study it. However, one night Mi Fu set off in his boat still in possession of the plaque. The temple monks urgently made a formal complaint and a courier was sent to retrieve the work. This became the subject of great gossip. – Cai Tao, The Iron-Enclosed Mountain: Collected Writings《铁围山丛谈卷第四》(ca. 1130 AD) 1081 – 1091 AD: Wandering scholar and collector Mi Fu Spend approximately 10 years travelling China between 1081 – 1091. His main goal was to visit private art collections across the empire. (There were no museums). The nature of Mi’s activities during these years mean that his precise movements are difficult to trace. However, some interesting information exists. During this time, his reputation as an expert, connoisseur and great calligrapher grew. So too did his calligraphy collection. We know that he spent a couple of years in Suzhou. Here he grew his collection via elderly brokers of rich families going through economic difficulties. He even secured works by the great Jin dynasty calligraphers Wang Xizhi (303 – 361 AD) and his son Wang Xianzhi (344 – 386 AD). The most significant of these was Twelth Night. He also befriended many well-known literary and political figures across the empire. This included two who can both be considered a mix of these two categories: Wang Anshi (1021 – 1086 AD) and Su Shi (1137 – 1101 AD). And he completed a book, Catalogue of Precious Calligraphy Specimens Visited (1088). 1092 AD: Magistrate at Yongqiu Mi Fu resumed his career as an official in the summer of 1092. He appears to have enthusiastically taken part in his role. His letters from the time show him concerned and busy with the work. However, within a couple of years, he seems to was having problems. He was investigated (and cleared) for improper handling of tax money and requested leave from his role on health grounds. He was transferred to superintendent of Zhongyue Temple on Mount Song, Henan Province. This role required little responsibility and official duties. 1100 AD: Huizong is crowned At the turn of the century, the young emperor Huizong (r. 1100 – 1126 AD). At this point (between 1099 – 1101 AD), Mi Fu had been working on the state waterways around Lake Tai (in Jiangsu Province). Amusingly, when he wrote to friends asking them to recommend him for office under Huizong, he suggested the wording, too: [Mi Fu] relies on his own talents and has nothing to do with factions. He is old now and hampered by his qualifications. If it were his misfortune to die one day without having had the opportunity to enrich His Majesty’s enterprise and thus embellish His Majesty’s magnanimity, this official would consider it a pity. – Quoted from Emperor Huizong by Patricia Buckley Ebrey (London: Harvard University Press, 2014), p. 204 At this time, Huizong’s chief minister Cai Jing (1047 – 1126 AD) is said to have remarked: 芾人品诚高，所谓不可无一，不可有二者也。 Mi Fu is the kind of person we must have one of, but cannot afford to have two of! – He Yuan, Chuju Zhiwen 春渚纪闻 Gaining an inkstone from the emperor One anecdote has it that his obsession with collecting inkstones led him to gaining a rare inkstone from the Huizong Emperor (1082 – 1135 AD) (a famously fanatical fan of art and art collecting). After viewing the inkstone, Mi Fu told the emperor that ‘after a lowly commoner such as myself has touched it, it’s no longer fit for your majesty.’ 上大笑，因以赐之。芾蹈舞以谢，即抱负趋出，馀墨霑渍袍袖，而喜见颜色。上顾蔡京曰：“颠名不虚得也。” The emperor laughed loudly and gave it to Mi Fu as a gift. Fu danced a jig of thanks, clasping the inkstone as he hurried out. The remaining ink spilled onto his clothes, soiling his robe and sleeve, yet there was only a look of utter glee on his face. The emperor looked at [Cai] Jing and said, “This reputation of being mad is not empty at all.” – Ibid. 1107: Passes away Mi Fu did not last long working under the emperor. Details about exactly why this is aren’t clear. Either way, he was demoted and sent to a post in Jiangsu, where he died in 1107 AD. In 2005, his grave was discovered in Qingyuan, Guangzhou Province. Clues to its whereabouts were found by a scholar looking through Qingyuan’s historical records. Mi Fu’s calligraphy 金井寒生一水池，读书窗纸照萤飞。悲欢穷泰寻常共，掷破还须匣取归。 Lonely waters [ink] appear within the golden well [inkstone], Dragonflies glimmer by the paper window where I read. Together we have shared sadness, joy, poverty, and wealth, And when we are finally worn down, we’ll return via our boxes [like used inkstones put back in their boxes]. – ‘Inkstone’ by Mi Fu Influences Early in life, Mi Fu primarily studied the calligraphy of the two main famous eras for it: the Jin (266 – 420 AD) and Tang (618 – 907 AD) dynasties. And in his Autobiographical Essay, he mentions studying and imitating the works of Tang dynasty masters, including Ouyang Xun (557 – 641 AD), Chu Suiliang (597 – 658 AD) and Liu Gongquan (778 – 865 AD). Later on, Mi Fu’s good friend and general Song dynasty ‘renaissance man’ Su Shi (1037 – 1101 AD) encouraged him to study the words of the ‘two Wangs’. These are the most admired calligrapher in Chinese history Wang Xizhi (303 AD – 361 AD) and his son, innovative regular and cursive script master Wang Xianzhi (344 – 386 AD). Later on, he would try to stylistically escape or surpass their influence. Some critics believe that in his later career he achieved this. Mi Fu’s Calligraphic Style Mi is most famous for his running script calligraphy (the semi-cursive version of standard script). His style shows clear influence of the famous Tang dynasty running script master Yan Zhenqing (709 – 785 AD) and one of the four masters of regular script Ouyang Xun (557 – 641 AD). His fluent strokes vary between thick and thin and occasionally feature abrupt, sharp turns of the brush. Overall, his characters vigorous and free-flowing. The spaces within and between them are even, despite the swiftness apparent in their strokes. Perhaps Mi Fu’s most famous remarks on calligraphy come from an idiom he coined: 无垂不缩，无往不收 [wú chuí bù suō, wú wǎng bù shōu] Each vertical stroke should end with a contraction, each horizontal one by turning back on itself – Mi Fu This quote emphasises the physical nature of calligraphy. It’s no coincidence that Mi Fu was also deeply interested in martial arts. His friend, Su Shi, described Mi Fu’s style as ‘battleships in full sail, or war-horses charging into the enemy’s positions.’ One of the four great calligraphers of the Song dynasty Mi Fu has long been considered one of the four great calligraphers of the Song dynasty. The other three are: Cai Xiang (1012 – 1067): a famous reformist politician and influential calligraphy innovator Su Shi (1037 – 1101): Mi Fu’s friend and one of the most famous intellectuals and artists in Chinese history Huang Tingjian (1045 – 1105): the cursive script master with calligraphy that looked like ‘ripples on water’. All four figures lived during the Northern Song period, which was later cherished as the Song dynasty’s cultural and political golden age. Shuazi Mi Fu was inspired by the calligrapher Duan Jizhan to adopt a calligraphic method termed shuazi (which can be roughly translated as ‘coating’ or ‘whitewashing’). It involves calligraphers apply ink to paper or silk in the same manner they would on a wall. The idea is to maintain a steady rhythm that applies the right amount of ink evenly. (Mi Fu liked to write on walls after drinking, and even apologised to friends for doing so at times!). Mi Fu’s artistic philosophy Mi Fu practiced calligraphy very diligently each day. In doing so, he believed he was emulating the ancients. But at the same time, he also liked to emphasise how he treated calligraphy as ‘just a game’. 何必识难字，辛苦笑扬雄。自古为字人，用字或不通。要之皆一戏，不当问拙工。意足我自足，放笔一戏空。 Is it really necessary to recognise difficult characters? We laugh at the lengths Yang Xiong went to. Since ancient times, calligraphers Have not known [all] characters correctly. It’s all just a game. One shouldn’t question clumsiness or skill. If my mind is satisfied, then I am satisfied. When I put down the brush, the game is over. – ‘Reply To Shaopeng’s Remarks on Being Unable to Read Difficult Characters’, Mi Fu The Song dynasty was a period when the concept of scholar-artists developed greatly. These were usually officials, or at least independent and educated individuals who expressed themselves with calligraphy, painting, and poetry. They saw themselves as different to the more technically proficient artists hired by the government to work on realistic, official paintings and murals. Unlike this group, who worked for money, scholar-artists saw their work as a reflection of their inner cultivation of Daoist, Confucian, and Buddhist principles. The reality wasn’t always so clear cut. But intellectuals such as Mi Fu, Su Shi, and others, often thought and wrote about art theory in these terms. They also emphasised the individual nature of art. Each artist must pursue their own path, wherever it may lead. Unlike professional artists, commissioned to represent others’ orders, the scholar-artist has to find his own vision. A good example of this ethos can even be seen in how Mi Fu wrote about his beloved inkstones. He often painted scenes of hilly landscapes in mist or just before rain. When doing this, Mi declared that an exact model was not needed. Generally, in painting animals and human figures, one does a sketch and it resembles the object, but in doing landscapes, reproduction will not succeed. In landscapes, the level at which the artist’s mind is satisfied is high. – On Painting, Mi Fu As in calligraphy, Mi felt that it was the artist’s mind and self-expression was more important than technical abilities.
2073	dbpedia	2	8	https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nsong/hd_nsong.htm	en	Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)	https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/39936/198920/main-image	https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/39936/198920/main-image	[ "https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/39936/198920/main-image", "https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/42455/1551585/main-image", "https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collection/v1/iiif/39543/1702922/main-image", "https://collectionapi.metmuseum.org/api/collectio...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	0001-01-01T00:00:00	The early Northern Song dynasty witnessed the flowering of one of the supreme artistic expressions of Chinese civilization: monumental landscape painting.	en	https://www.metmuseum.org/content/img/presentation/icons/favicons/favicon.ico?v=3	The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History	null	The Song dynasty (960–1279) was culturally the most brilliant era in later imperial Chinese history. A time of great social and economic change, the period in large measure shaped the intellectual and political climate of China down to the twentieth century. The first half of this era, when the capital was located at Bianliang (modern Kaifeng), is known as the Northern Song period. The early Northern Song dynasty witnessed the flowering of one of the supreme artistic expressions of Chinese civilization: monumental landscape painting. Retreating to the mountains to escape the turmoil and destruction that occurred at the end of the Tang dynasty (618–907), tenth-century recluse-painters discovered in nature the moral order that they had found lacking in the human world. In their visionary landscapes, the great mountain, towering above the lesser mountains, trees, and men, was like “a ruler among his subjects, a master among servants.” Later, Song court painters transformed these idealized images of nature into emblems of a perfectly ordered state. An important outgrowth of Song political unification after the war-torn Five Dynasties period (907–60) was the creation of a distinctive style of court painting under the auspices of the Imperial Painting Academy. Painters from all parts of the empire were recruited to serve the needs of the court. Over time, the varied traditions represented by this diverse group of artists were welded together into a harmonious Song academic manner that valued a naturalistic, closely descriptive portrayal of the physical world. Under Emperor Huizong (r. 1100–1125), himself an accomplished painter and calligrapher, imperial patronage and the ruler’s direct involvement in establishing artistic direction reached a zenith. While maintaining that the fundamental purpose of painting was to be true to nature, Huizong sought to enrich its content through the inclusion of poetic resonance and references to antique styles.
2073	dbpedia	1	57	http://www.pearlartmuseum.org/en/category/activity-list/detail!Authentic-Landscape-in-Painting-Language-Wang-Shen-s-Landscape-Painting	en	Authentic Landscape in Painting Language: Wang Shen’s Landscape Painting	http://pearlartmuseum.storage.comocloud.net/upload/photo_db/2017/09/15/201709151301112cdbed0d.jpg	http://pearlartmuseum.storage.comocloud.net/upload/photo_db/2017/09/15/201709151301112cdbed0d.jpg	[ "http://pearlartmuseum.storage.comocloud.net/upload/photo_db/2017/09/15/201709151301112cdbed0d.jpg", "http://www.pearlartmuseum.org/modulesassets/comofrontend/images/wechat/wechat-qrcode.jpg?v=20210717", "http://www.pearlartmuseum.org/modulesassets/comofrontend/images/wechat/wechat-qrcode.jpg?v=20210717", "ht...	[]	[]	[ "Activity", "Lecture", "张荣国", "Pearl Art Museum (Center of Light Space)", "Pearl Art Museum", "Shanghai Book and Painting Press" ]	null	[]	null	Pearl Art Museum is a non-profit non-governmental art museum conceived by Shanghai XinHua Distribution Group and Red Star Macalline Group Corporation Ltd.. PAM collaborates with creative art & cultural institutions, artists and intellectuals globally to explore its unique mode of operation, exhibition program, and the way to communicate with cultural industries as well as its visitors.	zh	http://www.pearlartmuseum.org/modulesassets/comofrontend/css/favicons/apple-touch-icon.png?v=20210717		null	Feel like chill wind on my face, or mist over the field. The slender gold style of calligraphy at the beginning is unprecedented in the past five hundred years. ——by Qianlong Emperor about Wang Shen’s painting Light Snow over a Fishing Village In 960 AD, Zhao Kuangyin established the Song Dynasty, where literati and scholar-officials were highly respected, thus greatly stimulating their creativity, and the ideology, poetry, painting, and calligraphy therefore reached the peak of Chinese cultural history. Guo Ruoxu made such a comment in his Overview of Painting: “Compared with the previous dynasties, The Song Dynasty’s paintings about Buddhism, Taoism, figures, court ladies, cattle and horses are dwarfed, while the Song Dynasty has witnessed a new level of paintings about landscape, forest, rocks, flowers, bamboos, poultry and birds.” At this time of tremendous artistic and cultural prosperity, Wang Shen was born in a wealthy family and grew into a literati painter. With his ancestor Wang Quanbin as one of the founding heroes of the Northern Song Dynasty, he served as the Dingzhou observer, founding father, as well as the emperor’s son-in-law. Moreover, he was also a prestigious collector and appraiser, and had close interactions with the well-known contemporaries such as Su Shi, Mi Fu, and Li Gonglin. The “Xiyuan Gathering” organized by him is impressive for generations, comparable to the “Lanting Gathering” of Wang Xizhi of the Jin Dynasty. On the afternoon of August 8th (Saturday), our eighth lecture of “Inside Art in Paintings” is honored to have Mr. Zhang Rongguo from East China Normal University, lecturing about paintings in Pearl Art Museum (Center of Light Space). He will explore Wang Shen’s two masterpieces, Misty River, Layered Peaks and Light Snow over a Fishing Village, in terms their schema, theme, and style corelated to the ancient and modern works, and investigate the intrinsic and painting language, as indicated by the relationship between visual artistic language, visual symbolism and visual images in Chinese paintings, so as to analyze and clarify the interaction and essence between tradition and innovation, inheritance and creation. With the idea of building “an art museum without walls and fluid art academy”, the Pearl Art Museum has delivered a series of “Read Art in Books” lectures since the end of September in 2019. “Read Art in Books” is designed to invite an expert each time to tell an art story with a book and instruct in systematic and interesting art appreciation. Based on the sharing from the experts, it enables ordinary people to have a glimpse of the most advanced and classic art research and works and have the knowledge and mind-set for appreciating art works.
