title stringlengths 0 116 | text stringlengths 6 3.55k | source stringlengths 31 207 | keyword_hits int64 1 95 |
|---|---|---|---|
albedo | albedo ( ; ) is the fraction of sunlight that is diffusely reflected by a body. it is measured on a scale from 0 ( corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation ) to 1 ( corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation ). surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity je to the irradiance ee ( flux per unit area ) received by a surface. the proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the earth's surface. these factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, and time ( see position of the sun ). while bi - hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence ( i. e., for a given position of the sun ), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. the temporal resolution may range from seconds ( as obtained from flux measurements ) to daily, monthly, or annual averages. unless given for a specific wavelength ( spectral albedo ), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface ( between 0. 3 and 3 μm ). this spectrum includes visible light ( 0. 4 – 0. 7 μm ), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark ( e. g., trees absorb most radiation ), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright ( e. g., snow reflects most radiation ). ice – albedo feedback is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of ice caps, glaciers, and sea ice alters the albedo and surface temperature of a planet. ice is very reflective, therefore it reflects far more solar energy back to space than the other types of land area or open water. ice – albedo feedback plays an important role in global climate change. albedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management. the average albedo of the earth from the upper atmosphere, its planetary albedo, is 30 – 35 % because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo | 2 |
albedo | ##bedo feedback plays an important role in global climate change. albedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management. the average albedo of the earth from the upper atmosphere, its planetary albedo, is 30 – 35 % because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features. terrestrial albedo any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0. 9 for fresh snow to about 0. 04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. when seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. most land areas are in an albedo range of 0. 1 to 0. 4. the average albedo of earth is about 0. 3. this is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds. earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via earth observation satellite sensors such as nasa's modis instruments on board the terra and aqua satellites, and the ceres instrument on the suomi npp and jpss. as the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional - hemispherical reflectance and bi - hemispherical reflectance ( e. g., ). these calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function ( brdf ), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. bdrf can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo. earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about. if earth were frozen entirely ( and hence be more reflective ), the average temperature of the planet would drop below. if only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about. in contrast, if the entire earth was covered by water – a so - called | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo | 5 |
albedo | feedback loops have long been recognized as important for global warming. cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets. the dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow - covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions. small - scale effects albedo works on a smaller scale, too. in sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light - coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing. solar photovoltaic effects albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. for example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon ( a - si : h ) and crystalline silicon ( c - si ) - based compared to traditional spectral - integrated albedo predictions. research showed impacts of over 10 % for vertically ( 90° ) mounted systems, but such effects were substantially lower for systems with lower surface tilts. spectral albedo strongly affects the performance of bifacial solar cells where rear surface performance gains of over 20 % have been observed for c - si cells installed above healthy vegetation. an analysis on the bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials ( both human - made and natural ) provided effective albedo values for simulating the performance of seven photovoltaic materials mounted on three common photovoltaic system topologies : industrial ( solar farms ), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched - roof applications. trees forests generally have a low albedo because the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis. for this reason, the greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation ( or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo | 1 |
albedo | . the size of this effect is difficult to quantify : the intergovernmental panel on climate change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is + 0. 2 w m−2, with a range + 0. 1 to + 0. 4 w m−2. black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo. astronomical albedo in astronomy, the term albedo can be defined in several different ways, depending upon the application and the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation involved. optical or visual albedo the albedos of planets, satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. the study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ( " phase angle " ), and variation in time composes a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. for small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. for example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer solar system objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in asteroids. enceladus, a moon of saturn, has one of the highest known optical albedos of any body in the solar system, with an albedo of 0. 99. another notable high - albedo body is eris, with an albedo of 0. 96. many small objects in the outer solar system and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0. 05. a typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0. 04. such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds. the overall albedo of the moon is measured to be around 0. 14, but it is strongly directional and non - lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect. although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless solar system bodies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo | 1 |
albedo | the moon is measured to be around 0. 14, but it is strongly directional and non - lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect. although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless solar system bodies. two common optical albedos that are used in astronomy are the ( v - band ) geometric albedo ( measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer ) and the bond albedo ( measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected ). their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion. in detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five hapke parameters which semi - empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces. one of these five parameters is yet another type of albedo called the single - scattering albedo. it is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. it depends on properties of the material ( refractive index ), the size of the particle, and the wavelength of the incoming radiation. an important relationship between an object's astronomical ( geometric ) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is given by : where is the astronomical albedo, is the diameter in kilometers, and is the absolute magnitude. radar albedo in planetary radar astronomy, a microwave ( or radar ) pulse is transmitted toward a planetary target ( e. g. moon, asteroid, etc. ) and the echo from the target is measured. in most instances, the transmitted pulse is circularly polarized and the received pulse is measured in the same sense of polarization as the transmitted pulse ( sc ) and the opposite sense ( oc ). the echo power is measured in terms of radar cross - section,,, or ( total power, sc + oc ) and is equal to the cross - sectional area of a metallic sphere ( perfect reflector ) at the same distance as the target that would return the same echo power. those components of the received echo that return from first - surface reflections ( as from a smooth or mirror - like surface ) are dominated by the oc component as there | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo | 2 |
albedo | - sectional area of a metallic sphere ( perfect reflector ) at the same distance as the target that would return the same echo power. those components of the received echo that return from first - surface reflections ( as from a smooth or mirror - like surface ) are dominated by the oc component as there is a reversal in polarization upon reflection. if the surface is rough at the wavelength scale or there is significant penetration into the regolith, there will be a significant sc component in the echo caused by multiple scattering. for most objects in the solar system, the oc echo dominates and the most commonly reported radar albedo parameter is the ( normalized ) oc radar albedo ( often shortened to radar albedo ) : where the denominator is the effective cross - sectional area of the target object with mean radius,. a smooth metallic sphere would have. radar albedos of solar system objects the values reported for the moon, mercury, mars, venus, and comet p / 2005 jq5 are derived from the total ( oc + sc ) radar albedo reported in those references. relationship to surface bulk density in the event that most of the echo is from first surface reflections ( or so ), the oc radar albedo is a first - order approximation of the fresnel reflection coefficient ( aka reflectivity ) and can be used to estimate the bulk density of a planetary surface to a depth of a meter or so ( a few wavelengths of the radar wavelength which is typically at the decimeter scale ) using the following empirical relationships :. history the term albedo was introduced into optics by johann heinrich lambert in his 1760 work photometria. see also cool roof daisyworld emissivity exitance global dimming ice – albedo feedback irradiance kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation opposition surge polar see - saw radar astronomy solar radiation management references external links albedo project albedo – encyclopedia of earth nasa modis brdf / albedo product site ocean surface albedo look - up - table surface albedo derived from meteosat observations a discussion of lunar albedos reflectivity of metals ( chart ) land surface effects on climate climate change feedbacks climate forcing climatology electromagnetic radiation meteorological quantities radio | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo | 3 |
albedo | modis brdf / albedo product site ocean surface albedo look - up - table surface albedo derived from meteosat observations a discussion of lunar albedos reflectivity of metals ( chart ) land surface effects on climate climate change feedbacks climate forcing climatology electromagnetic radiation meteorological quantities radiometry scattering, absorption and radiative transfer ( optics ) radiation 1760s neologisms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo | 2 |
alabama | after world war ii, alabama grew as the state's economy diversified with new industries. nasa's marshall space flight center in huntsville would help alabama's economic growth in the mid - to - late 20th century, by developing an aerospace industry. alabama's economy in the 21st century is based on automotive, finance, tourism, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, and technology. the state's geography is diverse, with the north dominated by the mountainous tennessee valley and the south by mobile bay, a historically significant port. politically, as part of the deep south, alabama is predominantly a conservative state, and is known for its southern culture. within alabama, american football, particularly at the college level, plays a major part of the state's culture. etymology the european - american naming of the alabama river and state was derived from the alabama people, a muskogean - speaking tribe whose members lived just below the confluence of the coosa and tallapoosa rivers on the upper reaches of the river. in the alabama language, the word for a person of alabama lineage is ( or variously or in different dialects ; the plural form is ). the word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources. the first usage appears in three accounts of the hernando de soto expedition of 1540 : garcilaso de la vega used, while the knight of elvas and rodrigo ranjel wrote alibamu and limamu, respectively, in transliterations of the term. as early as 1702, the french called the tribe the, with french maps identifying the river as. other spellings of the name have included alibamu, alabamo, albama, alebamon, alibama, alibamou, alabamu, and allibamou. the use of state names derived from native american languages is common in the u. s. ; an estimated 26 states have names of native american origin. sources disagree on the word's meaning. some scholars suggest the word comes from the choctaw ( meaning'plants'or'weeds') and ( meaning'to cut ','to trim ', or'to gather'). the meaning | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama | 1 |
alabama | ##ings, agricultural depression, and the failure of the cotton crops due to boll weevil infestation led tens of thousands of african americans from rural alabama and other states to seek opportunities in northern and midwestern cities during the early decades of the 20th century as part of the great migration out of the south. reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in alabama ( see " historical populations " table below ) dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920. at the same time, many rural people migrated to the city of birmingham to work in new industrial jobs. birmingham experienced such rapid growth it was called the " magic city ". by 1920, birmingham was the 36th - largest city in the united states. heavy industry and mining were the basis of its economy. its residents were under - represented for decades in the state legislature, which refused to redistrict after each decennial census according to population changes, as it was required by the state constitution. this did not change until the late 1960s following a lawsuit and court order. industrial development related to the demands of world war ii brought a level of prosperity to the state not seen since before the civil war. rural workers poured into the largest cities in the state for better jobs and a higher standard of living. one example of this massive influx of workers occurred in mobile. between 1940 and 1943, more than 89, 000 people moved into the city to work for war - related industries. cotton and other cash crops faded in importance as the state developed a manufacturing and service base. despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961, the rural - dominated legislature refused to reapportion house and senate seats based on population, as required by the state constitution to follow the results of decennial censuses. they held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas. one result was that jefferson county, containing birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one - third of all tax revenue to the state, but did not receive a proportional amount in services. urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. a 1960 study noted that because of rural domination, " a minority of about 25 % of the total state population is in majority control of the alabama legislature. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama | 1 |
alabama | . this benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than sixty years. other changes were made to implement representative state house and senate districts. alabama has made some changes since the late 20th century and has used new types of voting to increase representation. in the 1980s, an omnibus redistricting case, dillard v. crenshaw county, challenged the at - large voting for representative seats of 180 alabama jurisdictions, including counties and school boards. at - large voting had diluted the votes of any minority in a county, as the majority tended to take all seats. despite african americans making up a significant minority in the state, they had been unable to elect any representatives in most of the at - large jurisdictions. as part of settlement of this case, five alabama cities and counties, including chilton county, adopted a system of cumulative voting for election of representatives in multi - seat jurisdictions. this has resulted in more proportional representation for voters. in another form of proportional representation, 23 jurisdictions use limited voting, as in conecuh county. in 1982, limited voting was first tested in conecuh county. together use of these systems has increased the number of african americans and women being elected to local offices, resulting in governments that are more representative of their citizens. beginning in the 1960s, the state's economy shifted away from its traditional lumber, steel, and textile industries because of increased foreign competition. steel jobs, for instance, declined from 46, 314 in 1950 to 14, 185 in 2011. however, the state, particularly huntsville, benefited from the opening of the george c. marshall space flight center in 1960, a major facility in the development of the saturn rocket program and the space shuttle. technology and manufacturing industries, such as automobile assembly, replaced some the state's older industries in the late twentieth century, but the state's economy and growth lagged behind other states in the area, such as georgia and florida. 21st century in 2001, alabama supreme court chief justice roy moore installed a statue of the ten commandments in the capitol in montgomery. in 2002, the 11th us circuit court ordered the statue removed, but moore refused to follow the court order | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama | 2 |
alabama | behind other states in the area, such as georgia and florida. 21st century in 2001, alabama supreme court chief justice roy moore installed a statue of the ten commandments in the capitol in montgomery. in 2002, the 11th us circuit court ordered the statue removed, but moore refused to follow the court order, which led to protests around the capitol in favor of keeping the monument. the monument was removed in august 2003. a few natural disasters have occurred in the state in the twenty - first century. in 2004, hurricane ivan, a category 3 storm upon landfall, struck the state and caused over $ 18 billion of damage. it was among the most destructive storms to strike the state in its modern history. a super outbreak of 62 tornadoes hit the state in april 2011 and killed 238 people, devastating many communities. geography alabama is the thirtieth - largest state in the united states with of total area : 3. 2 % of the area is water, making alabama 23rd in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second - largest inland waterway system in the united states. about three - fifths of the land area is part of the gulf coastal plain, a gentle plain with a general descent towards the mississippi river and the gulf of mexico. the north alabama region is mostly mountainous, with the tennessee river cutting a large valley and creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes. alabama is bordered by the states of tennessee to the north, georgia to the east, florida to the south, and mississippi to the west. alabama has coastline at the gulf of mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state. the state ranges in elevation from sea level at mobile bay to more than in the northeast, to mount cheaha at. alabama's land consists of of forest or 67 % of the state's total land area. suburban baldwin county, along the gulf coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area. areas in alabama administered by the national park service include horseshoe bend national military park near alexander city ; little river canyon national preserve near fort payne ; russell cave national monument in bridgeport ; tuskegee airmen national historic site in tuskegee ; and tuskegee institute national historic site near | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama | 1 |
