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Microsoft Office Access 2003 Inside Out
John L. Viescas
When Microsoft Press says "Inside Out," they mean it! This book covers how to build Desktop (mdb) applications, how to create Project (adp) applications, automating your application with Visual Basic, using Access on the Web, and much more. The CD is chock-full of sample code and includes three fully-functioning applications.
Note: If you are running Microsoft Access 2000 (version 9), but have purchased Microsoft Office Access 2003 Inside Out, you will not be able to open any of the sample databases because they are all in 2002/2003 format. Go to my Links page to download a copy the sample databases that I converted back to Access 2000 format. | <urn:uuid:a4104350-8be4-4929-81f1-052f4869086e> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://viescas.com/2011/04/microsoft-access-2003-inside-out/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570879.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20220809003642-20220809033642-00670.warc.gz | en | 0.864903 | 177 | 1.679688 | 2 |
HAGERSTOWN - The City of Hagerstown wants more people to get involved in Neighborhoods 1st, a program that helps residents improve their neighborhoods by working more closely with public officials.
Cindy Blackstock, city community development coordinator, said eight Neighborhoods 1st groups are active in the city and four more are forming. Neighborhoods 1st groups meet once a month at City Hall to network and learn how the local system of government works.
That knowledge makes it easier for group members to work the system to get the resources they need, she said.
In some cases, residents have used the program to obtain playground and landscaping equipment, Blackstock said. In addition, Neighborhoods 1st groups successfully have lobbied the city to post street signs.
"The city is very much interested and invested in our residents," she said. "We are here to serve. Neighborhoods 1st opens the door." | <urn:uuid:7c07b97b-c6bd-4422-973b-6ccda5ae7474> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://articles.herald-mail.com/2007-11-10/news/25032958_1_neighborhoods-groups-city-hall | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280899.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00574-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979158 | 189 | 1.585938 | 2 |
CHORAL TILT TO PROMOTE PANGASINAN LANGUAGE LAUNCHED
June 15, 2011
DAGUPAN CITY – A choral competition dubbed as Sanengseng to be participated in by high school students from public and private schools has been successfully launched last Monday at the Sala del Obispo Cesar Ma. Guerrero of the Archbishop’s residence here.
To revolve on the theme “Creating Awareness of Our Revered Pangasinan Culture,” the competition is one of the components of the 64th Agew na Dagupan celebration on June 20, which will raise the consciousness of young Pangasinenses to rediscover the power and the beauty of Pangasinan language through Pangasinan songs.
Participants will all sing to the tune of the classical ballad Malinac Lay Labi.
Present during the launching ceremony were Mayor Benjamin S. Lim, Lingayen-Dagupan archdiocese Archbishop Socrates B. Villegas, Councilor Jesus Canto and City Schools Division Superintendent Alma Ruby C. Torio.
Sanengseng is a Pangasinan word for “hissing sound,” a brainchild of Villegas, who together with the group of Pangasinan culture enthusiasts expressed interest in the efforts to promote Pangasinan arts and culture, particularly among young Pangasinenses who are not exposed to the finer aspects of their own arts and culture.
“The Philippines is a poor country, but in spite of poverty, we have two jewels. The first jewel is our Catholic faith. The second is our song. And it is our faith in God that carries us through in the midst of problems," the prelate said.
He also said that " it is also our song that helps us face life’s problems."
"When we are sad, we sing. When we are happy, we sing. When we feel romantic, we sing. When we are typing, we sing,” said Villegas.
“That is why we are asking our youth in Dagupan to rediscover the power and the beauty of pangasinan songs because we feel that is being lost and we do not want to lose by default," he added.
He said "we the adults wanted to teach our children that there is beauty; and dignity in Pangasinan culture and as a starter, we are asking them to learn “Malinac lay Labi,."
"Because we want them to learn, it will not be a choir competition, rather it will be a school competition so that everybody in that school is obliged to study the song and hopefully it will become their pride as a Dagupeño,” Villegas added.
Lim, on the other hand, said "ito ay paggising sa ating mga taga-Pangasinan na bigyan ng importansiya ang ating sariling salita dahil unti-unti ng nawawala ito sa mga kabataan natin ngayun."
He added that "if we are going to look at Pangasinan now, only about 30 percent of the whole population of the province speaks the language fluently.”
“In addition, magkakaroon tayo ng programa sa radio na kung saan weekly ay magkakaroon tayo ng bigkas at salita sa Pangasinan na parang dictionary type na maging gabay sa ating mga kabataan,” he disclosed.
Torio, on the other hand, said that the competition will give reverence to the Pangasinan culture.
“We will institutionalize this and we will implement a multi-base education na kung saan ang salitang Pangasinan ay gagamiting medium of instruction. Meantime, we will start with a singing competition na uumpisahan natin sa private at public secondary schools sa Dagupan,” she said.
Accordingly, by August, all participants will sing altogether in one voice the “Malinac Lay Labi” along the stretch of A.B. Fernandez Avenue at sundown while holding a lighted candle. (CIO – Joseph C. Bacani)
Santiago B. Villafania, a bilingual Filipino poet who writes in English and in his native language of Pangasinan, is the author of poetry collections Bonsaic Verses (2012), Pinabli and Other Poems (2012), Malagilion: Sonnets tan Villanelles (2007), and Balikas na Caboloan (Voices from Caboloan, 2005) published by the National Commission for the Culture and the Arts (NCCA) under its UBOD New Authors Series. He has been published in several countries and translated into several languages. Villafania is one of the 11 Outstanding Pangasinan conferred with the 2010 ASNA Award for the Arts and Culture (literature) during the first Agew na Pangasinan and also the 430th Foundation Day of the province on April 2010. He is a member of Philippine PEN writes a regular weekly column for the Sunday Punch.
A collection of haiku, senryu, tanka, haiga, and other poems in English and Pangasinan language. Order now at Amazon.com
“Santiago Villafania is a searcher with a seemingly insatiable curiosity and endurance. His quest has brought him to explore world poetry from points East and West. He is no stranger to sophisticated verse forms such the Sapphic strophe nor to the diverse permutations of the Japanese haiku. But he is not a formalist, he has daringly explored Asian and Western cultures in a very personal way and writes his mind with a daring, invigorating, aesthetically pleasing ease. In his poetry Villafania displays not only a breadth, but it feels very much like a breath of fresh air.” – Ute Margaret Saine, poet, critic, translator, past president of PEN Orange County and the former editor of the California Poetry Quarterly
“Villafania’s emergence as a poet is a fine moment to celebrate. Another voice from the regions augurs a richer body of writing that Filipinos can hold up as a mirror of our native culture.” – Bienvenido Lumbera, National Artist for Literature
"The publication of Malagilion: Sonnets tan Villanelles by Santiago B. Villafania should be a source of rejoicing for readers of regional literatures. This second book by Pangasinan's leading poet today is impressive in both form and substance. Villafania has created 300 sonnets and 50 villanelles in his own language that attempt to reflect the primacy of native culture and return the poet to the central stage of social life." – A Boost to Pangasinan Literaturefrom Breaking Signs by Cirilo F. Bautista (Philippine Panorama, 16 Dec. 2007, pp.25-26)
"Villafania is not only a visionary poet, he is a linguistic philosopher who codifies the origin of language and culture, dissects the myths and the common beliefs of the people against the urban legends, juxtaposes the literary tradition against the modern influences by dialectically infusing them in his poetic revelation of truth." – Poetic Revelation in Language and Culture by Danny C. Sillada (Manila Bulletin, 12 May 2008, pp. F1-F2)
"Santiago Villafania's Balikas ed Caboloan certainly has reinvigorated the anlong tradition of Pangasinan that for a long period of time suffered silence from the hands of writers more attuned to English writing. Characteristically anacbanua, Villafania's poetry echoes his predecessors and presages a promising era for young writers in Pangasinan." – Dr. Marot Nelmida-Flores
Translations of Erolalia in German, Arabic, Italian, Spanish, Bulgarian, and Hindi language. And here is the 1st version of the poem published in The Sunday Times (Manila Times, 11.23.2003).
Six of my poems translated into Arabic by Prof. Abdul-Settar Abdul-Latif (English Dept., College of Education, University of Basrah, Iraq) and have been published in TEXT - the Cultural Monthly Journal, Issue No.13 | <urn:uuid:56941bf2-e952-4be6-ae63-ef8d45440429> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://svillafania.philippinepen.ph/2011/06/choral-tilt-to-promote-pangasinan.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280899.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00575-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930903 | 1,785 | 1.570313 | 2 |
An ergonomic field study to evaluate the effects of a rotatable handle piece on muscular stress and fatigue as well as subjective ratings of usability, wrist posture and precision during laparoscopic surgery: an explorative pilot study.Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2018 Nov; 91(8):1021-1029.IA
The interface between surgeon and the laparoscopic instrument is an important factor in biomechanical stress that may increase the risk of musculoskeletal complaints in surgeons. This article investigates the effect of a laparoscopic instrument with a rotatable handle piece (rot-HP) on muscular stress and fatigue during routine laparoscopic procedures (LP) as well as usability, wrist posture and working precision.
