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1200 The occupiers looted and destroyed much of Poland 's cultural and historical heritage , while persecuting and murdering members of the Polish cultural elite . Most Polish schools were closed , and those that remained open saw their curricula altered significantly . |
38.27564239501953 42 WikiText2 |
1201 Nevertheless , underground organizations and individuals – in particular the Polish Underground State – saved much of Poland 's most valuable cultural treasures , and worked to salvage as many cultural institutions and artifacts as possible . The Catholic Church and wealthy individuals contributed to the survival... |
57.49602508544922 87 WikiText2 |
1202 = = Background = = |
1387.2071533203125 5 WikiText2 |
1203 In 1795 Poland ceased to exist as an sovereign nation and throughout the 19th century remained partitioned by degrees between Prussian , Austrian and Russian empires . Not until the end of World War I was independence restored and the nation reunited , although the drawing of boundary lines was , of necessity , a... |
51.640716552734375 76 WikiText2 |
1204 On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded Poland , initiating World War II in Europe , and on 17 September , pursuant to the Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact , Poland was invaded by the Soviet Union . Subsequently Poland was partitioned again – between these two powers – and remained under occupation for most of the war .... |
26.96435546875 218 WikiText2 |
1205 = = Destruction of Polish culture = = |
1269.150390625 8 WikiText2 |
1206 = = = German occupation = = = |
214.70779418945312 8 WikiText2 |
1207 = = = = Policy = = = = |
55.22535705566406 9 WikiText2 |
1208 Germany 's policy toward the Polish nation and its culture evolved during the course of the war . Many German officials and military officers were initially not given any clear guidelines on the treatment of Polish cultural institutions , but this quickly changed . Immediately following the invasion of Poland in ... |
42.20734405517578 152 WikiText2 |
1209 Much of the German policy on Polish culture was formulated during a meeting between the governor of the General Government , Hans Frank , and Nazi Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels , at Łódź on 31 October 1939 . Goebbels declared that " The Polish nation is not worthy to be called a cultured nation " . He an... |
39.53733444213867 165 WikiText2 |
1210 In March 1940 , all cultural activities came under the control of the General Government 's Department of People 's Education and Propaganda ( Abteilung für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda ) , whose name was changed a year later to the " Chief Propaganda Department " ( Hauptabteilung Propaganda ) . Further directi... |
44.20409393310547 259 WikiText2 |
1211 In 1941 , German policy evolved further , calling for the complete destruction of the Polish people , whom the Nazis regarded as " subhumans " ( Untermenschen ) . Within ten to twenty years , the Polish territories under German occupation were to be entirely cleared of ethnic Poles and settled by German colonists... |
49.8669319152832 146 WikiText2 |
1212 Given that the Second Polish Republic was a multicultural state , German policies and propaganda also sought to create and encourage conflicts between ethnic groups , fueling tension between Poles and Jews , and between Poles and Ukrainians . In Łódź , the Germans forced Jews to help destroy a monument to a Polis... |
39.449642181396484 174 WikiText2 |
1213 = = = = Plunder = = = = |
65.05970001220703 9 WikiText2 |
1214 In 1939 , as the occupation regime was being established , the Nazis confiscated Polish state property and much private property . Countless art objects were looted and taken to Germany , in line with a plan that had been drawn up well in advance of the invasion . The looting was supervised by experts of the SS @... |
31.53468132019043 286 WikiText2 |
1215 = = = = Destruction = = = = |
86.53433227539062 9 WikiText2 |
1216 Many places of learning and culture — universities , schools , libraries , museums , theaters and cinemas — were either closed or designated as " Nur für Deutsche " ( For Germans Only ) . Twenty @-@ five museums and a host of other institutions were destroyed during the war . According to one estimate , by war 's... |
37.369239807128906 144 WikiText2 |
1217 Many university professors , as well as teachers , lawyers , artists , writers , priests and other members of the Polish intelligentsia were arrested and executed , or transported to concentration camps , during operations such as AB @-@ Aktion . This particular campaign resulted in the infamous Sonderaktion Krak... |
38.729251861572266 156 WikiText2 |