alabama | million years ago. the hills just east of downtown wetumpka showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the wetumpka crater or astrobleme ( " star - wound " ) because of the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be found beneath the surface. in 2002, christian koeberl with the institute of geochemistry university of vienna published evidence and established the site as the 157th recognized impact crater on earth. climate the state is classified as humid subtropical ( cfa ) under the koppen climate classification. the average annual temperature is 64°f ( 18°c ). temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its proximity to the gulf of mexico, while the northern parts of the state, especially in the appalachian mountains in the northeast, tend to be slightly cooler. generally, alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year. alabama receives an average of of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300 days in the southern part of the state. summers in alabama are among the hottest in the u. s., with high temperatures averaging over throughout the summer in some parts of the state. alabama is also prone to tropical storms and hurricanes. areas of the state far away from the gulf are not immune to the effects of the storms, which often dump tremendous amounts of rain as they move inland and weaken. south alabama reports many thunderstorms. the gulf coast, around mobile bay, averages between 70 and 80 days per year with thunder reported. this activity decreases somewhat further north in the state, but even the far north of the state reports thunder on about 60 days per year. occasionally, thunderstorms are severe with frequent lightning and large hail ; the central and northern parts of the state are most vulnerable to this type of storm. alabama ranks ninth in the number of deaths from lightning and tenth in the number of deaths from lightning strikes per capita. alabama, along with oklahoma and iowa, has the most confirmed f5 and ef5 tornadoes of any state, according to statistics from the national climatic data center for the period january 1, 1950, to june 2013. several long - | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama | 1 |
alabama | and tenth in the number of deaths from lightning strikes per capita. alabama, along with oklahoma and iowa, has the most confirmed f5 and ef5 tornadoes of any state, according to statistics from the national climatic data center for the period january 1, 1950, to june 2013. several long - tracked f5 / ef5 tornadoes have contributed to alabama reporting more tornado fatalities since 1950 than any other state. the state was affected by the 1974 super outbreak and was devastated tremendously by the 2011 super outbreak. the 2011 super outbreak produced a record amount of tornadoes in the state. the tally reached 62. the peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state. alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season in november and december besides the typically severe spring. the northern part — along the tennessee river valley — is most vulnerable. the area of alabama and mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as dixie alley, as distinct from the tornado alley of the southern plains. winters are generally mild in alabama, as they are throughout most of the southeastern united states, with average january low temperatures around in mobile and around in birmingham. although snow is a rare event in much of alabama, areas of the state north of montgomery may receive a dusting of snow a few times every winter, with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years. historic snowfall events include new year's eve 1963 snowstorm and the 1993 storm of the century. the annual average snowfall for the birmingham area is per year. in the southern gulf coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes going several years without any snowfall. alabama's highest temperature of was recorded on september 5, 1925, in the unincorporated community of centerville. the record low of occurred on january 30, 1966, in new market. flora and fauna alabama is home to a diverse array of flora and fauna in habitats that range from the tennessee valley, appalachian plateau, and ridge - and - valley appalachians of the north to the piedmont, canebrake, and black belt of the central region to the gulf coastal plain and beaches along the gulf of mexico in the south. the state is usually ranked among the top in nation for its range of overall | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama | 1 |
alabama | centers for disease control and prevention study in 2008 showed that obesity in alabama is a problem, with most counties having more than 29 % of adults obese, except for ten which had a rate between 26 % and 29 %. residents of the state, along with those in five other states, were least likely in the nation to be physically active during leisure time. alabama, and the southeastern u. s. in general, has one of the highest incidences of adult onset diabetes in the country, exceeding 10 % of adults. economy the state has invested in aerospace, education, health care, banking, and various heavy industries, including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and fabrication. by 2006, crop and animal production in alabama was valued at $ 1. 5billion. in contrast to the primarily agricultural economy of the previous century, this was only about one percent of the state's gross domestic product. the number of private farms has declined at a steady rate since the 1960s, as land has been sold to developers, timber companies, and large farming conglomerates. non - agricultural employment in 2008 was 121, 800 in management occupations ; 71, 750 in business and financial operations ; 36, 790 in computer - related and mathematical occupation ; 44, 200 in architecture and engineering ; 12, 410 in life, physical, and social sciences ; 32, 260 in community and social services ; 12, 770 in legal occupations ; 116, 250 in education, training, and library services ; 27, 840 in art, design and media occupations ; 121, 110 in healthcare ; 44, 750 in fire fighting, law enforcement, and security ; 154, 040 in food preparation and serving ; 76, 650 in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance ; 53, 230 in personal care and services ; 244, 510 in sales ; 338, 760 in office and administration support ; 20, 510 in farming, fishing, and forestry ; 120, 155 in construction and mining, gas, and oil extraction ; 106, 280 in installation, maintenance, and repair ; 224, 110 in production ; and 167, 160 in transportation and material moving. according to the u. s. bureau of economic analysis, the 2008 total gross state product was $ 170billion, or | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama | 1 |
alabama | by the catfish industry and alabama produced 132 million pounds of catfish. in 2020, alabama produced of the united states'farm - raised catfish. the total 2020 sales of catfish raised in alabama equaled $ 307 million but by 2020 the total employment of alabamians fell to 2, 442. from the early 2000s to 2020, the alabamian catfish industry has declined from 250 farms and 4 processors to 66 farms and 2 processors. reasons for this decline include increased feed prices, catfish alternatives, covid - 19's impact on restaurant sales, disease, and fish size. industry alabama's industrial outputs include iron and steel products ( including cast - iron and steel pipe ) ; paper, lumber, and wood products ; mining ( mostly coal ) ; plastic products ; cars and trucks ; and apparel. in addition, alabama produces aerospace and electronic products, mostly in the huntsville area, the location of nasa's george c. marshall space flight center and the u. s. army materiel command, headquartered at redstone arsenal. a great deal of alabama's economic growth since the 1990s has been due to the state's expanding automotive manufacturing industry. located in the state are honda manufacturing of alabama, hyundai motor manufacturing alabama, mercedes - benz u. s. international, and toyota motor manufacturing alabama, as well as their various suppliers. since 1993, the automobile industry has generated more than 67, 800 new jobs in the state. alabama currently ranks 4th in the nation for vehicle exports. automakers accounted for approximately a third of the industrial expansion in the state in 2012. the eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled combined sales of 74, 335 vehicles for 2012. the strongest model sales during this period were the hyundai elantra compact car, the mercedes - benz gl - class sport utility vehicle and the honda ridgeline sport utility truck. steel producers outokumpu, nucor, ssab, thyssenkrupp, and u. s. steel have facilities in alabama and employ more than 10, 000 people. in may 2007, german steelmaker thyssenkrupp selected calvert in mobile county for a 4. 65billion combined stainless and carbon steel processing facility. thyssenkrupp | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama | 4 |
alabama | alabama's gulf coast topped the list with 6, 700, 000 visitors. alabama has historically been a popular region for film shoots due to its diverse landscapes and contrast of environments. movies filmed in alabama include : close encounters of the third kind, get out, 42, selma, big fish, the final destination, due date, need for speed and many more. healthcare uab hospital, usa health university hospital, huntsville hospital, and children's hospital of alabama are the only leveli trauma centers in alabama. uab is the largest state government employer in alabama, with a workforce of about 18, 000. a 2017 study found that alabama had the least competitive health insurance market in the country, with blue cross and blue shield of alabama having a market share of 84 % followed by unitedhealth group at 7 %. banking regions financial corporation is the largest bank headquartered in or operating in alabama. pnc financial services and wells fargo also have a major presence in alabama. wells fargo has a regional headquarters, an operations center campus, and a $ 400million data center in birmingham. many smaller banks are also headquartered in the birmingham area, including servisfirst and new south federal savings bank. birmingham also serves as the headquarters for several large investment management companies, including harbert management corporation. electronics and communications telecommunications provider at & t, formerly bellsouth, has a major presence in alabama with several large offices in birmingham. many technology companies are headquartered in huntsville, such as adtran, a network access company ; intergraph, a computer graphics company ; and avocent, an it infrastructure company. construction brasfield & gorrie, be & k, hoar construction, and b. l. harbert international, based in alabama and subsidiaries of urs corporation, are all routinely are included in the engineering news - record lists of top design, international construction, and engineering firms. law and government state government the foundational document for alabama's government is the alabama constitution, which was ratified in 1901. with over 850 amendments and almost 87, 000 words, it is by some accounts the world's longest constitution and is roughly forty times the length of the united states constitution. there has been a significant movement to re | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama | 3 |
alabama | ##eral state legislatures had to be apportioned by population, as there was no constitutional basis for states to have geographically based systems. at that time, alabama and many other states had to change their legislative districting, as many across the country had systems that underrepresented urban areas and districts. this had caused decades of underinvestment in such areas. for instance, birmingham and jefferson county taxes had supplied one - third of the state budget, but jefferson county received only 1 / 67th of state services in funding. through the legislative delegations, the alabama legislature kept control of county governments. the executive branch is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws. it is headed by the governor of alabama. other members of the executive branch include the cabinet, the lieutenant governor of alabama, the attorney general of alabama, the alabama secretary of state, the alabama state treasurer, and the state auditor of alabama. the current governor is republican kay ivey. the members of the legislature take office immediately after the november elections. statewide officials, such as the governor, lieutenant governor, attorney general, and other constitutional officers, take office the following january. the judiciary is responsible for interpreting the constitution of alabama and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. the state's highest court is the supreme court of alabama. alabama uses partisan elections to select judges. since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly politicized. the current chief justice of the alabama supreme court is republican tom parker. all sitting justices on the alabama supreme court are members of the republican party. there are two intermediate appellate courts, the court of civil appeals and the court of criminal appeals, and four trial courts : the circuit court ( trial court of general jurisdiction ), and the district, probate, and municipal courts. alabama has the death penalty with authorized methods of execution that include the electric chair and the gas chamber. some critics believe the election of judges has contributed to an exceedingly high rate of executions. alabama has the highest per capita death penalty rate in the country. in some years, it imposes more death sentences than does texas, a state which has a population five times larger. however, executions per capita are significantly higher in texas. some of its cases have | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama | 1 |
alabama | exceedingly high rate of executions. alabama has the highest per capita death penalty rate in the country. in some years, it imposes more death sentences than does texas, a state which has a population five times larger. however, executions per capita are significantly higher in texas. some of its cases have been highly controversial ; the u. s. supreme court has overturned 24 convictions in death penalty cases. it was the only state to allow judges to override jury decisions in whether or not to use a death sentence ; in 10 cases judges overturned sentences of life imprisonment without parole that were voted unanimously by juries. this judicial authority was removed in april 2017. on may 14, 2019, alabama passed the human life protection act, banning abortion at any stage of pregnancy unless there is a " serious health risk ", with no exceptions for rape and incest. the law subjects doctors who perform abortions with 10 to 99 years imprisonment. the law was originally supposed to take effect the following november, but on october 29, 2019, u. s. district judge myron thompson blocked the law from taking effect due to it being in conflict with the 1973 u. s. supreme court case roe v. wade. on june 24, 2022, after the u. s. supreme court overturned roe v. wade in dobbs v. jackson women's health organization, judge thompson lifted the injunction, allowing the law to go into effect. alabama is one of the very few states that does not allow the creation of state lotteries. taxes taxes are collected by the alabama department of revenue. alabama levies a 2 %, 4 %, or5 % personal income tax, depending on the amount earned and filing status. taxpayers are allowed to deduct their federal income tax from their alabama state tax, even if taking the standard deduction ; those who itemize can also deduct fica ( the social security and medicare tax ). the state's general sales tax rate is 4 %. sales tax rates for cities and counties are also added to purchases. for example, the total sales tax rate in mobile county, alabama is 10 % and there is an additional restaurant tax of 1 %, which means a diner in mobile county, alabama | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama | 1 |
alabama | school of law, miles law school, and the thomas goode jones school of law ). public, post - secondary education in alabama is overseen by the alabama commission on higher education and the alabama department of postsecondary education. colleges and universities in alabama offer degree programs from two - year associate degrees to a multitude of doctoral level programs. the largest single campus is the university of alabama, located in tuscaloosa, with 37, 665 enrolled for fall 2016. troy university was the largest institution in the state in 2010, with an enrollment of 29, 689 students across four alabama campuses ( troy, dothan, montgomery, and phenix city ), as well as sixty learning sites in seventeen other states and eleven other countries. the oldest institutions are the public university of north alabama in florence and the catholic church - affiliated spring hill college in mobile, both founded in 1830. accreditation of academic programs is through the southern association of colleges and schools ( sacs ) as well as other subject - focused national and international accreditation agencies such as the association for biblical higher education ( abhe ), the council on occupational education ( coe ), and the accrediting council for independent colleges and schools ( acics ). according to the 2011 u. s. news & world report, alabama had three universities ranked in the top 100 public schools in america ( university of alabama at 31, auburn university at 36, and university of alabama at birmingham at 73 ). according to the 2012 u. s. news & world report, alabama had four tier one universities ( university of alabama, auburn university, university of alabama at birmingham and university of alabama in huntsville ). media major newspapers include birmingham news, mobile press - register, and montgomery advertiser. major television network affiliates in alabama include : abc wgww 40. 2 abc, anniston wbma 58 / wabm 68. 2 abc, birmingham wdhn 18 abc, dothan waay 31 abc, huntsville wear 3 abc pensacola, florida / mobile wncf 32 abc, montgomery wdbb 17. 2 abc, tuscaloosa cbs wiat 42 cbs, birmingham wtvy 4 cbs, dothan whnt 19 cbs, huntsville w | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama | 1 |
aristotle | aristotle ( ; aristoteles, ; 384 – 322 bc ) was an ancient greek philosopher and polymath. his writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology and the arts. as the founder of the peripatetic school of philosophy in the lyceum in athens, he began the wider aristotelian tradition that followed, which set the groundwork for the development of modern science. little is known about aristotle's life. he was born in the city of stagira in northern greece during the classical period. his father, nicomachus, died when aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. at 17 or 18 he joined plato's academy in athens and remained there till the age of 37 ( ). shortly after plato died, aristotle left athens and, at the request of philip ii of macedon, tutored his son alexander the great beginning in 343 bc. he established a library in the lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. though aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication. aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. his teachings and methods of inquiry have had a significant global impact, and as a result, his philosophy has exerted an influence across the world and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion. aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. the influence of his physical science extended from late antiquity and the early middle ages into the renaissance, and was not replaced systematically until the enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. some of aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl ( reproductive ) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. he influenced judeo - islamic philosophies during the middle ages, as well as christian theology, especially the neoplatonism of the early church and the scholastic tradition of the catholic church. aristotle was revered among medieval muslim scholars as " the first teacher ", | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 1 |
