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id stringlengths 40 40	title stringlengths 15 120	text stringlengths 41 3.14k	source stringclasses 2 values
de7b96cc5e53ba32f54bc773311d3e4144fb5023	in the 1999–2000 season, hildebrand played in six	in the 1999–2000 season, hildebrand played in six bundesliga matches. from the summer of 2000, he was the club's number one goalkeeper and contributed largely to stuttgart's successes, particularly as part of what became known as "stuttgart's young wild ones" team under coach felix magath. he began the 2000–01 season b...	wikipedia
54fdbf606dcb3873ec03cb70883daedf4c5c3390	an inscribed clay, soft metal, bitumen, or wax	an inscribed clay, soft metal, bitumen, or wax token used in commercial and legal documentation as a form of authentication and for tamper-proofing whatever is attached to it. in their oldest attested form, as used in the ancient near east and the middle east of the 8th millennium bc onwards, bullae were hollow clay ba...	wikipedia
4d7920d9b1abd347aacd8845e9d4da3af4de3812	the term bulla was eventually applied to seals	the term bulla was eventually applied to seals made out of metal. although the most typical form of bulla was made of lead, it was sometimes made of gold, as the ones affixed to the several golden bulls issued by the byzantine emperors, holy roman emperors, and various other monarchs in the middle ages. a particularly ...	wikipedia
5505400ff7d0ca1ed476c388c9e560309da94568	within a year of studying these unknown clay	within a year of studying these unknown clay marbles, schmandt-besserat determined that they were tokens that were supposed to be grouped together and that they thus formed some sort of counting system. the transition between hunting and gathering to settling and agriculture took place in the period 8,000 to 7,500 bc i...	wikipedia
904856f6c8717be2ea4ed9b953897d77979fbe9a	french-american archaeologist denise schmandt-besserat focused much of her	french-american archaeologist denise schmandt-besserat focused much of her career on the discovery of over 8,000 ancient tokens found in the middle east. she initially visited museums all around the world studying tablets, bricks, and pots and was surprised to find small clay spheres dating from 10,000 to 6,000 bc in e...	wikipedia
cc17a1eb9a967f26b44667feb95e135dbc8e6cfe	a number of clay bullae from the sasanian	a number of clay bullae from the sasanian era have been discovered at various sasanian sites assisting in identifying personal names, government offices, and religious positions. scholars seem to agree on the typology and purpose of bullae in both civil and domestic environments. the bullae for the administration were ...	wikipedia
dce5609793b2d3798ef842d1dea8b78a66e52a99	later, tokens transitioned into cylinders. around the sixth	later, tokens transitioned into cylinders. around the sixth century bc, cylinders were used in international exchanges between empires. a famous one discovered is the cyrus cylinder. the cyrus cylinder is famous for its suggested evidence of cyrus' policy of repatriation of the hebrew people after their captivity in ba...	wikipedia
9adb4670d8396091d048f0b0f3827349b470c75c	the earliest known tokens are those from two	the earliest known tokens are those from two sites in the zagros region of iran: tepe asiab and ganj-i-dareh tepe. schemandt-besserat was able to work back in time and saw the same shapes from cuneiform to pictographs to these tokens. most of these tokens have no translation though.	wikipedia
26ffdaa9797a2a9c495c7b76017bfe7d94291e12	designs were inscribed on the clay seals to	designs were inscribed on the clay seals to mark ownership, identify witnesses or partners in commerce, or control of government officials. the later “official” seals were usually larger than private seals and could be designated seals of office, with inscriptions only identifying the office. in many cases, fingerprint...	wikipedia
0ff998602caca3501425c8ee65a680192b260c64	as papyrus and parchment gradually replaced clay tablets,	as papyrus and parchment gradually replaced clay tablets, bullae became the new encasement for scrolls of this new writing style. documents were split into two halves, separated in the middle by multiple perforations. the top half was rolled into a scroll and a cord would wrap this section tight, going through the perf...	wikipedia
5bc7b11e8190cd2ddff2ad9eda76a075296d3bc2	a further development involved impressing tokens to make	a further development involved impressing tokens to make marks on a solid lump of clay or a tablet. only the tablet was then kept. because of the complicated shapes and designs of the complex tokens, which did not transfer well by impression, an image of the token would be drawn on the clay instead. this practice, in p...	wikipedia
1e849837b515de100d0af250590c447a6e32c4f9	tokens were collected and stored in bullae, either	tokens were collected and stored in bullae, either for future promised transactions or as a record of past transactions. the practice of storing tokens in clay envelopes was more significant for the development of mathematics; initially, because these clay envelopes were not transparent; they would have to be broken op...	wikipedia
c6e54b1ee14484e6d30c3c9e60328c9cd7acdf95	the sumerians developed a complex system of metrology	the sumerians developed a complex system of metrology as early as 3000 bc. from 2600 bc onwards, the sumerians wrote multiplication tables, division problems, and geometry on clay tablets. the earliest evidence of the babylonian numerals also date back to this period. this evidence may suggest that the use of bullae le...	wikipedia