40 LP (subtotal hysterectomies) performed by 11 surgeons were investigated. 20 LP were carried out with the rot-HP and 20 with a fixed (standard) laparoscopic handle piece instrument. Shoulder and arm muscle activity was monitored via surface electromyography (sEMG). The electrical activity (EA) and median power frequency (MPF) were used to determine muscular stress and fatigue. Usability, wrist posture, and working precision between handle piece conditions were assessed by a survey.
Using the rot-HP did not reduce muscular stress. A tendency of muscular fatigue (increasing EA, decreasing MPF) occurred in the upper trapezius, middle deltoid and extensor digitorum muscles; however, no differences were found between handle pieces. Wrist posture was more comfortable using the rot-HP and working precision and usability tended to be preferred using the standard handle piece.
Although wrist posture seemed to be optimized by the rot-HP, no effect on muscular stress and fatigue was observed in routine LP (< 60 min duration). Optimization of wrist posture may provide positive effects in mid- or long-term procedures. However, sufficient familiarization with the new instrument is crucial since working precision and usability could be impaired. | <urn:uuid:f3f25036-4e4f-464e-aacf-9d4c194e8d0f> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.unboundmedicine.com/medline/citation/30078157/An_ergonomic_field_study_to_evaluate_the_effects_of_a_rotatable_handle_piece_on_muscular_stress_and_fatigue_as_well_as_subjective_ratings_of_usability_wrist_posture_and_precision_during_laparoscopic_surgery:_an_explorative_pilot_study_ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571745.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20220812170436-20220812200436-00468.warc.gz | en | 0.942888 | 414 | 1.828125 | 2 |
Posted by Smokey Stover on November 29, 2006
In Reply to: Re: On the drag posted by Victoria S Dennis on November 27, 2006
: : There's a phrase I'd like to know the origin of, namely "being on the drag" meaning to be running late for something.
: : I recently had to attend a business meeting in my company's London office but, not surprisingly, the train was delayed. So I rang my colleague in London to say "I was on the drag and would be there as soon as I could". My colleague (who is a Londoner) had no idea what I meant, and when I arrived at the meeting he said he had wondered whether I was going to turn up in a dress and high heels!!
: : I live in Ipswich, Suffolk and "on the drag" is something you hear people saying regularly around here. Bearing in mind my London colleague's confusion, I suppose the phrase's use might be unique to my part of the country, but I wonder if a) you have heard it before, and b) if you know its origin.
: Just to say that I'm a Londoner born and bred, living in Kent for the last 12 years, and I had never heard of it till your post; so I suspect that it may be very specific to East Anglia. (VSD)
Some folks use "on the drag" to mean on the street, or on the road, and it seems to me that Mr. Glading must have meant this. When a man dresses as a woman he's "in drag." The preposition makes all the difference. If a man comes to a party dressed as a woman he "comes in drag." There's a history of female impersonation and cross-dressing with the title "Drag." As to the first meaning, everyone knows about "drag racing." That means racing on a public street or road, rather than on a private track. And every town has a main drag, even mine. | <urn:uuid:7abc7547-a87f-44e2-b7ee-e09b6fd545ef> | CC-MAIN-2016-44 | http://www.phrases.org.uk/bulletin_board/51/messages/33.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-44/segments/1476988721141.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20161020183841-00417-ip-10-171-6-4.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979431 | 415 | 1.554688 | 2 |
Audion’s lead program, a small molecule gamma secretase inhibitor AUD1001, is in clinical development for acquired hearing loss.
Sensorineural hearing loss represents 90% of all hearing loss and is due to damage to the structures of the inner ear and/or the auditory nerve. It is most frequently characterized by dysfunction or death of the hair cells in the cochlea.
Gamma secretase inhibition in the cochlea has been shown to induce transdifferentiation of supporting cells into hair cells, restoring the lost function (Mizutari et al., Neuron 2013). Furthermore, recent insights have shown that inhibiting Gamma Secretase induces the formation of synapses enabling the transmission of sound signals to the auditory nerve. | <urn:uuid:1267f1e4-4a61-4757-9d53-3ef5deec7430> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://audiontherapeutics.com/our-science/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573760.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20220819191655-20220819221655-00667.warc.gz | en | 0.904067 | 156 | 2.375 | 2 |
Ernesto “Che” Guevara, racist, anti-semite, homophobe, Marxist hero
Marxists. Do you know this man, who once said “Mexicans are a band of illiterate Indians”?
Here’s some stuff he wrote in his book The Motorcycle Diaries.
“The black is indolent and a dreamer; spending his meager wage on frivolity or drink; the European has a tradition of work and saving, which has pursued him as far as this corner of America and drives him to advance himself, even independently of his own individual aspirations.”
“The blacks, those magnificent examples of the African race who have maintained their racial purity thanks to their lack of an affinity with bathing, have seen their territory invaded by a new kind of slave: the Portuguese.”
“The first person we hit on was the mayor, someone called Cohen; we had heard a lot about him, that he was Jewish as far as money was concerned but a good sort.”
“The episode upset us a little because the poor man, apart from being homosexual and a first-rate bore, had been very nice to us, giving us 10 soles each, bringing our total to 479 for me and 163 1/2 to Alberto.”
I don’t think I have to comment on any of this. It’s clear what kind of a man he was. | <urn:uuid:26fe863f-c318-4f05-bde1-800515a905d0> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | https://lefroy.wordpress.com/2010/03/31/ernesto-che-guevara-racist-anti-semite-homophobe-marxist-hero/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280410.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00451-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.985993 | 308 | 1.515625 | 2 |
6 Mistakes You Can't Afford to Make When Buying a Home
There are some things in life that don’t require much thought or preparation to purchase: paper towels, batteries, a new light bulb. You buy these things because you need them, they’re cheap and readily available.
On the other hand, a large purchase, like a new home, requires research and preparation. Failing to prepare is preparing to fail, whether it’s not being able to make your mortgage payments or sinking money into a money pit that costs more to fix than it’s worth. Here are some common mistakes from the real estate professionals at Century 21 LSB Real Estate to help you through your next home purchase.
Forgetting about all the costs- this is especially true if you are buying your first home. When purchasing, there’s your down payment, principal with interest, property taxes, homeowners insurance, utilities, appraisal fee, credit report fees, escrow fee up front and then any maintenance costs once the home is yours. Plan wisely.
Falling in love with a house- it’s easy to get caught up in all the great things a house has to offer. Stick to your budget and prioritize your needs to keep from straying off course.
Buying a home you can’t afford- a no brainer, right? Then why do so many people do it? Take time to crunch the numbers, and don’t forget those additional costs we talked about!
Making a down payment that is less than 20 percent- do this, and you’re looking at the additional cost of private mortgage insurance.
Skipping an inspection- we know it’s another thing to pay for, but you’ll be thankful if the inspector points out some serious issues you couldn’t see and saves you from a investing in a money pit.
Buying if you aren’t staying put- renting is great for those that move around a lot; purchasing a home is not. If you’re buying a home, make sure you’re ready to put down some roots.
As we said, buying a home is a big deal, as are the consequences that go along with not preparing correctly. The professional real estate agents at Century 21 LSB Real Estate can help you understand all the prep work you need to get done in order to not be kicking yourself a year or two down the road. Give them a call today to get started or visit www.Century21LSB.com to get more home buying and selling tips.
Century 21 LSB Real Estate - Each office Independently owned and operated. | <urn:uuid:dcef6a82-ae2e-4479-922c-b417b08f98e9> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | https://www.mylsb.com/blog/mortgage/6-mistakes-you-cant-afford-to-make-when-buying-a-home.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280872.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00317-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.93934 | 555 | 1.5625 | 2 |
How to Get Wireless Internet Service For Free
Most people do not know that if you have a wireless adapter on your lap top computer, then you can pick up wireless internet service as long as it within range. Most cities have businesses and stores that have wireless internet service and by using your wireless internet adapter, you can pick up the wireless internet waves of the closest wireless internet host. If you live in the city or you are going to the city try following these steps for getting wireless internet service for free.
Things You'll Need
- Laptop or desktop computer with wireless adapter.
-STEPS TO GETTING WIRELESS INTERNET SERVICE FOR FREE-You can get wireless internet service if you live in the city or you are going to a city and you have a desktop or laptop computer with a wireless adapter built in to your computer. Especially around hospitals and restaurants. Step one is to go to your start button on your computer and click on your wireless internet adapter or wireless internet program.