aristotle | nearly twenty years before leaving in 348 / 47 bc. the traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the academy's direction after control passed to plato's nephew speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti - macedonian sentiments in athens at that time and left before plato died. aristotle then accompanied xenocrates to the court of his friend hermias of atarneus in asia minor. after the death of hermias, aristotle travelled with his pupil theophrastus to the island of lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. while in lesbos, aristotle married pythias, either hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. they had a daughter, whom they also named pythias. in 343 bc, aristotle was invited by philip ii of macedon to become the tutor to his son alexander. aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of macedon. during aristotle's time in the macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to alexander but also to two other future kings : ptolemy and cassander. aristotle encouraged alexander toward eastern conquest, and aristotle's own attitude towards persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. in one famous example, he counsels alexander to be " a leader to the greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants ". by 335 bc, aristotle had returned to athens, establishing his own school there known as the lyceum. aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. while in athens, his wife pythias died and aristotle became involved with herpyllis of stagira. they had a son whom aristotle named after his father, nicomachus. if the suda an uncritical compilation from the middle ages is accurate, he may also have had an eromenos, palaephatus of abydus. this period in athens, between 335 and 323 bc, is when aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. he wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 2 |
aristotle | the middle ages is accurate, he may also have had an eromenos, palaephatus of abydus. this period in athens, between 335 and 323 bc, is when aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. he wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication ; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. his most important treatises include physics, metaphysics, nicomachean ethics, politics, on the soul and poetics. aristotle studied and made significant contributions to " logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre. " near the end of his life, alexander and aristotle became estranged over alexander's relationship with persia and persians. a widespread tradition in antiquity suspected aristotle of playing a role in alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. following alexander's death, anti - macedonian sentiment in athens was rekindled. in 322 bc, demophilus and eurymedon the hierophant reportedly denounced aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in chalcis, on euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated : " i will not allow the athenians to sin twice against philosophy " – a reference to athens's trial and execution of socrates. he died in chalcis, euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife. theoretical philosophy logic with the prior analytics, aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of western logic until 19th - century advances in mathematical logic. kant stated in the critique of pure reason that with aristotle logic reached its completion. organon what is today called aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism ( methods of logical argument ), aristotle himself would have labelled " | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 1 |
aristotle | rest. representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of " cause " as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. in the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over. in the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions. the final cause ( telos ) is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. the final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. this covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition. in the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life. optics aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in problems, book 15. the apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. with it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. he also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image. chance and spontaneity according to aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, " from what is spontaneous ". there is also more a specific kind of chance, which aristotle names " luck ", that only applies to people's moral choices. astronomy in astronomy, aristotle refuted democritus's claim that the milky way was made up of " those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays, " pointing out partly correctly that if " the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them. " he also wrote descriptions of comets, including the great comet of 371 bc. geology and natural sciences aristotle was one of the first people to record any | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 5 |
aristotle | many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them. " he also wrote descriptions of comets, including the great comet of 371 bc. geology and natural sciences aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. he stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime. the geologist charles lyell noted that aristotle described such change, including " lakes that had dried up " and " deserts that had become watered by rivers ", giving as examples the growth of the nile delta since the time of homer, and " the upheaving of one of the aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption. "'aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle and meteorology ( including his major writings " meteorologica " ). for example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination : he observed early – and correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff ( " i have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again. " ) biology empirical research aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. he spent two years observing and describing the zoology of lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the pyrrha lagoon in the centre of lesbos. his data in history of animals, generation of animals, movement of animals, and parts of animals are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. his apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident : his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil theophrastus have survived. aristotle reports on the sea - life visible from observation on lesbos and the catches of fishermen. he describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper na | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 4 |
aristotle | ##ction. in generation of animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside. instead, he practiced a different style of science : systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. this style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. it does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. in this sense, aristotle's biology is scientific. from the data he collected and documented, aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life - history features of the live - bearing tetrapods ( terrestrial placental mammals ) that he studied. among these correct predictions are the following. brood size decreases with ( adult ) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young ( usually just one ) per brood than a mouse. lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. as a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long - lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short - lived kinds like mice. classification of living things aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals, arranging these in the history of animals in a graded scale of perfection, a nonreligious version of the scala naturae, with man at the top. his system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth : the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral - like eggs. animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals. he grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter " animals with blood ", and below them the colder invertebrates as " animals without blood ". those with blood were divided into the live - bearing ( mammals ), and the egg - laying ( birds, reptiles, fish ). those without blood were insects, crustacea ( | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 1 |
aristotle | growth and chemical transformations, which aristotle considers types of movement ). in contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. notable is aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of alcmaeon. in on the soul, aristotle famously criticizes plato's theory of the soul and develops his own in response to plato's. the first criticism is against plato's view of the soul in the timaeus that the soul takes up space and is able to come into physical contact with bodies. 20th - century scholarship overwhelmingly opposed aristotle's interpretation of plato and maintained that he had misunderstood plato. today's scholars have tended to re - assess aristotle's interpretation and have warmed up to it. aristotle's other criticism is that plato's view of reincarnation entails that it is possible for a soul and its body to be mis - matched ; in principle, aristotle alleges, any soul can go with any body, according to plato's theory. aristotle's claim that the soul is the form of a living being is meant to eliminate that possibility and thus rule out reincarnation. memory according to aristotle in on the soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal " appearance " and an occurrence in the past. in other words, a memory is a mental picture ( phantasm ) that can be recovered. aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi - fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. a memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. these changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, aristotelian, and thinking. aristotle uses the term'memory'for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. retrieval | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 1 |
aristotle | whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. while it is believed that aristotle's poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements : plot - structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. the characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story ; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. aristotle concludes poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior : epic or tragic mimesis. he suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs ; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the delphic oracle and studied the fables of aesop. transmission more than 2300 years after his death, aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. he contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. according to the philosopher bryan magee, " it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did ". among countless other achievements, aristotle was the founder of formal logic, pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. taneli kukkonen, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing " every branch of intellectual enterprise " including western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric, and literary analysis is equally long. as a result, kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today " will almost certainly carry aristotelian | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 1 |
aristotle | two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing " every branch of intellectual enterprise " including western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric, and literary analysis is equally long. as a result, kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today " will almost certainly carry aristotelian overtones... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind. " jonathan barnes wrote that " an account of aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of european thought ". aristotle has been called the father of logic, biology, political science, zoology, embryology, natural law, scientific method, rhetoric, psychology, realism, criticism, individualism, teleology, and meteorology. what follows is an overview of the transmission and influence of his texts and ideas into the modern era. his successor, theophrastus aristotle's pupil and successor, theophrastus, wrote the history of plants, a pioneering work in botany. some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber. theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned. later greek philosophy the immediate influence of aristotle's work was felt as the lyceum grew into the peripatetic school. aristotle's students included aristoxenus, dicaearchus, demetrius of phalerum, eudemos of rhodes, harpalus, hephaestion, mnason of phocis, nicomachus, and theophrastus. aristotle's influence over alexander the great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. he had also learned a great deal about persian customs and traditions from his teacher. although his respect for aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, alexander complained " thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines ; for in what shall i surpass other men if those doctrines wherein i have | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 3 |
aristotle | ##telian logic. according to scholar roger theodore lafferty, dante built up the philosophy of the comedy with the works of aristotle as a foundation, just as the scholastics used aristotle as the basis for their thinking. dante knew aristotle directly from latin translations of his works and indirectly through quotations in the works of albert magnus. dante even acknowledges aristotle's influence explicitly in the poem, specifically when virgil justifies the inferno's structure by citing the nicomachean ethics. medieval judaism moses maimonides ( considered to be the foremost intellectual figure of medieval judaism ) adopted aristotelianism from the islamic scholars and based his guide for the perplexed on it and that became the basis of jewish scholastic philosophy. maimonides also considered aristotle to be the greatest philosopher that ever lived, and styled him as the " chief of the philosophers ". also, in his letter to samuel ibn tibbon, maimonides observes that there is no need for samuel to study the writings of philosophers who preceded aristotle because the works of the latter are " sufficient by themselves and [ superior ] to all that were written before them. his intellect, aristotle's is the extreme limit of human intellect, apart from him upon whom the divine emanation has flowed forth to such an extent that they reach the level of prophecy, there being no level higher ". early modern scientists in the early modern period, scientists such as william harvey in england and galileo galilei in italy reacted against the theories of aristotle and other classical era thinkers like galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as aristotle thought. galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight. 18th and 19th - century science the english mathematician george boole fully accepted aristotle's logic, but decided " to go under, over, and beyond " it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book the laws of thought. this gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 1 |
aristotle | - century science the english mathematician george boole fully accepted aristotle's logic, but decided " to go under, over, and beyond " it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book the laws of thought. this gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two. charles darwin regarded aristotle as the most important contributor to the subject of biology. in an 1882 letter he wrote that " linnaeus and cuvier have been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they were mere schoolboys to old aristotle ". also, in later editions of the book " on the origin of species ', darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as aristotle ; the text he cites is a summary by aristotle of the ideas of the earlier greek philosopher empedocles. surviving works corpus aristotelicum the works of aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the corpus aristotelicum. these texts, as opposed to aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within aristotle's school. reference to them is made according to the organization of immanuel bekker's royal prussian academy edition ( aristotelis opera edidit academia regia borussica, berlin, 1831 – 1870 ), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works. loss and preservation aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. his writings are divisible into two groups : the " exoteric ", intended for the public, and the " esoteric ", for use within the lyceum school. aristotle's " lost " works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving aristotelian corpus. whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. cicero's description of aristotle's literary style as " a river of gold " must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes. a major question in the history of aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 1 |
aristotle | and transferred it to rome. there, andronicus of rhodes organized the texts into the first complete edition of aristotle's works ( and works attributed to him ). the aristotelian texts we have to day are based on these. legacy depictions paintings aristotle has been depicted by major artists including lucas cranach the elder, justus van gent, raphael, paolo veronese, jusepe de ribera, rembrandt, and francesco hayez over the centuries. among the best - known depictions is raphael's fresco the school of athens, in the vatican's apostolic palace, where the figures of plato and aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance. rembrandt's aristotle with a bust of homer, too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind homer from an earlier age : as the art critic jonathan jones writes, " this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch - black, terrible knowledge of time. " sculptures eponyms the aristotle mountains in antarctica are named after aristotle. he was the first person known to conjecture, in his book meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern high - latitude region, which he called antarctica. aristoteles is a crater on the moon bearing the classical form of aristotle's name. see also aristotelian society conimbricenses perfectionism references notes citations sources further reading the secondary literature on aristotle is vast. the following is only a small selection. ackrill, j. l. ( 1997 ). essays on plato and aristotle, oxford university press. these translations are available in several places online ; see external links. bakalis, nikolaos. ( 2005 ). handbook of greek philosophy : from thales to the stoics analysis and fragments, trafford publishing,. bolotin, david ( 1998 ). an approach to aristotle's physics : with particular attention to the role of his manner of writing. albany : suny press. a contribution to our understanding of how to read aristotle's scientific works. burnye | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 1 |
academy_awards | dress rehearsal niven had asked metzler's wife to borrow a pen so he could write down the famous line, which was thus not the ad - lib it appeared to be. the 74th academy awards, held in 2002, presented the first academy award for best animated feature. from 1973 to 2020 and since 2022, all academy awards ceremonies have ended with the academy award for best picture. for 2021, this tradition was broken as the ceremony ended with the academy award for best actor. traditionally, the previous year's winner for best actor and best supporting actor present the awards for best actress and best supporting actress, while the previous year's winner for best actress and best supporting actress presents the awards for best actor and best supporting actor. on february 9, 2020, parasite became the first foreign - language film to win best picture at the award ceremony of 92nd academy awards. tom hanks announced, at the 2020 oscar ceremony, the opening of the academy museum of motion pictures on december 14, 2020. the museum development started in 2017 under kerry brougher, but is now led by bill kramer. the industry - curated exhibits are geared toward the history of motion pictures and the art & science of film making, exhibiting trailblazing directors, actors, film - makers, sound editors and more, and the museum houses famous artifacts from acclaimed movies such as dorothy's ruby red slippers from the wizard of oz. the 93rd academy awards ceremony, honoring the best films of 2020 and early 2021, was held on april 25, 2021, after it was postponed from its original february 28, 2021, schedule due to the impact of the covid - 19 pandemic on cinema. as with the two previous ceremonies, there was no host. the ceremony was broadcast on abc. it took place at the dolby theatre in los angeles, california for the 19th consecutive year, along with satellite location taking place at the union station also in los angeles. because of the virus impact on films and tv industries, academy president david rubin and ceo dawn hudson announced that for the 2021 oscar ceremony, streaming movies with a previously planned theatrical release were eligible. the theatrical requirement was reinstated starting with the 95th academy awards. oscar statuette academy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | 1 |