1218 As part of their program to suppress Polish culture , the German Nazis attempted to destroy Christianity in Poland , with a particular emphasis on the Roman Catholic Church . In some parts of occupied Poland , Poles were restricted , or even forbidden , from attending religious services . At the same time , churc... |
29.758129119873047 146 WikiText2 |
1219 To forestall the rise of a new generation of educated Poles , German officials decreed that the schooling of Polish children would be limited to a few years of elementary education . Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler wrote , in a memorandum of May 1940 : " The sole purpose of this schooling is to teach them si... |
29.551145553588867 382 WikiText2 |
1220 The state of Polish primary schools was somewhat better in the General Government , though by the end of 1940 , only 30 % of prewar schools were operational , and only 28 % of prewar Polish children attended them . A German police memorandum of August 1943 described the situation as follows : |
46.8093376159668 54 WikiText2 |
1221 Pupils sit crammed together without necessary materials , and often without skilled teaching staff . Moreover , the Polish schools are closed during at least five months out of the ten months of the school year due to lack of coal or other fuel . Of twenty @-@ thirty spacious school buildings which Kraków had bef... |
82.65247344970703 99 WikiText2 |
1222 In the General Government , the remaining schools were subjugated to the German educational system , and the number and competence of their Polish staff was steadily scaled down . All universities and most secondary schools were closed , if not immediately after the invasion , then by mid @-@ 1940 . By late 1940 ... |
41.25902557373047 278 WikiText2 |
1223 The Germans were especially active in the destruction of Jewish culture in Poland ; nearly all of the wooden synagogues there were destroyed . Moreover , the sale of Jewish literature was banned throughout Poland . |
47.28489685058594 36 WikiText2 |
1224 Polish literature faced a similar fate in territories annexed by Germany , where the sale of Polish books was forbidden . The public destruction of Polish books was not limited to those seized from libraries , but also included those books that were confiscated from private homes . The last Polish book titles not... |
34.35530090332031 220 WikiText2 |
1225 Polish flags and other symbols were confiscated . The war on the Polish language included the tearing down of signs in Polish and the banning of Polish speech in public places . Persons who spoke Polish in the streets were often insulted and even physically assaulted . The Germanization of place names prevailed .... |
32.77717971801758 111 WikiText2 |
1226 = = = = Censorship and propaganda = = = = |
55.69579315185547 11 WikiText2 |
1227 The Germans prohibited publication of any regular Polish @-@ language book , literary study or scholarly paper . In 1940 , several German @-@ controlled printing houses began operating in occupied Poland , publishing items such as Polish @-@ German dictionaries and antisemitic and anticommunist novels . |
91.91502380371094 53 WikiText2 |
1228 Censorship at first targeted books that were considered to be " serious " , including scientific and educational texts and texts that were thought to promote Polish patriotism ; only fiction that was free of anti @-@ German overtones was permitted . Banned literature included maps , atlases and English- and Frenc... |
54.44654083251953 191 WikiText2 |
1229 Poles were forbidden , under penalty of death , to own radios . The press was reduced from over 2 @,@ 000 publications to a few dozen , all censored by the Germans . All pre @-@ war newspapers were closed , and the few that were published during the occupation were new creations under the total control of the Ger... |
51.55978012084961 320 WikiText2 |
1230 Music was the least restricted of cultural activities , probably because Hans Frank regarded himself as a fan of serious music . In time , he ordered the creation of the Orchestra and Symphony of the General Government in its capital , Kraków . Numerous musical performances were permitted in cafes and churches , ... |
61.61171340942383 113 WikiText2 |
1231 The development of Nazi propaganda in occupied Poland can be divided into two main phases . Initial efforts were directed towards creating a negative image of pre @-@ war Poland , and later efforts were aimed at fostering anti @-@ Soviet , antisemitic , and pro @-@ German attitudes . |
37.41889953613281 56 WikiText2 |
1232 = = = Soviet occupation = = = |
247.3102264404297 8 WikiText2 |
1233 After the Soviet invasion of Poland ( beginning 17 September 1939 ) that followed the German invasion that had marked the start of World War II ( beginning 1 September 1939 ) , the Soviet Union annexed the eastern parts ( " Kresy " ) of the Second Polish Republic , comprising 201 @,@ 015 square kilometres ( 77 @,... |