Next, once that you have your wireless internet adapter window open, make sure the wireless section is turned on.
Next, click on the "search for wireless network" button or whatever wireless search button your wireless program offers.
Next, your wireless adapter will now search for any wireless networks within a 1 mile radius.
Lastly, once your wireless adapter has picked up a wireless signal it will prompt you to connect to it. Connect to the wireless signal and now you can open up your browser and use the internet by using wireless internet service for free.
Tips & Warnings
- You can also add and save the wireless internet services to your wireless internet adapter.
- If the wireless internet service that your adapter picks up has security enabled, then you will not be able to connect to the wireless internet. Refresh the wireless internet adapter and do another search for another wireless internet signal to use.
- A lot of restaurants and hospitals have wireless internet service, so if you live nearby one of the two you can usually get the wireless internet service. | <urn:uuid:8d891189-8abe-4086-8791-375dc160ba98> | CC-MAIN-2016-44 | https://www.techwalla.com/articles/how-to-get-wireless-internet-service-for-free | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-44/segments/1476988719079.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20161020183839-00033-ip-10-171-6-4.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.894621 | 412 | 1.898438 | 2 |
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Dry Gluten. The insoluble wheat flour gluten (q.v.) that has been freed from starch and soluble components by washing and then dried under conditions that preserve its viscoelastic (q.v.) properties. The dry product, typically consisting of 75-80% protein, is then ground into a cream-colored powder. | <urn:uuid:1ff5e0ee-a248-41ca-b525-b94d3f01fef2> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.bakingbusiness.com/resources/bakers-dictionary/dictionary/d/dry-gluten.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560279933.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095119-00129-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.91947 | 76 | 2.375 | 2 |
Ancient human DNA suggests minimal interbreeding
Genetic analysis indicates Stone Age people mated infrequently with Neandertals and other close relatives
By Bruce Bower, 16:57 PM January 18, 2013
A 40,000-year-old human skeleton previously excavated in China has yielded genetic clues to Stone Age evolution.
Ancient DNA from cell nuclei and maternally inherited mitochondria indicates that this individual belonged to a population that eventually gave rise to many present-day Asians and Native Americans, says a team led by Qiaomei Fu and Svante Pääbo, evolutionary geneticists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany.
The partial skeleton, unearthe...
Source URL: https://www.sciencenews.org/article/ancient-human-dna-suggests-minimal-interbreeding | <urn:uuid:ed51b5ad-25c0-453b-9d54-3040e4828441> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | https://www.sciencenews.org/print/node/15833 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280891.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00158-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.889776 | 184 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Efficacy of CASPR units with NCC technology at continuously inactivating SARS nCoV2 on surfaces in a controlled laboratory environment
OTHER CASE STUDIES BY FACILITY TYPE:
Hospital Testing Report: Sustained reduction of Microbial Burden on High Touch Surfaces through the Introduction of Photocatalytic Conversion technology
Development of continuous disinfection to address the persistent contamination and recontamination occurring in patient rooms despite routine episodic cleaning and disinfection.
Levels of both bacterial and fungal MB on surfaces were found to be significantly lower as was the incidence of MRSA and VRE.
Reported a significant decline in absenteeism with a reduction of 550 hours (1313 vs 752) during the four-month trial vs the same four month period the previous year.
51 unit locations with 4 data points each swab: Aerobic, Mold, MRSA & VRE
SCHOOLS & BUSSES
CASPR’s mobile and in-duct disinfection technology uses a proprietary Natural Catalytic Converter (NCC) process that extracts oxygen and moisture from ambient air and then produces and continuously delivers a low concentration (less than 0.1 ppm) of gaseous hydrogen peroxide to clean a target area.
With so much attention on finding the safest and most effective ways to
protect kids and teachers during school, Sterasure, a Canadian biotechnology distributor, worked with Sporometrics, an accredited laboratory, to test and demonstrate the real-world effectiveness of CASPR’s technology in a school setting. The test was arranged through a Toronto preschool and kindergarten school in October 2020.
During the test, the school’s air was analyzed along with multiple surfaces for bacterial load. The CASPR 5000 In-Duct units were then installed, and the environment was tested again two weeks later. The surfaces tested included various high-touch surfaces, including keyboards, bathroom surfaces, desks, furniture and tech equipment.
Schools are high-risk environments when it comes to pathogen propagation. This risk extends past its boundaries to the transportation of students to and from school (School Buses). This study evaluates the efficacy of CASPR’s Natural Catalytic Conversion (NCC) technology in a school bus and its’ ability, on top of other routine cleaning and policy protocols, to mitigate pathogen reduction. Surface swabs for bacteria were taken before and during the operation of the CASPR system showing an average reduction of 94% (p = 3.014e-11). Results from this study suggest that CASPR’s NCC technology can effectively reduce pathogens in a school bus.
Results from this study demonstrate the ability of the CASPR system to reduce pathogens on a school bus undergoing normal prescribed use and cleaning. High reduction (94%) with strong statistical significance (p = 3.014e-11) demonstrates the potential this technology has to keep
students safe during transit. Aerobic bacteria were chosen as a surrogate to general pathogen presence but are not limiting. NCC technology has been proven effective against most other prevalent viruses, fungi and bacteria. Implementation of this system will result in a reduced bio burden on the buses and therefore should minimize the risk of pathogen transmission.
CASPR Technology Evaluation in a Restaurant Environment
Restaurants are publicly available spaces which are particularly prone to SARS-CoV-2 exposure due to their small size and nature. Risk of foodborne illness and stringent sanitation requirements adds urgency to the need for improved air-pathogen treatment. This study evaluates the ability of the CASPR system to decrease air pathogen levels in a restaurant environment. Active air sampling for fungi was performed before and after the operation of the CASPR system for a 1-week period. An 83% reduction in total average CFU fungal levels was observed after operating the CASPR system (p=0.05). Results from this study suggest that CASPR’s Natural Catalytic Conversion (NCC) technology can effectively reduce pathogens in a restaurant environment. | <urn:uuid:e9e69ffb-7236-4023-8d22-b2841a271bec> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.dakotasafety.com/pages/efficacy-vs-covid-19 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571097.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20220810010059-20220810040059-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.945952 | 851 | 2.203125 | 2 |
During one of their annual summer expeditions to Ross Island, Antarctica, conservationists with the Antarctic Heritage Trust made a historic discovery.
During one of their annual summer expeditions to Ross Island, Antarctica, conservationists with the Antarctic Heritage Trust made a historic discovery. In one of the freshly-carved channels formed by the snowmelt-runoff, they noticed that “a clump of something interesting-looking,” had been revealed: the notebook of George Murray Levick.
Levick was a surgeon and zoologist in legendary explorer Robert Falcon Scott’s Terra Nova Expedition. The goal of the expedition, which took place between 1910 and 1913, was to be the first to reach the South Pole. Though the expedition did eventually reach the South Pole, they were beaten by Roald Amundsen’s Norwegian team by 34 days. Even worse, Scott and his crew died on the return party due to extreme conditions.
Though Levick wasn’t present during the trek to the South Pole, he was a part of the expedition’s Northern Party, which spent time at Cape Adare studying and photographing a penguin rookery. Unable to return to the rest of the team due to ice blocking their ship, Levick and 5 other crew members took shelter in an ice cave for the winter, before returning to camp.
The notebook, which was painstakingly restored, contains hand-written notes of Levick’s time in the Antarctic. It wasn’t the only discovery hidden by the ice, however.
The Antarctic Heritage Trust also discovered 22 photos taken during the Ross Sea Party. The photos, which were exposed but unprocessed negatives, were found frozen together in a box covered in ice.
A few years after Scott’s failed attempt to become the first man to reach the South Pole, Ernest Shackleton and the Ross Sea Party set out become the first people to cross Antarctica on land from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea. Their expedition, which took place from 1914-1917, was also unsuccessful.
Ten members of the group were forced to live in a hut established by Scott a few years back when their ship was blown out to sea. Three of the men died before the crew was rescued in 1916.
We can only imagine what other exciting discoveries have yet to be made. It’s easy to see why this timeframe is referred to as the “Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration.” | <urn:uuid:a0eead8f-f761-4027-b896-c25c4c5b8a4b> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://dustyoldthing.com/antarctica-exploration-artifacts/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573029.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817153027-20220817183027-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.983836 | 508 | 4.03125 | 4 |
Minnesota joins Race to the Top
Minnesota last week submitted an application for Race to the Top, hoping to leverage $45 million in federal grant monies to support early learning reforms.
How that may or may not impact local school districts remains to be seen.
The Minnesota Department of Education and Governor Mark Dayton submitted the application. This is the third round of Race to the Top grant applications; Minnesota applied in the first round but was unsuccessful, and did not apply in the second round. Race to the Top is the nation's largest competitive education grant program.