academy_awards | also in los angeles. because of the virus impact on films and tv industries, academy president david rubin and ceo dawn hudson announced that for the 2021 oscar ceremony, streaming movies with a previously planned theatrical release were eligible. the theatrical requirement was reinstated starting with the 95th academy awards. oscar statuette academy award of merit the best known award is the academy award of merit, more popularly known as the oscar statuette. made of gold - plated bronze on a black metal base, it is 13. 5 in ( 34. 3 cm ) tall, weighs 8. 5 lb ( 3. 856 kg ), and depicts a knight rendered in art deco style holding a sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. the five spokes represent the original branches of the academy : actors, writers, directors, producers, and technicians. sculptor george stanley ( who also did the muse fountain at the hollywood bowl ) sculpted cedric gibbons'design. the statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were gold - plated solid bronze. within a few years, the bronze was abandoned in favor of britannia metal, a pewter - like alloy which is then plated in copper, nickel silver, and finally, 24 - karat gold. due to a metal shortage during world war ii, oscars were made of painted plaster for three years. following the war, the academy invited recipients to redeem the plaster figures for gold - plated metal ones. the only addition to the oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. the original oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the c. w. shumway & sons foundry in batavia, illinois, which also contributed to casting the molds for the vince lombardi trophy and emmy award statuettes. from 1983 to 2015, approximately 50 oscars in a tin alloy with gold plating were made each year in chicago by illinois manufacturer r. s. owens & company. it would take between three and four weeks to manufacture 50 statuettes. in 2016, the academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes, handing manufacturing duties to walden, new york – based polich tallix fine art foundry, now owned and operated by uap urban art projects. while based | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | 1 |
academy_awards | take between three and four weeks to manufacture 50 statuettes. in 2016, the academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes, handing manufacturing duties to walden, new york – based polich tallix fine art foundry, now owned and operated by uap urban art projects. while based on a digital scan of an original 1929 oscar, the statuettes retain their modern - era dimensions and black pedestal. cast in liquid bronze from 3d - printed ceramic molds and polished, they are then electroplated in 24 - karat gold by brooklyn, new york – based epner technology. the time required to produce 50 such statuettes is roughly three months. r. s. owens is expected to continue producing other awards for the academy and service existing oscars that need replating. naming the origin of the nickname of the trophy has been disputed as multiple people have taken credit for naming the trophy " oscar ". bette davis, in her 1962 autobiography, claimed she named it in 1936 after her first husband, harmon oscar nelson, of whom the statue's rear end reminded her. but the term had been in use at least two years before, and in a 1974 biography written by whitney stine with commentary from davis, davis wrote " i relinquish once and for all any claim that i was the one — so, academy of motion picture arts and sciences, the honor is all yours. " margaret herrick, librarian and president of the academy, may have said she named it after her supposed uncle oscar in 1921. the only corroboration was a 1938 clipping from the los angeles examiner, in which herrick told a story of her and her husband joking with each other using the phrase, " how's your uncle oscar ". columnist sidney skolsky wrote in his 1970 memoir that he came up with the term in 1934 under pressure for a deadline, mocking vaudeville comedians who asked " will you have a cigar, oscar? " the academy credits skolsky with " the first confirmed newspaper reference " to oscar in his column on march 16, 1934, which was written about that year's 6th academy awards. but in the newspaper clipping that skolsky referred to, he wrote that " | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | 2 |
academy_awards | physical screeners and in - person screenings, restricting official membership viewing to the academy screening room. films eligible in the documentary and international categories were made available in different sections of the platform. distributors can also pay an extra fee to add video featurettes to promote their films on the platform. the in - person screenings were said to be cancelled because of the covid - 19 pandemic. eligible films do not have to be added to the platform, but the academy advertises them to voting members when they are. awards ceremonies telecast the major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony, commonly in late february or early march following the relevant calendar year, and six weeks after the announcement of the nominees. it is the culmination of the film awards season, which usually begins during november or december of the previous year. this is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. black tie dress is the most common outfit for men, although fashion may dictate not wearing a bow - tie, and musical performers sometimes do not adhere to this ( the artists who recorded the nominees for best original song quite often perform those songs live at the awards ceremony, and the fact that they are performing is often used to promote the television broadcast ). the academy awards is the world's longest - running awards show televised live from the u. s. to all time zones in north america and worldwide, and gathers billions of viewers elsewhere throughout the world. the oscars were first televised in 1953 by nbc, which continued to broadcast the event until 1960, when abc took over, televising the festivities ( including the first color broadcast of the event in 1966 ) through 1970. nbc regained the rights for five years then abc resumed broadcast duties in 1976 and its current contract with the academy runs through 2028. the academy has also produced condensed versions of the ceremony for broadcast in international markets ( especially those outside of the americas ) in more desirable local timeslots. the ceremony was broadcast live internationally for the first time via satellite since 1970, but only two south american countries, chile and brazil, purchased the rights to air the broadcast. by that time, the | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | 1 |
academy_awards | for broadcast in international markets ( especially those outside of the americas ) in more desirable local timeslots. the ceremony was broadcast live internationally for the first time via satellite since 1970, but only two south american countries, chile and brazil, purchased the rights to air the broadcast. by that time, the television rights to the academy awards had been sold in 50 countries. a decade later, the rights were already being sold to 60 countries, and by 1984, the tv rights to the awards were licensed in 76 countries. the ceremonies were moved up from late march / early april to late february, since 2004, to help disrupt and shorten the intense lobbying and ad campaigns associated with oscar season in the film industry. another reason was because of the growing tv ratings success coinciding with the ncaa basketball tournament, which would cut into the academy awards audience. ( in 1976 and 1977, abc's regained oscars were moved from tuesday to monday and went directly opposite nbc's ncaa title game. ) the earlier date is also to the advantage of abc, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important february sweeps period. some years, the ceremony is moved into the first sunday of march to avoid a clash with the winter olympic games. another reason for the move to late february and early march is also to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close to the religious holidays of passover and easter, which for decades had been a grievance from members and the general public. advertising is somewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official academy award sponsors may advertise during the telecast. the production of the academy awards telecast currently holds the distinction of winning the most emmys in history, with 47 wins and 195 nominations overall since that award's own launch in 1949. after many years of being held on mondays at 9 : 00 pm eastern / 6 : 00 p. m pacific, since the 1999 ceremonies, it was moved to sundays at 8 : 30 pm et / 5 : 30 pm pt. the reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on sundays, that los angeles rush - hour traffic jams could be avoided, and an earlier start time would allow viewers on the east coast to go to | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | 2 |
academy_awards | moved to sundays at 8 : 30 pm et / 5 : 30 pm pt. the reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on sundays, that los angeles rush - hour traffic jams could be avoided, and an earlier start time would allow viewers on the east coast to go to bed earlier. for many years the film industry opposed a sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office. in 2010, the academy contemplated moving the ceremony even further back into january, citing tv viewers'fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. however, such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers ( as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail ). furthermore, a january ceremony on sunday would clash with national football league playoff games. in 2018, the academy announced that the ceremony would be moved from late february to mid february beginning with the 92nd academy awards in 2020. originally scheduled for april 8, 1968, the 40th academy awards ceremony was postponed for two days, because of the assassination of dr. martin luther king, jr. on march 30, 1981, the 53rd academy awards was postponed for one day, after the shooting of president ronald reagan and others in washington, d. c. in 1993, an in memoriam segment was introduced, honoring those who had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of academy members. this segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names. criticism was also levied for many years regarding another aspect, with the segment having a " popularity contest " feel as the audience varied their applause to those who had died by the subject's cultural impact ; the applause has since been muted during the telecast, and the audience is discouraged from clapping during the segment and giving silent reflection instead. this segment was later followed by a commercial break. in terms of broadcast length, the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours. the first oscars, in 1929, lasted 15 minutes. at the other end of the spectrum, the 2002 ceremony lasted four hours | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | 1 |
academy_awards | controversies accusations of commercialism due to the positive exposure and prestige of the academy awards, many studios spend millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the " oscar season. " this has generated accusations of the academy awards being influenced more by marketing than by quality. william friedkin, an academy award - winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at a conference in new york in 2009, describing it as " the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself. " tim dirks, editor of amc's filmsite. org, has written of the academy awards : a recent technique that has been claimed to be used during the oscar season is the whisper campaign. these campaigns are intended to spread negative perceptions of other movies nominated and are believed to be perpetrated by those that were involved in creating the movie. examples of whisper campaigns include the allegations against zero dark thirty suggesting that it justifies torture and the claim that lincoln distorts history. accusations of bias typical criticism of the academy awards for best picture is that among the winners and nominees there is an over - representation of romantic historical epics, biographical dramas, romantic dramedies and family melodramas, most of which are released in the u. s. in the last three months of the calendar year. the oscars have been infamously known for selecting specific genres of movies to be awarded. the term " oscar bait " was coined to describe such movies. this has led, at times, to more specific criticisms that the academy is disconnected from the audience, e. g., by favoring " oscar bait " over audience favorites or favoring historical melodramas over critically acclaimed movies that depict current life issues. allegations of a lack of diversity the academy awards have long received criticism over its lack of diversity among the nominees. this criticism is based on the statistics from every academy awards since 1929, which show that only 6. 4 % of academy award nominees have been non - white and since 1991, 11. 2 % of nominees have been non - white, with the rate of winners being even more polarizing. due to a variety of reasons, including marketability and historical bans on inter | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | 1 |
academy_awards | the gifts and their taxable status. oscar gift bags have included vacation packages to hawaii and mexico and japan, a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at a restaurant, videophones, a four - night stay at a hotel, watches, bracelets, spa treatments, bottles of vodka, maple salad dressing, weight - loss gummie candy and up to $ 25, 000 worth of cosmetic treatments and rejuvenation procedures such as lip fillers and chemical peels from new york city facial plastic surgeon konstantin vasyukevich. some of the gifts have even had a " risque " element to them ; in 2014, the adult products retailer adam & eve had a " secret room gifting suite. " celebrities visiting the gifting suite included judith hoag, carolyn hennesy, kate linder, chris mulkey, jim o'heir and john salley. television ratings and advertisement prices from 2006 onwards, results are live + sd ; all previous years are live viewing. notable highest wins and nominees by films the following nominees received at least 10 nominations : the following winners received at least 5 awards ( including non - competitive ) : by franchises the following nominees received at least 5 nominations : the following winners received at least 2 awards : by people the following nominees received at least 5 nominations : the following winners received at least 3 awards ( including non - competitive ) : see also list of film awards list of actors with academy award nominations list of superlative academy award winners and nominees footnotes references further reading brokaw, lauren ( 2010 ). " wanna see an academy awards invite? we got it along with all the major annual events surrounding the oscars ". los angeles : the daily truffle. wright, jon ( 2007 ). the lunacy of oscar : the problems with hollywood's biggest night. thomas publishing, inc. external links official academy awards database ( searchable ) 1929 establishments in california 1953 american television series debuts performing arts trophies american annual television specials american film awards annual events in los angeles county, california awards established in 1929 cinema of southern california events in los angeles culture of hollywood, los angeles american live television shows | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy%20Awards | 1 |
altruism | altruism is the principle and practice of concern for the well - being and / or happiness of other humans or animals. while objects of altruistic concern vary, it is an important moral value in many cultures and religions. it may be considered a synonym of selflessness, the opposite of selfishness. the word altruism was popularized ( and possibly coined ) by the french philosopher auguste comte in french, as, for an antonym of egoism. he derived it from the italian, which in turn was derived from latin, meaning " other people " or " somebody else ". altruism, as observed in populations of organisms, is when an individual performs an action at a cost to themselves ( in terms of e. g. pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction ) that benefits, directly or indirectly, another individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action. altruism can be distinguished from feelings of loyalty or concern for the common good. the latter are predicated upon social relationships, whilst altruism does not consider relationships. whether " true " altruism is possible in human psychology is a subject of debate. the theory of psychological egoism suggests that no act of sharing, helping, or sacrificing can be truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal gratification. the validity of this argument depends on whether such intrinsic rewards qualify as " benefits ". the term altruism may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with egoism, which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves first. effective altruism is the use of evidence and reason to determine the most effective ways to benefit others. the notion of altruism the concept of altruism has a history in philosophical and ethical thought. the term was coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist and philosopher of science auguste comte, and has become a major topic for psychologists ( especially evolutionary psychology researchers ), evolutionary biologists, and ethologists. whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism | 1 |
altruism | thought. the term was coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist and philosopher of science auguste comte, and has become a major topic for psychologists ( especially evolutionary psychology researchers ), evolutionary biologists, and ethologists. whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. in simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them. scientific viewpoints anthropology marcel mauss's essay the gift contains a passage called " note on alms ". this note describes the evolution of the notion of alms ( and by extension of altruism ) from the notion of sacrifice. in it, he writes : evolutionary explanations in the science of ethology ( the study of animal behaviour ), and more generally in the study of social evolution, altruism refers to behavior by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. in evolutionary psychology this term may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as charity, emergency aid, help to coalition partners, tipping, courtship gifts, production of public goods, and environmentalism. theories of apparently altruistic behavior were by the need to produce ideas compatible with evolutionary origins. two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and evolutionary game theory : a mathematical model and analysis of behavioral strategies. some of the proposed mechanisms are : kin selection. that animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non - kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. one kinship cue is facial resemblance. one study found that slightly altering photographs to resemble the faces of study participants more closely increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, which has been found to increase helpful behavior. another study found more cooperative behavior, the greater the number of perceived kin in a group. using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. this effect was powerful for firstborns, who are | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism | 1 |
