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Integration of Visual and Linguistic Information in Spoken Language Comprehension
In this study Tanenhaus looked at visual context and its effects on language comprehension. Tanenhaus wanted to investigate whether comprehension of language is informationally encapsulated or modular, as thought by many theorists and researchers including Jerry Fodor.
When the subject is presented with the first scene, in Figure A, they become confused. We see this by the many eye movements of the subjects who are not quite sure which items to manipulate. In the second scene the subject clearly understands the sentence more easily. In this scene the pencil is replaced by another apple on a napkin. This disambiguates the phrase because the subject understands that on the towel is modifying the apple, and is not referring to a destination.
The results strongly support the hypothesis that language comprehension, specifically at the syntactic level, is informed by visual information. This is a clearly non-modular result. These results also seem to support Just and Carpenter’s “Strong Eye Mind Hypothesis” that rapid mental processes which make up the comprehension of spoken language can be observed by eye movements.
Actions and Affordances in Syntactic Ambiguity Resolution
The results suggest that referents were assessed in terms of how compatible they were with the instructions. This supports the hypothesis that non-linguistic domain restrictions can influence syntactic ambiguity resolution. The participants applied situation specific, contextual properties to the way in which they followed these instructions. The results show that language is processed incrementally, as an utterance unfolds, and that visual information and context play a role in the processing.
Tanenhaus has collaborated with others to edit two books. His first book “Lexical Ambiguity Resolution: Perspective from Psycholinguistics, Neuropsychology, and Artificial Intelligence” was published in 1988. This book contains eighteen original papers which look at the concept of Lexical Ambiguity Resolution. His most recent work “Approaches to Studying World- Situated Language Use: Bridging the Language and Product and Language as Action Traditions” was published in 2004. This book was published to show the importance of looking at both social and cognitive aspects when studying language processing. The book is made up of papers and reports of relevant experimental findings.
Many organizations and academic institutions, including the International Association for the Study of Child Language, National Research Council, and Brain Map Advisory Board, have honored MacWhinney for the quality of his research and scholarship. MacWhinney's professional service activities include active participation on the governing boards of several professional associations, academic journals, and grant agencies, and he has also served as a university program reviewer and as an ad hoc reviewer for several prestigious journals including "Science", "Nature", and "Psychological Bulletin and Review". He holds membership and fellowship in many prominent professional societies, including the American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Society, Association for Computational Linguistics, Cognitive Science Society, International Association for Child Language, Linguistic Society of America, Psychonomic Society, and Society for Research in Child Development.
MacWhinney is married and has two sons. He is fluent in six languages, including English, Hungarian, German, French, Spanish, and Italian, and has presented his research in many countries around the world.
MacWhinney has developed a model of first and second language acquisition as well as language processing called the competition model. This model views language acquisition as an emergentist phenomenon that results from competition between lexical items, phonological forms, and syntactic patterns, accounting for language processing on the synchronic, ontogenetic, and phylogenetic time scales. Empirical studies based on the competition model have shown that learning of language forms is based on the accurate recording of many exposures to words and patterns in different contexts. The predictions of the competition model have been supported by research in the realms of psycholinguistics, cognitive neuroscience, and cognitive development.
MacWhinney developed and directs the CHILDES and TalkBank corpora, two widely used databases for language acquisition research. He manages FluencyBank, a TalkBank project, together with Nan Bernstein Ratner.
The CHILDES system provides tools for studying conversational interactions. These tools include a database of transcripts, programs for computer analysis of transcripts, methods for linguistic coding, and systems for linking transcripts to digitized audio and video. The CHILDES database includes a rich variety of computerized transcripts from language learners. Most of these transcripts record spontaneous conversational interactions. There are also transcripts from bilingual children, older school-aged children, adult second-language learners, children with various types of language disabilities, and aphasics who are trying to recover from language loss. The transcripts include data on the learning of 26 different languages.
TalkBank contains CHILDES as well as additional linguistic data from older children and adults, including people with aphasia, second language learners, adult conversation, and classroom language learning data.
Support for the construction and maintenance of the databases comes from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NIH-NICHD) and the National Science Foundation Linguistics Program.