The United States Department of Education will award the grants by year's end. Until then, said Perham-Dent Superintendent Mitch Anderson, "we don't' know what their expectations or guidelines would be. We don't know yet how it might impact the district."
Nearly half the grant money would be used in high-poverty areas, including neighborhoods in Minneapolis and St. Paul, as well as the White Earth Reservation and Itasca County. The rest would fund infrastructure for pre-kindergarten programming.
Thousands of stakeholders have had a hand in writing this application. Minnesota Education Commissioner Brenda Cassellius said it provides a roadmap for moving the state toward an aligned system of accountable and effective early childhood education.
"Minnesota's best hope for the future rests on the promises we make to our children today," she stated in the press release. "I'm proud that our Race to the Top - Early Learning Challenge application reflects this administration's and our state's strong commitment to provide equitable opportunities so every child has access to high quality early learning programs." | <urn:uuid:c80dafd9-1f92-4436-b187-cca5e2645834> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.perhamfocus.com/content/minnesota-joins-race-top | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281419.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00491-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952521 | 328 | 1.617188 | 2 |
STAUNTON – Augusta County Clerk of Circuit Court R. Steven Landes announced today that his office recently received 14 restored early Augusta County 20th century African-American Voting Registers, which are now in one volume. The records were restored due to a grant received from the Augusta County Genealogical Society (ACGS).
“The Augusta County Circuit Court Clerk’s Office is grateful to have these important restored voting records back and available for researchers to see,” Landes said. “These early African-American voter records are important documents and will allow future generations to see these original pieces of history. We again want to thank the Augusta County Genealogical Society for the donation that made this project possible.”
“The Augusta County Genealogical Society is proud to sponsor this effort of restoring African-American Voter Registration documents,” said ACGS President Stephen Garber. “This addition of publicly available records adds to the current 15 ACGS publications related to African-American families and history in Augusta County. ACGS continues to actively engage with Steve Landes, Clerk of the Court, and his staff in ongoing preservation of the many historical documents located in the Courthouse.”
The ACGS made a generous $3,416 donation to restore the 14 early Augusta County 20th century African-American Voting Registers. These restored records are now compiled in one restored volume and are available to review online at the Augusta County Circuit Court Clerk’s Online Archive portal. The online portal can be found at https://acch.omeka.net. The ACGS African-American documents and resources can be found on the ACGS website at ACGSVA.org.
The Augusta County Circuit Court Clerk is the steward of historic records dating back to 1745. These historic records require constant protection and preservation work to ensure these artifacts remain in existence for future generations. In 2020 the Augusta County Circuit Court Clerk’s Office established the Augusta County Court House Historic Records Fund to perform preservation and conservation work to restore and protect Augusta County’s valuable history.
The Augusta County Circuit Court Clerk’s Office is in downtown Staunton at the Augusta County Courthouse. The Clerk serves as the recorder of deeds and probate judge, issues marriage licenses and is the official court administrator for all civil and criminal cases. The Clerk creates and maintains all court files and records, prepares court orders and jury lists, contacts jurors and issues summons and court processes. More information about the services of the Augusta County Circuit Court Clerk’s Office can be found online at www.co.augusta.va.us/government/circuitcourt-clerk. | <urn:uuid:7f68c584-cf1f-45fc-8706-e0b80725a10f> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.stevelandes.com/augusta_county_clerk_receives_african_american_voting_registers?fbclid=IwAR2OZDOxvf0qnie4EKuCC27j2KwSCkgFvLs-C98RtUFWoxokA_IieylErD0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573540.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20220819005802-20220819035802-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.914146 | 549 | 1.960938 | 2 |
It’s important to know which direction you are heading. It is important to realize there is such a thing as truth. It is important to realize that the truth comes through love. It’s important that you realize where true north is.
The devotional is described in the Bible App as follows: “God is so absolutely crazy about His children and wants to show His love in so many ways. It wasn’t until I was a father that I understood that crazy parental kind of love, and it gave me a perspective of how He feels for us. My perspective changed further when I began to raise a little girl, and the tenderness of my heart helped me to understand the tender side of God—a side that would do anything for us because He loves us.”
Scripture for Today’s Devotional:
“Are not two sparrows sold for a penny? Yet not one of them will fall to the ground outside your Father’s care. And even the very hairs of your head are all numbered. So don’t be afraid; you are worth more than many sparrows.”Matthew 10:29-31 NIV
“Nothing in all creation is hidden from God’s sight. Everything is uncovered and laid bare before the eyes of him to whom we must give account.”Hebrews 4:13 NIV
“And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose.”Romans 8:28 NIV
Let’s be the dads who realize how much God cares for us! Let’s be the dads who realize how God knows every detail about us! Let’s be the dads who aren’t afraid because we know how much God loves and cares for us, how He values us even more than the birds of the sky.
Let’s be the dads who know that nothing is hidden from God! Let’s be the dads who know that God knows everything and can uncover anything that people try to hide! Let’s be the dads who in knowing all of this are preparing ourselves to be able to give an answer, an account for the lives we have chosen to live!
Let’s be the dads who know that God is in all things. Let’s be the dads who know that God is working in all things for good because we love Him! Let’s be the dads who know that God is working in all things for our good because we have been called according to His purpose!
Today’s devotional has been provided by True North Ministries.
Reading through today’s devotional, here are some takeaways for me: (check out the devotional on your own too to see if you pick up other nuggets, and please share your findings in the comments)
For more information, please visit http://www.truenorth.live.
Takeaways from today’s devotional:
”Day 2: Involvement”
- Let’s be the dads who are involved in the lives of our wives!
- Let’s be the dads who are involved in the lives of our kids!
- Let’s be the dads who are invovled in the lives of our community!
- Let’s be the dads who are interested in all the details of our wives’ lives!
- Let’s be the dads who are interested in all the details of our kids’ lives!
- Let’s be the dads who are detail oriented when it comes to our marriages and families!
- Let’s be the dads who are so involved in the lives of our wives and kids, we know what’s important to them!
- Let’s be the dads who realize how much God cares, loves, and wants to be involved in our lives!
- Let’s be the dads who choose to live our lives to mimic God’s love for us into the lives of our wives, kids, and workld!
- Today’s devotional speaks to God’s character when it says:
- “God wants to be involved in every detail of our lives. He wants to know what’s important to us and to be asked to be a part of it. We are so valuable to Him, so special, and so wonderful. What is important to us is important to Him. He already knows every detail. He would pass every quiz. He is joyful when you are joyful.”
- Let’s be the dads who enjoy watching our kids have fun!
- Let’s be the dads who are filled with joy because we are able to witness our wives and kids experiencing joy and happiness!
- Let’s be the dads who celebrate and rejoice when we see our wives and kids enjoying the environment we have been able to help create for them!
- Today’s devotional closes with this:
- “How much more does God delight when we, His creation, are enjoying the environment He created for us?”
- ”It brings God great joy because He loves you.” | <urn:uuid:3477a102-bc15-4331-a670-7c2526c0a8c7> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://bethedads.com/2022/08/true-north-because-he-loves-you-day-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572212.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20220815205848-20220815235848-00466.warc.gz | en | 0.960233 | 1,108 | 1.671875 | 2 |
Councils 'should ban' leisure centre sunbedsCampaigners urge councils to take stand
11 September 2006
Councils who put sunbeds in their leisure centres are like hospitals offering cigarettes to patients, an environmental health group complained today.
The Chartered Institute of Environmental Health (CIEH) says that more than half of 92 English, Welsh and Northern Irish local authorities it surveyed have UV tanning equipment at premises owned by them.
At the same time, its survey found that 60 per cent of local councils didn't have a skin cancer prevention policy in place.
The CIEH, which represents more than 10,000 environmental health workers, wants sunbeds banned from all council-run sports and leisure centres. It is also calling for local authorities to be given powers to license privately-run sunbed parlours.
CIEH Policy Officer Jenny Morris said: ‘For a local authority to provide sunbeds is akin to a hospital providing cigarettes and not having a prevention policy pays scant regard to our duty to protect and improve public health.’
The Sunbed Association (TSA), which represents sunbed operators, manufacturers and distributors in the UK, said there was no known and proven link between responsible sunbed use and skin cancer.
TSA chief executive Kathy Banks said the group's members already adhered to a code of practice which stops under-16s using sunbeds, ensures salon staff are properly trained and protects adults from over-exposure at tanning salons.
She added: ‘Whilst there may be a case to introduce standards to ensure that all tanning outlets are operating to good practice, the effect this may have on reducing the incidence of skin cancer is likely to be minimal.’
A Health Which? investigation in 2004 uncovered a ‘potentially deadly mixture’ of dangerous practice and shockingly bad skin care advice at some sunbed establishments.