2073	dbpedia	1	3	https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mi_Fu	en	New World Encyclopedia	https://www.newworldency…avicon-32x32.png	https://www.newworldency…avicon-32x32.png	[ "https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/images/nwe_header.jpg", "https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/d/images/thumb/7/7c/Mi_Fei_001.jpg/240px-Mi_Fei_001.jpg", "https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/d/images/thumb/1/1d/Mi_Fu_Shu_Su_Tie.jpg/240px-Mi_Fu_Shu_Su_Tie.jpg", "https://static.newworldencyclopedia.org/ski...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	https://static.newworldencyclopedia.org/favicon.ico		https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mi_Fu	Names Chinese: 米黻 Pinyin: Mǐ Fú Zi: Yuán Zhāng (元章) Also known as: Madman Mi (米顛) Mi Fu (Chinese: 米黻; pinyin: Mǐ Fú, 1051 – 1107), also known as Mi Fei (米芾), Pinyin Mi Fei, original name (Wade-Giles Romanization) Mi Fu, also called Yüan-chang, Hai-yüeh Wai-shih, or Hsiang–yang Man-shih, was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan, Shanxi (太原) during the Song Dynasty (宋朝). In painting, he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes, the "Mi Fu" style, which involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat brush. His poetry followed the style of Li Bai (李白) and his calligraphy that of Wang Xizhi (王羲之). His uninhibited style made him disliked at the Song court. He is best known for his calligraphy, and he was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. While he acquired his style by emulating other calligraphers from earlier dynasties, his style was unique and distinct. Mi Fu was raised in the imperial court alongside the imperial family, and exhibited exceptional talent in poetry, calligraphy, and memorization. However, his eccentric behavior resulted in his being frequently moved from one official post to another. In 1081, Mi Fu met Su Shih, the great poet, calligrapher, and art theorist, and together they formed a circle of brilliant artists who emphasized personal expression over mere technical excellence. The poetry of Su Shih, the figure painting of Li Kung-lin, and the calligraphy of Mi Fu became standards against which artists would be judged for the next five hundred years. Life Mi Fu was born in 1051, to a family that had held high office in the early years of the Sung dynasty (960–1279). His mother was the wet nurse of the emperor Ying Tsung (reigned 1063/64–1067/68), and he was raised within the Imperial precincts, mixing freely with the Imperial family. According to tradition, he was a very smart boy with a great interest in arts and letters and an astonishing ability to memorize. At the age of six he could learn a hundred poems a day and after going over them again, he could recite them all. He showed a precocious talent for calligraphy and painting. He disliked the formal lessons in the Confucian classics, but displayed a quick understanding of learned argument and an aptitude for poetry. His mother served the wife of the Emperor Renzong of Song (仁宗), and Mi Fu began his career as Reviser of Books in the capital of Kaifeng. In 1103, he was appointed a doctor of philosophy and was briefly military governor of Wu-wei in the province of Anhwei. He returned to the capital in 1104, as Professor of Painting and Calligraphy, and presented the Emperor with a painting by his son, I Yu-jen. He then served as Secretary to the Board of Rites, before being appointed Military Governor of Huaiyang. These frequent changes of official position were a result of Mi Fu's sharp tongue and his open criticism of official ways. He is said to have been a very capable official, but unwilling to submit to conventional rules; and he manifested a spirit of independence which caused him serious difficulties. He died in Huaiyang, in Kiangsu Province, at the age of fifty-two, and was buried in Tan-t'u, in Kiangsu Province; his epitaph was written by Mi Yu-jen. Mi Fu was married and had five sons, of whom only the two eldest survived infancy, and eight daughters. His son, Mi Youren, also became a famous painter in his father's artistic style. Unlike his father, Mi Youren lived to be quite elderly, dying at the age of 79. Mi Fu was noted as an eccentric. At times, he was referred to as "Madman Mi" because he was obsessed with collecting stones. He declared one stone to be his brother, and would bow to his "brother" rock in a display of the filial devotion usually given to older brothers. He also was known as a heavy drinker. Mi Fu was very peculiar in his manners and the way he dressed. Wherever he went, he attracted a crowd. He was also very fond of cleanliness. He used to have water standing at his side when working, because he washed his face very often. He would never wash in a vessel that had been used by someone else or put on clothes that had been worn by another person. Mi Fu's passion was collecting old writings and paintings. As his family wealth was gradually lost on relatives, he continued to collect and made every possible sacrifice to get the samples he wanted. According to one anecdote, once when Mi Fu was out in a boat with his friends, he was shown a sample of Wang Xianzhi’s writing and became so excited that he threatened to jump overboard unless the owner made him a present of it, a request which, apparently, could not be refused. Gradually his collection became a big treasury, and his simple house a meeting place for the greatest scholars of the time. He inherited some of the calligraphies in his collection, but others were acquired. He also exchanged the poorer quality ones for better ones. He wrote: “When a man of today obtains such an old sample it seems to him as important as his life, which is ridiculous. It is in accordance with human nature, that things which satisfy the eye, when seen for a long time become boring; therefore they should be exchanged for fresh examples, which then appear double satisfying. That is the intelligent way of using pictures.” Mi Fu was fanatical in regard to safeguarding, cleaning, and exhibiting of his pictures. He arranged his collection in two parts, one of which was kept secret or only for a few selected friends and another which could be shown to ordinary visitors. Historical background After the rise of the landscape painting, the creative activity which followed was of a more general kind and subject matter included both profane and religious figures, birds, flowers, and bamboo, in addition to landscapes. The painters were mostly highly intellectual scholars. To most of these men, painting was not a professional occupation but only one of the means by which they expressed their intellectual reactions to life and nature in visible symbols. Poetry and illustrative writing were in a sense even more important to them than painting, and they made their living as more or less prominent government officials if they did not depend on family wealth. Though some of them were true masters of ink-painting as well as of calligraphy, they avoided the fame and position of professional artists and became known as “gentleman-painters.” Artistic occupations such as calligraphy and painting were, to these men, activities to be done during leisure time while resting from official duties or practical occupations. The foundation of their technical mastery was training in calligraphy, which allowed them to transmit their thoughts with the same easiness in symbols of nature as in conventional characters. Their art became a very intimate kind of expression, or idea-writing as it was called in later times. The beauty of this art was closely associated with the apparent ease with which it was produced, but which could not be achieved without intense training and deep thought. Mi Fu was one of the highly gifted gentleman-painters. He was not a poet or philosopher; nevertheless he was brilliant intellectually. His keen talent for artistic observation, together with a sense of humor and literary ability, established him prominently among Chinese art-historians; his contributions in this field are still highly valued, because they are based on what he had observed with his own eyes and not simply on what he had heard or learned from his forerunners. Mi Fu had he courage to express his own views, even when these were different from the prevailing ones or from official opinions. His notes about painting and calligraphy are of great interest to art historians, because they are spontaneous expressions of his own observations and independent ideas and help to characterize himself as well as the artists whose works he discusses. Art In 1081, Mi Fei met Su Shih, the great poet, calligrapher, and art theorist. This was the beginning of the formation of a circle of brilliant artists. Other members of this group were Li Kung-lin, painter and antiquarian; Huang T'ing-chien, poet and calligrapher; and Chao Ta-nien, painter and art collector. Su Shih's cousin, the bamboo painter Wen T'ung, who had died in 1079, was also a key figure through his art and his influence on Su Shih. Out of their association came the theory and practice of wen-jen-hua, or literati painting, which has continued until the present to be the most dynamic and creative branch of painting. In place of the long-dominant view that painting was a public art, subject to public standards, scholar-painters held to the view expressed by Li Kung-lin: "I paint, as the poet sings, to give expression to my nature and emotions, and that is all."[1] These eleventh century scholars rediscovered the T'ang poet Tu Fu, now universally regarded as "China's greatest poet," who had been largely ignored; and rescued Ku K'ai-chih and Wang Wei, the two greatest scholar-painters of earlier centuries, from obscurity and lifted them to the eminence they have ever since enjoyed. The poetry of Su Shih, the figure painting of Li Kung-lin, and the calligraphy of Mi Fei became standards against which artists would be judged for the next five hundred years. For these scholar-artists, the personal relationships within their artistic and intellectual circle were very important. Art was nothing without personality, not in the sense of deliberate eccentricity, but as an expression and development of innate qualities such as strength of character, will, honesty, creativity, mental curiosity, and integrity. In 1060, Su Shih had written a poem comparing paintings by Wu Taotzu and Wang Wei, in which he declared that Wu Tao-tzu could finally be judged only in terms of the craft of painting, while Wang Wei, in contrast, "was basically an old poet" who "sought meaning beyond the forms."[2] Mi Fei was highly critical of art that was technically excellent but divorced from personal expression. He described the work of the imperial academicians and professional painters, who commanded a large popular audience, as "fit only to defile the walls of a wine shop." He even accused the academy of murdering one of its members because he was too gifted and original. Mi Fei and his friends admired the "untrammeled" masters of the ninth and tenth centuries, who had broken every rule and defied every classical model in their quest for artistic freedom, but felt they were far too uncontrolled and eccentric to be emulated. Instead, they admired the "primitive" and forgotten masters of the orthodox heritage. To Mi Fu, the brush was not only the sword of his proud spirit but a magic stick, which brought life whenever he held it in his hands to write or paint. The two arts of calligraphy and painting were to him essentially one and the same. In painting, he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style, deemed the "Mi Fu" style, involved the use of large wet dots of ink, described as "Mi dots," applied with a flat brush. Starting with very pale ink, he began painting on a slightly wet paper, amassing clusters of shadowed forms, then adding darker ink gradually, building up amorphous, drifting mountain silhouettes bathed in wet, cloaking mist. The style is best seen in a large hanging scroll, the Tower of the Rising Clouds. On the painting is an inscription: "Heaven sends a timely rain; clouds issue from mountains and streams."[3] His poetry followed the style of Li Bai (李白) and his calligraphy that of Wang Xizhi (王羲之). His uninhibited style made him disliked at the Song court. Mi Fu has been admired by later critics as one of the most important representatives of the "Southern School" of landscape painting. Most of the paintings attributed to him represent a rather definite type or pictorial style which existed also in later centuries, but unfortunately it cannot be determined to what extent they are Mi Fu's own creations. The general characteristics of his style are known, but it is not possible to be sure that the paintings ascribed to him represent the rhythm and spirit of his individual brush work, as is possible with the authentic samples of his calligraphy, which still exist. Therefore, he is remembered more as a skilled calligraphist, and for his influence as a critic and writer on art, rather than as a skilled landscape painter. Mi Fu was regarded as one of the four greatest calligraphers in Song Dynasty. His style arises from that of calligraphers in earlier dynasties, but with a unique mark of his own. He was among those for whom writing, or calligraphy, was intimately connected with the composition of poetry or sketching. It required an alertness of mind and spirit, which he thought was best achieved through the enjoyment of wine, through which he reached a state of excitement rather than drunkenness. A friend of Mi Fu, Su Shi admired him and wrote that his brush was like a sharp sword handled skillfully in fight, or a bow which could shoot an arrow a thousand li, piercing anything that might be in its way. “It was the highest perfection of the art of calligraphy,” he wrote. Other critics claimed that only Mi Fu could imitate the style of the great calligraphists of the Six Dynasties. Mi Fu seems to have been an excellent imitator; some of these imitations were so good that they were taken for the originals. Mi Fu's son also testified that his father always kept some calligraphic masterpiece of the Tang or the Qin period in his desk as a model. At night he would place it in a box at the side of his pillow. According to some writings, Mi Fu did most of his paintings during the last seven years of his life, and he himself wrote that “he chose as his models the most ancient masters and painted guided by his own genius and not by any teacher, and thus represented the loyal men of antiquity.” The pictures which still pass under the name of Mi Fu represent ranges of wooded hills or cone-shaped mountain peaks rising out of layers of woolly mist. At their feet may be water, and closer towards the foreground, clusters of dark trees. One of the best known examples of this kind of Mi style is the small picture in the Palace Museum known as Spring Mountains and Pine-Trees. It is the size of a large album-leaf, but at the top of the picture is added a poem said to be by the emperor Emperor Gaozong of Song. The mountains and the trees rise above a layer of thick mist that fills the valley; they are painted in dark ink tones with a slight addition of color in a plumelike manner that hides their structure; it is the mist that is really alive. In spite of the striking contrast between the dark and the light tones, the general effect of the picture is dull, which may be the result of wear and retouching. Among the pictures which are attributed to Mi Fu, there are apparently imitations, painted in a similar manner with a broad and soft brush. They may be from Southern Song period, or possibly from the Yuan period, when some of the leading painters freely utilized the manner of Mi for expressing their own ideas. The majority are probably from the later part of Ming period, when a cult of Mi Fu followers that viewed him as the most important representative of the "Southern School" began. Mi Fu himself had seen many imitations, perhaps even of his own works, and he saw how wealthy amateurs spent their money on great names rather than on original works of art. He wrote: “They place their pictures in brocade bags and provide them with jade rollers as if they were very wonderful treasures, but when they open them one cannot but break out into laughter.” Mi Fu's own manner of painting has been characterized by writers who knew it through their own observation or through hearsay. It is said that he always painted on paper which had not been prepared with gum or alum (alauns); and never on silk or on the wall. In addition, he did not necessarily use the brush in painting with ink; sometimes he used paper sticks or sugar cane from which the juice had been extracted, or a calyx (kauss) of the lotus. Though Mi Fu was principally a landscape painter, he also did portraits and figure paintings of an old fashioned type. Nevertheless, he must have spent more time studying samples of ancient calligraphy and painting than producing pictures of his own. His book on History of Painting contains practical hints as to the proper way of collecting, preserving, cleaning and mounting pictures. Mi Fu was no doubt an excellent connoisseur who recognized quality in art. In spite of his rebellious spirit, his fundamental attitude was fairly conventional. He appreciated some of the well-recognized classics among the ancient masters and had little use for any of the contemporary painters. He sometimes had difficulty in admitting the values of others, and found more pleasure in making sharp and sarcastic remarks than in expressing his thoughts in a just and balanced way. Landscape painting was, to Mi Fu, superior to every other kind of painting; revealing his limitations and romantic flight: “The study of Buddhist paintings implies some moral advice; they are of a superior kind. Then follow the landscapes, then pictures of bamboo, trees, walls and stones, and then come pictures of flowers and grass. As to pictures of men and women, birds and animals, they are for the amusement of the gentry and do not belong to the class of pure art treasures.” Notes References ISBN links support NWE through referral fees
2073	dbpedia	2	55	http://epaper.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202009/22/WS5f694776a31099a23435084d.html	en	A mind of the times	http://epaper.chinadaily.com.cn/images/202009/22/5f694776a31099a2249b92f8.png	http://epaper.chinadaily.com.cn/images/202009/22/5f694776a31099a2249b92f8.png	[ "http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/image_e/2017/logo.png", "http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/image_e/2017/cnbut.png", "https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/image_e/2016/logo_art.jpg", "https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/image_e/2016/fdj_art.gif", "https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/image_e/2016/sign_ico_art.gif", "https://www.chin...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2020-09-22T00:00:00	Editor's note: China Daily presents a series of stories covering major exhibitions and events as part of the 600th anniversary celebrations this year of the Forbidden City in Beijing, China's last imperial palace.				//epaper.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202009/22/WS5f694776a31099a23435084d.html	An ongoing exhibition celebrates the legacy of ancient Chinese literati and artist Su Shi, whose contribution to culture has made him a household name in the country, Wang Kaihao reports. Editor's note: China Daily presents a series of stories covering major exhibitions and events as part of the 600th anniversary celebrations this year of the Forbidden City in Beijing, China's last imperial palace. In 1082, during the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127), Su Shi had been living in poverty and grappling with depression for two years after he lost a political conflict. He was demoted and assigned as a nominal official to work in Huangzhou (now a district in Huanggang, Hubei province) by the Yangtze River. Su possessed great vision. He chronicled the historical vicissitudes of the Battle of Red Cliffs (Chibi). The decisive war in AD 208 prevented the powerful warlord, Cao Cao, from conquering the Yangtze's southern bank. Su wrote: "East flows the mighty river, the huge waves sweeping away the brilliant figures of thousands of years past." Many exceptional people of the era may have been submerged forever in the lengthy river of time but not Su. Su's legacy, including his poetry, calligraphy and broad influence in other fields, has withstood the erosive waves of history. He remains one of the most-recognized Chinese cultural icons of all time. In Beijing's Palace Museum－another immortal Chinese cultural monument that's also known as the Forbidden City－an ongoing calligraphy and painting exhibition portrays Su's epoch and its lasting legacies. Man of Infinite Refinement: Special Exhibition on the Paintings and Calligraphy of Su Shi in the Palace Museum Collection runs through Oct 30 in the Hall of Literary Brilliance (Wenhua Dian). Due to Su's outstanding status, the show is a key event to celebrate the 600th anniversary of the completion of the Forbidden City, China's last imperial palace. The 78 exhibits are either Su's representative works or pieces created by his close friends, predecessors and students that reflect their interactions, or works by his followers from later periods that pay homage to Su. These works span from the Northern Song Dynasty through recent history and cover a range of media, including calligraphy, paintings, epigraphic rubbings, documents and rarely seen books. "As a star in literati circles, Su Shi used ink to create numerous masterpieces during his lifetime," says Palace Museum researcher Yu Wentao, who's a curator of the exhibition. "Many people he inspired have displayed their creativity in calligraphy and painting. Thanks to our collection, people today can glimpse the charisma of this 'brilliant figure of thousands of years past'." Though Su, who's also known by his sobriquet, Dongpo, is a household name in China, it's challenging to describe him in a few words as more than a poet. This polymath is also honored as one of the eight most outstanding essayists from the Tang (618-907) and Northern Song dynasties. The Former Ode on the Red Cliffs was generally considered to represent a zenith of his talent and has been chanted by generations over the following millennium. Su has also been esteemed as one of four leading Song calligraphers and a pioneer of poetry genres. That's not to mention his contributions to fine-art theories, horticulture, pharmacology and gastronomy. It's widely believed that he developed the recipe for the popular pork dish, dongpo rou. The exhibits also reveal Su's sentimentality. In Zhiping Tie, a letter Su wrote to a monk in his hometown in Sichuan province, he emotionally recalls the memory of several tombs and asks the monk to take good care of them. The exquisite writing makes the letter a key calligraphy work from Su's early age. During his difficult days in Huangzhou, Su frequently exchanged letters with his old friend, Chen Zao, who lived nearby. Two letters Su wrote are juxtaposed at the exhibition. One reveals his excitement about a proposed meeting at the beginning of a new year. The other expresses his condolences for Chen's brother. Both were written within one year. In 1964, they were mounted on the same paper, probably to preserve them. "No matter how great Su was, he wasn't isolated from the surrounding environment," Yu explains. "That extraordinary time centered him. And Su was a legend among his literati peers." The exhibits reveal Su's star-studded social network, including his most famous student, calligrapher Huang Tingjian, versatile literati Mi Fu and Ouyang Xiu, painter Li Gonglin and a long list of other writers, calligraphers and painters. For example, Junyi, which was written by Huang, is exhibited. It's one of Huang's two surviving works that mention Su's name. Li painted Su's portrait in his later years. A Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) facsimile of Li's work is also on display. It depicts Su wearing a bamboo rain hat and clogs. Around that time, Su confronted an even bigger setback and was banished to Hainan Island. "He was on the way to a friend's home but encountered heavy rain," Yu says. "He had to borrow the hat and clogs from local farmers, and people laughed at him. Even so, he remained calm and optimistic toward life. Consequently, it later became a classical portrayal of Su's image." Yu cites Su's famous line from The Former Ode on the Red Cliffs: "The gentle breeze blows our way, but the waves are still calm." This line demonstrates how "Su's words are full of pictures", he says. "Reading his articles is like enjoying his paintings." Another painting highlighted at the exhibition, The Red Cliffs, was created by an anonymous Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279) artist. It's perhaps natural to feel emotional resonance with the image of Su and his friends sitting on a boat, floating along vast waters. It can conjure thoughts about the ups and downs in our own lives. "Su is adept at learning from his predecessors and continuously developing his own styles," the curator says. "He called for people to reflect their personalities through writing and broke the common practice that rigidly replicated certain established models. It pioneered new concepts for Chinese calligraphy." The Palace Museum houses over 160,000 ancient paintings, calligraphy works and epigraphic rubbings. Curators spent over a year scouring the museum's inventory to prepare for the monumental anniversary. The exhibition opened a few months later than planned due to COVID-19. "Many exhibits, although important, lacked certain scenes that hadn't been publicly displayed before," Palace Museum deputy director Ren Wanping says. "But recent academic studies have given us an opportunity to host an exhibition about Su Shi－a theme hasn't been seen in recent times. "Hailing him also reflects our calls for a time of cultural prosperity," she explains. "He's not only for us to admire as an icon but also to enable us to gain strength from the strong spirit of China's elegant literati." Contact the writer at wangkaihao@chinadaily.com.cn
2073	dbpedia	3	19	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fei	en	Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia	https://upload.wikimedia…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	https://upload.wikimedia…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	[ "https://simple.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://simple.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://simple.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-simple.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2009-11-16T12:18:19+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fei	Mi Fu (1051–1107),[1] also known as Mi Fei was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan, Shanxi during the Song Dynasty. His style of painting was misty landscapes. This style is the "Mi Fu" style uses large wet dots of ink. This ink is put on with a flat brush. Mi Fu was born in 1051. His mother was employed as a midwife to deliver Emperor Shenzong and afterwards she became the wet-nurse who look after and feed the Emperor Shenzong who was to start his reign in 1051 and continue until 1107. Mi Fu knew the imperial family and he lived in the privileged location of the royal palaces. He ignored formal lessons but it could be seen that he had a gift for writing, painted and drawing.[2] He was one of the four best calligraphers in the Song Dynasty.[3] Mi Fu was known as odd. Some called him "Madman Mi" because he collected stones and said one stone was his brother.[2] He was a heavy drinker. His poetry followed the style of Li Bai and his calligraphy that of Wang Xizhi. He became a civil servant to mixed success. He was firstly a book editor in the emperors library before undertaking a number of posts in Henan province. He was given the post of Professor[4] of Painting and Calligraphy in 1103 at the Palace to select which painting and calligraphy is good enough to belong to the Emperor. He became secretary to the Board of Rites before he was appointed governor of Huaiyang in Jiangsu province. He had five sons and eight daughters. He died in 1107.[2] His son, Mi Youren, would also be a famous painter in his father's artistic style. Mi Fu is considered the best of all the calligraphers of the Song dynasty. An example of his work has sold for nearly four million dollars.[5] Related pages [change \| change source]
2073	dbpedia	1	16	http://shanxi.chinadaily.com.cn/taiyuan/2022-04/01/c_729686.htm	en	Mi Fu			[ "http://subsites.chinadaily.com.cn/shanxi/taiyuan/att/3007.files/i/article-logo2.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "Taiyuan" ]	null	[]	2022-04-01T00:00:00	Mi Fu (1051-1107), born in Taiyuan in North China's Shanxi province, is a famous calligrapher, ink painter, calligraphy and painting theorist and scholar from the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127).	en			null	Mi Fu (1051-1107), born in Taiyuan in North China's Shanxi province, is a famous calligrapher, ink painter, calligraphy and painting theorist and scholar from the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127). Together with Cai Xiang, Su Shi and Huang Tingjian, Mi is considered one of the "four great calligraphers of the Song Dynasty (960-1279)". Mi's landscape paintings have a unique style, giving him the title of "father of Chinese impressionism". Mi once worked as a military senior official in Guilin, South China's Guangxi Zhuang autonomous region, in his twenties, which had a significant influence on his artistic evolution. He used different ink shades and large dots applied with a flat brush to render slowly flowing landscapes of rivers and clouds, pioneering an abstract style. He was also quite accomplished in calligraphy and was capable of various calligraphic styles. He was also adept at copying ancient calligraphy artworks that could pass as the real ones.