James Earle Deese (1921–1999) was an American psychologist. He joined the faculty of the University of Virginia in 1970 after having taught for many years (since 1950) at Johns Hopkins University. During his tenure at Johns Hopkins, Deese became Chairman of the Psychology Department and also served a term as Chairman of the American Psychological Association. Deese later became the Chairman of the Psychology Department at University of Virginia until his partial retirement, later remaining as professor emeritus. He received the Hugh Scott Hamilton award for his distinguished service.
Deese, a 1/2 Lumbee Indian was born in Salt Lake City, Utah, on December 14, 1921. James Deese's father was Thomas D. Deese, a full-blooded Lumbee Indian whose parents, James M. Deese and Sarah Jane Chavis were from Burnt Swamp N.C. Deese's mother, Serene Jane Johnson was from Wisconsin. Deese was first cousin of American aerospace engineer and scientist James Henry Deese. Deese was raised in Southern California and during his early college years, he worked as a page at the early television studios. Deese retained a love for Southern California—its geography, its culture and history his entire life. Deese married Ellin Ruth Krauss in 1948.
Deese died at his home in Charlottesville, Virginia in 1999, just three months before his wife also died. The couple had just celebrated their 50th anniversary on Christmas Eve of 1998.
Deese attended Chapman College in Orange, CA, where he earned his B.A. degree in psychology. Deese later earned his doctorate at Indiana University. Later in his career, Deese was honored with an honorary Doctorate from Chapman. While attending Indiana University, Deese became fascinated by animal behavior and how it related to human behavior, particularly in the area of communication. He studied under B.F. Skinner and W. N. Kellogg. Later, Deese moved more into the area of Psycho-Linguistics and worked with other early pioneers in that field such as Noam Chomsky. Deese became mentor to many doctoral students who went on further to develop the field of learning, cognition, and language, such as Leonard M. Horowitz, William P. Banks, Allyssa McCabe, and Herbert H. Clark.
Deese was revered by his students and highly respected by his peers. He has authored or partnered in 14 books addressing various aspects of the Psychology of Learning (several books authored by Deese or co-authored with Stewart Hulse) and later, Psycholinguistics. A popular book from 1965 was called The Structure of Associations in Language and Thought (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965). Later, having branched out more into the area of Social Psychology, Deese wrote, American Freedom and the Social Sciences (Columbia University Press, 1985). Deese and his wife Ellin Krauss Deese co-authored the popular student manual, How to Study, which remains in print and regularly used by Freshman College Students into the 21st Century.
Nick C. Ellis is a Welsh psycholinguist. He is currently a Professor of Psychology and a Research Scientist at the English Language Institute of the University of Michigan. His research focuses on applied linguistics more broadly with a special focus on second language acquisition, corpus linguistics, psycholinguistics, emergentism, complex dynamic systems approaches to language, reading and spelling acquisition in different languages, computational modeling and cognitive linguistics.
Ellis received his Bachelor of Arts degree in Psychology at the University of Oxford in 1974. He obtained a PhD degree in Psychology at the University College of North Wales in 1978.
Between 1976 and 1991 he was a part-time Tutor at the Open University and between 1978 and 1990 a lecturer in Psychology at the University College of North Wales. In 1990 he became a Senior Lecturer in Psychology at the University College of North Wales until 1994. In 1992 he was a Visiting Professor at the Temple University of Japan. Between 1994 and 1998 he was a Reader in Psychology at the University College of North Wales and between 1998 and 2004 a Professor of Psychology at the University of Wales Bangor.
He was the Editor, Language Learning between 1998 and 2002 and since 2006 he has been a General Editor of Language Learning.
Ellis conducts research on several topics relating to second language acquisition, including the connection between explicit and implicit learning, reading, vocabulary and phraseology, applications of psychological theory in language testing and instruction, and the role of the brain. Ellis currently serves as General Editor of the journal "Language Learning".
Ellis has published in prestigious journals such as Language Learning, Applied Linguistics, The Modern Language Journal, Memory and Cognition, , and Studies in Second Language Acquisition.
Ellis has published articles with Diane Larsen-Freeman, Alister Cumming, Lourdes Ortega and Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig.
Most cited articles based on Google Scholar (in chronological order):
Deborah Frances Tannen (born June 7, 1945) is an American author and professor of linguistics at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. Best known as the author of "You Just Don't Understand", she has been a McGraw Distinguished Lecturer at Princeton University and was a fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences following a term in residence at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, NJ.