altruism | as individual amoebae until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved to facilitate long - term, high - cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success. such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left - wing politics, for example, by the russian zoologist and anarchist peter kropotkin in his 1902 book mutual aid : a factor of evolution and moral philosopher peter singer in his book a darwinian left. neurobiology jorge moll and jordan grafman, neuroscientists at the national institutes of health and labs - d'or hospital network, provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. in their research, they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the mesolimbic reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. however, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated : the subgenual cortex / septal region. these structures social attachment and bonding in other species. the experiment indicated that altruism isn't a higher moral faculty overpowering innate selfish desires, but a fundamental, ingrained, and enjoyable trait in the brain. one brain region, the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex / basal forebrain, contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in people with empathy. the same study identified giving to charity and of social bonding. bill harbaugh, a university of oregon economist, in an fmri scanner test conducted with his psychologist colleague dr. ulrich mayr, reached the same conclusions as jorge moll and jordan grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups : " egoists " and " altruists ". one of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered " egoists " | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism | 2 |
altruism | self - interest and that true altruism is impossible. rational egoism is the view that rationality consists in acting in one's self - interest ( without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations ). effective altruism effective altruism is a philosophy and social movement that uses evidence and reasoning to determine the most effective ways to benefit others. effective altruism encourages individuals to consider all causes and actions and to act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact, based upon their values. it is the broad, evidence - based, and cause - neutral approach that distinguishes effective altruism from traditional altruism or charity. effective altruism is part of the larger movement towards evidence - based practices. while a substantial proportion of effective altruists have focused on the nonprofit sector, the philosophy of effective altruism applies more broadly to prioritizing the scientific projects, companies, and policy initiatives which can be estimated to save lives, help people, or otherwise have the biggest benefit. people associated with the movement include philosopher peter singer, facebook co founder dustin moskovitz, cari tuna, oxford - based researchers william macaskill and toby ord, and professional poker player liv boeree. genetics oxtr, cd38, comt, drd4, drd5, igf2, and gabrb2 are candidate genes for influencing altruistic behavior. digital altruism digital altruism is the notion that some are willing to freely share information based on the principle of reciprocity and in the belief that in the end, everyone benefits from sharing information via the internet. there are three types of digital altruism : ( 1 ) " everyday digital altruism ", involving expedience, ease, moral engagement, and conformity ; ( 2 ) " creative digital altruism ", involving creativity, heightened moral engagement, and cooperation ; and ( 3 ) " co - creative digital altruism " involving creativity, moral engagement, and meta cooperative efforts. see also notes references external links auguste comte defence mechanisms morality moral psychology philanthropy social philosophy interpersonal relationships virtue | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism | 1 |
algeria | algeria, officially the people's democratic republic of algeria, is a country in north africa. algeria is bordered to the northeast by tunisia ; to the east by libya ; to the southeast by niger ; to the southwest by mali, mauritania, and western sahara ; to the west by morocco ; and to the north by the mediterranean sea. it is considered part of the maghreb region of north africa. it has a semi - arid geography, with most of the population living in the fertile north and the sahara dominating the geography of the south. algeria covers an area of, making it the world's tenth largest nation by area, and the largest nation in africa, more than 200 times as large as the continent's smallest country, the gambia. with a population of 44 million, algeria is the tenth - most populous country in africa, and the 32nd - most populous country in the world. the capital and largest city is algiers, located in the far north on the mediterranean coast. algeria produced and is linked to many civilizations, empires and dynasties, including numidians, mauretanians, phoenicians, carthaginians, romans, vandals, mauro - romans, byzantines, umayyads, ifranids, abbasids, rustamids, idrisids, sulaymanids, aghlabids, fatimids, zirids, hammadids, almoravids, almohads, marinids, hafsids and the zayyanids. centuries of arab migration to the maghreb since the 7th century shifted the demographic scope in algeria. the spanish expansionism led to the establishment of the regency of algiers in 1516, a state that attracted people from all over the mediterranean, making its capital algiers one of the largest, wealthiest, and most cosmopolitan cities in the world. its decline in the 19th century resulted in its invasion by the french in 1830. the conquest and pacification of the country that ensued lasted until 1903 and led to algeria becoming an integral part of france in 1848 and home to over a million european settlers. the setif and guelma massacre in 1945 marked a turning point in franco - algerian relations and | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
algeria | by the french in 1830. the conquest and pacification of the country that ensued lasted until 1903 and led to algeria becoming an integral part of france in 1848 and home to over a million european settlers. the setif and guelma massacre in 1945 marked a turning point in franco - algerian relations and sparked the algerian war which concluded with algeria gaining its independence on 5 july 1962 and the proclamation of the people's democratic republic on 25 september of that year. the official languages of algeria are arabic and berber. the majority of algeria's population is arab, practicing islam. the native algerian arabic is the main spoken language. french also serves as an administrative and educational language in some contexts, but it has no official status. algeria is a semi - presidential republic, with local constituencies consisting of 58 provinces and 1, 541 communes. algeria is a regional power in north africa, and a middle power in global affairs. it has the highest human development index of all continental african countries and one of the largest economies on the continent, based largely on energy exports. algeria has the world's sixteenth - largest oil reserves and the ninth - largest reserves of natural gas. sonatrach, the national oil company, is the largest company in africa, supplying large amounts of natural gas to europe. algeria's military is one of the largest in africa, and has the largest defence budget on the continent. it is a member of the african union, the arab league, the oic, opec, the united nations, and the arab maghreb union, of which it is a founding member. name other forms of the name are :, ; berber languages :,, ;. it is officially the people's democratic republic of algeria ( ;, abbreviated as radp ). etymology algeria's name derives from the city of algiers which in turn derives from the arabic (, " the islands " ) in reference to four small islands off its coast, a truncated form of the older (, " islands of bani mazghanna " ). the name was given by buluggin ibn ziri after he established the city on the ruins of the phoenician city of icosium in 950. it was employed | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
algeria | are called aterian ( after the archaeological site of bir el ater, south of tebessa ). the earliest blade industries in north africa are called iberomaurusian ( located mainly in the oran region ). this industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the maghreb between 15, 000 and 10, 000 bc. neolithic civilization ( animal domestication and agriculture ) developed in the saharan and mediterranean maghreb perhaps as early as 11, 000 bc or as late as between 6000 and 2000 bc. this life, richly depicted in the tassili n'ajjer paintings, predominated in algeria until the classical period. the mixture of peoples of north africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be called berbers, who are the indigenous peoples of northern africa. from their principal center of power at carthage, the carthaginians expanded and established small settlements along the north african coast ; by 600 bc, a phoenician presence existed at tipasa, east of cherchell, hippo regius ( modern annaba ) and rusicade ( modern skikda ). these settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages. as carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. berber civilisation was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organisation supported several states. trade links between carthage and the berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others. by the early 4th century bc, berbers formed the single largest element of the carthaginian army. in the revolt of the mercenaries, berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 bc after being unpaid following the defeat of carthage in the first punic war. they succeeded in obtaining control of much of carthage's north african territory, and they minted coins bearing the name libyan, used in greek to describe natives of north africa. the carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the romans in the punic wars. in 146 bc the city of carthage was destroyed. as carthaginian power waned | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
algeria | out in the 14th century. during the middle ages, north africa was home to many great scholars, saints and sovereigns including judah ibn quraysh, the first grammarian to mention semitic and berber languages, the great sufi masters sidi boumediene ( abu madyan ) and sidi el houari, and the emirs abd al mu'min and yaghmurasen. it was during this time that the fatimids or children of fatima, daughter of muhammad, came to the maghreb. these " fatimids " went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the maghreb, hejaz and the levant, boasting a secular inner government, as well as a powerful army and navy, made up primarily of arabs and levantines extending from algeria to their capital state of cairo. the fatimid caliphate began to collapse when its governors the zirids seceded. in order to punish them the fatimids sent the arab banu hilal and banu sulaym against them. the resultant war is recounted in the epic taghribat. in al - taghribat the amazigh zirid hero khalifa al - zanati asks daily, for duels, to defeat the hilalan hero abu zayd al - hilali and many other arab knights in a string of victories. the zirids, however, were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption of arab customs and culture. the indigenous amazigh tribes, however, remained largely independent, and depending on tribe, location and time controlled varying parts of the maghreb, at times unifying it ( as under the fatimids ). the fatimid islamic state, also known as fatimid caliphate made an islamic empire that included north africa, sicily, palestine, jordan, lebanon, syria, egypt, the red sea coast of africa, tihamah, hejaz and yemen. caliphates from northern africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other islamic states during the islamic era. the berber people historically consisted of several tribes. the two main branches were the botr and barnes tribes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
algeria | ##z and yemen. caliphates from northern africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other islamic states during the islamic era. the berber people historically consisted of several tribes. the two main branches were the botr and barnes tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub - tribes. each region of the maghreb contained several tribes ( for example, sanhadja, houara, zenata, masmouda, kutama, awarba, and berghwata ). all these tribes made independent territorial decisions. several amazigh dynasties emerged during the middle ages in the maghreb and other nearby lands. ibn khaldun provides a table summarising the amazigh dynasties of the maghreb region, the zirid, ifranid, maghrawa, almoravid, hammadid, almohad, merinid, abdalwadid, wattasid, meknassa and hafsid dynasties. both of the hammadid and zirid empires as well as the fatimids established their rule in all of the maghreb countries. the zirids ruled land in what is now algeria, tunisia, morocco, libya, spain, malta and italy. the hammadids captured and held important regions such as ouargla, constantine, sfax, susa, algiers, tripoli and fez establishing their rule in every country in the maghreb region. the fatimids which was created and established by the kutama berbers conquered all of north africa as well as sicily and parts of the middle east. following the berber revolt numerous independent states emerged across the maghreb. in algeria the rustamid kingdom was established. the rustamid realm stretched from tafilalt in morocco to the nafusa mountains in libya including south, central and western tunisia therefore including territory in all of the modern day maghreb countries, in the south the rustamid realm expanded to the modern borders of mali and included territory in mauritania. once extending their control over all of the maghreb, part of spain and briefly over sicily | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
algeria | ##s with caribbean powers, paying a " license tax " in exchange for safe harbor of their vessels. attacks by algerian pirates on american merchantmen resulted in the first and second barbary wars, which ended the attacks on u. s. ships in 1815. a year later, a combined anglo - dutch fleet, under the command of lord exmouth bombarded algiers to stop similar attacks on european fishermen. these efforts proved successful, although algerian piracy would continue until the french conquest in 1830. french colonization ( 1830 – 1962 ) under the pretext of a slight to their consul, the french invaded and captured algiers in 1830. historian ben kiernan wrote on the french conquest of algeria : " by 1875, the french conquest was complete. the war had killed approximately 825, 000 indigenous algerians since 1830. " french losses from 1831 to 1851 were 92, 329 dead in the hospital and only 3, 336 killed in action. the population of algeria, which stood at about 2. 9 million in 1872, reached nearly 11 million in 1960. french policy was predicated on " civilising " the country. the slave trade and piracy in algeria ceased following the french conquest. the conquest of algeria by the french took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. a combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the indigenous algerian population to decline by nearly one - third from 1830 to 1872. on 17 september 1860, napoleon iii declared " our first duty is to take care of the happiness of the three million arabs, whom the fate of arms has brought under our domination. " during this time, only kabylia resisted, the kabylians were not colonized until after the mokrani revolt in 1871. alexis de tocqueville wrote and never completed an unpublished essay outlining his ideas for how to transform algeria from an occupied tributary state to a colonial regime, wherein he advocated for a mixed system of " total domination and total colonization " whereby french military would wage total war against civilian populations while a colonial administration would provide rule of law and property rights to settlers within french occupied cities. from 1848 until independence, france administered the whole mediterranean region of algeria as an integral part and departement of the nation. one of france's longest | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
algeria | " whereby french military would wage total war against civilian populations while a colonial administration would provide rule of law and property rights to settlers within french occupied cities. from 1848 until independence, france administered the whole mediterranean region of algeria as an integral part and departement of the nation. one of france's longest - held overseas territories, algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of european immigrants, who became known as colons and later, as pied - noirs. between 1825 and 1847, 50, 000 french people emigrated to algeria. these settlers benefited from the french government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land. many europeans settled in oran and algiers, and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities. during the late 19th and early 20th century, the european share was almost a fifth of the population. the french government aimed at making algeria an assimilated part of france, and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. the indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency, but in contrast to the other colonized countries'path in central asia and caucasus, algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human - capital intensive agriculture. during the second world war, algeria came under vichy control before being liberated by the allies in operation torch, which saw the first large - scale deployment of american troops in the north african campaign. gradually, dissatisfaction among the muslim population, which lacked political and economic status under the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from france. in may 1945, the uprising against the occupying french forces was suppressed through what is now known as the setif and guelma massacre. tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the algerian war began after the publication of the declaration of 1 november 1954. historians have estimated that between 30, 000 and 150, 000 harkis and their dependents were killed by the national liberation front ( fln ) or by lynch mobs in algeria. the fln used hit and run attacks in algeria and france as part of its war, and | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
algeria | groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue. on 2 april 2019, bouteflika resigned from the presidency after mass protests against his candidacy for a fifth term in office. in december 2019, abdelmadjid tebboune became algeria's president, after winning the first round of the presidential election with a record abstention rate – the highest of all presidential elections since algeria's democracy in 1989. tebboune is accused to be close to the military and being loyal to the deposed president. tebboune rejects these accusations, claiming to be the victim of a witch hunt. he also reminds his detractors that he was expelled from the government in august 2017 at the instigation of oligarchs languishing in prison. geography since the 2011 breakup of sudan, and the creation of south sudan, algeria has been the largest country in africa, and the mediterranean basin. its southern part includes a significant portion of the sahara. to the north, the tell atlas form with the saharan atlas, further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. both atlas tend to merge in eastern algeria. the vast mountain ranges of aures and nememcha occupy the entire northeastern algeria and are delineated by the tunisian border. the highest point is mount tahat ( ). algeria lies mostly between latitudes 19° and 37°n ( a small area is north of 37°n and south of 19°n ), and longitudes 9°w and 12°e. most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural harbours. the area from the coast to the tell atlas is fertile. south of the tell atlas is a steppe landscape ending with the saharan atlas ; farther south, there is the sahara desert. the hoggar mountains ( ), also known as the hoggar, are a highland region in central sahara, southern algeria. they are located about south of the capital, algiers, and just east of tamanghasset. algiers, oran, constantine, and annaba are algeria's main cities. climate and hydrology in this region, midday desert temperatures | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