2073	dbpedia	2	14	https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-china/qin-dynasty	en	Qin Dynasty: Achievements, Facts & Time Period	https://assets.editorial…es-534904337.jpg	https://assets.editorial…es-534904337.jpg	[ "https://sb.scorecardresearch.com/p?c1=2&c2=3005002&cs_ucfr=1&cv=3.6&cj=1", "https://www.history.com/assets/images/history/logo.svg", "https://www.history.com/assets/images/history/logo.svg", "https://assets.editorial.aetnd.com/uploads/2017/12/terracotta-soldiers-gettyimages-534904337.jpg?width=640&height=426...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Amanda Onion", "History.com Editors" ]	2017-12-21T18:47:20+00:00	The Qin Dynasty was the first royal dynasty during the age of Imperial China. Qin achievements had a profound cultural impact on the dynasties that followed.	en	https://www.history.com/…e-touch-icon.png	HISTORY	https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-china/qin-dynasty	Capital of Qin Dynasty The Qin (pronounced “chin”) region was located in modern-day Shaanxi province, north of the Zhou Dynasty territory—Qin served as a barrier between it and the less civilized states north of it. The capital of the Qin Dynasty was Xianyang, which was extensively enlarged after Qin dominance was established. Qin itself had been considered a backwards, barbarian state by the ruling Zhou Dynasty. This distinction had to do with its slow pace in embracing Chinese culture, for instance, lagging behind the Zhou in doing away with human sacrifice. The ruling class of Qin nonetheless believed themselves to be legitimate heirs to the Zhou states, and through the centuries they strengthened their diplomatic and political standing through a variety of means, including strategic marriages. Shang Yang It was during the rule of Duke Xiao from 361 to 338 B.C. that the groundwork was laid for conquest, primarily through the work of Shang Yang, an administrator from the state of Wey who was appointed Chancellor. Shang Yang was a vigorous reformer, systematically reworking the social order of Qin society, eventually creating a massive, complex bureaucratic state and advocating for the unification of Chinese states. Among Shang Yang’s innovations was a successful system to expand the army beyond the nobility, giving land as a reward to peasants who enlisted. This helped create a massive infantry that was less expensive to maintain than the traditional chariot forces. Following Duke Xiao’s death, Shang Yang was charged with treason by the old aristocrats in the state. He attempted to fight and create his own territory but was defeated and executed in 338 B.C. with five chariots pulling him apart for spectators in a market. But Shang Yang’s ideas had already laid the foundation for the Qin Empire. Ying Zheng The state of Qin began to expand into the regions surrounding it. When the states of Shu and Ba went to war in 316 B.C., both begged for Qin’s help. Qin responded by conquering each of them and, over the next 40 years, relocating thousands of families there, and continuing their expansionist efforts into other regions. Ying Zheng is considered the first emperor of China. The son of King Zhuangxiang of Qin and a concubine, Ying Zheng took the throne at the age of 13, following his father’s death in 247 B.C. after three years on the throne. Qin Shi Huang As the ruler of Qin, Ying Zheng took the name Qin Shi Huang Di (“first emperor of Qin”), which brings together the words for “Mythical Ruler” and “God.” Qin Shi Huang began a militarily-driven expansionist policy. In 229 B.C., the Qin seized Zhao territory and continued until they seized all five Zhou states to create a unified Chinese empire in 221 B.C. Advised by the sorcerer Lu Sheng, Qin Shi Huang traveled in secrecy through a system of tunnels and lived in secret locations to facilitate communing with immortals. Citizens were discouraged from using the emperor’s personal name in documents, and anyone who revealed his location would face execution. Qin Unification Qin Shi Huang worked quickly to unify his conquered people across a vast territory that was home to several different cultures and languages. One of the most important outcomes of the Qin conquest was the standardization of non-alphabetic written script across all of China, replacing the previous regional scripts. This script was simplified to allow faster writing, useful for record keeping. The new script enabled parts of the empire that did not speak the same language to communicate together, and led to the founding of an imperial academy to oversee all texts. As part of the academic effort, older philosophical texts were confiscated and restricted (though not destroyed, as accounts during the Han Dynasty would later claim). The Qin also standardized weights and measures, casting bronze models for measurements and sending them to local governments, who would then impose them on merchants to simplify trade and commerce across the empire. In conjunction with this, bronze coins were created to standardize money across the regions. With these Qin advances, for the first time in their history, the various warring states in China were unified. The name China, in fact, is derived from the word Qin (which was written as Ch'in in earlier Western texts). Great Wall of China The Qin empire is known for its engineering marvels, including a complex system of over 4,000 miles of road and one superhighway, the Qinzhidao or “Straight Road,” which ran for about 500 miles along the Ziwu Mountain range and is the pathway on which materials for the Great Wall of China were transported. The empire’s borders were marked on the north by border walls that were connected, and these were expanded into the beginnings of the Great Wall. Overseen by the Qin road builder Meng Tian, 300,000 workers were brought to work on the construction of the Great Wall, and on the service roads required to transport supplies. Qin Shi Huang's Monuments Qin Shi Huang was noted for audacious marvels of art and architecture meant to celebrate the glory of his new dynasty. Each time Qin made a new conquest, a replica of that state’s ruling palace was constructed across from Qin Shi Huang’s Palace along the Wei River, then linked by covered walkways and populated by singing girls brought in from the conquered states. Weapons from Qin conquests were collected and melted down, to be used for the casting of giant statues in the capital city Xianyang. Qin Shi Huang Tomb For his most brash creation, Qin Shi Huang sent 700,000 workers to create an underground complex at the foot of the Lishan Mountains to serve as his tomb. It now stands as one of the seven wonders of the world. Designed as an underground city from which Qin Shi Huang would rule in the afterlife, the complex includes temples, huge chambers and halls, administrative buildings, bronze sculptures, animal burial grounds, a replica of the imperial armory, terracotta statues of acrobats and government officials, a fish pond and a river. Terracotta Army Less than a mile away, outside the eastern gate of the underground city, Qin Shi Huang developed an army of life-size statues—almost 8,000 terracotta warriors and 600 terracotta horses, plus chariots, stables and other artifacts. This vast complex of terracotta statuary, weapons and other treasures—including the tomb of Qin Shi Huang himself—is now famous as the Terracotta Army. Excavation of the tomb of Qin Shi Huang has been delayed due to high levels of toxic mercury at the site—it’s believed that the emperor had the liquid mercury installed in the tomb to mimic rivers and lakes. Death of Qin Shi Huang Qin Shi Huang died in 210 B.C. while touring eastern China. Officials traveling with him wanted to keep it secret, so to disguise the stench of his corpse, filled up 10 carts with fish to travel with his body. They also forged a letter from Qin Shi Huang, sent to crown prince Fu Su, ordering him to commit suicide, which he did, allowing the officials to establish Qin Shi Huang’s younger son as the new emperor. End of the Qin Dynasty In two years time, most of the empire had revolted against the new emperor, creating a constant atmosphere of rebellion and retaliation. Warlord Xiang Yu in quick succession defeated the Qin army in battle, executed the emperor, destroyed the capital and split up the empire into 18 states. Liu Bang, who was given the Han River Valley to rule, quickly rose up against other local kings and then waged a three-year revolt against Xiang Yu. In 202 B.C., Xiang Yu committed suicide, and Liu Bang assumed the title of emperor of the Han Dynasty, adopting many of the Qin dynasty institutions and traditions. Sources
2073	dbpedia	1	41	http://en.chinaculture.org/created/2005-11/11/content_75776_2.htm	en	Four Calligraphers			[ "http://en.chinaculture.org/created/tplimages/362.files/door_l.jpg", "http://en.chinaculture.org/created/tplimages/362.files/p_top_article.jpg", "http://en.chinaculture.org/created/tplimages/362.files/door_r.jpg", "http://en.chinaculture.org/created/tplimages/362.files/logo_1.jpg", "http://en.chinaculture.o...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2005-11-11T00:00:00					null	As an imperial graduate, Huang Tingjian also served in the government and involved himself in various political activities. His most important achievements lay in poetry, and he attached great importance to reading and check the source of material. As he once said, "Every character has its origin." He was the initiator of the Jiangxi school of poetry, which had significant influence on later Practitioners. Though best known for his achievements in poetry, he was also a great calligrapher, highly skilled inxingshuandcaoshu. Huang first studied calligraphy under Zhou Yue, and later learned much from the calligraphic works of Yan Zhenqing, Yang Ningshi and Zhang Xu. He developed his own style -- robust, open and vigorous. His most acclaimed handwritings have survived the challenge of time, and include Pine WindPavilion, Fragrance of Flower, and so on. Mi Fu Mi Fu, also named Mi Yuanzhang, was born in Taiyuang ofShanxi Provinceand later took residence inZhenjiangofJiangsu Province. Due to his eccentric disposition and crazy behavior, he was given the name of Mi Dian (Crazy Mi). For example, he would adore every stone he came upon, calling it brother. Boasting proficiency in poetry, painting, calligraphy, collection and authentication, Mi Fu was given the title of a poet, painter, calligrapher, collector and connoisseur.
2073	dbpedia	0	21	https://www.liveauctioneers.com/price-result/mi-fu-calligraphy/	en	Mi Fu calligraphy	https://p1.liveauctionee…rsion=1713983997	https://p1.liveauctionee…rsion=1713983997	[ "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=992512390846699&ev=PageView&noscript=1", "https://p1.liveauctioneers.com/dist/images/logo.svg", "https://p1.liveauctioneers.com/7634/341071/185126615_1_x.jpg?category_id=undefined&height=234&quality=70", "https://p1.liveauctioneers.com/7634/341071/185126560_1_x.jpg?category_id=...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Name Mi Fu calligraphy Dimensions 117cm x 58cm Condition Additional photographs and Condition reports are provided by r	en	/apple-touch-icon.png	LiveAuctioneers	https://www.liveauctioneers.com/price-result/mi-fu-calligraphy/	L: 8 5/8 in(22cm) W: 6 1/4 in(16cm) Mi Fu (1051-1107) was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He became known for hi MI FU, Chinese Calligraphy Hanging Scroll Length:40cm, Width:140cm, Detailed condition reports are not included in this catalog. For additional information, including condition reports, please contact MI FU, Chinese Calligraphy on Paper Length:37cm, Width:119cm, Detailed condition reports are not included in this catalog. For additional information, including condition reports, please contact us at Chinese calligraphy on silk after Mi Fu; showing running calligraphy of Xia Jing Ming Tie style; signed, with seal marks; 12 1/2" x 24" (approx.); silk mount Hanging scroll, calligraphy on paper. Poem calligraphy in running script. Signed with several seals of the artist. Height:133cm, Width:38cm, 米芾 A Chinese Scroll Calligraphy By Mi Fu Dimensions (Sight/Painting View): 52 1/4 x 15 7/8 in.(133cm x 40.5cm) The collection originate from Edward Hobart Seymour's uncle's family. Sourc 米芾 A Chinese Scroll Calligraphy By Mi Fu Dimensions (Sight/Painting View): 48 x 18 in.(122cm x 46cm) The collection originate from Edward Hobart Seymour's uncle's family. Source: From th A Chinese Scroll Calligraphy By Mi Fu 75 x 46cm This lot was provided by the Montauban family, whose descendants were also fascinated by collecting Chinese art, influenced by the collection of the Com Chinese Silk Calligraphy Scroll, Mi Fu Mark L: 33 1/8 in(84cm) W: 15 3/4 in(40cm) A calligraphy attributed to Mi Fu (1051-1107). The calligraphy has 5 seals, and is on paper with a silk backing and a porcelain dowel. Dimensions are 53 1/4 inches tall X 22 3/4 inches wide. All measu Silk Scroll of Calligraphy, by Mi Fu.米芾PROVENANCE: Highlight of this sale is part of the collection of K'ung Hsiang-Hsi (Kong Xiangxi, 孔祥熙, 1880-1967). Born in Taigu Three Chinese calligraphy painting scrolls; after Mi Fu on silk, signed, with seal marks; semi-cursive on silk after Zhao Mengfu, signed, with seal marks; together with paper, after Qianlong Emperor; Three Chinese Calligraphy Folding Fan Leaves MID 19TH-MID 20TH CENTURY (1) Chong'en (1803-1878) Calligraphy in the Style of Mi'fu ink on gold flecked paper signed with a dedication and one artist seal
2073	dbpedia	3	1	https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mi-Fu	en	Mi Fu \| Chinese Calligrapher, Painter & Poet	https://cdn.britannica.c…Clouds-Mi-Fu.jpg	https://cdn.britannica.c…Clouds-Mi-Fu.jpg	[ "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png", "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png", "https://cdn.britannica.com/87/9987-004-8B186052/Tower-silk-colour-Rising-Clouds-Mi-Fu.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/74/129374-131-833AE3CF/Chalk.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=cr...	[]	[]	[ "Mi Fu", "encyclopedia", "encyclopeadia", "britannica", "article" ]	null	[ "Chuang Shang-yen" ]	1998-07-20T00:00:00+00:00	Mi Fu was a scholar, poet, calligrapher, and painter who was a dominant figure in Chinese art. Of his extensive writings—poetry, essays on the history of aesthetics, and criticism of painting—a considerable amount survives. Mi was born of a family that had held high office in the early years of the	en	/favicon.png	Encyclopedia Britannica	https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mi-Fu	Life Mi was born of a family that had held high office in the early years of the Song dynasty (960–1279). Because his mother had been the wet nurse of the emperor Yingzong (reigned 1063/64–67/68), he was brought up within the imperial precincts, mixing freely with the imperial family. As a young boy, Mi showed precocious talent, particularly in calligraphy. Although he expressed a distaste for the formal lessons prescribed for a future official, he displayed a lively intelligence in his quick understanding of learned argument, his aptitude for excitingly original poetry, and his ability in painting and calligraphy. Britannica Quiz Can You Match These Lesser-Known Paintings to Their Artists? In later life Mi had a checkered official career, with frequent changes of post. He began as a reviser of books in the imperial library and subsequently served in three posts outside the capital of Kaifeng, in Henan province. In 1103 he was appointed a doctor of philosophy and was briefly military governor of Wuwei in the province of Anhui. He returned to the capital in 1104 to serve as a professor of painting and calligraphy, taking this opportunity to present to the emperor a painting by his son, Mi Youren. He then undertook the position of a secretary to the Board of Rites before setting out on his final appointment as military governor of Huaiyang, in Jiangsu province, in which post he died at the age of 57. He was buried in Dantu, in Jiangsu province, under an epitaph written for him by Mi Youren. Mi Fu was married and had five sons, of whom only the two eldest survived infancy, and eight daughters. Works Mi’s writings were extensive. A collection of his poetry, the Shanlin Ji, has been lost, but still existing are the Baozhang Daifang Lu (“Critical Description of Calligraphics in Mi Fu’s Collection”) and Hua Shi (“Account of Painting”), which contain records of his own and others’ collections of paintings, essays on aesthetic history, and criticism of paintings. There also exist some posthumous collections of his writings, Haiyue Mingyan (“Remarks on Calligraphy”) and Haiyue Tiba (“Inscriptions and Colophons by Mi Fu”). Throughout Mi’s life, the workings of a highly individualistic temperament were evident. This was manifested in his fastidious attention to cleanliness, his preference for the clothes of ancient Chinese dynasties, and his love for strange rocks and ink stones, which he collected. His comparative failure in his official career was perhaps a result of this eccentric personality. Despite his undoubted ability, his friendship with the leaders of both principal political factions (the poet-statesman Wang Anshi and Su Dongpo), and his family connections, he never rose to any office higher than that of a second-class secretary to the Board of Rites. The reason, his epitaph states, was that “he could not endure to bow and scrape before the world.” This upstanding independence was apparent in his attitude toward art collectors; he divided them into two classes—busybodies and connoisseurs—utterly deriding the former as illiterate and intent simply on making a name for themselves. As an artist, Mi is best known for his calligraphy and landscape painting. His calligraphic style rejected inaccessibly unusual or flamboyant approaches and was formed by patient and catholic study of the great Chinese calligraphers of the past. His theoretical writings in the Hua Shi and Haiyue Mingyan, which contain some of the most penetrating remarks written on the subject of calligraphy, indicate that Mi believed in respect for historic styles suffused with the calligrapher’s own creative talent. Most of all he valued spontaneity and self-expression, eschewing the contrived and saccharine. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now Mi’s paintings, such as Tower of the Rising Clouds, represented a break with the past. Before the period of the Song dynasty, landscape painting in China had depended essentially on line for its description of the world. Mi, however, was concerned with depicting the misty rivers and hills of the lake district of Henan province and introduced a technique of extremely moist washes and horizontal texture strokes. Later known as “Mi dots” (Mi dian), this technique rendered a vivid impression of that rainy and cloud-clad Chinese region. This technique of “splashed ink” (pomo) was Mi’s own invention; it attracted enthusiastic contemporary attention and remained a compelling influence throughout the history of Chinese painting. Chuang Shang-yen
2073	dbpedia	0	37	https://www.abebooks.com/9787547902554/Calligraphy-WorksFamous-Chinese-Inscription-Edition-7547902553/plp	en	Mi Fu Calligraphy WorksFamous Chinese Inscription 79 (Chinese Edition)	https://pictures.abebook…547902554-us.jpg		[ "https://pictures.abebooks.com/isbn/9787547902554-us.jpg", "https://pictures.abebooks.com/isbn/9787547902554-us.jpg", "https://pictures.abebooks.com/inventory/6257135021.jpg", "https://assets.prod.abebookscdn.com/cdn/shared/images/Shared/css/seller-rating/fivestar.png", "https://assets.prod.abebookscdn.com/...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Ben She" ]	2011-08-30T00:00:00	Low prices on new and used copies of books. 30 days return policy - Mi Fu (10511107), was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan, Shanxi during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the ""Mi Fu"" style and involved the use of large wet dots of ink applied with a flat ...	en			https://www.abebooks.com/9787547902554/Calligraphy-WorksFamous-Chinese-Inscription-Edition-7547902553/plp	Mi Fu Shu posts Suthep Tiaoxi poem famous Chinese rubbings BEN SHE paperback. Condition: New. Ship out in 2 business day, And Fast shipping, Free Tracking number will be provided after the shipment.Pages Number: 55 Publisher: Shanghai Fine Art Pub. Date :2011-08-01 version 1. Mi Fu (one thousand and fifty-one - one thousand one hundred and seven). the Song Dynasty calligraphers. Early name fu. 41-year-old changed after the Department Fu. Chapter characters. numbers Lumen lay. Xiangyang Shi Man. Haiyue Gaishi so. the Bank said. Meenan Palace. Taiyuan (Shanxi Province. this is a) people. Xiangyang Xi Ju (now part of Hubei Province). late home Runzhou (now Zhenjiang. Jiangsu Province). to build Hai Yue Temple. Vision and painting when Dr. Green. then to the Board of Rites Yuanwai Lang. Good clean addiction. store more rocks. known as rice Britain. The law books were promoted to the second king for the return. old age out of the rules. won an unexpected purpose; from those that only a good book. surrounded by unique I know are of course. Su Shi. Huang. Cai Xiang (one for CAI) par. later known as the Song four. Shu Doi Suthep Poem poetry book from Wing-four. seven-character verse four. silk. vertical 27.8 cm. 270.8 cm horizontal. Mi Fu running script for the masterpiece. Total seventy-two Ding. five hundred and fifty set by leaders. Su Shu Song Qingli this is four years (one thousand and forty-four) beam Chuan made. Lin Xi (sub in framed into a volume. note its tail to its first virtual storage is a good book by. Xining eight years (one thousand and seventy-five ) After Husband concept in Hu Lin. has only questions of its tail. to Wu Yu three years (one thousand and eighty-eight) September 23. the book began as a Mi Fu. seal have item Yuan Bian India. Gao Shiqi . Wang Hongxu India. Qianlong Yu Lan's treasure. Jiaqing Yu Lan's treasure. Yu Lan Xuantong treasure and collectors such as India. Thess Gaozong Emperor Qianlong sign problem Mi Fu Shu Doi Suthep book: character . after post completion husband Hu. Dong Qichang. Shen Zhou. Zhu Yun and other Postscript. Wen Zhengming Chen scorpion and other concept models. this possession of the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Tiaoxi poem quote. Song Yuanyou three years (one thousand and eighty-eight) August 8 Mi Fu essays on poetry books. paper. vertical and three three centimeters horizontal 189.5 cm. running hand. Five of 36. 290 words. This is when the Mi 38 the book. seal of Shaoxing. Rui Si Temple and India. Item Wu Bian India. Qianlong Yu Lan's treasure. product Qing Yu Lan treasure. Yu Lan Xuantong treasure and collectors such as India . post the first line under the item's collection of independence word number. post after m Tomohito. Li Dongyang Postscript. Song Shaoxing has been classified within the government. Ming Yang Shiqi. land and water village. item Wu Bian. clear within the government. this possession of the Palace Museum. which the Mi Fu Shu Doi Suthep Tiaoxi poem quote. a Famous Chinese rubbings. one of the series. Mi Fu Shu Doi Suthep Tiaoxi poem quote. published by the Shanghai book painting. Contents: Su-Shu Posts Tiaoxi poetry postFour Satisfaction guaranteed,or money back. Seller Inventory # LR8092