4ea022445338b1dd58f5c7fca1c1fe66bce01461	during the early bronze age, urban economies developed	during the early bronze age, urban economies developed due to urban settlements and the development of trade. the recording of trade became necessary because production, shipments, inventories, and wage payments had to be noted, and merchants needed to preserve records of their transactions. tokens were replaced by pic...	wikipedia
d486cd2c7abb6cc69303438091f6bc83fc5517c0	as the clay tokens and bulla became difficult	as the clay tokens and bulla became difficult to store and handle, impressing the tokens on clay tablets became increasingly popular. clay tablets were easier to store, neater to write on, and less likely to be lost. impressing the tokens on clay tablets was more efficient but using a stylus to inscribe the impression ...	wikipedia
7a3f47d8355f4e39e33b93b97f1ce6dd8ecdeeb2	transactions for trading needed to be accounted for	transactions for trading needed to be accounted for efficiently, so the clay tokens were placed in a clay ball (bulla), which helped to prevent deception and kept all the tokens together. in order to account for the tokens, the bullae would have to be broken open to reveal their contents. seals were impressed into the ...	wikipedia
8ed53d639de91e42474557b96a578e2bf43a45ba	clay tokens allowed agriculturalists to keep track of	clay tokens allowed agriculturalists to keep track of animals and food that had been traded, stored, and/or sold. because grain production became such a major part of life, they needed to store their extra grain in shared facilities and account for their food. this clay token system went unchanged for about 4,000 years...	wikipedia
62ef9b38a42f7b81cb32da06108ea41e2cca665e	in their oldest attested form, as used in	in their oldest attested form, as used in the ancient near east and the middle east of the 8th millennium bc onwards, bullae were hollow clay balls that contained other smaller tokens that identified the quantity and types of goods being recorded. in this form, bullae represent one of the earliest forms of specializati...	wikipedia
0767a183c1b05233af93f3d4fc89b1d721b59f21	a bulla (medieval latin for "a round seal",	a bulla (medieval latin for "a round seal", from classical latin bulla, "bubble, blob"; plural bullae) isan inscribed clay, soft metal (lead or tin), bitumen, or wax token used in commercial and legal documentation as a form of authentication and for tamper-proofing whatever is attached to it (or, in the historical for...	wikipedia
372a33c5beabead9088157bd2422500b6056a332	issam chebake (arabic: عصام شباك; born 12 october	issam chebake (arabic: عصام شباك; born 12 october 1989) is a moroccan professional footballer who plays as a right-back for cypriot first division club apoel and the morocco national team.	wikipedia
a40135b839b8bdad440b63272c873279b55cc701	victoria a. braithwaite was a british scientist who	victoria a. braithwaite was a british scientist who was a professor of animal behaviour and cognition at pennsylvania state university. she was the first person to demonstrate that fish feel pain, which impacted animal welfare research and changed guidelines for the treatment of fish in laboratories and fisheries in th...	wikipedia
6b5613a9d6618adcc1f563c59180c3818a5ea67e	braithwaite joined pennsylvania state university in 2007, where	braithwaite joined pennsylvania state university in 2007, where she was appointed professor of fisheries and biology. here she demonstrated that providing a more natural environment for fish impacted their cognitive abilities and likelihood to survive in the world. before braithwaite's work, fish that had been reared i...	wikipedia
894d31d777f1d7d859d903bc9cf481e389d129e4	she moved to the university of edinburgh in	she moved to the university of edinburgh in 1995 where she began to investigate whether or not fish felt pain – so-called nociception. whilst it was well understood that chickens and sheep experienced pain, before braithwaite it was not known whether or not fish did too. she demonstrated fish felt pain using a series o...	wikipedia
0f2f5995fc6c91ba0afc6f8ec8859e1cbe10d80a	braithwaite spent her career investigating the cognitive abilities	braithwaite spent her career investigating the cognitive abilities of fish and other animals. she showed that fish which live in stable environments (like ponds) use visual markers for guides, whereas fish that live in rivers learn directions using sequences (like left, right, left, right). her research was the first t...	wikipedia
4808bd64e577e8eafc96773a6e3e5aa3004d4eff	braithwaite was born in bradford. she was one	braithwaite was born in bradford. she was one of seven children. her mother, june pickles, was chair of the halifax magistrates' bench, and her father, alan braithwaite, was a company director. she attended bradford grammar school, where she was not encouraged to apply to the university of oxford. she did not take this...	wikipedia
110d0aba014e0378a6f67a7e868b50bd68a40d52	victoria a. braithwaite (19 july 1967 – 30	victoria a. braithwaite (19 july 1967 – 30 september 2019) was a british scientist who was a professor of animal behaviour and cognition at pennsylvania state university. she was the first person to demonstrate that fish feel pain, which impacted animal welfare research and changed guidelines for the treatment of fish ...	wikipedia