Tannen is the author of thirteen books, including "That's Not What I Meant!" and "You Just Don't Understand", the latter of which spent four years on the "New York Times" Best Sellers List, including eight consecutive months at number one. She is also a frequent contributor to "The New York Times", "The Washington Post", "The Atlantic", and "TIME" magazine, among other publications.
Tannen graduated from Hunter College High School and completed her undergraduate studies at Harpur College (now part of Binghamton University) with a B.A. in English Literature. Tannen went on to earn a Masters in English Literature at Wayne State University. Later, she continued her academic studies at UC Berkeley, earning an M.A. and a Ph.D. in Linguistics.
Tannen has written and edited numerous academic publications on linguistics, discourse analysis, and interpersonal communication. She has published many books including "Conversational Style: Analyzing Talk Among Friends"; "Talking Voices: Repetition, Dialogue and Imagery in Conversational Discourse"; "Gender and Discourse"; and "The Handbook of Discourse Analysis". Her major theoretical contribution, presented in "Talking Voices", is a poetics of conversation. She demonstrates that everyday conversation is made up of linguistic features that are traditionally regarded as literary, such as repetition, dialogue, and imagery.
Tannen has also written nine general-audience books on interpersonal communication and public discourse as well as a memoir. She became well known in the United States after her book "You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation" was published in 1990. It remained on the "New York Times" Best Seller list for nearly four years, and was subsequently translated into 30 other languages. She has written several other general-audience books and mainstream articles between 1983 and 2017.
Two of her other books, "You Were Always Mom's Favorite!: Sisters in Conversation Throughout Their Lives" and "You're Wearing THAT?: Understanding Mothers and Daughters in Conversation" were also "New York Times" best-sellers. "The Argument Culture" received the Common Ground Book Award, and "I Only Say This Because I Love You" received a Books for a Better Life Award.
Deborah Tannen's main research has focused on the expression of interpersonal relationships in conversational interaction. Tannen has explored conversational interaction and style differences at a number of different levels and as related to different situations, including differences in conversational style as connected to the gender and cultural background, as well as speech that is tailored for specific listeners based on the speaker's social role. In particular, Tannen has done extensive gender-linked research and writing that focused on miscommunications between men and women; however, some linguists have argued against Tannen's claims from a feminist standpoint.
Tannen's research began when she analyzed her friends while working on her Ph.D. Since then, she has collected several naturally occurring conversations on tape and conducted interviews as forms of data for later analysis. She has also compiled and analyzed information from other researchers in order to draw out notable trends in various types of conversations, sometimes borrowing and expanding on their terminology to emphasize new points of interest.
Interplay of connection maneuvers and power maneuvers in family conversations.
Tannen once described family discourse as "a prime example…of the nexus of needs for both power and connection in human relationships. She coined the term "connection maneuvers" to describe interactions that take place in the closeness dimension of the traditional model of power and connection; this term is meant to contrast with the "control maneuvers," which, according to psychologists Millar, Rogers, and Bavelas, take place in the power dimension of the same model.
Tannen challenged the conventional view of power (hierarchy) and connection (solidarity) as "unidimensional and mutually exclusive" and offered her own kind of model for mapping the interplay of these two aspects of communication, which takes the form of a two-dimensional grid (Figure 1).
Tannen also highlights ventriloquizing – which she explains as a "phenomenon by which a person speaks not only for another but also as another" – as a strategy for integrating connection maneuvers into other types of interactions. As an example of this, she cites an exchange recorded by her research team in which a mother attempts to convince her son to pick up his toys by ventriloquizing the family's dogs: "[extra high pitch] We're naughty, but we're not as naughty as Jared".
Deborah Tannen describes the notion of conversational style as "a semantic process" and "the way meaning is encoded in and derived from speech". She cites the work of R. Lakoff and J. Gumperz as the inspiration behind her thinking. According to Tannen, some features of conversational style are topic (which includes type of topics and how transitions occur), genre (storytelling style), pace (which includes rate of speech, occurrence or lack of pauses, and overlap), and expressive paralinguistics (pitch/amplitude shifts and other changes in voice quality).