2073	dbpedia	1	94	http://www.pearlartmuseum.org/en/index/event/Event-List/detail!kai-juan-you-yi-du-hua-xi-lie-di-shi-qi-ni-zan-hui-hua-yan-du-cong-liu-jun-zi-tu-dao-rong-xi-zhai-tu	en	Study on Ni Zan's Paintings: From Six Gentlemen to Rongxi Studio	http://pearlartmuseum.storage.comocloud.net/upload/photo_db/2017/09/15/201709151301112cdbed0d.jpg	http://pearlartmuseum.storage.comocloud.net/upload/photo_db/2017/09/15/201709151301112cdbed0d.jpg	[ "http://pearlartmuseum.storage.comocloud.net/upload/photo_db/2017/09/15/201709151301112cdbed0d.jpg", "http://www.pearlartmuseum.org/modulesassets/comofrontend/images/wechat/wechat-qrcode.jpg?v=20210717", "http://www.pearlartmuseum.org/modulesassets/comofrontend/images/wechat/wechat-qrcode.jpg?v=20210717", "ht...	[]	[]	[ "Activity", "Lecture", "Wang Zhaoyu", "Pearl Art Museum (Center of Light Space)", "Pearl Art Museum", "Shanghai Book and Painting Press" ]	null	[]	null	Pearl Art Museum is a non-profit non-governmental art museum conceived by Shanghai XinHua Distribution Group and Red Star Macalline Group Corporation Ltd.. PAM collaborates with creative art & cultural institutions, artists and intellectuals globally to explore its unique mode of operation, exhibition program, and the way to communicate with cultural industries as well as its visitors.	zh	http://www.pearlartmuseum.org/modulesassets/comofrontend/css/favicons/apple-touch-icon.png?v=20210717		null	As one of the outstanding literati painters, Ni Zan started a new wave of paintings in Yuan Dynasty. His works also have far-reaching impact on the later generations. In the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty, gentries in south area of the Yangtze River judged a good person depending on whether he or she had a painting from Ni Zan. Ni Zan was born in an extremely wealthy family and brought up by his brother Ni Zhaokui who was the upper-class pursuing Taoism and invited the Taoism immortal Wang Furen to mentor Ni Zan. Growing up in such environment, Ni Zan developed a unique character of being aloof and proud, self-controlled, and ignoring secularity. Ni Zan had a three-story library called Qingbige where housed a collection of books and famous calligraphies and paintings including Zhong Yao’s A Letter of Recommendation for Ji Zhi (Pinyin: Jian Ji Zhi Biao), Mi Fu’s Marvelous Spectacle in Hunan Province (Pinyin: Xiao Xiang Qi Guan Tu, also called Hai Yue An Tu), Dong Yuan’s Landscape in Hunan Province (Pinyin: Xiao Xiang Tu), and Li Cheng’s Forests and Hills (Pinyin: Mao Lin Yuan Xiu Tu). He was immersed in figuring out and copying the charm and spirit of these master pieces. He also went out to paint from life and observe the mountains and waters in the natural world. In this way, he learnt merits from others’ works and created his unique ones. Ni Zan experienced family misfortunes in his middle age. His brother, mother, and mentor passed away successively, turning him from a rich person to the man of the family. His mindset greatly changed. At that time, he began to believe in Quanzhen School of Taoism and had a thought of escapist fantasy which can be reflected in his works. Take Six Gentlemen as an example. The work presents a pursuit of simplicity, serenity, and aloof. In the painting, six trees including pine tree, cypress, camphor tree, Phoebe zhennan, locust tree, and elm stand straight, which is a metaphor of the integrity character of a gentleman. It is a major characteristic of literati paintings in which authors imply their ambitions via objects. Then Ni Zan began to travel in areas around Lake Tai with no determined whereabouts. After he experienced the fickleness of the world and inconstancy of people's relationship, his works presented a tranquil and profound style of selflessness. The three-section composition style of "one river and two banksides" was formed at that time. Rongxi Studio which is called the last work of Ni Zan is the representative one of such style. In the painting, there is only a pavilion and tree but no passerby. An emotion of "things do not change but people change" revealed in the painting. At the afternoon of October 17 (Saturday), we will hold the tenth lecture of “Read the Art·Read the Painting”. Wang Zhaoyu, associate professor of School of Art of Soochow University will lead us to learn about the painter Ni Zan who has great influence on the future generations by appreciating Six Gentlemen and Rongxi Studio at Heart Hall of Pearl Art Museum. Let’s interpret how Ni Zan changed the traditional pattern of painting and created his unique masterpieces. Qibao Spring & Wash the Phoenix Tree Ni Zan whose art name is Yun Lin Zi was remembered not by his works but also his mysophobia that was recorded in Yufu Miscellany: Yun Lin Anecdotes. He lived at Mr. Xu’s home in Guangfu County for some time. One day he went hiking with Xu and occasionally drank the water in Qibao Spring which tasted sweet. Then Xu send people to take two barrels of the spring water home for Ni Zan who drank one barrel and washed his body with the remaining barrel. Xu’ house was 2.5 kilometers away from Qibao Spring, but he kept taking the spring water home every day for half a year. After Ni Zan went back to his home, Xu paid a visit to see him. Xu admired and asked for visiting Ni Zan’s library “Qing Bi Ge”. But he had a cough and spit on the ground outside the library. Then Ni Zan asked his servants to find the sputum inch by inch. After a long time searching, the servants failed to locate the stained area. Ni Zan began to search himself and finally found it next to the root of a phoenix tree. He let the servants wash the tree immediately. Xu felt ashamed and left the house silently. After his family declined, Ni Zan began to travel in areas around Lake Tai. Later he suffered from a disease and received treatment at his close friend and famous doctor Xia Quan’s home. Finally, he cannot recover and passed away with peculiar smell in his body.
2073	dbpedia	3	35	http://en.chinaculture.org/created/2005-11/11/content_75776_2.htm	en	Four Calligraphers			[ "http://en.chinaculture.org/created/tplimages/362.files/door_l.jpg", "http://en.chinaculture.org/created/tplimages/362.files/p_top_article.jpg", "http://en.chinaculture.org/created/tplimages/362.files/door_r.jpg", "http://en.chinaculture.org/created/tplimages/362.files/logo_1.jpg", "http://en.chinaculture.o...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2005-11-11T00:00:00					null	As an imperial graduate, Huang Tingjian also served in the government and involved himself in various political activities. His most important achievements lay in poetry, and he attached great importance to reading and check the source of material. As he once said, "Every character has its origin." He was the initiator of the Jiangxi school of poetry, which had significant influence on later Practitioners. Though best known for his achievements in poetry, he was also a great calligrapher, highly skilled inxingshuandcaoshu. Huang first studied calligraphy under Zhou Yue, and later learned much from the calligraphic works of Yan Zhenqing, Yang Ningshi and Zhang Xu. He developed his own style -- robust, open and vigorous. His most acclaimed handwritings have survived the challenge of time, and include Pine WindPavilion, Fragrance of Flower, and so on. Mi Fu Mi Fu, also named Mi Yuanzhang, was born in Taiyuang ofShanxi Provinceand later took residence inZhenjiangofJiangsu Province. Due to his eccentric disposition and crazy behavior, he was given the name of Mi Dian (Crazy Mi). For example, he would adore every stone he came upon, calling it brother. Boasting proficiency in poetry, painting, calligraphy, collection and authentication, Mi Fu was given the title of a poet, painter, calligrapher, collector and connoisseur.
2073	dbpedia	2	4	https://static.artmuseum.princeton.edu/asian-art/china/timeline	en	Asian Art at the Princeton University Art Museum			[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en			null	Following the fall of the Qin dynasty, the Han dynasty was established by Liu Bang, a man of humble origins whose posthumous title was Gaozu (259â195 B.C.). Lasting over four hundred years, the Han is divided into three historical periods: the Western or Former Han (206 B.C.âA.D. 9), when the capital was located to the west at Chang'an, near modern Xi'an, Shaanxi province; followed by the Xin dynasty, an interregnum by the usurper Wang Mang (9â24); and concluding with the Eastern or Later Han (25â220) when the Liu imperial house was reestablished and the capital moved east to Luoyang in Henan province. The Western Han began with a period of political consolidation building on the centralized administrative institutions and legal system of statutes and ordinances inherited from the Qin dynasty. Within the structure of the central and provincial governments, a civil service system was instituted that emphasized the learning of the Confucian Classics and other texts as a means for testing candidates for office. Besides providing moral and ethical standards of social and government conduct, the Classics also became the source for aesthetic judgment in later periods. In calligraphy, because clerical scripts had been used to transcribe and explain the Classics, it was adopted as the official scribal style for government, official documents, and often used for public monuments. Paper was invented in the Han, but most books, documents, and paintings were brushed on bamboo or wood strips tied in the form of rolls, on silk scrolls or banners, or directly on stones, walls, or screens. Within China's borders, revenues were generated by government monopolies in iron, salt, coinage, and mining. These monopolies grew to include the manufacture of many artifacts for daily or funerary use, including bronzes, ceramics, lacquers, stonework, and textiles. Workshops were set up to produce such items, leading to greater specialization and mass production techniques. Clay figures of animals, people, and models, such as buildings or wellheads, were individually sculpted or produced from molds. Bronzework continued to utilize late Zhou dynasty casting practices, and were often inlaid with gold, silver, and gemstones, or developed new polychromatic effects by casting different colored alloys in successive stages. Bronze artifacts included ritual and everyday vessels, lamps, mirrors, belt hooks, and figural sculpture. Silk weaving also became a major industry and the geometric and cloud textile patterns influenced lacquerware designs. Lacquer production was refined in the Han and became so highly valued that bronzes and ceramics were sometimes painted to imitate lacquerware. During the reign of the Wudi emperor (140â87 B.C.), military campaigns and colonization expanded the Han dominion into areas of south and southwest China and Vietnam, northeast into Korea, and west into parts of Central Asia. Territorial expansion was accompanied by the opening of overland trade routes through Central Asia known as the Silk Routes, and by sea to Burma and India. Interaction with Central Asian, Iranian, Hellenistic, and Roman cultures led to opportunities for the mutual introduction of new artistic, commercial, intellectual, and religious ideas. Metal, glass, and ceramic vessel types, ornamental designs, and musical instruments were introduced. Within China's borders, government officials were posted to various regions of the country, including frontier garrisons, and many may have brought local artisans and traditions with them. This relocation, along with interregional trade, may partially explain the process whereby many common stylistic motifs and thematic designs are to be found in many areas even when separated by vast distances. A series of weak emperors, combined with court intrigue, misguided land-use policies and natural disasters, engendered widespread dissatisfaction in the late Western Han. In A.D. 5, Wang Mang, the nephew of the Empress Dowager, was appointed regent for the new child emperor. Upon the young ruler's death in A.D. 9, Wang Mang seized the throne, proclaiming the Xin dynasty. During his brief reign, Wang Mang attempted to change the structure of government, issue new coinage, and institute social and land reform measures. In imperially sponsored cultural projects and building efforts, he tried to legitimize his rule through imitation of historical and ritual precedents. His policies met with strong opposition and ended with his capture and death in A.D. 23. The Liu imperial family was restored to dynastic power in A.D. 25 by Liu Xiu, a distant cousin of the last Western Han emperor whose posthumous title was Guang Wudi (reigned 25â57). This marked the beginning of the Eastern Han dynasty, when the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. During the early Eastern Han, Chinese influence was again reasserted in the south, as well as briefly to the west into Central Asia, reopening foreign trade routes. Early efforts to strengthen central governmental authority gave way in the second century to struggles over imperial succession and rivalries between powerful landowning families, palace eunuchs, and imperial consort families. Constant local rebellions and messianic movements also forced the court to delegate greater authority to provincial authorities. Along with factional infighting, these factors all contributed to the downfall of the dynasty and national division in A.D. 220. The Western and Eastern Han capitals were located at the eastern terminus of several overland trading routes through the deserts of Chinese Turkestan, also known as Chinese Tartary, Eastern Turkestan and Serindia. Passing through the western regions of Bactria and Samarakand to the west, these Silk Routes also permitted an exchange of goods and ideas. This was one of the principle routes by which Buddhism infiltrated China during the Eastern Han period. Buddhism also appears to have entered China by sea trading routes in this period. Funerary arts and tomb structures in the Han dynasty reflect evolving views of the afterlife from merely supplying the needs of the tomb occupant to notions of a hierarchical underworld bureaucracy and belief in immortal paradisiacal realms. The design of tombs may reflect these changing notions by being designed as cosmological models of the realms of life and afterlife. From early vertical pit tombs built of wood, burial structures began to be increasingly constructed of large hollow bricks in the early Han that were often decorated with stamped designs. In the middle Han, small solid brick tomb construction with vaulted ceilings became prevalent, and in the Eastern Han period, some tombs began to be built using stone slab construction. It is this transition from wood to masonry funerary construction in the Han that has given rise to the misleading generalization that Chinese architecture for the living is built of wood, and underground funerary architecture for the dead are built of stone. Inside tombs, the walls were often decorated in stamped, painted, or carved relief pictorial images illustrating scenes of legendary rulers, paragons of filial piety and loyalty, historical and mythological stories, and scenes of feasting, homage, processions, and other subjects as patterns of life and afterlife. A paradigm for Han pictorial carved stone funerary art has been the so-called Wu Family Shrines. Also found inside Han tombs were ritual jade and bronze artifacts, and tomb furnishings increasingly included ceramic and metal replicas and miniatures. More than just supplying the needs of the dead, the tomb layout, pictorial images, and burial artifacts can all be seen functioning as exemplary models picturing or embodying the universe of the living and the dead. Han dynasty sumptuary codes regulating the size, design, and embellishment of art and architecture reflected the social and political hierarchy. However, with the gradual dissipation of central authority in the latter half of the Eastern Han, extravagant burials exceeding acceptable propriety and decorum flourished, and numerous moral condemnations and proscriptive laws were enacted in attempts to curb the excess. The adherence or transgression of these codes and proscriptions are reflected in the story of art in the Han dynasty. Western (Early) Han, 206 B.C.âA.D. 9 _ Xin dynasty, 9â24 _ Eastern (Later) Han, 25â220 The Tang dynasty enjoyed a long period of stable government and political rule bolstered by its strong military and centralized civil service examination system. It was also an era of great territorial expansion and prosperity. The capital city of Changâan (present-day Xi'an, Shaanxi province), became a great cosmopolitan center situated at the terminus of the Central Asian silk route, attracting foreign visitors and goods from various oasis towns located along the Taklimakan Desert. The cultural achievements of the Tang were no less impressive; the arts and poetry of this period represent a pinnacle of Chinese civilization. The Tang dynasty was founded by the Sui dynasty general, Li Yuan (566â635), who was posthumously known as Emperor Gaozu. Retaining many Sui administrative institutions and policies, the early Tang government was highly centralized and depended on a complex system of administrative law. Over time, the authority of the ruling aristocracy gave way to professional bureaucrats who were recruited through the civil examination system. The reign of Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712â756) is considered one of the most brilliant cultural periods of the Tang. Xuanzong was himself a scholar and patron of the arts, and his court became a center of cultural activity. The Tang was also an active period of cultural interaction between China and her neighbors. Buddhism flourished as foreign missionaries, monks and teachers passed through Changâan, bringing with them new ideas and religious texts that were initially welcomed by the Tang rulers. The monk Xuanzang (602â664) visited India and Nepal, returning with Buddhist texts, many of which were then translated into Chinese under government sponsorship. By the mid-ninth century, however, as China turned inward and government finances grew strained, Buddhism suffered significant persecution. Under the great proscription of 842â845, millions of Buddhist monks and nuns were forcibly secularized and placed back in the tax rolls, while Buddhist land and temples were reclaimed by the state. Painting and Calligraphy Tang painting is represented in surviving wall paintings found in the tombs of high-ranking individuals. While few original mural paintings are still in situ, many examples can be found in museum collections. Generally, mural paintings tend to depict scenes from court life, including images of officials, court ladies, and their attendants; imperial processions with carriages, horses, and banners; funerary processions; and gaming and banqueting scenes. Tomb painting also featured activities such as netting butterflies and watching bees, as well as images of birds and flowers. In figural delineation, artists succeeded in reconciling the articulation of volume with a two-dimensional surface. Various techniques contributed to a sense of modeling, including the use of thickening and thinning brush lines. Small format paintings may also be an important source for studying Tang painting styles. Among the few surviving paintings attributed to Tang masters is Yan Libenâs (d. 673) Portraits of Thirteen Emperors (Boston Museum of Fine Arts). The large scale of the figures, linear delineation of the robes, and use of shading in the facial features may all reflect a Tang style. Calligraphy Tang dynasty calligraphy underwent significant stylistic innovation and was deeply linked to ethical and political concerns embodying moral virtue and upright government. An important figure was Emperor Taizong (r. 626â649), who excelled at calligraphy and amassed a palace collection that included all known pieces by the revered fourth-century Southern calligrapher, Wang Xizhi (303â361). In ordering court calligraphers to study the Wang Xizhi tradition, Taizong may have recognized the value of its association with the political reunification of North and South China. Court calligraphers of the Tang courtâincluding Yu Shinan (558â638), Ouyang Xun (557â641) and Zhu Suiliang (596â658)âalso developed a new standard-script (kaishu) style that combined the Southern calligraphic tradition of fluid, free strokes with blocky, angular forms associated with Northern monumental stone engraving style. The new standard-script style combined the fluid brushwork (taken from Wang Xizhi) with upright and balanced positioning within a rectilinear frame of supports and walls. Each character stroke, hook, and dot is fully articulated, and each of these elements interacts in a tightly knit construction. The resulting standard-script style was adopted nationwide, appearing in monuments and steles erected at palaces, temples, and tombs. One of the leading calligraphers of this new monumental standard script was Yan Zhenqing (709â785), who died a loyalist martyr and became an enduring figure of heroic virtue. Rejecting the Tang court manner of refined fluid brushstrokes, in his calligraphy Yan created a bold style. The structural cohesiveness of his calligraphy quickly came to symbolize upright principles and moral rectitude, as well as strength and harmony. Another leading calligrapher at the other end of the spectrum was Huai Su (ca. 736âca.799). His innovations in untrammeled wild cursive (kuang cao) script had enduring effects on the history of calligraphy. Huai once remarked, "When I see extraordinary mountains in summer clouds, I try to imitate them. Good calligraphy resembles a flock of birds darting out from the trees, or startled snakes scurrying into the grass, or cracks bursting in a shattered wall." Sculpture Sculpture during the Tang dynasty can be found in the context of burial sites and religious temples and caves. The placement of stone sculptures aboveground, along the spirit path (shendao) near tombs was a practice dating as far back as the Western Han dynasty. Wood and ceramic tomb sculpture were also buried in tombs, and many fine figures have been found in burials in the areas of the main capital, Chang'an, and the secondary capital, Luoyang. The multitude of Buddhist sculpture produced for temples also demonstrates significant artistic innovations in representing spatial volume and physical form. Ceramics Tang funerary ceramics are best known for figures of horses and camels, tomb guardians, court ladies, and decorated vessels. Figures and vessels were embellished using various techniques including brightly colored glazes and painted pigments. A distinctive decoration known as "three-colors" (sancai) glaze combined lead glazes of different colors; predominantly green, amber, and cream, but also cobalt blue, yellow, brown, and black. Stoneware vessels produced at regional kilns exhibit different characteristics. Gray-green wares were produced at the Yaozhou kilns in the north, olive-green or gray glazed Yue wares were made in the east, and vessels with dark brown and transparent glazes were made in Hunan province near Changsha. White-bodied porcelain wares also began to be produced in the late Sui dynasty, and the best Tang examples are the Xing ware vessels from kilns in Hebei province. The collapse of the Tang dynasty in 907 set the stage for the swift rise and fall of a series of Five Dynasties (907â960) in the north. Zhao Kuangyin, a general of the Later Zhou, was compelled by his troops to become emperor, and finally succeeded in reunifying China in 960. Reigning as the Taizu emperor (r. 960â76), he established the capital of the Northern Song (960â1127) dynasty in Kaifeng, Henan province. This initial period of the dynasty was followed by the Southern Song (1127â1279) when the capital was relocated south to Hangzhou, Zhejiang province. In order to prevent the rise of strong military leaders who might challenge the throne, Taizu sought to shift the bureaucratic balance in favor of civil rather than military officials. This policy changed the landscape of Chinese society as it heralded the elevated position the scholar-official (shi) class, which would be maintained until the end of dynastic China. The shi class depended on the civil examination system, which was further developed during the Song. The numbers of examinees swelled as the dynasty continued. This growth was aided in part by the booming printing industry that allowed for the mass production and dissemination of various classics and treatises, upon which the exams were based. As the ranks of the civil bureaucracy grew, so too did increasing factionalism among officials. The boiling point was reached during the reign of the Shenzong emperor (r. 1067â85) when a series of reforms was introduced by the influential official Wang Anshi (1021â1086). Wangâs proposals angered many of his contemporaries, such as the poet-artist Su Shi (1037â1101) and the historian Sima Guang (1019â1086). Both denounced the reforms as non-Confucian. As the two sides became entrenched in their positions, many capable officials fell victim to court purges, with paralyzing effects on the government. The Huizong emperor (r. 1100â26) is remembered for his strong patronage of the arts, and his ignoble capture when northern China was subsumed