43.63483428955078 122 WikiText2 |
1234 The Soviet authorities regarded service to the prewar Polish state as a " crime against revolution " and " counter @-@ revolutionary activity " and arrested many members of the Polish intelligentsia , politicians , civil servants and academics , as well as ordinary persons suspected of posing a threat to Soviet r... |
53.79922103881836 97 WikiText2 |
1235 The Soviets quickly Sovietized the annexed lands , introducing compulsory collectivization . They proceeded to confiscate , nationalize and redistribute private and state @-@ owned Polish property . In the process , they banned political parties and public associations and imprisoned or executed their leaders as ... |
49.105438232421875 163 WikiText2 |
1236 The Soviet authorities sought to remove all trace of the Polish history of the area now under their control . The name " Poland " was banned . Polish monuments were torn down . All institutions of the dismantled Polish state , including the Lwów University , were closed , then reopened , mostly with new Russian d... |
44.79313278198242 221 WikiText2 |
1237 All publications and media were subjected to censorship . The Soviets sought to recruit Polish left @-@ wing intellectuals who were willing to cooperate . Soon after the Soviet invasion , the Writers ' Association of Soviet Ukraine created a local chapter in Lwów ; there was a Polish @-@ language theater and radi... |
63.94369125366211 104 WikiText2 |
1238 The Soviet propaganda @-@ motivated support for Polish @-@ language cultural activities , however , clashed with the official policy of Russification . The Soviets at first intended to phase out the Polish language and so banned Polish from schools , street signs , and other aspects of life . This policy was , ho... |
48.758670806884766 175 WikiText2 |
1239 Many Polish writers collaborated with the Soviets , writing pro @-@ Soviet propaganda . They included Jerzy Borejsza , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Kazimierz Brandys , Janina Broniewska , Jan Brzoza , Teodor Bujnicki , Leon Chwistek , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Halina Górska , Mieczysław Jastrun , Stefan Jędrychowski , St... |
54.56703186035156 134 WikiText2 |
1240 Other Polish writers , however , rejected the Soviet persuasions and instead published underground : Jadwiga Czechowiczówna , Jerzy Hordyński , Jadwiga Gamska @-@ Łempicka , Herminia Naglerowa , Beata Obertyńska , Ostap Ortwin , Tadeusz Peiper , Teodor Parnicki , Juliusz Petry . Some writers , such as Władysław B... |
80.25688171386719 96 WikiText2 |
1241 = = Underground culture = = |
1278.0928955078125 6 WikiText2 |
1242 = = = Patrons = = = |
152.71726989746094 7 WikiText2 |
1243 Polish culture persisted in underground education , publications , even theater . The Polish Underground State created a Department of Education and Culture ( under Stanisław Lorentz ) which , along with a Department of Labor and Social Welfare ( under Jan Stanisław Jankowski and , later , Stefan Mateja ) and a D... |
76.6812973022461 209 WikiText2 |
1244 Other important patrons of Polish culture included the Roman Catholic Church and Polish aristocrats , who likewise supported artists and safeguarded Polish heritage ( notable patrons included Cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha and a former politician , Janusz Radziwiłł ) . Some private publishers , including Stefan Kam... |
109.92707824707031 68 WikiText2 |
1245 = = = Education = = = |
133.43739318847656 7 WikiText2 |
1246 In response to the German closure and censorship of Polish schools , resistance among teachers led almost immediately to the creation of large @-@ scale underground educational activities . Most notably , the Secret Teaching Organization ( Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska , TON ) was created as early as in October... |
42.0875244140625 394 WikiText2 |
1247 In Warsaw , there were over 70 underground schools , with 2 @,@ 000 teachers and 21 @,@ 000 students . Underground Warsaw University educated 3 @,@ 700 students , issuing 64 masters and 7 doctoral degrees . Warsaw Politechnic under occupation educated 3 @,@ 000 students , issuing 186 engineering degrees , 18 doct... |
48.9115104675293 177 WikiText2 |
1248 The German attitude to underground education varied depending on whether it took place in the General Government or the annexed territories . The Germans had almost certainly realized the full scale of the Polish underground education system by about 1943 , but lacked the manpower to put an end to it , probably p... |
39.518409729003906 216 WikiText2 |
1249 = = = Print = = = |
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