algeria | , are a highland region in central sahara, southern algeria. they are located about south of the capital, algiers, and just east of tamanghasset. algiers, oran, constantine, and annaba are algeria's main cities. climate and hydrology in this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. after sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded. rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the tell atlas, ranging from annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. precipitation is heaviest in the northern part of eastern algeria, where it reaches as much as in some years. farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. algeria also has ergs, or sand dunes, between mountains. among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can go up to. fauna and flora the varied vegetation of algeria includes coastal, mountainous and grassy desert - like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. many of the creatures comprising the algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilisation. the most commonly seen animals include the wild boars, jackals, and gazelles, although it is not uncommon to spot fennecs ( foxes ), and jerboas. algeria also has a small african leopard and saharan cheetah population, but these are seldom seen. a species of deer, the barbary stag, inhabits the dense humid forests in the north - eastern areas. the fennec fox is the national animal of algeria. a variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. the forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. barbary macaques are the sole native monkey. snakes, monitor lizards, and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of rodents throughout the semi arid regions of algeria. many animals are now extinct, including the barbary lions, atlas bears and crocodiles. in the north, some of the native flora includes macchia scrub, olive trees, oaks, cedars and other conifers. the mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 2 |
algeria | numbers, currently ( since 1983 ) they are : economy algeria's currency is the dinar ( dzd ). the economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post - independence development model. in recent years, the algerian government has halted the privatization of state - owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy. these restrictions are just starting to be lifted off recently although questions about algeria's slowly - diversifying economy remain. algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. the government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages. the country is facing a number of short - term and medium - term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities amongst regions. a wave of economic protests in february and march 2011 prompted the algerian government to offer more than $ 23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. public spending has increased by 27 % annually during the past 5 years. the 2010 – 14 public - investment programme will cost us $ 286 billion, 40 % of which will go to human development. thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, algeria has a cushion of $ 173 billion in foreign currency reserves and a large hydrocarbon stabilisation fund. in addition, algeria's external debt is extremely low at about 2 % of gdp. the economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves ( us $ 178 billion, equivalent to three years of imports ), current expenditure growth makes algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues. algeria has not joined the wto, despite several years of negotiations but is a member of the greater arab free trade area and the african continental free trade area, and has an association agreement with the european union turkish direct investments have accelerated in algeria, with total value reaching $ 5 billion. as of 2022, the number of turkish companies present in algeria has reached 1, 400. in 2020, despite | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
algeria | key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in algeria. all foreign operators must work in partnership with sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production - sharing agreements. access to biocapacity in algeria is lower than world average. in 2016, algeria had 0. 53 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1. 6 global hectares per person. in 2016, algeria used 2. 4 global hectares of biocapacity per person – their ecological footprint of consumption. this means they use just under 4. 5 times as much biocapacity as algeria contains. as a result, algeria is running a biocapacity deficit. in april 2022, diplomats from italy and spain held talks after rome's move to secure large volume of algerian gas stoked concerns in madrid. under the deal between algeria's sonatrach and italy's eni, algeria will send an additional 9 billion cubic metres of gas to italy by next year and in 2024. research and alternative energy sources algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. this development program is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power. algeria is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the mediterranean, so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in hassi r'mel. currently, algeria has 20, 000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research labs, with state - set goals to expand to 1, 000. besides solar energy, areas of research in algeria include space and satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research. labour market the overall rate of unemployment was 10 % in 2011, but remained higher among young people, with a rate of 21. 5 % for those aged between 15 and 24. the government strengthened in 2011 the job programs introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the program to aid those seeking work ( dispositif d'aide a l'insertion professionnelle ). despite a decline in total unemployment, youth and women unemployment is high. tourism the development of the tourism sector in algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
algeria | the framework of the program to aid those seeking work ( dispositif d'aide a l'insertion professionnelle ). despite a decline in total unemployment, youth and women unemployment is high. tourism the development of the tourism sector in algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built. there are several unesco world heritage sites in algeria including al qal'a of beni hammad, the first capital of the hammadid empire ; tipasa, a phoenician and later roman town ; and djemila and timgad, both roman ruins ; m'zab valley, a limestone valley containing a large urbanized oasis ; and the casbah of algiers, an important citadel. the only natural world heritage site is the tassili n'ajjer, a mountain range. transport the algerian road network is the densest in africa ; its length is estimated at of highways, with more than 3, 756 structures and a paving rate of 85 %. this network will be complemented by the east - west highway, a major infrastructure project currently under construction. it is a 3 - way, highway, linking annaba in the extreme east to the tlemcen in the far west. algeria is also crossed by the trans - sahara highway, which is now completely paved. this road is supported by the algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed : algeria, mali, niger, nigeria, chad, and tunisia. demographics algeria has a population of an estimated 44 million, of which the majority, 75 % to 85 % are ethnically arab. at the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million. about 90 % of algerians live in the northern, coastal area ; the inhabitants of the sahara desert are mainly concentrated in oases, although some 1. 5 million remain nomadic or partly nomadic. 28. 1 % of algerians are under the age of 15. between 90, 000 and 165, 000 sahrawis from western sahara live in the sahrawi refugee camps, in the western algerian sahara desert. there are also more than 4 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 2 |
algeria | 31 per 1, 000 people ). access to " improved water sources " was around 97. 4 % of the population in urban areas and 98. 7 % of the population in the rural areas. some 99 % of algerians living in urban areas, and around 93. 4 % of those living in rural areas, had access to " improved sanitation ". according to the world bank, algeria is making progress toward its goal of " reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015 ". given algeria's young population, policy favours preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. in keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunisation program. however, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause tuberculosis, hepatitis, measles, typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery. the poor generally receive health care free of charge. health records have been maintained in algeria since 1882 and began adding muslims living in the south to their vital record database in 1905 during french rule. education since the 1970s, in a centralised system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 92. 6 %. since 1972, arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. from the third year, french is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. the students can also learn english, italian, spanish and german. in 2008, new programs at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five. apart from the 122 private schools, the universities of the state are free of charge. after nine years of primary school, students can go to the high school or to an educational institution. the school offers two programs : general or technical. at the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes. education is officially compulsory for | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 2 |
algeria | go to the high school or to an educational institution. the school offers two programs : general or technical. at the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes. education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. in 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22. 3 %, 15. 6 % for men and 29. 0 % for women. the province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was algiers province at 11. 6 %, while the province with the highest rate was djelfa province at 35. 5 %. algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million algerians and 80, 000 foreign students in 2008. the university of algiers, founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines ( law, medicine, science and letters ). twenty - five of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country. even if some of them offer instruction in arabic like areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors as science and medicine continue to be provided in french and english. among the most important universities, there are the university of sciences and technology houari boumediene, the university of mentouri constantine, and university of oran es - senia. the university of abou bekr belkaid in tlemcen and university of batna hadj lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in africa. algeria was ranked 119th in the global innovation index in 2023. largest cities culture modern algerian literature, split between arabic, tamazight and french, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. famous novelists of the 20th century include mohammed dib, albert camus, kateb yacine and ahlam mosteghanemi while assia djebar is widely translated. among the important novelists of the 1980s were rachid mimouni, later vice - president of amnesty international, and tahar djaout, murdered by an islamist group in 1993 for his secularist views. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
algeria | ahlam mosteghanemi while assia djebar is widely translated. among the important novelists of the 1980s were rachid mimouni, later vice - president of amnesty international, and tahar djaout, murdered by an islamist group in 1993 for his secularist views. malek bennabi and frantz fanon are noted for their thoughts on decolonization ; augustine of hippo was born in tagaste ( modern - day souk ahras ) ; and ibn khaldun, though born in tunis, wrote the muqaddima while staying in algeria. the works of the sanusi family in pre - colonial times, and of emir abdelkader and sheikh ben badis in colonial times, are widely noted. the latin author apuleius was born in madaurus ( mdaourouch ), in what later became algeria. contemporary algerian cinema is various in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. there has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of algerians. media art algerian painters, like mohammed racim and baya, attempted to revive the prestigious algerian past prior to french colonisation, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of algeria. in this line, mohamed temam, abdelkhader houamel have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. other new artistic currents including the one of m'hamed issiakhem, mohammed khadda and bachir yelles, appeared on the scene of algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, in order to adapt algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. mohammed khadda and m'hamed issiakhem have been notable in recent years. literature the historic roots of algerian literature go back to the numidian and roman african era, when apuleius wrote the golden ass, the only latin novel to survive in its entirety. this period had also known augustine of hippo, nonius marcellus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
algeria | ##em have been notable in recent years. literature the historic roots of algerian literature go back to the numidian and roman african era, when apuleius wrote the golden ass, the only latin novel to survive in its entirety. this period had also known augustine of hippo, nonius marcellus and martianus capella, among many others. the middle ages have known many arabic writers who revolutionised the arab world literature, with authors like ahmad al - buni, ibn manzur and ibn khaldoun, who wrote the muqaddimah while staying in algeria, and many others. albert camus was an algerian - born french pied - noir author. in 1957, he was awarded the nobel prize in literature. today algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in arabic and french. as a first step, algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the algerian trilogy of mohammed dib, or even nedjma of kateb yacine novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. other known writers will contribute to the emergence of algerian literature whom include mouloud feraoun, malek bennabi, malek haddad, moufdi zakaria, abdelhamid ben badis, mohamed laid al - khalifa, mouloud mammeri, frantz fanon, and assia djebar. in the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are rachid boudjedra, rachid mimouni, leila sebbar, tahar djaout and tahir wattar. currently, a part of algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, the swallows of kabul and the attack of yasm | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
algeria | in film - industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of dzd 200 million ( eur 1. 3 million ) allocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the ministry of culture in order to promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation. the financial support provided by the state, through the fund for the development of the arts, techniques and the film industry ( fdatic ) and the algerian agency for cultural influence ( aarc ), plays a key role in the promotion of national production. between 2007 and 2013, fdatic subsidised 98 films ( feature films, documentaries and short films ). in mid - 2013, aarc had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries. according to the european audiovisual observatory's lumiere database, 41 algerian films were distributed in europe between 1996 and 2013 ; 21 films in this repertoire were algerian - french co - productions. days of glory ( 2006 ) and outside the law ( 2010 ) recorded the highest number of admissions in the european union, 3, 172, 612 and 474, 722, respectively. algeria won the for chronicle of the years of fire ( 1975 ), two oscars for z ( 1969 ), and other awards for the italian - algerian movie the battle of algiers. cuisine algerian cuisine is rich and diverse. the country was considered as the " granary of rome ". it offers a component of dishes and varied dishes, depending on the region and according to the seasons. the cuisine uses cereals as the main products, since they are always produced with abundance in the country. there is not a dish where cereals are not present. algerian cuisine varies from one region to another, according to seasonal vegetables. it can be prepared using meat, fish and vegetables. among the dishes known, couscous, chorba, rechta, chakhchoukha, berkoukes, shakshouka, mthewem, chtitha, mderbel, dolma, brik or bourek, garantita, lham'hlou, etc. merguez sausage | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria | 1 |
anthropology | tylor, inventor of cultural anthropology, and his brother alfred tylor, a geologist. previously edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist ; subsequently, an anthropologist. similar organizations in other countries followed : the anthropological society of madrid ( 1865 ), the american anthropological association in 1902, the anthropological society of vienna ( 1870 ), the italian society of anthropology and ethnology ( 1871 ), and many others subsequently. the majority of these were evolutionists. one notable exception was the berlin society for anthropology, ethnology, and prehistory ( 1869 ) founded by rudolph virchow, known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists. not religious himself, he insisted that darwin's conclusions lacked empirical foundation. during the last three decades of the 19th century, a proliferation of anthropological societies and associations occurred, most independent, most publishing their own journals, and all international in membership and association. the major theorists belonged to these organizations. they supported the gradual osmosis of anthropology curricula into the major institutions of higher learning. by 1898, 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum in anthropology. none of the 75 faculty members were under a department named anthropology. 20th and 21st centuries anthropology studies as a specialized field of academic study, however much developed through the end of the 19th century, then rapidly expanded beginning in the early 20th century to the point where many of the world's higher educational institutions typically included anthropology departments, with many thousands having come into existence. anthropology has diversified from a few major subdivisions to dozens more. practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived ; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene. the organization has reached a global level. for example, the world council of anthropological associations ( wcaa ), " a network of national, regional and international associations that aims to promote worldwide communication and cooperation in anthropology ", currently contains members from about three dozen nations. since the work of franz boas and bronisław malinowski in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, social anthropology in great britain and cultural anthropology in the us have been distinguished from other social sciences by their | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology | 1 |
anthropology | ethnopsychiatry. nutritional nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between economic systems, nutritional status and food security, and how changes in the former affect the latter. if economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization. nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development ( either in terms of human development or traditional western models ) for any given group of people. psychological psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes. this subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans'development and enculturation within a particular cultural group – with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories – shape processes of human cognition, emotion, perception, motivation, and mental health. it also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes. cognitive cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural innovation, and transmission over time and space using the methods and theories of the cognitive sciences ( especially experimental psychology and evolutionary biology ) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and interpretation of cultural forms. cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them. transpersonal transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between altered states of consciousness and culture. as with transpersonal psychology, the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness ( asc ) and transpersonal experience. however, the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross - cultural issues – for instance, the roles of myth, ritual, diet, and text in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences. political and legal political political anthropology concerns the structure of political systems, looked at from the basis of the structure of societies. political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology | 1 |