Tannen has expressed her stance against taking indirect speech as a sign of weakness or as a lack of confidence; she also set out to debunk the idea that American women are generally more indirect than men. She reached this conclusion by looking through transcripts of conversations and interviews, as well as through correspondence with her readers. One example she uses against the second idea comes from a letter from a reader, who mentioned how his Navy superior trained his unit to respond to the indirect request "It's hot in this room" as a direct request to open the window. A different letter mentions the tendency of men to be more indirect when it comes to expressing feelings than women.
Tannen also mentions exchanges where both participants are male, but the two participants are not of equal social status. As a specific example, she mentions a "black box" recording between a plane captain and a co-pilot in which the captain's failure to understand the co-pilot's indirect conversational style (which was likely a result of his relatively inferior rank) caused a crash.
During a trip to Greece, Tannen observed that comments she had made to her hosts about foods she had not seen yet in Greece (specifically, scrambled eggs and grapes) had been interpreted as indirect requests for the foods. This was surprising to her, since she had just made the comments in the spirit of small talk. Tannen observed this same tendency of Greeks and Greek-Americans to interpret statements indirectly in a study that involved interpreting the following conversation between a husband and a wife:
The participants – some Greeks, some Greek-Americans, and some non-Greek Americans – had to choose between the following two paraphrases of the second line in the exchange:
Tannen's findings showed that 48% of Greeks chose the first (more indirect) paraphrase, while only 32% of non-Greek Americans chose the same one, with the Greek-Americans scoring closer to the Greeks than the other Americans at 43%. These percentages, combined with other elements of the study, suggest that the degree of indirectness a listener generally expects may be affected through sociocultural norms.
Tannen analyzed the agonistic framing of academic texts, which are characterized by their "ritualized adversativeness". She argued that expectations for academic papers in the US place the highest importance on presenting the weaknesses of an existing, opposing, argument as a basis for bolstering the author's replacement argument. According to her, agonism limits the depth of arguments and learning, since authors who follow the convention pass up opportunities to acknowledge strengths in the texts they are arguing against; in addition, this places the newest, attention-grabbing works in prime positions to be torn apart.
Gary F. Marcus (born February 8, 1970) is an American scientist, author, and entrepreneur who is a professor in the Department of Psychology at New York University and was founder and CEO of Geometric Intelligence, a machine learning company later acquired by Uber.
His books include "Guitar Zero", which appeared on the "New York Times" Best Seller list and "Kluge: The Haphazard Construction of the Human Mind", a "New York Times" Editors' Choice. With Jeremy Freeman, he was co-editor of "The Future of the Brain: Essays by the World's Leading Neuroscientists".
Marcus attended Hampshire College, where he designed his own major, cognitive science, working on human reasoning. He continued on to graduate school at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where his advisor was the experimental psychologist Steven Pinker. He received his Ph.D. in 1993.
His books include "The Algebraic Mind: Integrating Connectionism and Cognitive Science, The Birth of the Mind: How a Tiny Number of Genes Creates the Complexities of Human Thought," "Kluge: The Haphazard Construction of the Human Mind", a New York Times Editors' Choice, and "Guitar Zero", which appeared on the New York Times Bestseller list. He edited "The Norton Psychology Reader," and was co-editor with Jeremy Freeman of The Future of the Brain: Essays by the World's Leading Neuroscientist, which included Nobel Laureates May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser.
In 2014, he founded Geometric Intelligence, a machine learning company. It was acquired by Uber in 2016.
Marcus' research and theories focus on the intersection between biology and psychology. How do the brain and mind relate when it comes to understanding language? Marcus takes an innatism stance on this debate and through his psychological evidence has given many answers to open questions such as, "If there is something built in at birth, how does it get there?" He challenged connectionist theories which posit that the mind is only made up of randomly arranged neurons. Marcus argues that neurons can be put together to build circuits in order to do things such as process rules or process structured representations.
Marcus’ early work focused on why children produce overregularizations, such as "breaked" and "goed", as a test case for the nature of mental rules.
In his first book, "The Algebraic Mind: Integrating Connectionism and Cognitive Science", Marcus challenged the idea that the mind might consist of largely undifferentiated neural networks. He argued that understanding the mind would require integrating connectionism with classical ideas about symbol-manipulation.