Researchers were wrongly advised it was safe for a person with red hair and fair or freckly skin to use a sunbed, and that there was no maximum number of safe sessions per year.
The 2004 investigation looked at 42 tanning outlets around the UK, including specialist sunbed shops, beauty salons, private health clubs and local-authority leisure centres.
Of the seven local authority centres that were visited by undercover researchers, six were guilty of providing an inadequate service. | <urn:uuid:452c8b01-4759-4549-9c95-8a9487282b44> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.which.co.uk/news/2006/09/councils-should-ban-leisure-centre-sunbeds-94945/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280929.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00423-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.954331 | 490 | 2.25 | 2 |
HEARING the plight of children forced into sex slavery around the world got Shane Orchard so upset he put his foot down.
And he will continue putting his foot down several thousand times later this year as he walks for 300km along beaches from Eden to Ulladulla raising money for Destiny Rescue.
The Shoalhaven Anglican School chaplain hopes to raise $10,000 before and during his trek from October 31 to November 9, during which he plans to walk 30km a day along beaches wherever possible.
The idea for the walk was born earlier this year when Destiny Rescue founder Tony Kirwan spoke at the Shoalhaven Anglican School in Milton.
Destiny Rescue is focused on rescuing children from slavery, mostly used as sex slaves, in countries around the world.
Once rescued, the children are sheltered and cared for, educated and given a chance to create lives free of violence and persecution.
“It’s an amazing organisation and they do some fantastic work,” Shane said.
A lot changed the night of the talk, including Shane deciding to sponsor one of the Destiny Rescue children.
“I was really convicted by what Tony said,” he explained.
“From there I had the idea to go on an adventure and raise money along the way.”
Shane said he was “really excited” by the walk, and “having a goal bigger than yourself”.
However he conceded, “It’s going to be hard, and I know I’ll have to really push myself”.
However the father of two will not be completely alone on the journey.
Already some of the SAS students have volunteered to take part in sections of the walk, while they have also been helping with the fund-raising.
Shane is looking to partner with local businesses to bolster his fund-raising, while more events are being planned to bring in more funds to support Destiny Rescue.
People can pledge their support via the website www.everydayhero.com.au/
event/walkagainstslavery, or through the Walk Against Slavery Facebook page. | <urn:uuid:8c7c2eaa-4b60-447c-a96f-375f6d8d5ff0> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.southcoastregister.com.au/story/2273912/milton-chaplain-plans-long-walk-to-freedom-for-the-worlds-slaves/?src=rss | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560279933.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095119-00128-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972394 | 445 | 1.734375 | 2 |
As a growth strategy for the telecom industry, focusing investment on mobility and data services while withdrawing it from wireline voice is doomed to fail. The rise of Twitter, Facebook and texting teens does not change the fact that people still depend on voice for the vast majority of their communication needs. And a single phone model for communication makes as much as sense as a single shoe model for footwear.
The future of the telecom industry lies not in mobility or data services but in leveraging voice as the best means of conveying “social energy.” The notion of social energy — aka human connection — was emphasized in John Bowlby’s attachment theory circa 1940 and again in Abraham Maslow’s theory of a hierarchy of needs, from 1943. Bowlby argued that human connection is not optional, while Maslow ranked human connection as No. 3 out of five basic needs motivating human behavior. But while the pursuit of social energy drives the growth of Twitter, Facebook and the as-yet unknown next big thing in communication, it also serves to make even the presently problematic voice industry a multitrillion-dollar global business.
And although President Obama suffers the same mediocre voice quality in conversations with world leaders as teens planning their social agenda do, even a standard telephone call represents the next best thing to being there relative to text or non real-time options. The question is not whether existing uses of the telephone might benefit from voice quality improvements, which, by definition, consist of only those activities one can accomplish in spite of the limitations. The question is whether the implementation of high-definition voice and other changes might make the telephone useful in contexts that presently require getting together in person. Orange’s announced plans to offer HD voice in 2010 as a competitive tool against O2 in the UK will provide an opportunity to put this question to the test.
Indeed, the notion of social energy provides a ready road map for telco innovation. To that end, FWD, where I am CEO, has launched a VoIP trial dubbed Nova which leverages HD (G.722)-capable SIP end points to create the communication equivalent of a web site. Indeed, the declining demand for voice services make clear the need to create more compelling voice offers, but the notion of a telephone company without voice is like a music industry without music. | <urn:uuid:ce1117c2-f42c-4d5f-af65-c72a8b8f4576> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | https://gigaom.com/2010/01/10/the-fall-and-rise-of-voice/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560284411.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095124-00455-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.944465 | 472 | 1.867188 | 2 |
Twitter Strikes SMS Deal With Airtel
The number of mobile phone users in India is massive. The population in India is about 1.1 billion and many of them have mobile phones. People in India communicate very often with SMS and text messages. Now if Twitter connected their services by allowing people in India to tap their accounts into SMS and text messages, there would be a major increase in use. Twitter just made a deal with Bharti Airtel to make this happen. Bharti Airtel is the largest telecommunications company in India with 100 million subscribers.
Bharti Airtel customers will be allowed to receive SMS tweets for free and send tweets through a text message at the standard rate. The reason why Twitter shut down their SMS service last year in many other countries is because of the charges that telecommunication companies wanted from Twitter. Twitter has been trying to find the middle ground between telecommunication companies from now on.
To get started using Twitter on Airtel, customers need to send a text message saying START to the number 53000. After that Twitter confirms that you are willing to send and receive SMS tweets.This article was written by Amit Chowdhry. You can follow me at @amitchowdhry or on Google+ at +AmitChowdhry | <urn:uuid:d1e9081d-45af-4c43-b7a5-a70ba7e0a4c1> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://pulse2.com/2009/10/15/twitter-strikes-sms-deal-with-airtel/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281746.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00291-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951506 | 263 | 1.539063 | 2 |
USAID Enhances Voter Accessibility in Papua New Guinea’s National Election
Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea – Every voter should be able to register and vote without facing barriers. To enhance access for people living with disabilities (PLWDs) in Papua New Guinea’s upcoming national election, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) supported the International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) to host a workshop on assessing accessibility at polling places.
The workshop empowered people living with disabilities to engage in the national election through conducting polling place assessments and developing reports on the findings. Participants learned how to evaluate the accessibility of polling by checking for accessibility aids such as magnifying plastic for low-vision voters and large pens to assist voters without fine motor function. Participants also learned how to assess and prioritize mobility for wheelchair access.
Danny Ten, a training participant and person living with disabilities, said, “We do not want to be put aside any longer. I am proud to be part of the first batch of election observers supporting people with disabilities.”
As part of his first official trip to PNG, USAID Mission Director for the Philippines, Pacific Islands, and Mongolia Ryan Washburn joined the workshop to congratulate participants and hand out completion certificates.
“Like everyone else, people living with disabilities are affected by the decisions of their elected officials,” said Mission Director Washburn. “We are honored to support these young people to mobilize their community for this fundamental right.”
The People with Disabilities organization will analyze the data that workshop participants collect and hold a follow-up workshop after the election to create an advocacy action plan with recommendations to the PNG Electoral Commission and other government agencies.
“This is a perfect example of how civic awareness workshops spark ideas from participants to continue their engagement to create large-scale changes in communities,” said Paul Rowland, IFES Country Director, Papua New Guinea and the Pacific Islands.
The workshop is a follow-on activity from a USAID- supported program aimed at Engaging a New Generation for Accessible Governance and Elections (ENGAGE). The ENGAGE program is a political leadership curriculum for young persons with disabilities and is valuable training that gives opportunities to marginalized youth with disabilities. | <urn:uuid:a39a8219-791a-4f4a-bfb8-e16769281d41> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://pg.usembassy.gov/usaid-enhances-voter-accessibility-in-papua-new-guineas-national-election/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571950.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20220813111851-20220813141851-00672.warc.gz | en | 0.922511 | 461 | 2.34375 | 2 |
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) was founded in 1935 as a way for alcoholics to get clean and stay clean by working through a program of 12 steps and by getting social support from other alcoholics. Today, AA is still going strong and is a popular program for many people struggling with addiction. The 12 steps have inspired many other groups, like Narcotics Anonymous and Gamblers Anonymous. The steps are used by people with all types of addictive disorders.
The effectiveness of the 12 steps as a treatment for addictive disorders is not fully understood. Research has been contradictory, but individuals who swear by it and anecdotal evidence show that it is effective. The 12 steps and their associated programs may work very well for some people and less well for others. For anyone struggling with addiction it is important to remember that this is a disease that can be treated with evidence-based strategies and that the 12 steps can be a component of that treatment.
What is AA?