under the Jurchen Jin dynasty in 1126. The Song dynasty was hastily and shakily reorganized in the south with the capital at Lin'an (present-day Hangzhou) by Huizongâs sixth son, Gaozong (r. 1127â62). The loss of the north, traditionally considered Chinaâs heartland, became an oft-noted sentiment during the Southern Song (1127â1279). It threads through paintings and poetry of the period, some of which leaned heavily on tropes concerning longing and homesickness. In this atmosphere a new school of Confucianism flourished. Known as Neo-Confucianism, this school promoted a return to the basics of Confucian teachings through refining one's inner self. Painting and Calligraphy The art of painting thrived at the beginning of the Song more so than at any earlier period. At the front of this burst of creativity were artists eager to engage with nature in ways that had never been attempted before. The monumental landscapes by Li Cheng (919â967), Guo Xi (ca. 1000âca. 1090), Fan Kuan (act. ca. 990â1030), and Li Tang (ca. 1070sâ1150s) glorified mountains and streams, downplaying the human role in nature, and experimenting with different types of brush strokes and compositional devices. Ideas about space and depth were of particular interest to these artists. Other painting genres blossomed during the Song, such as architectural rendering, narrative scenes, and depictions of flora and fauna. One the most famous handscrolls of the period combined many of these types. Painted by Zhang Zeduan (act. early 12th century), the surviving section of Going up the River on Qingming Day (Beijing Palace Museum) is a tour de force representation of the bustling city of Kaifeng and its environs on a festival day. The painting details daily activities including travel, trade, eating at teahouses, shopping, and even loitering, within an urban setting with buildings, walls, and bridges rendered in a ruled-line (jiehua) technique. The dynastic shift to the South did not greatly affect painting styles, as a conscious attempt was made to preserve and continue Northern Song forms. However, a certain introspective attitude is visible. The paintings of the Ma family, the most notable being Ma Yuan (act. ca. 1190â1225) and Ma Lin (act. ca. 1180âafter 1256), epitomize this sentiment. Their compositions often have a strong sense of the diagonal, with elements concentrated in one corner. Ma family paintings also frequently leave large portions of their paintings devoid of major compositional elements, implying great, unknown spaces in the misty distance. Calligraphy during the Song was a dynamic mixture of the traditionalâthe Wang Xizhi (303â361) and Yan Zhenqing (709â785) mannersâand individual styles. One of the great calligraphers of the period was Huang Tingjian (1045â1105) whose Scroll for Zhang Datong (Princeton University Art Museum) demonstrates an individualistic flair incorporating large characters with long wavering strokes and short quick ones. A contemporary of Huangâs was Mi Fu (1052â1107), another famed calligrapher and painter. His work Three Letters (Princeton University Art Museum) reveals his idiosyncratic running-script style, which ranged from a stable elegance to a more frenetic cursive style. Ceramics Major advances in ceramic technology took place in the Song. Kiln construction continued to evolve to be as efficient as possible, allowing more and more pieces to be fired at the same time. Decorative patterns were sometimes applied using molds, which also shortened production time. Glaze usage was refined so that coatings were even and color gradations were more predictable. Five great wares are usually associated with the Song: Ru ware with an opaque blue-gray glaze was produced from about 1107 to 1125 in Baofeng county, Henan province, for the Northern Song court. Surviving examples are rare, with less than one hundred known pieces in the world. Guan ware (literally âofficial wareâ) was made during the Southern Song in an attempt to replicate northern wares, such as Ru ware. The glaze was applied in several layers that induced as the layers cooled at different rates after firing. The result was a network of delicate glaze cracks that came to have aesthetic appeal. (Ru ware is sometimes considered to be the first crackle ware, but the effect may at first have been unintended.) The color of Guan glazes ranged from brownish gray to gray and light blue. Ding ware was produced at kilns in Ding prefecture, Hebei province. The kilns are best known for high-fired porcelaneous, thin-potted, white wares with clear or ivory colored glazes, but were also fired with black, russet, green, purple, or red glazes. In the late Tang and Five Dynasties period, these wares have a whiter appearance, and pieces carved with the character âofficialâ (guan) are thought to have been made for the imperial court. In the Song the classic ivory glazes appear. The clay bodies were often wheel-turned over a hump mold and decorated afterwards. Early wares were decorated with incised patterns that included flora, waterfowl, and fish. In the twelfth century, molds were used to form the decorative patterns. Many vessel shapes imitated metalwork, and some âpersimmon,â or russet- glazed, wares had gilt surface designs to imitate the appearance of lacquer wares. In the eleventh century, a technique was developed whereby bowls and dishes were fired upside down on stepped . This prevented warping; after firing the unglazed rims were often wrapped in copper or other precious metals. Jun ware has a thick, opaque glaze that can be colored iron-oxide blue, lavender, or green. Later examples were sometimes decorated with splashes of copperâoxide red or purple. Produced in Henan province, some Jun ware was made during the Song, but most surviving examples date from the Jin, Yuan, and early Ming periods. Ge ware features a gray glaze punctuated with distinctive crackling. Although this ware is traditionally connected with the Song, it may actually date to the Yuan or Ming dynasties. Ge may have been made in kilns located in Zhejiang or Jiangxi provinces, and was reproduced in the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries at the Jingdezhen kilns. Northern Song, 960â1127 Southern Song, 1127â1279 The relative stability of the early thirteenth century, with the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in the north and the Southern Song in the south, was shattered by Mongol incursion. Chinggis Qan (Genghis Khan) (ca. 1165â1227) and his ferocious army swept into China on horseback. With the fall of its capital at Beijing, the Jin dynasty was defeated in 1215. After the death of Chinggis Qan, the military campaign was taken up and completed under the leadership of his grandson, Qubilai Qan (Khubilai Khan) (1215â1294). The Southern Song fell in 1279, and once again north and south China were reunited. Qubilai had assumed the title of Great Qan in 1260, and proclaimed himself emperor of China in 1271. Earlier in 1259, before he became the Mongol leader, he had established a princely residence in the city of Shangduâthe famed pleasure-dome in Coleridge's poem "Xanadu." Shangdu was planned for Qubilai by the Chinese monk-official Liu Bingzhong (1216â1274), who was also responsible for the design of the new Yuan dynasty capital city of Dadu, located at the site of present-day Beijing. The Mongols ruled China for about one hundred years. During this short time, they established new rituals and institutions that heavily influenced the following Ming and Qing dynasties. The Mongols adopted many features of Chinese culture, but early in their rule they were suspicious of having native Chinese serve in government. In turn, many Chinese scholars and officials felt alienated and refused to serve the Yuan, preferring instead to live in retirement or pursue unconventional professions. Rather than stifling creativity, however, the tension between the Mongols and their Chinese subjects seems to have energized the arts of the period. In addition, new religious and secular practices were introduced into China. At different times, the Yuan government alternated in its support between Daoism and Buddhism; and the Mongol rulers particularly favored Lamaism, a form of Tibetan Buddhism. In their conquest of China, the Mongols had relied on their military prowess. Accustomed to a mobile steppe society, they had to devise new institutions that would enable them to rule a land in which they were a decided minority. Within a hundred years, the military strength of the Mongols was no longer dominant. Political infighting further weakened the ruling house, and widespread dissatisfaction and rebellion erupted around the country. Painting and Calligraphy A return to past styles by Yuan artists led to the use of expressive calligraphic brushwork in painting to express images of nature and of the mind. Calligraphy became critical to the practice and understanding of the pictorial arts, and can be seen in the works of Zhao Mengfu (1254â1322) and Ni Zan (1301â1374). Zhao Mengfu looms over the history of both calligraphy and painting during the early Yuan. A descendant of the Song imperial family, Zhao followed the example of many other loyalists by withdrawing from public life. He was eventually coaxed into government service by Qubilai Qan (Emperor Shizu, r. 1260â94), and held several prominent official posts. As an amateur painter, Zhao Mengfu undertook a comprehensive study of the styles of earlier masters. As a calligrapher, he explored an equally diverse range of styles. Combining principles of monumental writing from the Han and Tang dynasties with the fluid, more intimate brushwork of Wang Xizhi (303â361), he produced a new model of standard script, as displayed in his Record of the Miaoyan Monastery (Princeton University Art Museum). Within a short time, his standard-script style became a model for calligraphy and typeface for woodblock printing throughout China. One of the of the late Yuan, Ni Zan is widely known for his landscape style, characterized by dry brushwork. He became a model for later literati painters, who admired his noble character and praised his seemingly simple paintings as reflecting inner strength and fortitude. In 1353 Ni Zan began twenty years of waterborne wandering. One of the richest and most cultured men of his region, he was forced to flee from his lands during a period of Chinese rebel uprisings. This phase of his life may be reflected in a poem on his painting Twin Trees by the South Bank (Princeton University Art Museum), which mentions how he moored his boat, visited a friend, and left behind the painting as a remembrance. Ceramics With new market demands resulting from the reunification of north and south, as well as new Mongol tastes and the demand for exports to the Near East, Japan, and Korea, the Yuan was a period of innovation in ceramic production. Sources for new decorative motifs and vessel shapes came from Near Eastern metalwork, Tang dynasty features surviving in Jin dynasty ceramics, and archaic Chinese bronzes and jades. In this period, the center of ceramic production shifted to the south, where overseas trading routes led to markets as far away as Japan, India, and Africa. At the Jingdezhen complex of kilns in Jiangxi province, yingqing and qingbai porcelains exhibiting a bluish-tone glaze continued to be produced along with new types of porcelains painted with underglaze copper-red and colbalt-blue designs. Celadons with a more olive-green shade than their Song counterparts continued to be produced at the Longquan kilns in Zhejiang province. Some of the most innovative techniques were developed for stonewares produced in the area of Cizhou, Shanxi province. Having a dark clay body, these wares were decorated in various manners. Some had a white slip ground painted with underglaze black-iron pigment and sometimes incised designs, while others were detailed using a process, overglazes, polychrome, and numerous other techniques. In 1368, the troops of the rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang (1328â1398) captured the Yuan dynasty capital of Dadu to end Mongol domination. Native rule returned to China and Zhu Yuanzhang became the founding ruler of the Ming dynasty, reigning as the Hongwu emperor (r. 1369â98). In the early Ming, the primary capital was established at Zhu Yuanzhang's southern base at Nanjing, Jiangsu province. After his death the throne was usurped by Zhu Di (1360â1424), who reigned as the Yongle emperor from 1403 to 1424. During his father's lifetime, Zhu Di had been enfeoffed as the Prince of Yan at Beiping (later Beijing), which became the center of his military strength. Upon seizing the throne, new imperial palaces were built at Beiping between 1406 and 1421. In 1421, the city was renamed Beijing (literally the "Northern Capital") to become the main capital; Nanjing ("Southern Capital") was lowered to auxiliary status. Duplicate imperial institutions and government bureaucracies were maintained at both locations. As it turned out, the main halls of the newly completed Beijing palaces suspiciously burned early that same year, preventing the transfer. Only after the destroyed halls were rebuilt was Beijing once again elevated to become the primary capital in 1441. Although almost all the Ming palace structures have been later restored or rebuilt, with the result that the present-day Forbidden City retains the basic layout of this era. During the nearly three centuries of Ming rule, tributes recognizing Ming hegemony were submitted at various times from Annam (present-day Vietnam), Burma (present-day Myanmar), Korea, Mongolia, Siam (present-day Thailand), and from rulers in Chinese Turkestan as far west as Samarkand. Seven maritime fleet expeditions led by the eunuch Zheng He (1371â1435) were undertaken between 1405 and 1433, reaching India, Sri Lanka, and the east coast of Africa. Direct contact with European traders and missionaries also began in the sixteenth century with the arrival of the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch. The Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci (1552â1610) arrived in China in 1583 and succeeded in gaining the favor of the Ming court. The Jesuits were able to introduce Western methods of math and science, becoming employees of the Bureau of Astronomy. They also brought new artistic techniques such as chiaroscuro and perspective rendering, setting the stage for later cultural interaction. The imperial bureaucracy was reorganized by the Hongwu emperor in 1380. Instead of reporting to the chief administrative agency of the Grand Secretariat as in the past, the ministries now reported directly to the emperor. This reorganization functioned well when the emperor was able to devote his energies to governance, as in the case of the Hongwu and Yongle emperors. Afterwards, however, few Ming emperors were as conscientious in their duties, which eventually led to eunuch control, factional conflict, corruption, and disregard for responsible government. The reign of the Xuande emperor (r. 1426â35), however, was a stable period when support for the arts flourished. The emperor was himself an artist, poet, and significant patron of the arts. Imperial sponsorship of the ceramics kilns at Jingdezhen resulted in unsurpassed blue-and-white porcelains and wares imitating Song dynasty types. The Chenghua (1465â87) and Hongzhi (1488â1505) emperors also were capable rulers, but later emperors withdrew from their duties. The late Ming saw a rise in peasant unrest, the spread of native and Japanese pirates affecting commerce, and a re-emergent threat from Mongolian and northern tribes. In the Tumu Incident of 1449, the Chinese emperor was even captured by the Mongol troops and had to be ransomed. The Ming government became increasingly ineffective in the late sixteenth century. The decline of the dynasty has traditionally been ascribed to the reign of the Wanli emperor (r. 1573â1620). The reign started well with new reforms, but as the emperor became estranged from the government bureaucracy, factional disputes embroiled many of the leading political figures of the day, including many scholar-artists and their patrons. As rebel forces entered the imperial palaces in Beijing, the Ming dynasty collapsed with the suicide of the last Ming emperor in 1644. Painting Painting in the Ming is commonly regarded as a series of oppositions: courtâsponsored professional and literati amateur painters, Zhe and Wu Schools, or Northern and Southern Schools. Highly skilled painters in the Painting Academy at court were expected to work within rules and regulations to satisfy imperial tastes. Academic painting of the Song dynasty was often taken as a model. In landscape, Ming professionals imitated the traditional Song styles of Ma Yuan (act. ca. 1190â1264), Xia Gui (act. first half of 13th century), Guo Xi (ca. 1020âca. 1070), and the colorful blue-and-green landscape manner. In the area of Hangzhou, Zhejiang province, a loosely associated group of professional landscape painters working in a freer MaâXia manner became known as the Zhe School. This group was heavily influenced by the court artist Dai Jin (1388â1462) after his dismissal and return to Hangzhou. In court painting circles the category of bird-and-flower painting was split between two main camps following Song academic models. The vigorous inkwash manner of Lin Liang (ca. 1450âca. 1500), associated with Xu Xi's (d. ca. 975) use of "boneless" inkwash without outlines, was pitted against the descriptive-realism of LÃ¼ Ji (b. 1477) following the meticulous outline and color technique linked with Huang Quan (903â968). Such infighting within the professional orbit, however, was soon overshadowed by scholar-amateur painters in the sixteenth to early eighteenth centuries from the Wu region around Suzhou, a city now famed for its reconstructed gardens. The formation of the Wu School painting tradition is credited to Shen Zhou (1427â1509), who refined the expressionistic brush-oriented manner of the Yuan dynasty masters. The outcome was a simplified brush idiom that reflected the aura of a "gentleman." Transmitted from master to pupil, first to Wen Zhengming (1470â1559) then to Chen Chun (1483â1544), this style developed alongside the growing influence of literati garden culture in Ming society. The garden, like painting, calligraphy, and poetry, had become an expression of personal virtues and sometimes political aspirations. The traditional categorization of Ming painting into opposite camps is woefully inadequate to explain the era's complexity. Paintings by artists such as Tang Yin (1470â1524)âhis Seeing off a Guest on a Mountain Path (Princeton University Art Museum)âdefy classification into any one camp. Also evident are numerous individual and regional styles, which have elicited the comment that there were as many schools of painting as there were painters in the Ming. Into this mix stepped the scholar-artist Dong Qichang (1555â1636), who served as an official during the Wanli reign. Dong reasserted the reading of painted brushstrokes as calligraphic expression, and promoted the enlightened creation or "grand synthesis" (da cheng) of artistic style through the study of past masters. In order legitimate his own artistic achievements, Dong arbitrarily theorized that past painters belonged to one of two stylistic lineages: the expressive, understated brush styles of literati painters in the Southern School, and the descriptive, decorative tradition of professional artisans in the Northern School. More than a variation of the commonly held rivalry between the Zhe and Wu Schools, Dong positioned himself at the end of the Southern School as the true inheritor of a tradition of literati painters that included Dong Yuan (act. 937â976), Fan Kuan (d. after 1023), Mi Fu (1052â1107), the [Four Great Masters](/# Four Great Masters of the Yuan dynasty: Huang Gongwang (1269â1354), Ni Zan (1301â1374), Wu Zhen (1280â1354), and Wang Meng (1308â1385).) of the Yuan, and the Wu School artists in the Ming. Calligraphy During the early decades of the Ming, major calligraphers, including Song Ke (1327â1387), Shen Du (1357â1434), and Shen Can (1379â1453), were honored by the imperial court. By the middle of the fifteenth century, however, imperial interest in calligraphy had waned, and it was among private individuals, not scholars engaged in government service, that a wide range of new trends in calligraphy emerged. Led by Shen Zhou (1427â1509), calligraphers in the city of Suzhou revived the styles of Northern Song masters. Shen Zhou based his own running script, marked by plump, rounded strokes written with a slightly trembling rush, on that of the Northern Song calligrapher Huang Tingjian (1045â1105); Shenâs student Wen Zhengming (1470â1559) also followed this style. Zhu Yunming (1461â1527), another Suzhou native, excelled at small standard script (xiaokai); but his greatest impact came from his experiments in wild-cursive (kuangcao). In handscrolls of poems written in this script, such as his transcription of two poems by Li Bo (701â762), "Arduous Road to Shu" and "Song of the Immortal" (Princeton University Art Museum), Zhu attacked the paper with such verve that some characters seem to explode into patterns of ink dots that evoke the turbulent emotions expressed by the verse. His friends attributed his affinity for this highly expressive calligraphy to his impetuous personality. The theory and practice of calligraphy from the late Ming were dominated by Dong Qichang. A native of Songjiang prefecture, Dong disparaged the achievements of calligraphers in nearby Suzhou, and stressed the need to study works from the Eastern Jin and Tang dynasties. He advocated not close copying of these models, but probing analysis of what was most essential in their styles. Dongâs colophon dated 1609 to Wang Xizhiâs (303-361) Ritual to Pray for Good Harvest (Princeton University Art Museum), synthesizes the powerful, blocky standard script of the loyal official Yan Zhenqing (709â785) and the wild-cursive characters of the monk Huaisu (ca. 736âca.799), both of the Tang dynasty. A final generation of Ming calligraphers, several of whom lived to see the dynasty fall to the Manchus in 1644, explored highly idiosyncratic styles. Contemporary critics, as well as several of the calligraphers themselves, used the term qi, translatable as "unusual" or âstrange,â to describe innovations in calligraphy of this period that departed radically from long-accepted norms of composition and brushwork. Wang Duo (1592â1652), who claimed that his style, though strange, was based on that of classical masters, dedicated much of his career as a calligrapher to copying works by Wang Xizhi, but his re-creation of these models completely reconfigures them. In his large hanging scroll Calligraphy after Wang Xizhi (Princeton University Art Museum), he combined the texts of two letters by Wang, rewriting the characters in sinuous cursive script and amplifying the original letters into works of monumental size. In spite of the seeming wildness of his writing, however, Wang Duoâs inventive personal style fulfills Dong Qichangâs dictum that calligraphy must not copy but transform past models. Ceramics White porcelain with underglaze blue designs reached the pinnacle of refinement in the Xuande reign period (1426â35). These porcelains were made at the Jingdezhen complex of kilns in Jiangxi province, which had become the largest center for ceramic production by the middle of the fifteenth century. Fine monochrome wares were produced along with blue and white wares for the palace as well as for both domestic and foreign markets. Export wares reached countries in Southeast Asia and reached Europe by the seventeenth century. Ceramics were also produced at other regional kiln sites. At Dehua, Fujian province, a special white porcelain ware was produced along with sculptural figures. When this ware reached Europe in the seventeenth century it became fashionably known as "blanc-de-Chine." Ceramic sculptural figures decorated with (sancai) glaze were produced in family workshops in Shanxi province. A fine example is a Guanyin sculpture (Princeton University Art Museum) bearing an inscription dated 1500 and signed by the craftsman Qiao Bin. Several other ceramic figures by the same Qiao family are also known in various collections. Gardens and Architecture