In his second book, published in 2004, "The Birth of the Mind: How a Tiny Number of Genes Creates the Complexities of Human Thought", Marcus goes into a more detailed explanation of the genetic support systems of human thought. He explains how a small number of genes account for the intricate human brain, common false impressions of genes, and the problems they may cause for the future of genetic engineering.
In 2005, Marcus was editor of "The Norton Psychology Reader", including selections by cognitive scientists on modern science of the human mind.
Marcus' 2012 book, "Guitar Zero", explores the process of taking up a musical instrument as an adult.
Frieda Goldman-Eisler (born Frymet Leib, also known as Frieda Eisler) (1907–1982) was a psychologist and pioneer in the field of psycholinguistics. She is known for her research on speech disfluencies; a volume dedicated in her honor calls her "the modern pioneer of the science of pausology".
Goldman-Eisler was born in Tarnów, Galicia. She was German-Jewish, and a communist. After her marriage to the writer Willy Goldman in 1934, due to the growing threat of Nazi Germany, she moved from Austria to London, where she lived the rest of her life. In the early 1950s, she began pausological experiments, and continued doing research in this area for the rest of her career. She cancelled presenting at a workshop in Kassel in 1978 due to illness, and died in 1982.
She earned a PhD in German studies from the University of Vienna in 1931, while also studying psychology under Karl Bühler.
During World War II, Goldman-Eisler briefly worked for Mass Observation.
She was a member of the Medical Research Council’s scientific staff at the Maudsley Hospital.
Goldman-Eisler refers to being offered and accepting a "home" in the Department of Phonetics at University College London in 1955, though it is not clear what her position was at that time. In 1965 Goldman-Eisler was appointed a Reader at University College London, where she continued her career. She became the UK's first Professor of Psycholinguistics in 1970. She was eventually given the titles Emeritus Professor of Psycholinguistics and honorary Research Fellow at University College London.
Jean Berko Gleason (born 1931) is a psycholinguist and professor emerita in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences at Boston University who has made fundamental contributions to the understanding of language acquisition in children, aphasia, gender differences in language development, and parent–child interactions.
Gleason created the Wug Test, in which a child is shown pictures with nonsense names and then prompted to complete statements about them, and used it to demonstrate that even young children possess implicit knowledge of linguistic morphology. Menn and Ratner have written that "Perhaps no innovation other than the invention of the tape recorder has had such an indelible effect on the field of child language research", the "wug" (one of the imaginary creatures Gleason drew in creating the Wug Test) being "so basic to what [psycholinguists] know and do that increasingly it appears in the popular literature without attribution to its origins."
Jean Berko was born to Hungarian immigrant parents in Cleveland, Ohio. As a child, she has said, "I was under the impression that whatever you said meant something in some language." Her older brother's cerebral palsy made it difficult for most people to understand his speech, but
After graduating from Cleveland Heights High School in 1949, Gleason earned a B.A. in history and literature from Radcliffe College, then an M.A. in linguistics, and a combined Ph.D. in linguistics and psychology, at Harvard; from 1958 to 1959 she was a postdoctoral fellow at MIT. In graduate school she was advised by Roger Brown, a founder in the field of child language acquisition. In January 1959 she married Harvard mathematician Andrew Gleason; they had three daughters.
Most of Gleason's professional career has been at Boston University, where she served as Psychology Department chair and director of the Graduate Program in Applied Linguistics; Lise Menn and Harold Goodglass were among her collaborators there.
She has been a visiting scholar at Harvard University, Stanford University, and at the Linguistics Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Although officially retired and no longer teaching, she to be involved in research.
Gleason is the author or co-author of some 125 papers on language development in children, language attrition, aphasia, and gender and cultural aspects of language acquisition and use; and is editor/coeditor of two widely used textbooks, "The Development of Language" (first edition 1985, ninth edition 2016) and "Psycholinguistics" (1993). She is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and of the American Psychological Association, and was president of the International Association for the Study of Child Language from 1990 to 1993, and of the Gypsy Lore Society 1996 to 1999.
She has also served on the editorial boards of numerous academic and professional journals and was associate editor of "Language" from 1997 to 1999.
Gleason was profiled in "Beyond the Glass Ceiling: Forty Women Whose Ideas Shape the Modern World" (1996).
A festschrift in her honor, "Methods for Studying Language Production", was published in 2000.