109399bbbbe6afcb0c62cb4c8460bfe6c0106b80	2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid is an organic compound with the	2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid is an organic compound with the chemical formula cl2c6h3och2co2h. it is usually referred to by its iso common name 2,4-d. it is a systemic herbicide that kills most broadleaf weeds by causing uncontrolled growth, but most grasses such as cereals, lawn turf, and grassland are relatively un...	wikipedia
f0ecd47506186760ad114104b90bc6bc826575e5	as of april 2014, genetically modified maize and	as of april 2014, genetically modified maize and soybeans resistant to 2,4-d and glyphosate have been approved in canada. in september 2014, the usda also approved dow's maize and soybeans, and in october, the epa registered the "enlist duo" herbicide containing 2,4-d and glyphosate.	wikipedia
511e2d4906fc0416f0dac57674330068f377eae0	in 2010, dow published that it had created	in 2010, dow published that it had created genetically modified soybeans made resistant to 2,4-d by insertion of a bacterial aryloxyalkanoate dioxygenase gene, aad1. dow intended it to be used as an alternative or complement to roundup ready crops due to the increasing prevalence of glyphosate -resistant weeds.	wikipedia
a80acd1995f9c37ba7b9ac1c07f273b075cdbb9b	on 21 august 2013, the australian pesticides and	on 21 august 2013, the australian pesticides and veterinary medicines authority (apvma) banned selected 2,4-d high volatile ester (hve) products due to their environmental hazards. hve 2,4-d products had already been banned in europe and north america for 20 years; low volatile ester products continue to be available i...	wikipedia
cb7949ffb206303dfc91eb6faf532d5b49d84c09	in october 2014, the us epa registered enlist	in october 2014, the us epa registered enlist duo, an herbicide containing the less volatile 2,4-d choline salt, glyphosate, and an antidrift agent, for use in six states: illinois, indiana, iowa, ohio, south dakota, and wisconsin. in november 2015, the epa attempted to withdraw its own approval of enlist duo, as a res...	wikipedia
8178c7a102a01d63b55c0b7ba44f4fd2540b3e9a	in 2012, epa denied the petition filed november	in 2012, epa denied the petition filed november 6, 2008, by the natural resources defense council to revoke all tolerances and to cancel all registrations of 2,4-d. epa stated that new study and epa's comprehensive review confirmed epa's previous finding that the 2,4-d tolerances are safe at anticipated exposure. the e...	wikipedia
74994ff5fc8b27b6672a4a7fb2afdfdc656c99e7	maximum residue limits were first set in the	maximum residue limits were first set in the eu in 2002 and re-evaluated in 2011 by the european food safety authority, which concluded that the codex maximum residue limits were "not expected to be of concern for european consumers". the total chronic exposure represented less than 10% of the acceptable daily intake (...	wikipedia
71d9982760baa653a82ebcc43e8658d24835fe27	a number of 2,4-d-degrading bacteria have been isolated	a number of 2,4-d-degrading bacteria have been isolated and characterized from a variety of environmental habitats. metabolic pathways for the compound's degradation have been available for many years, and genes encoding 2,4-d catabolism have been identified for several organisms. as a result of the extensive metadata ...	wikipedia
bda4689d795513f61018b62f12b2d0a9d6bcb7b5	"the ester forms of 2,4-d can be highly	"the ester forms of 2,4-d can be highly toxic to fish and other aquatic life. 2,4-d generally has moderate toxicity to birds and mammals, is slightly toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates, and is practically nontoxic to honeybees" per epa.	wikipedia
c75b853728a6679bae6d1b8295fe2b0b0facf8cc	in aerobic aquatic environments, the half life is	in aerobic aquatic environments, the half life is 15 days. in anaerobic aquatic environments 2,4-d is more persistent, with a half life of 41 to 333 days. 2,4-d has been detected in streams and shallow groundwater at low concentrations, in both rural and urban areas. breakdown is ph dependent. some ester forms are high...	wikipedia
1e440bd167b7530642fe585a8293dd820befef23	2,4-d amine salts and esters are not persistent	2,4-d amine salts and esters are not persistent under most environmental conditions. the degradation of 2,4-d is rapid (half life of 6.2 days) in aerobic mineral soils. 2,4-d is broken down by microbes in soil, in processes that involve hydroxylation, cleavage of the acid side-chain, decarboxylation, and ring opening. ...	wikipedia
b2c0ce5ea0bb3987d201e3de58c64e6e56afbefb	when radioactively labeled 2,4-d was fed to livestock,	when radioactively labeled 2,4-d was fed to livestock, 90% or more of the total radioactive residue (trr) was shed in urine unchanged or as conjugated forms of 2,4-d. a relatively small portion of 2,4-d was metabolized into dichlorophenol, dichloroanisole, 4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (6.9% of the trr in milk), and 2,4-d...	wikipedia
5f5b978de0a22e38114176555d1d27a7ac49df01	a july 2013 four corners investigation found elevated	a july 2013 four corners investigation found elevated levels of dioxins in a generic version of 2,4-d, one of australia's most widely used herbicides. samples imported from china had "one of the highest dioxin readings for 2,4-d in the last 10 to 20 years, and could pose potential health risks."	wikipedia
be1c629c4ec00feeda14cc4401c93bfb9a52bbc8	in a prior 1987 report the iarc classified	in a prior 1987 report the iarc classified some chlorphenoxy herbicides including 2,4-d, mcpa and 2,4,5-t as a group as class 2b carcinogens - "possibly carcinogenic to humans".	wikipedia