In the Ming period, the relationship between buildings and gardens was redefined. Prior to the Ming, gardens were usually seen as attached to a dwelling, but by the late-Ming, buildings became structures placed in a garden; that is, buildings had now become subordinate to gardens. The garden became the center for social and cultural interaction and a magnet for art and patronage. This new model of the private garden was to have far-reaching influence. The Ming dynasty was weakened by factional infighting, rebellion, and natural disaster in the early seventeenth century. When rebel forces overran Beijing in 1644, the Manchu armies followed, sweeping into China on the pretense of defending the Ming imperial house. The Manchus, a confederation of peoples based in the area of present-day Heilongjiang and Jilin provinces, were ruled by Nurhachi (1559â1626), who founded the Later Jin. His son Abahai (1592â1643) renamed the dynasty Qing. After the conquest, the Manchus adopted Beijing as their new capital, although Ming resistance persisted in the south until the 1680s. Over the years, repair and rebuilding have replaced most of the former Ming palace halls, and what remains today in the Forbidden City was mostly built in the Qing. Besides Beijing, the Manchus also continued to maintain their ancestral palaces at Shenyang, Liaoning province. With the establishment of the Qing dynasty in 1644, the Manchu rulers needed to find ways to occupy, order, and govern the many peoples in the far reaches of their realm. The Qing emperors took on the trappings of Chinese culture, becoming patrons and practitioners of the arts, sponsoring scholarly projects, and adopting the Chinese bureaucratic system and ritual symbols of dynastic legitimacy. At the same time the Manchus strove to maintain their ethnic identity by organizing martial exercises for the military "banner" units; living most of the year in newly developed "imperial garden-palaces," such as the Yuanming Yuan outside Beijing and Imperial Summer Villa at Jehol, away from the urban confines of the Forbidden City. In their palaces the Manchu rulers built secret ritual precincts, and they forced the Chinese male populace to adopt the Manchu custom of shaving their heads and wearing queues. The reigns of the Kangxi (r. 1662â1722), Yongzheng (r. 1722â1736), and Qianlong (r. 1736â95) emperors brought peace and prosperity to China. The Kangxi emperor pacified the Ming loyalists in the South, and began the process of attracting Chinese scholars into government service. The empire was consolidated under the rule of the Yongzheng emperor, and the long reign of the Qianlong emperor is seen as one of China's golden periods. During the Qianlong reign, the empire was extended from Manchuria and Korea in the northeast to the establishment of a protectorate in Tibet and conquest of the Ili and Turkestan in the west. In addition, Burma became a tributary nation and military expeditions were sent to Vietnam and Nepal. Contacts also increased with the West through Christian missionaries and later with traders and the European colonial powers. Controls on trade with the West were instituted in the mid-eighteenth century, and in 1793 the British ambassador, Lord Macartney, was granted an audience with the Qianlong emperor at the Jehol Imperial Summer Villa, the location where the Manchus received tribute from their so-called barbarian neighbors and allies. Overseas commerce brought large sums of silver into China, allowing a switch to a silver-based economy, which eventually led to increasing inflation and usury. The consequences were manifold and had a major impact on the way craftsmen and artisans were employed, and how they were organized as a profession. The prosperity of the Qianlong reign ended with corruption and inefficiency after the emperor had entrusted great responsibility in the running of the government to the powerful eunuch Heshen (1750â1799). The White Lotus Rebellion (1796â1805), one of many later secret society uprisings organized by desperate peasants, did much to reverse the stability of Qing finances. The following nineteenth century has generally been perceived as a period of decline, when Western trading interests came into sharp conflict with China's internal policies and struggles. As Spanish and Portuguese galleys continued to bring silver from Europe and the Americas, opium was introduced into China to create a "dependent" market and reverse the trade imbalance. After attempts by the Qing government in Canton to suppress the trade of opium by the British, the First Opium War (1839â42) resulted in Chinese indecision and humiliation. The terms of the 1842 Treaty of Nanjing forced China to pay huge indemnities, open new trading ports, and to cede Hong Kong to Britain until 1997. Later, as more trading and diplomatic rights were demanded, resistance by the Qing government led to the Anglo-French War of 1856â1860. This war is sometimes known as the Second Opium War, or Arrow War, and culminated in 1860 when the Qing emperor was forced to flee the capital to take refuge at Jehol. Occupying Beijing, the British and French commanders ordered the burning of the summer palaces. The main target of looting and destruction was the nearby Yuanming Yuan imperial garden-palace. While the Qing struggled against European forces, several rebellions erupted in the mid-nineteenth century causing famine and devastation that resulted in a population drop of over sixty million people. In particular the Taiping Rebellion (1851â64) posed a serious challenge to the Manchu rulers. Hong Xiuquan (1813â1864) was the rebel leader who organized a religious-military organization based on a mix of Christian teachings and personal visions in which he was sent by God to slay demons and eradicate demon worship. He deemed the Manchus as propagators of demon worship who needed to be overthrown to usher in an era of "Great Peace" (Taiping). The Taiping forces occupied Nanjing as their capital, and attracted followers with their anti-Manchu sentiment and notions about social and economic reforms. The rebellion, however, failed to consolidate its territories, was not able to establish an effective administrative structure, and was not even able to keep the focus of its leader. In the late nineteenth century, territorial losses continued as China ceded Taiwan to Japan, Korea became fully independent, Britain annexed Burma, the French occupied Vietnam, and further concessions had to be made with the European nations. Growing anti-foreigner sentiments led to the Boxer uprising in 1900, which was suppressed by international troops. Recognizing China's weakness, efforts were made at reform but proved ineffective. Advised by the reform advocate Kang Youwei (1858â1927), in 1898 the Guangxu emperor (r. 1875â1908) instituted a series of edicts aimed at modernization that has come to be known as the "Hundred Days of Reform." Included were proposals to form a constitutional state, reform the education system to include Western studies, as well as ideas to promote commerce and industry, and strengthen the military. These proposals met with strong opposition, and after only three months, a coup d'etat returned authority to the Empress Dowager, Cixi (1835â1908). Just before her own death, she had the emperor executed and installed on the throne the Last Emperor, Henry Puyi (r. 1909â1912), then only two years of age. Painting Early Qing literati painting was influenced by the theories of the late Ming artist and collector Dong Qichang (1555â1636). A new orthodox lineage of painting that sought to create artistic style through the study of past models coalesced around Dong's disciple, Wang Shimin (1592â1680). Later known as the Orthodox School, this group of painters included the Four WangsâWang Shimin, Wang Jian (1598â1677), Wang Hui (1632â1717), and Wang Yuanqi (1642â1715)âalong with Wu Li (1632â1718) and Yun Shouping (1633â1690). As Chinese scholars were lured into government service in increasing numbers, this literati painting style was eventually appropriated by the imperial court. While some literati refused to submit to foreign rule or shunned bureaucratic servitude, others including, Wang Hui and Wang Yuanqi, accepted imperial commissions and patronage. Individualist painters in the early Qing are often associated with developing deeply personal styles that sometimes concealed strong messages of political protest against the Manchu rulers or expressing loyalty to the fallen Ming dynasty. Born to the Ming imperial family, the dynasty's fall in 1644 prompted Zhu Da (1626â1705) to retreat into the mountains where he become a Buddhist monk. After more than thirty years of self-imposed exile, he returned to secular life as a poet and painter in 1680. Often feigning madness in his dealings with others, in painting he developed an eccentric style that relied heavily on calligraphic brushwork. Frequently animated with plants, flowers, birds, fowl, insects, shrimp, crabs, fish and other delicate creatures, his paintings has often been read as deeply personal statements concerning the fragility of life under the Manchu conquerors. One of the true geniuses in the history of Chinese painting, Shitao (1642â1707) was born a prince in the Ming imperial family. In the turmoil following the Qing conquest, he became an itinerant monk. His exposure to Chan Buddhist teachings may have led him to explore the self-expressive potential of calligraphy in painting. Shitao's paintings are characterized by fluid brushwork and moist graded ink-tones. Experimenting with novel brush manners, he claimed "no method" as his method, and shunned the imitation of past styles. Late in life, Shitao settled as a professional painter in the city of Yangzhou, Jiangsu province, where his innovative spirit was to influence a later group of painters commonly known as the Yangzhou Eccentrics. In the Qing period, many regional styles of painting and groups of painters developed in such places as Yangzhou, Nanjing, and Anhui province. Painting styles ranged from the technical mastery of the professional court painters to idiosyncratic and personal styles. Innovation was prompted by new avenues for artistic transmission and instruction afforded by growing numbers of printed illustrations and painting manuals such as the Mustard Seed Garden Manual of Painting (1679, 1701). In addition, elements of chiaroscuro and perspective drawing introduced by European artistsâincluding the Jesuits Giuseppe Castiglione (1688â1766) and Jean Denis Attiret (1702â1768)âwere also incorporated by some Chinese artists. At Yangzhou a group of innovative painters became known as the Yangzhou Eccentrics. Among the individualist painters working in this commercial center who are represented in the collection of the Princeton University Art Museum are Hua Yan (1682âca. 1756), Gao Fenghan (1683â1748/49), Li Shan (1686âca. 1756), Jin Nong (1687â1764), and Luo Ping (1733â1799). Calligraphy The Kangxi emperor (r. 1662â1722) was an expert calligrapher who greatly admired the calligraphy of the Ming artist and critic Dong Qichang (1555â1636), which became a style used for government documents. Kangxiâs grandson, the Qianlong emperor (r. 1736â95), was also an avid practitioner and student of calligraphy, and he amassed the single largest collection of this art in China. Among his treasures was Wang Xizhi's (303â361) Ritual to Pray for Good Harvest (Princeton University Art Museum). In addition to his many seals, traces of the emperorâs ownership appear in the form of colophons through which Qianlong asserted his own position at the end of a distinguished lineage of calligraphers going back to Wang Xizhi himself. Through the culture of calligraphy, the Qianlong emperor, both as a practitioner and collector, symbolically asserted his legitimacy to rule China. To document the choicest works from his collection, in 1747 Qianlong commissioned an anthology of rubbings known as Model Calligraphies from the Hall of the Three Rarities (Sanxitang fatie). Like earlier imperial anthologies, the rubbings published under Qianlongâs aegis functioned as a state-sanctioned overview of the history of calligraphy. In spite of Qianlongâs efforts, many Qing calligraphers rejected the canonical authority of these types of anthologies, arguing that these compilations, often based on works of dubious authenticity, distorted the history of calligraphy. Seeking inspiration in earlier models, calligraphers turned to ancient stone and bronze inscriptions. The calligrapher-officials Liu Yong (1720â1802) and Yi Bingshou (1754â1815) based their styles on ancient metal and stone inscriptions and were exemplars of an artistic and scholarly movement known as the Stele School (Bei xue). Ceramics Benefiting from technological improvements and artistic innovation, porcelains produced under the reigns of the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong emperors represent the pinnacle of Qing ceramics in terms of quality and diversity. Considering imperial wares alone, vessels ranged from the most simple in form and monochrome decor to the most extravagant in decoration, and some were modeled after ancient vessels. At the end of the Ming, financial difficulties at court caused a cessation in the production of ceramics at the imperial kilns at Jingdezhen. After the Manchu conquest, efforts were made to re-establish the imperial kilns. But it was not until after the pacification of the South and the completion of a new complex of kilns in 1683 at Jingdezhen that Qing imperial production attained a consistently high level in quality. Imperial ateliers for porcelain were also established by the Manchu rulers in the Beijing palaces. Plain white porcelains were sent from Jingdezhen to the capital, where they were decorated in the imperial workshops. Some of the finest overglaze painted enamel porcelains were made in this manner during the Yongzheng and Qianlong reigns. Improvements were made in the body material and glazes used for Qing porcelains. In the eighteenth century the clay composition was refined to be fired at higher temperatures, resulting in a whiter, smoother, and more transparent appearance. A new opaque white glaze was developed for use with overglaze enamels. Underglaze blue and underglaze red techniques were successfully revived, but now sometimes used together or with other glazes and relief decoration. In the Kangxi reign, underglaze blue was combined with overglaze enamels in a variation of the "five-colors" (wucai) paletteâusually red, green, yellow, and brownish-blackâthat displayed the use of a new pale green enamel. This variant developed into a style of overglaze decoration known as famille verte. New blue, gold, and fine black enamels were also developed, as well as a rose-pink enamel that became the distinguishing trait of famille rose decoration. The pink enamel was invented near the end of the Kangxi reign but the full famille rose palette was not brought together until the Yongzheng reign. The original impetus for this palette came at the wishes of the Kangxi emperor to imitate the decoration found on Western enamels on metal. This may be the reason why the term "foreign colors" (yangcai) generally is used today to refer to famille rose decorated wares. Snuff Bottles In 1934 the Princeton University Art Museum received the bequest of about five hundred Chinese snuff bottles from Colonel James A. Blair, Class of 1903. Ingeniously decorated using techniques that run the gamut of Chinese artistic production, snuff bottles are said to embody the Chinese art world in miniature. Ironically, the practice of taking snuff in China derived from the import of tobacco and nasal etiquette from the West. By the late sixteenth century, after its discovery in the New World, the American sotweed, tobacco, was introduced to China. Traded or given as gifts by Western merchants and clerics, tobacco became known in China as "smoke-weed" (yancao). By the seventeenth century, tobacco smoking had become widespread. In its levigated, or finely powdered, form, it was administered for its supposed medicinal properties and usually stored in medicine bottles (yaoping). In general, the European habit of taking snuff did not win greater acceptance until the Qing dynasty, during the reign of Qianlong. Because the emperor himself imbibed, the fashion of taking snuff grew at the Manchu court and gradually spread to the rest of the country by the middle of the eighteenth century. The production of snuff accoutrementsâbottles, funnels, dishesâalso developed with this new, imported habit. According to reports, exquisitely wrought European snuffboxes had already been presented as official gifts to the Chinese court in the late Ming dynasty. Such containers, however, proved unsuited to China's humid climate. Elaborating on earlier medicine bottles, miniature stoppered bottles with tiny spoons were soon invented. Crafted from a variety of materials, including jade, metal, wood, ivory, horn, lacquer, coral, glass, stone, and ceramics, the bottles protected their contents from moisture and could be carried on the person. Decorated with traditional Chinese artistic techniques, including painting, calligraphy, carving, enamel, cloisonnÃ©, and ceramics, the bottles also show Western-influenced decorative methods and styles. The Blair collection contains inside-painted glass and quartz bottles that combine Chinese-style painting with a back-painting technique (i.e., Ã©glomisÃ©) brought to China in the mid-eighteenth century by the Jesuit missionary Giuseppe Castiglione. Some of the finest snuff bottles in the Blair bequest are copper vials with Western figures painted in famille rose enamels. Many such foreign-style bottles, though produced for export, were cherished in China as a form of "Occidental" exoticism. [Modified from Cary Y. Liu, "Asian Art Collection: From Exotica to Art and History," Record of the Princeton University Art Museum 55, nos. 1â2 (1996), pp. 126â28.] The tumultuous changes in China in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries gave rise to new artistic and cultural paradigms. Modern and contemporary painting, calligraphy, and experimental art reflect these changes, and, when set against the long artistic tradition of pre-modern China, allow for an engagement with such issues as art education, cultural identity, modernization, politicization, and cultural interaction with the West. With the opening of additional ports to Western powers following the Opium War (1839â42), the city of Shanghai became a major commercial center. A new thriving urban culture and system of art patronage emerged to attract many of the brightest talents. Living as a professional artist, Li Ruiqing (1867â1920) moved to Shanghai where his close friend the calligrapher Zeng Xi (1861â1930) also resided. A Qing loyalist, Li is known for infusing his modern calligraphy and painting with elements of historical seal- and clerical-script calligraphy discovered on ancient bronze vessels and stone carvings. For many artists of this period, and down to the present, such elements of China's past figured heavily in an everâpresent dialectic tension between cultural identity and modernization. A somewhat similar trend is also seen in a group of traditionally trained painters in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries who painted for literati scholars and the new mercantile elite in Shanghai. Influenced by the styles of the Yangzhou Eccentrics, the Shanghai School painters used past styles in different ways, in new contexts, and in new combinations. In bird-and-flower painting they commonly mixed bright colors with a highly expressionistic loose-brush manner. Among their ranks were the painters Ren Yi (1840â1895), Xu Gu (1824â1896), and Wu Changshuo (1844â1927). With the fall of the Qing dynasty and founding of the Republic of China in 1912, the legacy of traditional painting, calligraphy, literature, and learning came to be relegated to the classical or dynastic past. In the arts, the call for national reform and modernization was championed by both those who called for the adoption of European techniques to transform Chinese painting into a Westernized style (xiyanghua), and those who looked to past Chinese models to define a new modern national style (guohua). In the early twentieth century the first public art schools were established, and teaching focused on a division between Western techniques and traditional Chinese styles. During this period, many painters also studied abroad in Japan and Europe, yet worked in modified traditional styles once they returned home. Many of these artists, such as Chen Hengke (1876â1923) and Xu Beihong (1895â1953), became teachers of Western techniques and theory in public art schools. With the goal of modernity there also came notions of greater social and political functionality. Art was no longer only a private pleasure enjoyed in leisure; in cosmopolitan centers and through printed or photographic reproductions, it developed a wide public audience. Whereas painters advocating a Westernized style sought to achieve realistic representation so as to be more easily understood by a broad public, the proponents of a national style endeavored to move beyond mimetic realism. They argued that beyond the form-likeness achieved by photography or "scientific" methods of representation, works of art had an inherent poetic or expressive quality beyond representation. An example of such an expressive form in the arts of China is calligraphy, where a single brushstroke, a dot or line, can be intrinsically beautiful by itself. The traditionalists turned to Chinese calligraphy and paintings of the past, seeking elements that could serve the purpose of modern expression while at the same time fostering a Chinese cultural identity. In the Republican period between 1912 and 1949, attempts at modern painting were clothed in a wide variety of styles, based on both traditional Chinese and Western methods. In common among these artists was a renunciation of the traditional literati styles of painting and calligraphy. Painters in the Shanghai School used traditional forms in innovative ways. In Canton, Gao Jianfu (1879â1951) returned from Japan to found the Lingnan School, convinced that a combination of Western realism with traditional Chinese painting could give rise to a modernized style. Oil painting based on Western models also came to exert a significant influence, but never found a market in China, instead becoming an important academic endeavor that became culturally significant through reproductions in print and other media. Against the prevalent belief in Social Darwinism and the benefits of Western science and democracy, the First World War brought disillusionment, which was further compounded by the disappointing treatment of China by the Allied powers in the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. German territories in China were not to be returned to China, but were instead to be given to Japan. On May 4, 1919, three thousand students gathered in protest in Tiananmen Square, ending in violence and mass arrests. Against the background of the May Fourth movement, the writer Lu Xun (1881â1936) and his group began using the ancient Chinese art form of pictorial woodblock printing in combination with Western avant-garde print styles to express moral, political, and social concerns. In the eight years of Japanese military occupation between 1937 and 1945âfollowed by four more years of political strife and warfare associated with the Communist struggle for powerâcalligraphy, painting, and woodblock printing were used to rally anti-Japanese resistance, expose social problems, and offer political criticism and satire. Social utility became an integral part of artistic duty and prepared the way for the Russian-inspired styles of socialist realism after the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949. The era of Socialist Realism was dominated by didactic figure painting and patriotic landscapes. The audience was now the general populace, and oil on canvas served as a potent vehicle for the new art, which was now also disseminated in print media. A distinctly Chinese adaptation of the Socialist Realist style was developed by the 1960s with the incorporation of traditional ink painting methods and a folk, or people's, aesthetic.