AA is an international, non-profit group that is available in most places around the world. The group describes itself as a fellowship of men and women that has no affiliations with any political or religious group and that has no restrictions on who can join. Anyone trying to stop drinking alcohol or drink less is welcome at the meetings.
The group was founded in 1935 by two men, Bill Wilson and Bob Smith. They both struggled with drinking and Wilson used his Christian faith to get sober. His transformation inspired Smith to stop drinking, and together the two wanted to help others do the same. They published the book, Alcoholics Anonymous, which included the 12 steps still in use today.
People attend AA meetings, which are completely free and available to anyone who walks through the door, share their personal stories, read from Wilson and Smith’s book, talk about the 12 steps, and celebrate and encourage each other’s sobriety. Members are supposed to work through the 12 steps, really engaging in each step and making concrete changes before moving on to the next one.
The 12 Steps
The backbone of the AA program is the process of going through the 12 steps. Some other groups have adapted these steps, but they are mostly the same across many 12 step programs:
- Admit to powerlessness over alcohol and addiction.
- Recognize that there is a higher power that can help restore sanity.
- Decide to turn one’s will over to that higher power.
- Make a deep self-examination to identify past actions that cause regret, anger, or shame.
- Admit past bad behaviors to others.
- Be ready to let a higher power help correct defects of character.
- Ask the higher power to repair or remove shortcomings.
- List all the people wronged because of alcohol abuse.
- Make amends to those wronged, unless making amends would harm anyone.
- Continue to recognize and correct shortcomings and mistakes.
- Pray or engage in some other spiritual practice, such as meditation.
- Communicate the message of the 12 steps to others who need help.
It is important to note that although the founders of AA were Christian, the modern group does not require members to be Christian or even to believe in any god. The spiritual requirements, such as a belief in a higher power, may be any kind of personal spiritual or religious belief.
The Effectiveness of the 12 Steps
The 12 steps used in AA and other programs are not supposed to be worked through quickly. The point is to really engage in self-reflection and spiritual practices to continually evolve and become a better person, while also maintaining sobriety and helping others do the same. Any breezing through of the 12 steps with no real effort will not be effective. Whether or not completing the 12 steps as they were intended is effective in overcoming addiction is uncertain.
Studies that have tried to determine the effectiveness of AA or the 12 steps have come to mixed conclusions. One issue is that there is not necessarily consistency from one set of meetings to the next, so giving an overall effectiveness rating for AA is challenging. One study compared a group of problem drinkers who worked through the 12 steps with help from a therapist with two other groups who were given other types of therapy. Those doing the 12 steps fared just about as well.
Another study found th76at attending AA meetings and going through the 12 steps is significantly more effective than trying to quit drinking with no assistance at all. Other studies have shown that the more involved people are with AA meetings and the more they attend them, the better their outcomes are, as compared to those who are not very involved.
Problems with 12 Step Programs
While there is some evidence that AA and 12 steps programs can help some people abstain, there are some issues with it. For instance, some people find the spiritual element off-putting, finding it difficult to get past step two. Another issue is that within the first few meetings attended, 40 percent of people drop out of AA. When AA or the 12 steps are used to supplement professional treatment for addiction, it can be very helpful, but the traditional way of approaching AA has no room for medical treatment or therapy, and this can be a problem.
Traditionally, AA is supposed to be a complete treatment program that involves no professional evaluation or therapy and insists upon complete abstinence from all drugs and alcohol. Overwhelmingly, addiction research shows that there are specific elements of treatment that work and these include behavioral therapies, medications, and individualized plans. None of this is allowed in a strictly traditional 12-step program.
While the evidence from research of 12 step programs will likely continue to be mixed, there is no doubt that a lot of people get benefits and support from using the 12 steps and attending meetings. If you or someone you love is struggling with addiction, a 12-step program may be one important tool in overcoming that addiction. Just remember that treatment involving a doctor, therapists, and other mental health professionals is the best way to find success in conquering addiction. | <urn:uuid:06001366-4b66-4672-9287-89a4f8304802> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.recallreport.org/health-information/conditions/12-step-programs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571472.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20220811133823-20220811163823-00667.warc.gz | en | 0.963112 | 1,347 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Without a doubt
Occasionally, people in power come to the conclusion that doubt is a problem.
They conflate confidence with certainty.
Along the way, things worked out for them. They had a willingness to leap, some lucky breaks and a lot of hard work. So they seduce themselves with the black and white dichotomy of certainty. Because, after all, they were certain and look what happened. It all worked out.
Certainty is a form of hiding. It is a way of drowning out our fear, but it's also a surefire way to fail to see what's really happening around us.
If you're certain, you're probably not prepared for the unexpected, and sooner or later, you're going to be badly surprised.
People without doubt aren't looking hard enough. | <urn:uuid:6c2d167e-51d1-4c28-bdc8-c6dcccb901e3> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://sethgodin.typepad.com/seths_blog/2016/01/without-a-doubt.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560284411.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095124-00460-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980922 | 165 | 1.914063 | 2 |
Cloud computing is the foundation for improving the flexibility, scalability, and cost-effectiveness of IT operations and services.
It’s not a change in technology—it’s a change in mentality. In the traditional approach, agencies have bought and managed systems that, however effective in the beginning, eventually fail to keep up with changing requirements and require significant new hardware and software investments. The cloud provides another path. Rather than buying a system, an organization buys a service—with the ability to extend or adapt those services as requirements evolve. | <urn:uuid:40770efb-16c7-46cb-9667-243838c79451> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.zolontech.com/capabilities/cloud-solutions | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570692.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20220807181008-20220807211008-00672.warc.gz | en | 0.955904 | 111 | 1.625 | 2 |
Writing Preparation and Practice 2 is a high-beginning and low-intermediate writing skills textbook for English language learners. Students can use this text to learn to write well and achieve more complete English proficiency by learning and practicing writing skills simultaneously with other English language skills. Students are supplied with the basic vocabulary; they are also taught explicitly how the English language organizes information. With these tools, students are able to write on a variety of provocative and sophisticated topics.Features *Attention to different patterns of organization through the use of model paragraphs*Guidance and practice in recognizing and writing the parts of the paragraph*Guided practice in each stage of the paragraph writing process, including specific techniques for prewriting, writing, and revising *Numerous and varied paragraph-writing opportunities*Attention to style through presentations and activities on coherence, transitions, and the use of signal words*Editing practice in error correction and proofreading*Additional individual practice in paragraph-writing skills The Writing Preparation and Practice series also includes Writing Preparation and Practice 1 and Writing Preparation and Practice 3.
"synopsis" may belong to another edition of this title.
Book Description Pearson Longman, 2006. Paperback. Book Condition: New. book. Bookseller Inventory # 0131995561
Book Description Book Condition: New. Bookseller Inventory # 4890971-n
Book Description Prentice Hall. Book Condition: New. Brand New. Bookseller Inventory # 0131995561
Book Description Pearson College Div, 2006. PAP. Book Condition: New. New Book. Shipped from UK within 10 to 14 business days. Established seller since 2000. Bookseller Inventory # PJ-9780131995567
Book Description Pearson Longman, 2006. Book Condition: New. Brand New, Unread Copy in Perfect Condition. A+ Customer Service! Summary: Chapter 1 Organizing: The Key to Good Writing Chapter 2 Understanding Paragraphs Chapter 3 Organizing Information by Time Chapter 4 Organizing Information by Order of Importance Chapter 5 Organizing Information by Space Chapter 6 Following the Writing Process Chapter 7 Supporting the Main Idea Chapter 8 Giving Instructions Chapter 9 Writing Descriptions Chapter 10 Expressing an Opinion Chapter 11 Comparing and Contrasting Chapter 12 Writing About Causes and Effects Chapter 13 Writing Personal and Business Letters Chapter 14 Writing Summaries Answer Key. Bookseller Inventory # ABE_book_new_0131995561
Book Description Pearson Longman, 2006. Paperback. Book Condition: New. 1. Bookseller Inventory # DADAX0131995561
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Book Description Pearson Longman. PAPERBACK. Book Condition: New. 0131995561 BRAND NEW W/FAST SHIPPING! This item is: Writing Preparation and Practice 2, 1st Ed., 2007, by Blanchard, Karen^Root, Christine; FORMAT: Paperback; ISBN: 9780131995567. Choose Expedited for fastest shipping! Our 98%+ rating proves our commitment! We cannot ship to PO Boxes/APO address. To avoid ordering the wrong item, please check your item's ISBN number!. Bookseller Inventory # P9780131995567 | <urn:uuid:d8c3caf1-4245-44db-859e-e14ce7d21dba> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | https://www.abebooks.com/9780131995567/Writing-Preparation-Practice-2-Blanchard-0131995561/plp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560283008.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095123-00087-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.821169 | 747 | 2.703125 | 3 |
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Boogie is a program verification system that produces verification conditions for programs written in an intermediate language (also named Boogie). The intermediate language is easy to target from source languages such as Spec#, C#, or even C.