anthropology | and the society for the social studies of science. donna haraway's 1985 cyborg manifesto could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings. digital digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital - era technology, and extends to various areas where anthropology and technology intersect. it is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture. the field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. these include techno - anthropology, digital ethnography, cyberanthropology, and virtual anthropology. ecological ecological anthropology is defined as the " study of cultural adaptations to environments ". the sub - field is also defined as, " the study of relationships between a population of humans and their biophysical environment ". the focus of its research concerns " how cultural beliefs and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments, and how their environments change across space and time. the contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology, and arguably at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is political ecology. many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, century anthropology and more. the focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for / against or creation of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. often, the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly ( organizing, participation ) or indirectly ( articles, documentaries, books, ethnographies ). such is the case with environmental justice advocate melissa checker and her relationship with the people of hyde park. environment social sciences, like anthropology, can provide interdisciplinary approaches to the environment. professor kay milton, director of the anthropology research network in the school of history and anthropology, describes anthropology as distinctive, with its most distinguishing feature being its interest in non - industrial indigenous and traditional societies. anthropological theory is distinct because of the consistent presence of | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology | 2 |
anthropology | anthropology, can provide interdisciplinary approaches to the environment. professor kay milton, director of the anthropology research network in the school of history and anthropology, describes anthropology as distinctive, with its most distinguishing feature being its interest in non - industrial indigenous and traditional societies. anthropological theory is distinct because of the consistent presence of the concept of culture ; not an exclusive topic but a central position in the study and a deep concern with the human condition. milton describes three trends that are causing a fundamental shift in what characterizes anthropology : dissatisfaction with the cultural relativist perspective, reaction against cartesian dualisms which obstructs progress in theory ( nature culture divide ), and finally an increased attention to globalization ( transcending the barriers or time / space ). environmental discourse appears to be characterized by a high degree of globalization. ( the troubling problem is borrowing non - indigenous practices and creating standards, concepts, philosophies and practices in western countries. ) anthropology and environmental discourse now have become a distinct position in anthropology as a discipline. knowledge about diversities in human culture can be important in addressing environmental problems - anthropology is now a study of human ecology. human activity is the most important agent in creating environmental change, a study commonly found in human ecology which can claim a central place in how environmental problems are examined and addressed. other ways anthropology contributes to environmental discourse is by being theorists and analysts, or by refinement of definitions to become more neutral / universal, etc. in exploring environmentalism - the term typically refers to a concern that the environment should be protected, particularly from the harmful effects of human activities. environmentalism itself can be expressed in many ways. anthropologists can open the doors of environmentalism by looking beyond industrial society, understanding the opposition between industrial and non industrial relationships, knowing what ecosystem people and biosphere people are and are affected by, dependent and independent variables, " primitive " ecological wisdom, diverse environments, resource management, diverse cultural traditions, and knowing that environmentalism is a part of culture. historical ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures and indigenous customs by examining historical records. it is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today. ethnohisto | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology | 3 |
anthropology | cultural traditions, and knowing that environmentalism is a part of culture. historical ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures and indigenous customs by examining historical records. it is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today. ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, folklore, oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and place names. religion the anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures. modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between magical thinking and religion, and that every religion is a cultural product, created by the human community that worships it. urban urban anthropology is concerned with issues of urbanization, poverty, and neoliberalism. ulf hannerz quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were " a notoriously agoraphobic lot, anti - urban by definition ". various social processes in the western world as well as in the " third world " ( the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists ) brought the attention of " specialists in'other cultures'" closer to their homes. there are two main approaches to urban anthropology : examining the types of cities or examining the social issues within the cities. these two methods are overlapping and dependent of each other. by defining different types of cities, one would use social factors as well as economic and political factors to categorize the cities. by directly looking at the different social issues, one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city. key topics by field : archaeological and biological anthrozoology anthrozoology ( also known as " human – animal studies " ) is the study of interaction between living things. it is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology. a major focus of anthrozoologic research | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology | 2 |
anthropology | known as " human – animal studies " ) is the study of interaction between living things. it is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology. a major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human - animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions. it includes scholars from a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, biology, and philosophy. biocultural biocultural anthropology is the scientific exploration of the relationships between human biology and culture. physical anthropologists throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a racial perspective ; that is, from the assumption that typological human biological differences lead to cultural differences. after world war ii the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human biology. evolutionary evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology and human behaviour and the relation between hominins and non - hominin primates. evolutionary anthropology is based in natural science and social science, combining the human development with socioeconomic factors. evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. it is based on a scientific approach, and brings together fields such as archaeology, behavioral ecology, psychology, primatology, and genetics. it is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present. forensic forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology and human osteology in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition. a forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. the adjective " forensic " refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law. palaeoanthropology paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of paleontology and physical anthropology. it is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints. genetics and morphology of | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology | 4 |
anthropology | to a court of law. palaeoanthropology paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of paleontology and physical anthropology. it is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints. genetics and morphology of specimens are crucially important to this field. markers on specimens, such as enamel fractures and dental decay on teeth, can also give insight into the behaviour and diet of past populations. organizations contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. the single largest organization of anthropologists is the american anthropological association ( aaa ), which was founded in 1903. its members are anthropologists from around the globe. in 1989, a group of european and american scholars in the field of anthropology established the european association of social anthropologists ( easa ) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in europe. the easa seeks to advance the status of anthropology in europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby contribute to the project of a global anthropology or world anthropology. hundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub - fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as geology, physics, zoology, paleontology, anatomy, music theory, art history, sociology and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well. list of major organizations american anthropological association american ethnological society asociacion de antropologos iberoamericanos en red, aibr anthropological society of london center for world indigenous studies ethnological society of london max planck institute for evolutionary anthropology network of concerned anthropologists n. n. miklukho - maklai institute of ethnology and anthropology royal anthropological institute of great britain and ireland society for anthropological sciences society for applied anthropology usc center for visual anthropology ethics as the field has matured it has debated and arrived at ethical principles aimed at protecting both the subjects of anthropological research as well as the researchers themselves, and professional societies have generated codes of ethics. anthropologists, like other researchers ( especially historians and scientists engaged in field research ), have over time assisted state policies and | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology | 4 |
anthropology | to or given. " the current " principles of professional responsibility " does not make explicit mention of ethics surrounding state interactions. anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are working with the us military as part of the us army's strategy in afghanistan. the christian science monitor reports that " counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs " in afghanistan, under the human terrain system ( hts ) program ; in addition, hts teams are working with the us military in iraq. in 2009, the american anthropological association's commission on the engagement of anthropology with the us security and intelligence communities ( ceaussic ) released its final report concluding, in part, that, post - world war ii developments before wwii british'social anthropology'and american'cultural anthropology'were still distinct traditions. after the war, enough british and american anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as'sociocultural'anthropology. basic trends there are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. one of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical. the quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular place, problem or phenomenon in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more extensive period than normal in many parts of academia. in the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. these dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological. biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation and in the possibility of human universals ( behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures ). they use many different methods of study, but modern population genetics, participant observation and other techniques often take anthropologists " into the field, " which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called " fieldwork. " on the biological or physical side, human measurements, | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology | 1 |
anthropology | ). they use many different methods of study, but modern population genetics, participant observation and other techniques often take anthropologists " into the field, " which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called " fieldwork. " on the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs. along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. human time on earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the paleolithic and the neolithic, of particular use in archaeology. further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as olduwan or mousterian or levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past. anthropologists and geographers share approaches to culture regions as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. by making comparisons across cultural traditions ( time - based ) and cultural regions ( space - based ), anthropologists have developed various kinds of comparative method, a central part of their science. commonalities between fields because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises ( see history of anthropology ), including but not limited to fossil - hunting, exploring, documentary film - making, paleontology, primatology, antiquity dealings and curatorship, philology, etymology, genetics, regional analysis, ethnology, history, philosophy, and religious studies, it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made. some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of " other cultures ", both in terms of time ( past societies ) and space ( non - european / non - western societies ). for example, the classic of urban anthropology, ulf hannerz in the introduction to his seminal exploring the city : inquiries toward an urban anthropology mentions that the " third world " had habitually received most of attention ; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in " other cultures " looked for them far away and started to look " across the tracks " only in late 1960s. now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology | 2 |
alchemy | alchemy ( from arabic : al - kimiya ; from ancient greek : χυμεια, khumeia ) is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in china, india, the muslim world, and europe. in its western form, alchemy is first attested in a number of pseudepigraphical texts written in greco - roman egypt during the first few centuries ad. alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materials. common aims were chrysopoeia, the transmutation of " base metals " ( e. g., lead ) into " noble metals " ( particularly gold ) ; the creation of an elixir of immortality ; and the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease. the perfection of the human body and soul was thought to result from the alchemical magnum opus ( " great work " ). the concept of creating the philosophers'stone was variously connected with all of these projects. islamic and european alchemists developed a basic set of laboratory techniques, theories, and terms, some of which are still in use today. they did not abandon the ancient greek philosophical idea that everything is composed of four elements, and they tended to guard their work in secrecy, often making use of cyphers and cryptic symbolism. in europe, the 12th - century translations of medieval islamic works on science and the rediscovery of aristotelian philosophy gave birth to a flourishing tradition of latin alchemy. this late medieval tradition of alchemy would go on to play a significant role in the development of early modern science ( particularly chemistry and medicine ). modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual aspects, despite criticisms by scholars such as eric j. holmyard and marie - louise von franz that they should be understood as complementary. the former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences, who examine the subject in terms of early chemistry, medicine, and charlatanism, and the philosophical and religious contexts in which these events occurred. the latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philosophers and | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy | 1 |
alchemy | caduceus or serpent - staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. according to clement of alexandria, he wrote what were called the " forty - two books of hermes ", covering all fields of knowledge. the hermetica of thrice - great hermes is generally understood to form the basis for western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. these writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era. technology – the dawn of western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy, extending back to 3500 bc. many writings were lost when the roman emperor diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in alexandria ( ad 292 ). few original egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the stockholm papyrus and the leyden papyrus x. dating from ad 250 – 300, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. these writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of bolus of mendes ( or pseudo - democritus ), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the classical elements. between the time of bolus and zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a hermetic art. philosophy – alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of pythagoreanism, platonism, stoicism and gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemy's character. an important example of alchemy's roots in greek philosophy, originated by empedocles and developed by aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements : earth, air, water, and fire. according to aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. the four elements of the greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are ; "... true alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy | 3 |
alchemy | to which it would return if left undisturbed. the four elements of the greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are ; "... true alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present - day sense of the word. the four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form. " later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. alchemy coexisted alongside emerging christianity. lactantius believed hermes trismegistus had prophesied its birth. st augustine later affirmed this in the 4th & 5th centuries, but also condemned trismegistus for idolatry. examples of pagan, christian, and jewish alchemists can be found during this period. most of the greco - roman alchemists preceding zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as moses, isis, cleopatra, democritus, and ostanes. others authors such as komarios, and chymes, we only know through fragments of text. after ad 400, greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors. by the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. it was at that time that khalid ibn yazid sparked its migration from alexandria to the islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries. byzantium greek alchemy was preserved in medieval byzantine manuscripts after the fall of egypt, and yet historians have only relatively recently begun to pay attention to the study and development of greek alchemy in the byzantine period. india the 2nd millennium bc text vedas describe a connection between eternal life and gold. a considerable knowledge of metallurgy has been exhibited in a third - century ad text called arthashastra which provides ingredients of explosives ( agniyoga ) and salts extracted from fertile soils and plant remains ( yavakshara ) such as saltpetre / nitre, perfume making ( different qualities of perfumes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy | 1 |