2073	dbpedia	0	17	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fei	en	Simple English Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia	https://upload.wikimedia…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	https://upload.wikimedia…%B3%E8%8A%BE.jpg	[ "https://simple.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://simple.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://simple.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-simple.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Acap...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2009-11-16T12:18:19+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi_Fei	Mi Fu (1051–1107),[1] also known as Mi Fei was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan, Shanxi during the Song Dynasty. His style of painting was misty landscapes. This style is the "Mi Fu" style uses large wet dots of ink. This ink is put on with a flat brush. Mi Fu was born in 1051. His mother was employed as a midwife to deliver Emperor Shenzong and afterwards she became the wet-nurse who look after and feed the Emperor Shenzong who was to start his reign in 1051 and continue until 1107. Mi Fu knew the imperial family and he lived in the privileged location of the royal palaces. He ignored formal lessons but it could be seen that he had a gift for writing, painted and drawing.[2] He was one of the four best calligraphers in the Song Dynasty.[3] Mi Fu was known as odd. Some called him "Madman Mi" because he collected stones and said one stone was his brother.[2] He was a heavy drinker. His poetry followed the style of Li Bai and his calligraphy that of Wang Xizhi. He became a civil servant to mixed success. He was firstly a book editor in the emperors library before undertaking a number of posts in Henan province. He was given the post of Professor[4] of Painting and Calligraphy in 1103 at the Palace to select which painting and calligraphy is good enough to belong to the Emperor. He became secretary to the Board of Rites before he was appointed governor of Huaiyang in Jiangsu province. He had five sons and eight daughters. He died in 1107.[2] His son, Mi Youren, would also be a famous painter in his father's artistic style. Mi Fu is considered the best of all the calligraphers of the Song dynasty. An example of his work has sold for nearly four million dollars.[5]
2073	dbpedia	3	54	https://alchetron.com/Mi-Fu	en	Alchetron, The Free Social Encyclopedia	https://alchetron.com/cd…4-resize-750.jpg	https://alchetron.com/cd…4-resize-750.jpg	[ "https://alchetron.com/cdn/private_file_151723927487797835984-5138-49e5-ad10-bb78f28f1bc.jpg", "https://alchetron.com/cdn/mi-fu-f1019176-6006-483d-9be5-33403dcd774-resize-750.jpg", "https://alchetron.com/cdn/mi-fu-58326e0d-9cf2-4945-bda1-df598989154-resize-750.jpeg", "https://alchetron.com/cdn/mi-fu-d7ec59a8-...	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2017-08-18T08:30:48+00:00	Mi Fu (Chinese or pinyin M F, 10511107) was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song Dynasty. In painting he gained renown for his style of painting misty landscapes. This style would be deemed the Mi Fu style and involved the use of large wet dots of i	en	/favicon.ico	Alchetron.com	https://alchetron.com/Mi-Fu	Biography According to tradition, he was a very smart boy with a great interest in arts and letters and an astonishing ability of memorizing. At the age of six he could learn a hundred poems a day and after going over them again, he could recite them all. His mother was employed as a midwife and afterwards as a wet-nurse to look after and feed the Emperor Shenzong who was to start his reign in 1051 and continue until 1107. Mi Fu knew the imperial family and he lived in the privileged location of the royal palaces, where he also started his career as Reviser of Books, Professor of Painting and Calligraphy in the capital, Secretary to the Board of Rites and Military Governor of Huaiyang. These frequent changes of official position were caused by Mi Fu's sharp tongue and open criticism of official ways and means. He is said to have been a very capable official, but unwilling to submit to conventional rules and manifested a spirit of independence which caused him serious difficulties. Mi Fu was very peculiar in his manners and the way he dressed. Wherever he went, he attracted a crowd. He was also very fond of cleanliness. He used to have water standing at his side when working because he washed his face very often. He would never wash in a vessel that had been used by someone else or put on clothes that had been worn by another person. Mi Fu's passion was collecting old writings and paintings. As his family wealth was gradually lost on relatives, he continued to collect and made every possible sacrifice to get the samples he wanted. There is even an anecdote according to which Mi Fu, once being out in a boat with his friends, was shown a sample of Wang Xianzhi’s writing and this made him so excited that he threatened to jump overboard unless the owner made him a present of it, which, apparently, could not be refused. Gradually his collection became a big treasury and his simple house a meeting place for the greatest scholars of the time. Some of the calligraphies of his collection he inherited but others acquired. He also exchanged the less good for better. He wrote: “When a man of today obtains such an old sample it seems to him as important as his life, which is ridiculous. It is in accordance with human nature, that things which satisfy the eye, when seen for a long time become boring; therefore they should be exchanged for fresh examples, which then appear double satisfying. That is the intelligent way of using pictures.” Mi Fu was something of a maniac in regard to safeguarding, cleaning and exhibiting of his pictures. He arranged his collection in two parts, one of which was kept secret or only for a few selected friends and another which could be shown to ordinary visitors. In his later years, Mi Fu became very fond of Holin Temple located on Yellow Crane Mountain and asked to be buried at its gate. Today the temple is gone, but his grave remains. Historical background After the rise of the landscape painting, the creative activity followed which was of a more general kind and included profane, religious figure, bird, flower and bamboo painting besides landscapes. It was all carried out by men of high intellectual standard. To most of these men painting was not a professional occupation but only one of the means by which they expressed their intellectual reactions to life and nature in visible symbols. Poetry and illustrative writing were in a sense even more important to them than painting and they made their living as more or less prominent government officials if they did not depend on family wealth. Even if some of them were real masters of ink-painting as well as of calligraphy, they avoided the fame and position of professional artists and became known as “gentleman-painters”. Artistic occupations such as calligraphy and painting were to these men activities to be done during the leisure time from official duties or practical occupations. Nevertheless, the foundation of their technical mastery was in writing, training in calligraphy which allowed them to transmit their thoughts with the same easiness in symbols of nature as in conventional characters. Their art became therefore a very intimate kind of expression, or idea-writing as it was called in later times. The beauty of this art was indeed closely connected to the visible easiness with which it was produced, but which after all could not be achieved without intense training and deep thought. Mi Fu was one of the highly gifted gentleman-painters. He was not a poet or philosopher, nevertheless he was brilliant intellectually. With his very keen talent of artistic observation together with sense of humor and literary ability he established for himself a prominent place among Chinese art-historians; his contributions in this field are still highly valued, because they are based on what he had seen with his own eyes and not simply on what he had heard or learned from his forerunners. Mi Fu had the courage to express his own views, even when these were different from the prevailing ones or official opinions. His notes about painting and calligraphy are of great interest to art historians, because they are spontaneous expressions of his own observations and independent ideas and help to characterize himself as well as the artists whose works he discusses. Art To Mi Fu the brush was not only the sword of his proud spirit but a magic stick, which brought life whenever he held it in his hands, were it in writing or in painting. The two arts were to him essentially one and the same. His importance as a painter on the other hand is more closely connected with the fact that by the later critics he has been admired as one of the most important representatives of the ‘Southern School’ of landscape painting. Unfortunately, it is no longer possible clearly to say this from the pictures which pass under his name – there is no lack of such works, and most of them represent a rather definite type or pictorial style which existed also in later centuries, but to what extent they can be considered as Mi Fu's own creations is still a question. In other words, the general characteristics of his style are known, but it is not possible to be sure that the paintings ascribed to him represent the rhythm and spirit of his individual brush work as is possible with his authentic samples of calligraphy, which still exist. Therefore, he is more remembered as a skilled calligraphist and for his influence as a critic and writer on art rather than a skilled landscape painter. Mi Fu was among those for whom writing or calligraphy was intimately connected with the composing of poetry or sketching. It required an alertness of mind and spirit, which he thought was best achieved through the enjoyment of wine. Through this he reached a state of excitement rather than drunkenness. A friend of Mi Fu, Su Shi admired him and wrote that his brush is like a sharp sword handled skillfully in fight or a bow which could shoot the arrow a thousand li, piercing anything that might be in its way. “It was the highest perfection of the art of calligraphy”, he wrote. Other critics claimed that only Mi Fu could imitate the style of the great calligraphists of the Six Dynasties. Mi Fu indeed seems to have been an excellent imitator; some of these imitations were so good that they were taken for the originals. Mi Fu's son also testified that his father always kept some calligraphic masterpiece of the Tang or the Qin period in his desk as a model. At night he would place it in a box at the side of his pillow. According to some writings, Mi Fu did most of his paintings during the last seven years of his life, and he himself wrote that “he chose as his models the most ancient masters and painted guided by his own genius and not by any teacher and thus represented the loyal men of antiquity.” The pictures which still pass under the name of Mi Fu represent ranges of wooded hills or cone-shaped mountain peaks rising out of layers of woolly mist. At their feet may be water and closer towards the foreground clusters of dark trees. One of the best known examples of this kind of Mi style is the small picture in the Palace Museum known as Spring Mountains and Pine-Trees. It is in the size of a large album-leaf, but at the top of the picture is added a poem said to be by the emperor Emperor Gaozong of Song. The mountains and the trees rise above a layer of thick mist that fills the valley; they are painted in dark ink tones with a slight addition of colour in a plumy manner that hides their structure; it is the mist that is really alive. In spite of the striking contrast between the dark and the light tones the general effect of the picture is dull, which may be the result of wear and retouching. Among the pictures which are attributed to Mi Fu, there apparently are imitations, even if they are painted in a similar manner with a broad and soft brush. They may be from Southern Song period, or possibly from the Yuan period, when some of the leading painters freely utilized the manner of Mi for expressing their own ideas. The majority are probably from the later part of Ming period, when a cult of Mi Fu followers that viewed him as the most important representative of the "Southern School" started. Mi Fu himself had seen many imitations, perhaps even of his own works and he saw how wealthy amateurs spent their money on great names rather than on original works of art. He wrote: “They place their pictures in brocade bags and provide them with jade rollers as if they were very wonderful treasures, but when they open them one cannot but break out into laughter.” Mi Fu's own manner of painting has been characterised by writers who knew it through their own observation or through hearsay. It is said that he always painted on paper which had not been prepared with gum or alum (alauns); never on silk or on the wall. In addition, he did not necessarily use the brush in painting with ink; sometimes he used paper sticks or sugar cane from which the juice had been extracted, or a calyx (kauss) of the lotus. Even if Mi Fu was principally a landscape painter, he also did portraits and figure paintings of an old fashioned type. Nevertheless, he must have spent more time studying samples of ancient calligraphy and painting than producing pictures of his own. His book on History of Painting contains practical hints as to the proper way of collecting, preserving, cleaning and mounting pictures. Mi Fu was no doubt an excellent connoisseur who recognized quality in art, but in spite of his oppositional spirit, his fundamental attitude was fairly conventional. He appreciated some of the well recognized classics among the ancient masters and had little use for any of the contemporary painters. He had sometimes difficulty in admitting the values of others and found more pleasure in making sharp and sarcastic remarks than in expressing his thoughts in a just and balanced way. Landscape painting was, to Mi Fu, superior to every other kind of painting; revealing his limitations and romantic flight: “The study of Buddhist paintings implies some moral advice; they are of a superior kind. Then follow the landscapes, then pictures of bamboo, trees, walls and stones, and then come pictures of flowers and grass. As to pictures of men and women, birds and animals, they are for the amusement of the gentry and do not belong to the class of pure art treasures.”