In 2016 she received an honorary Doctor of Science degree from Washington & Jefferson College for her work as "a pioneer in the field of psycholinguistics",
and in 2017 the Roger Brown Award (recognizing "outstanding contribution to the international child language community") from the International Association for the Study of Child Language.
Since 2007 she has delivered the "Welcome, welcome" and "Goodbye, goodbye" speeches at the annual Ig Nobel Awards ceremonies.
Children's learning of English morphologythe Wug Test.
Gleason devised the Wug Test as part of her earliest research (1958), which used nonsense words to gauge children's acquisition of morphological rulesfor example, the "default" rule that most English plurals are formed by adding an , or sound depending on the final consonant, e.g., " "
A child is shown simple pictures of a fanciful creature or activity,
with a nonsense name, and prompted to complete a statement about it:
Each "target" word was a made-up (but plausible-sounding) pseudoword, so that the child cannot have heard it before.
A child who knows that the plural of "witch" is "witches" may have heard and memorized that pair, but a child responding that the plural of "wug" (which the child presumably has never heard) is "wugs" (/wʌgz/, using the /z/ allomorph since "wug" ends in a voiced consonant) has apparently inferred (perhaps unconsciously) the basic rule for forming plurals.
The Wug Test also includes questions involving verb conjugations, possessives, and other common derivational morphemes such as the agentive "-er" (e.g. "A man who 'zibs' is a ________?"),
and requested explanations of common compound words e.g. "Why is a birthday called a birthday?"
Gleason's major finding was that even very young children are able to connect suitable endingsto produce plurals, past tenses, possessives, and other formsto nonsense words they have never heard before, implying that they have internalized systematic aspects of the linguistic system which no one has necessarily tried to teach them.
However, she also identified an earlier stage at which children can produce such forms for real words, but not yet for nonsense wordsimplying that children start by memorizing singularplural pairs they hear spoken by others, then eventually extract rules and patterns from these examples which they apply to novel words.
The Wug Test's fundamental role in the development of psycholinguistics as a discipline has been mapped by studying references to Gleason's work in "seminal journals" in the field, many of which carried articles referencing it in their founding issues:
According to Ratner and Menn, "As an enduring concept in psycholinguistic research, the wug has become generic, like ["kleenex"] or ["xerox"], a concept so basic to what we know and do that increasingly it appears in the popular literature without attribution to its origins... Perhaps no innovation other than the invention of the tape recorder has had such an indelible effect on the field of child language research."
It has been proposed that Wug Testlike instruments be used in the diagnosis of learning disabilities, but in practice success in this direction has been limited.
Another of Gleason's early papers "Fathers and Other Strangers: Men's Speech to Young Children" (1975) explored differences between mothers' and fathers' spoken interaction with their children, primarily using data produced by two female and two male daycare teachers at a large university, and by three mothers and three fathers, mostly during family dinners.
Among other conclusions, this study found that:
In contrast, both male and female daycare teachers used language that was similar both quantitatively and qualitatively, with both focusing on a dialogue based in the present and on the immediate needs of the children.
Differences included that the male teachers tended to address the children by name more often than did the female teachers and that the male teachers issued more imperatives than did the female teachers.
Gleason's research eventually extended into the study of children's acquisition of routinesthat is, standardized chunks of language (or language-plus-gesture) that the culture expects of everyone, such as greetings, farewells, and expressions of thanks. Gleason was one of the first to study the acquisition of politeness, examining English-speaking children's use of routines such as "thank you", "please", and "I'm sorry". Researchers in this area have since studied both verbal and non-verbal routinization, and the development of politeness routines in a variety of cultures and languages.
Gleason's 1976 paper with Weintraub, "The Acquisition of Routines in Child Language",
analyzed performance on the culturally standardized Halloween Trick-or-treat routine in 115 children aged two to sixteen years.
Alterations in ability and the function of parental contribution were analyzed concerning cognitive and social components.
They discovered that in the acquisition of routines
(in contrast to the acquisition of much of the rest of language) parents' major interest is for their children to achieve accurate performance, with little stress on children's understanding of what they are expected to say.
Gleason and Weintraub found that the parents rarely if ever explain to children the meaning of such routines as "Bye-bye" or "Trick or treat"there was no concern with the child's thoughts or intentions as long as the routine was performed as expected at the appropriate times.

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