Bacula is a set of Open Source, computer programs that permit you (or the system administrator) to manage backup, recovery, and verification of computer data across a network of computers of different kinds. Bacula is relatively easy to use and efficient, while offering many advanced storage management features that make it easy to find and recover lost or damaged files. In technical terms, it is an Open Source, network based backup program.
A fresh approach to FIX (Financial Information eXchange Protocol). Statically compile your FIX xml schema and quickly build your FIX application on top. With low latency performance in mind, this framework is designed to streamline the development of custom FIX interfaces. Using one of the standard FIX schemas you can have a FIX client or server up and running very quickly.
GNU Classpath provides core class libraries for use with virtual machines and compilers for the java programming language. GNU Classpath 1.0 will be fully compatible with the 1.1 and 1.2 API specifications, in addition to having significant compatibility with the 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 APIs.
CodeLite is an open source, free, cross platform IDE for the C/C++ programming languages which runs on all major Platforms. It has generic support for compilers with built-in support for GCC/clang/VC++, GDB Support, Refactoring, Code Navigation, Source Control Plugins, RAD Tool for wxWidgets, Code Completion and lot more.
Linux Desktop Testing Project is aimed at producing high quality test automation framework (using GNOME / Python) and cutting-edge tools that can be used to test Linux Desktop and improve it. It uses the Accessibility libraries to poke through the application's user interface. We strive to help in building a quality desktop.
Valgrind is an award-winning instrumentation framework for building dynamic analysis tools. There are Valgrind tools that can automatically detect many memory management and threading bugs, and profile your programs in detail. You can also use Valgrind to build new tools.
The Windows Installer XML (WiX) is a toolset that builds Windows installation packages from XML source code. The toolset supports a command line environment that developers may integrate into their build processes to build MSI and MSM setup packages.
Nullsoft Scriptable Install System (NSIS) is a professional open source system to create Windows installers. It is designed to be as small and flexible as possible and is therefore very suitable for internet distribution. NSIS is script-based and allows you to create the logic to handle even the most complex installation tasks. Many plug-ins and scripts are already available: you can create web installers, communicate with Windows and other software components. | <urn:uuid:657f0535-6f95-4512-bd09-9fe2c7a1c830> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.findbestopensource.com/product/boogie | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560279489.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095119-00017-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.899654 | 662 | 1.59375 | 2 |
Even though hard drives are are getting bigger and bigger it never seems like it is enough. External hard drives offer a relief from the storage dilemma. Normally external hard drives are expensive. With Azio’s new external hard drive kit you can easily reuse old hard drives that you might have lying around.
- Supports 3.5″ IDE Hard Disk Drives (UDMA 33/66 or ATA-100/133)
- Microsoft® Windows 98SE/ ME/ 2000/XP & Mac OS 9.0+ systems
- Plug & Play and Hot-swapping capability
- Ultra-Quiet Ball Bearing Fan
- USB 2.0
When it comes to drive enclosure kits there are a lot of things a company can do to make sure the user’s needs will be filled. The Azio enclosure kit includes many of those features but it is also missing some.
The first thing you want is enough room to fit a standard hard drive. Azio has provided that space. As you can see from this image a standard hard drive fits very nicely inside this enclosure. There are also several places where you can screw the hard drive in so it does not slip and slide around. This is important because, as you know, if a hard drive gets bumped too hard it can permanently damage the drive.
The next thing you want is the ability to hook up your hard drive. Depending on what kind of hard drive you have you will need different things. Fortunately this enclosure provides hookups for most hard drives. With UDMA 33/66 or ATA-100/133 you will be able to find a hard drive that will fit and work nicely. This is also where we find our first negative thing about this enclosure kit. Azio did not include support SATA. SATA is the next generation hard drive format which provides faster transfer speeds and larger drives. Without support for SATA, Azio has limited the usefulness of this enclosure and made it so it only supports older drives.
Another necessary feature is a method of connecting the hard drive to a computer. Azio has chosen to use USB 2.0 and the computer interface. USB 2.0 gives you a maximum transfer rate of 480 Mbps (60 MBps). This is relatively slow compared to a standard Ultra ATA/133 hard drive transfer rate of 133 MBps.
Because this is an external hard drive, it needs its own power source. Azio provides a very nice power cord. The thing I like the most about the cord is that the transformer is not on the plug. Instead it is like a laptop cord where the cord separates into a standard cord that you would see on something like a stereo, and that plugs into the box which has a cord that goes into the hard drive. This is nice because you don’t have to fight with a big plug that takes up two slots in your power strip. Also, if you happen to lose the power cord you can easily buy a new plug part from any electronics store.
In addition to the power cord plug on the back of the enclosure there is also a power switch for turning it on and off, a USB 2.0 slot, and a micro slot for attaching a lock so people cannot steal this off your desk.
There is a very small and very quiet fan on the bottom of the drive kit. This is used to keep the circuity from over heating. This does not cool the hard drive.
As you can see from the pictures Azio has done a really good job of giving this enclosure a little style. It probably will not match your PC exactly it will look good where ever you put it.
On the front of the device is a small LED display that will light up when the power is on and it will blink to indicate hard drive activity.
Another nice design that was not included in the MAC enclosure that I reviewed is cable clips for the LED cables. The MAC enclosure just used tape to keep the cables from dangling.
For PC users, having something work without much trouble is very important. I was pleasantly surprised when I hooked this enclosure up and it worked perfectly the first time.
To test this enclosure I hooked up an old 8Gb hard drive I had. I first attached the IDE cable to the back of the drive and then I attached the power cable to the drive. Then I placed the drive inside the enclosure and secured it with screws. After getting all the screws into the drive I put the top on. To do this you first need to plug in the LED activity lights and then place the top over the whole enclosure. There are then several more screws that need to be screwed in to keep the top secure. These screws are located on the bottom of the enclosure.
After getting the whole thing put together I plugged the power cord into the wall and the USB cord into my computer. After flipping the power switch I was immediately surprised to see my computer recognize a new device and set it up for me. Because this was an old drive it had already been formatted and I was immediately able to access all the data that was previously stored on it. I was also able to transfer new files just like any other hard drive in my computer.
Buying an external hard drive can easily cost you over $100 more than the equivalent internal hard drive. For $49.95 you can buy the Azio hard drive enclosure kit and turn that internal hard drive into and external hard drive. This will save you over $50. With the stability and ease at which this enclosure kit works, I can highly recommend this to you. If you are looking for a kit that will look good next to your PC then this is an excellent option.
|JusTech'n editors' rating| | <urn:uuid:3d32d38a-2775-4fb9-9bb6-14b0af3998fe> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.justechn.com/2005/08/31/azio-pc-enclosure-drive-kit | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560282926.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095122-00396-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959869 | 1,165 | 1.71875 | 2 |
Marxism and Social Movements (Historical Materialism Series)
Region : | Language : English | Product Binding : Paper Back | Page No. : 481 | Year : 2016
ISBN : 9789350024430
INR : 1,095.00
Marxism and Social Movements is the first sustained engagement between social movement theory and Marxist approaches to collective action. The chapters collected here, by leading figures in both fields, discuss the potential for a Marxist theory of social movements; explore the developmental processes and political tensions within movements; set the question in a long historical perspective; and analyse contemporary movements against neo-liberalism and austerity. Exploring struggles on six continents over 150 years, this collection shows the power of Marxist analysis in relation not only to class politics, labour movements and revolutions but also anti-colonial and anti-racist struggles, community activism and environmental justice, indigenous struggles and anti-austerity protest. It sets a new agenda both for Marxist theory and for movement research.
Colin Barker is honorary lecturer in sociology at Manchester Metropolitan University.
Laurence Cox, PhD (1999, Trinity College Dublin), co-directs the MA in Community Education, Equality, and Social Activism at Maynooth.
John Krinsky, PhD (2002, Columbia University), is associate professor of political science at The City College of New York.
Alf Gunvald Nilsen, PhD (2006, Bergen) is associate professor of sociology at the University of Bergen.
HOW REVOLUTIONARY WERE THE BOURGEOIS REVOLUTIONS?
Neil Davidson ,
Customs in Common
E P Thompson ,
Howard Zinn Speaks: Collected Speeches 1963-2009
Anthony Arnove ,
Lineages of Revolt: Issues of Contemporary Capitalism in the Middle East
Adam Hanieh ,
Alexandra Kollontai: A Biography
Cathy Porter , | <urn:uuid:60b3b545-d561-4fc1-8b78-5db2f0568779> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.aakarbooks.com/details.php?bid=32 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572870.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817062258-20220817092258-00665.warc.gz | en | 0.849159 | 402 | 2.03125 | 2 |
I’ll be upfront with you here. I come from your average Anglo background, where my mother (who was an awful cook, bless her) cooked meat and 2-3 veg every night. Mum’s idea of curry was using Keen’s curry mix and adding in pineapple and sultanas. Her brussels sprouts were cooked beyond all recognition and could be hurled as weapons at my annoying younger brother!