2073	dbpedia	2	18	http://www.china.org.cn/english/MATERIAL/185663.htm	en	A Brief History of Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion			[ "http://images.china.cn/images1/en/english/3.gif", "http://images.china.cn/images1/en/health/32.gif", "http://images.china.cn/images1/en/health/55.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null	I. The Origin of Acupuncture and Moxibustion II. The Academic Accomplishments of Ancient Acupuncture and Moxibustion III. Modern Decline and New Life of Acupuncture and Moxibustion IV. Rejuvenation of Acupuncture and Moxibustion in People's Republic of China V. The Dissemination of Acupuncture and Moxibustion to the World I. The Origin of Acupuncture and Moxibustion Acupuncture and moxibustion are an important invention of the Chinese nation which originated as early as in the clan commune period of the primitive society. The activities of human beings appeared in China about 1,700,000 years ago. It was about 100,000 years ago that China entered the clan commune period which lasted till 4,000 years ago. In the ancient literature there were many legends about the origin of acupuncture and moxibustion such as Fu Xi's creation of the therapeutic techniques with stone needles, and Huang Di's invention of acupuncture and moxibustion. The above mentioned Fu Xi and Huang Di in legend actually are the representatives of the clan commune of primitive society. In the classics of two thousand years ago, it was frequently cited that the acupuncture instruments were made of stone and were named bian stone. For example, in Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, there is a paragraph in historical records for 550 BC saying: "Praise pleasant to hear that does an ill turn is worse than advice unpleasant to hear that acts like a stone." Fu Qian in the second century explained that "stone" here meant bian stone. Quan Yuanqi who lived around the 5th-6th centuries pointed out: "bian stone is an ancient appliance for external treatment and was known by three names: 1. needle stone; 2. bian stone; 3. arrow-headed stone. In fact, they are the same thing. Because there was no iron casting in ancient times, the needles were made of stone." This is correlated with the fact that the stone instruments were extensively used in the primitive society. Primitive period in China was divided into two stages, the Old Stone Age (from remote antiquity to 10,000 years ago) and the New Stone Age (from 10,000-40,000 years ago). In the Old Stone Age the ancestors knew how to use stone knives and scrapers to incise an abscess, drain pus and let blood out for therapeutic purposes. With the accumulation of experiences the indications of the treatment by bian stone were gradually increased. In the New Stone Age because of the improvement in their technique of stone manufacturing, the ancient people were able to make bian stone as a special tool with more medical usage. In China, a bian stone needle 4.5 cun long was discovered in the New Stone Age ruins in Duolun County of Inner Mongolia. At one end, it is oval shaped with a semicircular edge used for incising boils and abscesses, and at other end, it is pyramid shaped with a square base used for bloodletting. Two more bian stones were discovered as funerary objects in a late New Stone Age grave in Rizhao County of Shandong Province. They are 8.3 cm and 9.1 cm in length respectively, with three-edged and cone-shaped ends used for bloodletting and regulating Qi circulation. The discovered relics of bian stone have provided powerful evidence that acupuncture originated early in the primitive society. According to the records of Chapter 12 of Plain Questions: "The treatment with bian stone needle was originated in the east coast of China where the inhabitants lived on fishery, and moxibustion was originated in the north where the people subsisted on animal husbandry. Because it was cold and windy in the northern areas, people had to warm themselves by fire. Living in camps and subsisting on milk, they easily suffered from abdominal pain and distension by cold, suitable to be treated by heat. Through long-term accumulation of experiences, moxibustion therapy and hot compression were created." II. The Academic Accomplishments of Ancient Acupuncture and Moxibustion From the twenty-first century BC when China entered the slave society to 476 BC, Chinese history went through the Xia, Shang and Western Zhou dynasties and the Spring and Autumn Period. Three thousand years ago in the Shang Dynasty the hieroglyphs of acupuncture and moxibustion appeared in the inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells. Because of the development of bronze casting techniques there appeared bronze medical needles. But bian stone was still as the main tool for treating diseases. During this period the philosophical thinking of Yin-yang and five elements was formed, and in the field of medicine the ancient physicians had a preliminary understanding of pulse, blood, body fluid, Qi, Shen (manifestations of vitality), essence, five sounds, five colors, five flavors, six Qi, eight winds, etc., as well as the ideology of relevant adaptation of the human body to natural environment. Thus germinated the sprout of the basic theory of traditional Chinese medicine. From the Warring States Period (475 BC-221 BC) to the Qin Dynasty (221 BC-207 BC) and to the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 24), it was the establishing and strengthening stage of the feudal system in China. With the introduction and application of iron instruments, bian stone needles were replaced by metal medical needles. This broadened the field of acupuncture practice, bringing about a development of acupuncture by leaps and bounds. As recorded in the book Miraculous Pivot, there were nine kinds of metallic needles at that time with different shapes and usage. They are named as nine needles, including the needles for puncturing, surgical incision and massage as well. In 1968, in Mancheng County, Hebei Province, an ancient tomb of the Western Han Dynasty buried in 113 BC was excavated. Among the relics, there were four golden needles and five decaying silver ones. These discoveries demonstrate the original shapes of the ancient needles. The doctors of this period treated diseases with multiple techniques. For example, the famous doctor Qin Yueren (or named Bian Que) who lived in about the fifth to fourth century BC, had a good command of medical knowledge in various clinical branches; he treated patients by needling, moxibustion, herbal decoction, massage and hot compression. He rescued a critically ill prince by acupuncture, and this story went down in history. Another famous doctor Chunyu Yi of the second century BC was good at acupuncture-moxibustion and herbal treatment. There is an account of his case reports of twenty-five patients in the book Historical Records, in which four cases were treated by acupuncture and moxibustion. In the period of Warring States, ancient doctors began to generalize and summarize medicine and pharmacology, and writings on acupuncture and moxibustion appeared. Two silk scrolls recording meridians and collaterals written in the third century BC, were discovered in excavation of the No. 3 Han Tomb at Mawangdui, Hunan Province, which reflected the earliest outlook of the theory of meridians and collaterals. The book The Medical Classic of the Yellow Emperor passed on to now is a medical classic concerning the theory of traditional Chinese medicine, with its authorship ascribed to the ancient Emperor Huangdi (the Yellow Emperor). It includes two parts: Miraculous Pivot, in another name Huangdi's Canon of Acupuncture, and Plain Questions. On the basis of previous literature, it takes the theories of Yin-yang, five elements, zang-fu, meridians and collaterals, mentality and spirit, Qi and blood, body fluid, five emotions and six exogeneous pathogenic factors as the basic knowledge of traditional Chinese medicine, and acupuncture and moxibustion as the main therapeutic technique; it explained the physiology and pathology of the human body, the principles of diagnosis, the prevention and treatment of diseases from the perspective of atheism, holistic conception, the viewpoint of development and change, and the relationship between the human body and the natural environment. This laid a theoretical foundation of Chinese medicine and pharmacology, including acupuncture and moxibustion. During this period also appeared the books The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Eighty-one Difficulties and Essentials of Points, Acupuncture and moxibustion, both related to the fundamental theories of acupuncture and moxibustion, but the latter book has been lost. From the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25-220) to Three Kingdoms Period (220-265), another generalization and summarization of traditional Chinese medicine and pharmacology was made. Many famous doctors paid great attention to the study of acupuncture and moxibustion. For example, Hua Tuo who was the pioneer to apply herbal anesthesia for surgical operations only selected one or two points in acupuncture treatment and took much notice to the propagation of needling sensation. He was ascribed the authorship of Canon of Moxibustion and Acupuncture Preserved in Pillow (lost). The outstanding medical doctor Zhang Zhongjing also mentioned the methods of acupuncture, moxibustion, fire needling, warm needling, etc. in his book Treatise on Febriles. He stressed very much on combining acupuncture with medicine herbs as well as applying the treatment according to the differentiation of symptom complex. During this period the basic theories of acupuncture and moxibustion had already been formed, but the locations and names of acupuncture points were neither unified nor systemized. A bamboo scroll of medicine of the Eastern Han Dynasty which was excavated from Wuwei County in Gansu Province, mistook Zusanli to be located "five cun below the knee." Hua Tuo located Back-Shu points as "one cun bilaterally along the spine," with a great difference in locations and names of the points when compared with other books. Because the earliest acupuncture books contained mistakes and differences, and had missing information, the famous medical doctor Huangfu Mi compiled the book Systematic Classic of Acupuncture and Moxibustion in 256-260 by collecting the materials of acupuncture and moxibustion from the ancient books Plain Questions, Canon of Acupuncture and Essential of Points, Acupuncture and Moxibustion. The book consists of 12 volumes with 128 chapters, including 349 acupuncture points. He edited and arranged the contents according to the following order: the theories of Zang-Fu, Qi and Blood, channels and collaterals, acupuncture points, the pulse diagnosis, manipulating techniques of acupuncture and moxibustion, and their clinical application in various branches of medicine. It is the earliest exclusive and systemized book on acupuncture and moxibustion which has been one of the most influential works in the history of acupuncture and moxibustiom. During the Jin Dynasty and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (265-581), the chaos was upheaved by wars. The physicians advocated acupuncture and moxibustion therapy very much because of its convenient use in times of turmoil, and the masses of Chinese people also knew something about moxibustion therapy. The famous doctor Ge Hong wrote the book to Prescriptions for Emergencies to popularize medical knowledge, especially the therapeutic methods of acupuncture and moxibustion. From the Jin Dynasty to the Northern and Southern Dynasties, Xu Xi's family were expert in the art of healing for several generations, including Xu Qiufu, Xu Wenbo and Xu Shuxiang, all well known in the history of acupuncture and moxibustion. In this period there appeared more and more monographs on acupuncture and moxibustion, and charts of acupuncture points, such as Acupuncture Chart from Lateral and Posterior Views and Diagrams of Meridians and Points. During the Sui (581-618) and Tang dynasties (618-907), China was undergoing the process of economical and cultural prosperity of the feudal society. The science of acupuncture and moxibustion also had great development. The famous physician Zhen Quan and his contemporary Sun Simiao both had good command of the knowledge of traditional Chinese medicine and made deep study on acupuncture and moxibustion. The Tang government, in the years around 627-649, ordered Zhen Quan and the others to revise the books and charts of acupuncture and moxibustion. Sun Simiao compiled Prescritions Worth a Thousand Gold for Emergencies (650-652), and A Supplement to the Prescriptions Worth a Thousand Gold (680-682) in which a great deal of clinical experiences in acupuncture treatment of varies schools were included. He also designed and made Charts of Three Views, in which "the twelve regular meridians and the eight extra meridians were illustrated in various colors, and there were altogether 650 points." They are the earliest multicolored charts of meridians and points, but have been lost. In addition, Yang Shangshan of Tang Dynasty compiled Acupuncture Points in Internal Classic, which revised the relevant contents of Internal Classic; Wang Tao wrote the book The Medical Secrets of an Official, in which a host of moxibustion methods of various schools were recorded. During this period there appeared monographs on the treatment of special diseases, for example, the book Moxibustion Method for Consumptive Diseases written by Cui Zhidi, in which moxibustion treatment of tuberculosis was described. It has been found that the earliest block-printed edition of acupuncture and moxibustion is A New Collection of Moxibustion Therapy for Emergency, which appeared in the year 862, specially describing the moxibustion therapy for emergencies. In the seventh century, acupuncture and moxibustion had already become a special branch of medicine, and those specialized in this field were entitled acupuncturists and moxibustionists. During the Tang Dynasty, the Imperial Medical Bureau responsible for medical education was divided into four departments of medical specialities and one department of pharmacology. And the department of acupuncture was also one of them, in which there were one professor of acupuncture, one assistant professor, ten instructors, 20 technicians and 20 students. The acupuncture professor was in charge of teaching the students the meridian-collaterals and acupuncture points, pulse diagnosis, and manipulating methods of needling. In the Five Dynasties (907-960), Liao Dynasty (916-1125), Song Dynasty (960-1279), Kin Dynasty (1115-1234) and Yuan Dynasty (1206-1368), the extensive application of printing technique greatly promoted the accumulation of medical literature and speeded up the dissemination and development of Chinese medicine and pharmacology. Supported by the Northern Song government, the famous acupuncturist Wang Weiyi revised the locations of the acupuncture points and their related meridians, and made a supplement to the indications of acupuncture points. In 1026, he wrote the book Illustrated Manual on the Points for Acupuncture and Moxibustion on a New Bronze Figure, which was block printed and published by the government. In 1027, two bronze figures designed by the Wang Weiyi were manufactured, with the internal organs set inside and the meridians and points engraved on the surface for visual teaching and examination. These achievements and measures promoted the unification of the theoretical knowledge of acupuncture points and meridians. The famous acupuncturist Wang Zhizhong of the Southern Song Dynasty wrote book Canon on the Origin of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, in which he said stress on practical experiences including folk experiences, exerting a great influence on later generations. The famous doctor Hua Shou of the Yuan Dynasty did textual research on the pathways of meridians and collaterals as well as their relationship with acupuncture points. In 1341 he wrote the book Exposition of the Fourteen Meridians, which further development the theory of meridians and acupuncture and moxibustion. Some of them laid emphasis on the theory and technique of a particular aspect. So different branches of acupuncture and moxibustion were formed. For example, the publication of Canon of Acupuncture and Moxibustion for Children's Diseases (lost), Moxibustion Method for Emergencies, The Secret of Moxibudtion for Abscess and Ulcer and so on, showed the deep development of acupuncture and moxibustion into various branches of the clinic. Xi Hong of the early Southern Song Dynasty, who was from a famous acupuncture family, particularly stressed the manipulating technique of acupuncture. And his contemporary Dou Cai wrote a book entitled Bian Que's Medical Experiences, in which he highly praised the scorching moxibustion, and even gave a general anesthesia to avoid pain while applying scorching moxibustion. At the same time, Yang Jie and Zhang Ji observed autopsies, and advocated selecting acupuncture points in the light of anatomical knowledge. He Ruoyu and Dou Hanqin of the Kin and Yuan dynasty suggested that the acupuncture points should be selected according to ziwuliuzhu (Chinese two-hour time on the basis of Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches). In the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) acupuncture and moxibustion were work up to a climax that many problems studied deeper and broader. There were more famous doctors specialized in this field. Chen Hui of the early stage of Ming Dynasty, Ling Yun of the middle stage, and Yang Jizhou of the later stage, all were known far and wide in China, and exerted a tremendous influence upon the development of acupuncture and moxibustion. The main accomplishments in the Ming Dynasty were: 1. Extensive collection and revision of the literature of acupuncture and moxibustion, e.g. the chapter of acupuncture and moxibustion in the book Prescriptions for Universal Relief (1406), A Complete Collection of Acupuncture and Moxibustion by Xu Feng in the fifteenth century, An Exemplary Collection of Acupuncture and Moxibustion by Gao Wu in 1529, Compendium of Acupuncture in 1601 based on Yang Jizhou's work, Six Volumes on Acupuncture Prescriptions by Wu Kun in 1618, and An Illustrated Supplement to Systematic Compilation of the Internal Classic by Zhang Jiebin in 1624, etc. All these works were the summarization of the literature of acupuncture and moxibustion through the ages. 2. Studies on the manipulation methods of acupuncture. On the basis of single manipulation of acupuncture, more than twenty kinds of compound manipulation were developed, and an academic contention was carried out about different manipulation methods. Questions and Answers Concerning Acupuncture and moxibustion by Wang Ji in 1530 was the representative work of that academic dispute. 3. Development of warm moxibustion with moxa stick from burning moxibustion with moxa cone. 4. Sorting out the previous records of acupuncture sites located away from the Fourteen Meridians and formation of a new category of extra points. From the establishment of the Qing Dynasty to the Opium War (1644-1840), the medical doctors regarded herbal medication as superior to acupuncture, therefore acupuncture and moxibustion gradually turned to a failure. In the eighteenth century Wu Qian and his collaborators compiled the book Golden Mirror of Medicine by the imperial order. In this book the chapter "Essential of Acupuncture and Moxibustion in Verse" took the practical form of rhymed verse with illustrations. Li Xuechuan compiled The Source of Acupuncture and Moxibustion (1817), in which selection of acupuncture points according to the differentiation of syndromes was emphasized, acupuncture and herbal medication were equally stressed, and the 361 points on the Fourteen Meridians were systematically listed. Besides these books, there were many publications, but none of them were influential. In 1822, the authorities of the Qing Dynasty declared an order to abolish permanently the acupuncture-moxibustion department from the Imperial Medical College because "acupuncture and moxibustion are not suitable to be applied to the Emperor." III. Modern Decline and New Life of Acupuncture and Moxibustion Following the Opium War in 1840, China fell into a semi-feudal and semi-colonial society. The Revolution of 1911 ended the rule of the Qing Dynasty, but the broad masses of Chinese people were in deep distress until the founding of People's Republic of China, and acupuncture and moxibustion were also trampled upon. Introduction of Western medicine to China should have been a good turn, but the colonists used it as a medium for aggression. They claimed: "Western medicine is vanguard of Christianity and Christianity is the forerunner promoting the sale of goods." With such a purpose, they denounced and depreciated Chinese traditional medicine, and even defamed acupuncture and moxibustion as medical torture and called the acupuncture needle a deadly needle. From 1914, the reactionary government of China continuously yelled to ban traditional medicine and adopted a series of measure to restrict its development, resulting in a decline of Chinese traditional medicine including acupuncture and moxibustion. Because of the great need of the Chinese people for medical care, acupuncture and moxibustion got its chance to spread among the folk people. Many acuouncturists made unrelenting efforts to protect and develop this great medical legacy by founding acupuncture associations, publishing books and journals on acupuncture, and launching correspondence courses to teach acupuncture. Among those acupuncturists, Cheng Dan'an made a particular contribution. At this period, in addition to inheriting the traditional acupuncture and moxibustion, they made efforts on explaining the theory of acupuncture and moxibustion with modern science and technology. In 1899, Liu Zhongheng wrote a book entitled Illustration of the Bronze Figure with Chinese and Western Medicine, paving the way for studying acupuncture through combination of traditional Chinese and Western medicine in the history of acupuncture. In 1934 The Technique and Principles of Electro-acupuncture and the Study of Electro-acupuncture written by Tang Shicheng et al. started the use of electro-acupuncture in China. At this period, acupuncture and moxibustion gained its new life in the revolutionary base area led by the Communist Party of China. In October of 1944, after Chairman Mao Zedong made a speech on the United Front of Cultural and educational workers in Shanxi-Gansu-Ningxia border region, many medical doctors trained in Western medicine began to learn and to do research work on acupuncture and moxibustion, and to spread its use in the army of the base area. In April 1945, an acupuncture clinic was opened in the International Peace Hospital in the name of Dr. Norman Bethune in Yan'an. This was the first time that acupuncture and moxibustion entered into a comprehensive hospital. In 1947, the Health Department of Jinan Military Area Command compiled and published Practical Acupuncture and moxibstion. An acupuncture training course was sponsored by the health school affiliated to the Health Bureau of the People's Government in northern China in 1948. All these efforts like the seeds spread over the liberated area, and promoted the understanding of acupuncture and moxibustion for Western medical doctors. IV. Rejuvenation of Acupuncture and Moxibustion in People's Republic of China Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, the Chinese Government has paid great attention to inheriting and developing the legacy of traditional Chinese medicine and pharmacology. In 1950 Chairman Mao Zedong adopted an important policy to unit the doctors of both Western and traditional schools; in the same year, Zhu De wrote an inscription for the book New Acupuncture, pointing out, "Chinese acupuncture treatment has a history of thousands of years. It is not only simple and economical, but also very effective for many kinds of diseases. So this is science. I hope that the doctors of both Western and traditional schools should unite for the further improvement of its technique and science." Deng Xiaoping also inscribed in the book Newly Compiled Acupuncture with the following statement: "It is an important job for us to critically assimilate and systematize our multifarious scientific legacies." With the support and concern of the government leaders, authorities of different levels took a series of measures to develop Chinese medicine. In this way acupuncture and moxbustion were unprecedentedly popularized and promoted. In July 1951, the Experimental Institute of Acupuncture-Moxobustion Therapy affiliated directly to the Ministry of Public Health was set up. It became the Institute of Acupuncture and Moxibustion attached to the Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine in 1955. Since then the research organizations of traditional Chinese medicine and pharmacology on provincial, municipal and autonomous regional levels have been set up one after the other, in which the research divisions of acupuncture and moxibustion are included. In a few provinces and cities institutes of acupuncture and moxibustion have also been established. There are teaching and research groups of acupuncture and moxibustion in every college of traditional Chinese medicine, and in some of the colleges departments of acupuncture and moxibustion have been founded. In many city hospitals, special clinical departments of acupuncture and moxibustion have been set up. Acupuncture and moxibustion have been carried out even in commune hospitals. Many institutes and colleges of Western medicine have put it into the teaching curriculum and taken it as a scientific research item. To apply modern scientific knowledge to the research work on the basis of exploring and inheriting the traditional acupuncture and moxibustion is the prominent characteristic of the present research on acupuncture and moxibustion. In the early 1950s, the main work was to systematize the basic theory of acupuncture and moxibustion, to observe its clinical indications, and to make a systematic exposition of acupuncture and moxibustion with modern methods. From the later stage of 1950s to the 1960s, the following were carried out: deep study of the ancient literature, extensive summarization of the clinical effect on various disease entities, propagation of acupuncture anesthesia in clinical use, and experimental research to observe the effect of acupuncture and moxibustion upon the functions of each system and organ. From the 1970s up to now, investigations have been done on the mechanism of acupuncture anesthesia and acupuncture analgesia from the viewpoints of operative surgery, anesthesiology, neuroanatomy, histochemistry, analgesia physiology, biochemistry, psychology and medical electronics, on the phenomena and nature of the meridians from the viewpoint of propagated acupuncture sensation and other angles, and on the relationship between acupuncture points and needling sensation, between acupuncture points and zang-fu organs. Now the accomplishments of acupuncture and moxibustion research gained in China including sorting out of the ancient legacy, the clinical effect and the theoretical research by modern scientific methods are in the forefront of the world. V. The Dissemination of Acupuncture and Moxibustion to the World In the sixth century, acupuncture and moxibustion were introduced to Korea. The Emperor Liangwu sent medical doctors and craftsmen to Baiji in AD 541. The Xinluo royal court of Korea in AD 693 gave the title of Acupuncture Professor to those who taught acupuncture students. It was also in the sixth century that acupuncture and moxibustion were passed on to Japan. The Chinese Government presented the book Canon of Acupunct ure to the Mikado of Japan in AD 552. Zhi Cong of Wu County brought Charts of Acupuncture and Moxibustion and other medical books to Japan. In the seventh century, the Japanese government sent many doctors to China to study Chinese medicine. In AD 702 the Japanese government issued an Imperial Order to copy the medical educational system of the Chinese Tang Dynasty and set a speciality of acupuncture and moxibustion. Since the introduction of Chinese acupuncture and moxibustion to Japan Korea, acupuncture and moxibustion have been regarded as an important part of their traditional medicine and handed down up to now. With the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, acupuncture and moxibustion were also disseminated to Southeast Asia and the continent of India. In the sixth century, MiYun from Dun Huang of Gansu Province introduced Hua Tuo's therapeutic methods and prescriptions to Daochang State of north India. In the fourteenth century, Chinese acupuncturists Zou Yin went to Viet Nam to treat diseases for the Vietnamese nobles, and he was given the honor of Magi Doctor. Acupuncture and moxibustion began to be introduced to Europe in the sixteenth century. Later more and more people engaged in the cause of acupuncture and moxibustion. France made an early contribution to spreading this therapy through Europe. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, the propagation of acupuncture and moxibustion to the world has been speeded up. In the 1950s, China gave assistance to the Soviet Union and other Eastern European countries in training acupuncturists. Since 1975, at the request of the World Health Organization, the International Acupuncture Training Courses have been run in Beijing, Shanghai and Nanjing, and acupuncturists have been trained for many countries. Up to now, more than one hundred countries have had acupuncturists, and in some countries teaching and scientific research on acupuncture and moxibustion have been carried out with good results. Since its founding in 1979, All-China Association of Acupuncture and Moxibustion has strengthened the connections and exchanges with the corresponding academic organizations of various countries; and China will make greater contributions to international development of acupuncture and moxibustion.