alchemy | the transmutation of metals. from the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist. likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to albert's student thomas aquinas. roger bacon, a franciscan friar who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his great work ( ) for as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. while alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and christian theology. bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. his correspondence with clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy. like the greeks before him, bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. he noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all latin writers of his time. the practical confirmed the theoretical, and bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine. in later european legend, he became an archmage. in particular, along with albertus magnus, he was credited with the forging of a brazen head capable of answering its owner's questions. soon after bacon, the influential work of pseudo - geber ( sometimes identified as paul of taranto ) appeared. his summa perfectionis remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. it was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur - mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. by the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. adepts believed in the macrocosm - microcosm theories of hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy | 1 |
alchemy | chemical remedies that could cure them. iatrochemistry refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by paracelsus. john dee ( 13 july 1527 – december, 1608 ) followed agrippa's occult tradition. although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and consultant to queen elizabeth i, dee's alchemical monas hieroglyphica, written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. his writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the hermetic axiom as above so below. during the 17th century, a short - lived " supernatural " interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the royal society : robert boyle and elias ashmole. proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels. entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of renaissance europe. alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones. rudolf ii, holy roman emperor, in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in prague, including dee and his associate edward kelley. king james iv of scotland, julius, duke of brunswick - luneburg, henry v, duke of brunswick - luneburg, augustus, elector of saxony, julius echter von mespelbrunn, and maurice, landgrave of hesse - kassel all contracted alchemists. john's son arthur dee worked as a court physician to michael i of russia and charles i of england but also compiled the alchemical book fasciculus chemicus. although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo - alchemical fraud continued through the renaissance. betruger would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as michael maier and heinrich khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists. false alchemists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy | 1 |
alchemy | renaissance. betruger would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as michael maier and heinrich khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists. false alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud. the terms " chemia " and " alchemia " were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small - scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. there were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. for example, tycho brahe ( 1546 – 1601 ), an alchemist better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, had a laboratory built at his uraniborg observatory / research institute. michael sendivogius ( michał sedziwoj, 1566 – 1636 ), a polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. sendivogious taught his technique to cornelius drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. isaac newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy ( see isaac newton's occult studies ) than he did to either optics or physics. other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include robert boyle, and jan baptist van helmont. their hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science. later modern period the decline of european alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for " ancient wisdom ". although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. as late as 1781 james price claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. early modern european alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy | 2 |
alchemy | sub - department for the history of hermetic philosophy and related currents. a large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the bibliotheca philosophica hermetica in amsterdam. journals which publish regularly on the topic of alchemy include'ambix ', published by the society for the history of alchemy and chemistry, and'isis ', published by the history of science society. core concepts western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. concepts were imported from neoplatonism and earlier greek cosmology. as such, the classical elements appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity. similarly, the gods of the roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. the concepts of prima materia and anima mundi are central to the theory of the philosopher's stone. magnum opus the great work of alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors. nigredo, a blackening or melanosis albedo, a whitening or leucosis citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosis modernity due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th - century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry, the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science lawrence m. principe and william r. newman, have interpreted the'decknamen'( or code words ) of alchemy as physical substances. these scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts. at the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as florin george calian and anna marie roos, who question the reading of principe and newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy | 1 |
astronomer | an astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of earth. they observe astronomical objects such as stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies – in either observational ( by analyzing the data ) or theoretical astronomy. examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. a related but distinct subject is physical cosmology, which studies the universe as a whole. types astronomers usually fall under either of two main types : observational and theoretical. observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze the data. in contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. they use this data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial objects work. further subcategories under these two main branches of astronomy include planetary astronomy, galactic astronomy, or physical cosmology. academic historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms " astronomer " and " astrophysicist " are interchangeable. professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a phd in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. they spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory. the american astronomical society, which is the major organization of professional astronomers in north america, has approximately 7, 000 members. this number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, geology, and engineering, whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. the international astronomical union comprises almost 10, 145 members from 70 countries who are involved in astronomical research at the phd level and beyond. contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark hours of the | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer | 14 |
astronomer | , geology, and engineering, whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. the international astronomical union comprises almost 10, 145 members from 70 countries who are involved in astronomical research at the phd level and beyond. contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark hours of the night, it is far more common to use a charge - coupled device ( ccd ) camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the light is added over time. before ccds, photographic plates were a common method of observation. modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year. analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers'time. astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums as a public service to encourage interest in the field. those who become astronomers usually have a broad background in maths, sciences and computing in high school. taking courses that teach how to research, write, and present papers are also invaluable. in college / university most astronomers get a phd in astronomy or physics. amateur astronomers while there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers, the field is popular among amateurs. most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host star parties. the astronomical society of the pacific is the largest general astronomical society in the world, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70 different nations. like any hobby, most people who think of themselves as amateur astronomers may devote a few hours a month to stargazing and reading the latest developments in research. however, amateurs span the range from so - called " armchair astronomers " to the very ambitious, who own science - grade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to make their own discoveries and assist professional astronomers in research. see also list of astronomers list of women astronomers list of muslim astronomers list of french astronomers list of hungarian astronomers list of russian astronomers and astrophysicists list of slovenian astronomers references sources external links american astronomical society european astronomical society international astronomical union astronomical society | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer | 4 |
astronomer | make their own discoveries and assist professional astronomers in research. see also list of astronomers list of women astronomers list of muslim astronomers list of french astronomers list of hungarian astronomers list of russian astronomers and astrophysicists list of slovenian astronomers references sources external links american astronomical society european astronomical society international astronomical union astronomical society of the pacific space's astronomy news astronomy science occupations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer | 2 |
ascii | ascii ( ), abbreviated from american standard code for information interchange, is a character encoding standard for electronic communication. ascii codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices. because of technical limitations of computer systems at the time it was invented, ascii has just 128 code points, of which only 95 are, which severely limited its scope. modern computer systems have evolved to use unicode, which has millions of code points, but the first 128 of these are the same as the ascii set. the internet assigned numbers authority ( iana ) prefers the name us - ascii for this character encoding. ascii is one of the ieee milestones. overview ascii was developed from telegraph code. its first commercial use was in the teletype model 33 and the teletype model 35 as a seven - bit teleprinter code promoted by bell data services. work on the ascii standard began in may 1961, with the first meeting of the american standards association's ( asa ) ( now the american national standards institute or ansi ) x3. 2 subcommittee. the first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed bell code and ascii were both ordered for more convenient sorting ( i. e., alphabetization ) of lists and added features for devices other than teleprinters. the use of ascii format for network interchange was described in 1969. that document was formally elevated to an internet standard in 2015. originally based on the ( modern ) english alphabet, ascii encodes 128 specified characters into seven - bit integers as shown by the ascii chart in this article. ninety - five of the encoded characters are printable : these include the digits 0 to 9, lowercase letters a to z, uppercase letters a to z, and punctuation symbols. in addition, the original ascii specification included 33 non - printing control codes which originated with s ; most of these are now obsolete, although a few are still commonly used, such as the carriage return, line feed, and tab codes. for | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII | 1 |
ascii | . eight - bit machines ( with octets as the native data type ) that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0. internal organization the code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. the first two so - called ascii sticks ( 32 positions ) were reserved for control characters. the " space " character had to come before graphics to make sorting easier, so it became position 20hex ; for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. the committee decided it was important to support uppercase 64 - character alphabets, and chose to pattern ascii so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64 - character set of graphic codes, as was done in the dec sixbit code ( 1963 ). lowercase letters were therefore not interleaved with uppercase. to keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters, and the letter a was placed in position 41hex to match the draft of the corresponding british standard. the digits 0 – 9 are prefixed with 011, but the remaining 4 bits correspond to their respective values in binary, making conversion with binary - coded decimal straightforward ( for example, 5 in encoded to 0110101, where 5 is 0101 in binary ). many of the non - alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters ; an important subtlety is that these were based on mechanical typewriters, not electric typewriters. mechanical typewriters followed the de facto standard set by the remington no. 2 ( 1878 ), the first typewriter with a shift key, and the shifted values of 23456789 - were " # $ % _ &'( ) early typewriters omitted 0 and 1, using o ( capital letter o ) and l ( lowercase letter l ) instead, but 1! and 0 ) pairs became standard once 0 and 1 became common. thus, in ascii! " # $ % were placed in the second stick, positions 1 – 5, corresponding to the digits 1 – 5 in | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII | 2 |
ascii | is the newline problem on various operating systems. teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both " carriage return " ( which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line ) and " line feed " ( which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead ). the name " carriage return " comes from the fact that on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moves while the typebars that strike the ribbon remain stationary. the entire carriage had to be pushed ( returned ) to the right in order to position the paper for the next line. dec operating systems ( os / 8, rt - 11, rsx - 11, rsts, tops - 10, etc. ) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device ( originally teletype machines ) would work. by the time so - called " glass ttys " ( later called crts or " dumb terminals " ) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing to follow it. when gary kildall created cp / m, he was inspired by some of the command line interface conventions used in dec's rt - 11 operating system. until the introduction of pc dos in 1981, ibm had no influence in this because their 1970s operating systems used ebcdic encoding instead of ascii, and they were oriented toward punch - card input and line printer output on which the concept of " carriage return " was meaningless. ibm's pc dos ( also marketed as ms - dos by microsoft ) inherited the convention by virtue of being loosely based on cp / m, and windows in turn inherited it from ms - dos. requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and ambiguity as to how to interpret each character when encountered by itself. to simplify matters, plain text data streams, including files, on multics used line feed ( lf ) alone as a line terminator. unix and unix - like systems, and amiga systems, adopted this convention from multics. on the other hand, the original macintosh os, apple dos, and prodos used carriage return ( cr ) alone as a line terminator ; however, since apple has now replaced these obsolete | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII | 1 |
ascii | line terminator. unix and unix - like systems, and amiga systems, adopted this convention from multics. on the other hand, the original macintosh os, apple dos, and prodos used carriage return ( cr ) alone as a line terminator ; however, since apple has now replaced these obsolete operating systems with the unix - based macos operating system, they now use line feed ( lf ) as well. the radio shack trs - 80 also used a lone cr to terminate lines. computers attached to the arpanet included machines running operating systems such as tops - 10 and tenex using cr - lf line endings ; machines running operating systems such as multics using lf line endings ; and machines running operating systems such as os / 360 that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and which used ebcdic rather than ascii encoding. the telnet protocol defined an ascii " network virtual terminal " ( nvt ), so that connections between hosts with different line - ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network. telnet used ascii along with cr - lf line endings, and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions and the nvt. the file transfer protocol adopted the telnet protocol, including use of the network virtual terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ascii mode. this adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for e - mail and the world wide web, on systems not using the nvt's cr - lf line - ending convention. end of file / stream the pdp - 6 monitor, and its pdp - 10 successor tops - 10, used control - z ( sub ) as an end - of - file indication for input from a terminal. some operating systems such as cp / m tracked file length only in units of disk blocks, and used control - z to mark the end of the actual text in the file. for these reasons, eof, or end - of - file, was used colloquially and conventionally as a three - letter acronym for control - z instead | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII | 5 |
ascii | / m tracked file length only in units of disk blocks, and used control - z to mark the end of the actual text in the file. for these reasons, eof, or end - of - file, was used colloquially and conventionally as a three - letter acronym for control - z instead of substitute. the end - of - text character ( etx ), also known as control - c, was inappropriate for a variety of reasons, while using control - z as the control character to end a file is analogous to the letter z's position at the end of the alphabet, and serves as a very convenient mnemonic aid. a historically common and still prevalent convention uses the etx character convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard. the unix terminal driver uses the end - of - transmission character ( eot ), also known as control - d, to indicate the end of a data stream. in the c programming language, and in unix conventions, the null character is used to terminate text strings ; such null - terminated strings can be known in abbreviation as asciz or asciiz, where here z stands for " zero ". control code chart other representations might be used by specialist equipment, for example iso 2047 graphics or hexadecimal numbers. printable characters codes 20hex to 7ehex, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols. there are 95 printable characters in total. code 20hex, the " space " character, denotes the space between words, as produced by the space bar of a keyboard. since the space character is considered an invisible graphic ( rather than a control character ) it is listed in the table below instead of in the previous section. code 7fhex corresponds to the non - printable " delete " ( del ) control character and is therefore omitted from this chart ; it is covered in the previous section's chart. earlier versions of ascii used the up arrow instead of the caret ( 5ehex ) and the left arrow instead of the underscore ( 5fhex ). usage ascii | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII | 2 |
End of preview. Expand in Data Studio
README.md exists but content is empty.
- Downloads last month
- 3