Up until a few years ago, a green smoothie, to me, was to be avoided (I mean, who puts spinach or avocado in a smoothie??) and raw food? That was just salad, wasn’t it? Thankfully, I’ve come a long way with my food education since then!
How Long Has Raw Food Been Around?
If you think about it, raw food has been around for centuries, since our prehistoric days, but has really only become popular in modern day since the 1930’s. It became even more popular when celebrities such as Woody Harrelson and Miranda Kerr became known for their raw food lifestyles. It’s also become popular with people who choose to eschew animal products, with vegan and plant based diets becoming popular, often incorporating a large element of raw food.
What Is Raw Food Exactly?
So, what is raw food? Pretty much any raw vegetables, fermented foods, fruits, nuts and nut pastes, grain and legume sprouts, seeds, plant oils, sea vegetables, herbs and fresh juices. It can also include raw meat, fish and cheese. Think uncooked and unprocessed, cold or warm, as long as it doesn’t go above 47°C. But is it healthy, and is it beneficial for your digestion?
All Raw, All The Time?
There is the question of whether or not cooking does destroy nutrients, and a lot of proponents of raw food diets will point to this as a justification for eating raw food. It turns out that not all food is better for you raw.
Foods high in beta carotene (e.g.: sweet potato) which the body needs to produce vitamin A for example, need to be cooked in order for them to release their bountiful goodness, as do tomatoes in relation to the antioxidant lycopene. Cruciferous vegetables such as cauliflowers and broccoli are better for you steamed, especially if you have any thyroid issues, as they can interfere with the production of thyroid hormones if raw. Spinach, when cooked, has more magnesium, iron and zinc that’s available for absorption than when raw.
It’s About Digestion
The whole process of cooking food breaks down some of the plant fibres, which make it easier for your body to digest, and to absorb nutrients. It also improves the taste and aroma of food. The smell of food cooking often kick starts your digestion process by triggering the stomach to make digestive juices.
Overcoming Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis
As someone who has had Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, and who has other health challenges, a completely raw food diet is not something I think I’d do well with, but I do like the idea of incorporating elements of it into my day to day routines.
For me, it was important to find ways that made it easy, tasty and I didn’t have to think too hard about it. Whipping up a batch of bliss balls to keep in the fridge solved the midmorning snack challenge, and some hummus (whilst technically not raw but I include it in my version) and carrot sticks take care of any afternoon nibbles.
A raw slice is also something of a delight, giving you a sweet hit without all the loaded processing that normally goes into the food we eat. A word of warning though. Raw food slices and bliss balls do have a number of benefits, however they are also very energy dense, and, as they are hard to resist, can lead to unwanted weight gain.
Raw Slices are made up of whole food plant-based natural ingredients blended together in the food processor to form a sticky dough that gets transferred to a bread loaf pan, put in the freezer, and later cut into slices.
– Goodie Goodie Gluten Free
Ideally you will work out which diet, or way of eating, suits your body, your lifestyle and is one that is easiest for you to maintain.
Here are some quick and easy ways to add a bit more ‘raw’ into your life:
- Whip up a guacamole and dip into it with carrot and celery sticks;
- Have avocado and greens with your meals;
- Try a smoothie for breakfast or lunch. It’s a great way to add in extra fruit and vegetables, and gives your digestion a bit of a rest;
- Try making bliss balls – you can make them using dates, apricots, cashews and coconut, but it’s really up to you;
- Try making an avocado chocolate ganache or mousse – it’s not as bad as you think it’s going to be and tastes great!
Your body will love you for dropping the processed stuff, and reward you with more energy and vitality, healthier skin and better digestion, which is, frankly, what we’d all like!
I am an Integrative Nutrition Health Coach specialising in those pesky hormones that can cause such havoc in our lives.
Before that, I was a corporate worker bee, grinding it out. It was so very easy for me to destroy my health without even realising it, as all I was doing was living a “normal” life, doing what everyone else was doing. The consequences of not being aware, of not paying attention, were that for the past 20 years, I’ve dealt with weight, adrenal, thyroid, fertility and menopause-related challenges.
There’s a lot of information out there. Anyone can Google what diet should I be on? Why is my tummy bloated, and what can I do about it? How do I lose these kilos that have suddenly appeared? And they’ll be swamped with information! It’s confusing, scary, and you don’t know where to start. That’s where I come in.
I was inspired to start coaching because of purpose. I didn’t want to accept that all that I’ve been through has been for no reason and that I needed to go out there and make a difference in women’s lives!
My goal is that women everywhere get the information they deserve and need, make the best decisions for themselves, and help them figure out how to make health work for them daily. | <urn:uuid:9adca916-0cc0-49f1-af55-c2d0fe2ad99b> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://nutrichologist.com/tag/hormones/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572581.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20220816211628-20220817001628-00075.warc.gz | en | 0.96826 | 1,412 | 2.1875 | 2 |
Life and Times – the climate campaigner
‘Climate Chaos’ was the title of a leaflet I was handed in the main shopping centre of the town I live in. I was given it by a young woman who was also keen to engage me in conversation and let me know about the purpose of the leaflet and the group of people she was part of who were using a loudhailer to put their point across to passers-by.
She told me that fossil fuels were polluting the environment and were the main cause of climate change and the best thing I could do was to get involved in her group’s cause and spread their arguments among the local community. The group was Extinction Rebellion (XR) Cymru.
Barclays and the government
I said I found it admirable that a group of young people cared enough about the state of the world to dedicate their time and energy in trying and improve it, but I wondered whether they were on quite the right track. She asked me what I meant and I pointed to a couple of the things I’d seen in the leaflet, in particular the statement that ‘government and Barclays are both criminally responsible for destroying our future’. I asked her how she thought that different policies by either could really make a significant difference to pollution and climate change.
This could happen in two ways, she said. Firstly Barclays could stop investing in fossil fuels, since they were, in the words of the leaflet, ‘knowingly destroying the world that we depend on’. Secondly the government could ‘use our taxes to create a sustainable future’ and get HMRC to ‘stop banking with Barclays and use an ethical bank’.
I told her I understood the group’s objectives and appreciated their determination to get XR’s message across in such a public way. But I also asked her whether she didn’t think that, even if they succeeded in putting enough pressure on the government and Barclays to get them to change their environmental policies, it would be more than just a drop on the ocean and do much to change the basic situation of ever increasing degradation of the eco-system.
A different take
I could tell by the look on her face that this didn’t please her and her rather sharp response was to ask me what I was doing about it. This was unexpectedly good for me, because it gave me the opportunity to say what I wanted to say but was worried that, if I simply came out with it unsolicited, it might seem preachy or dismissive of her efforts. And I didn’t want to have that effect, since then she probably wouldn’t listen to me seriously.
So as briefly and in as broad brush a way as possible, I tried to outline the position that the Socialist Party takes on the environment and climate change. I suggested that it wasn’t a freestanding problem but one of a whole range of problems that the profit-driven society we live in creates, meaning that even if we managed to alleviate one of those problems piecemeal, we would not actually solve it (since the need for economic expansion and profit would remain key) and anyway all the other problems implicit in the system (eg poverty, inequality, war, alienation) would remain and continue to torment us. I went on to say that I do my best to communicate to my fellow-workers, people just like herself, instead of trying to change bits of the current system, to unite together to bring in a completely different kind of world society, based on voluntary work, democratic decision-making and free access to all goods and services – so no money or wages, no buying and selling, no leaders or led, no borders or frontiers. And with a final flourish, I announced that this would only be possible once a majority of us wanted it and were prepared to take democratic action to bring it about.
I didn’t know quite what to expect as a response, so I was relieved to find her nodding and saying something like ‘sounds good, but… but it’s a long way off and we’ve got to do something in the meantime’. So, though I was pleased that any hostility seemed to have melted away, her stock ‘in the meantime’ response was still a barrier which I knew I wasn’t going to be able to overcome in a short discussion, especially as she was now going to want to give out more leaflets and speak to more people. It didn’t seem right to try to detain her either, but I could at least hope that, having implanted a new idea in her mind, once the day’s leafleting and campaigning had finished, she might reflect on that idea and wonder whether it wasn’t worth considering further.
I would have liked to have had a Socialist Standard with me to give her but I didn’t. However, I’d mentioned the name of the Socialist Party of Great Britain, so that might stick in her mind and maybe, who knows, bring her to the Party’s website? And I was encouraged that her parting shot was that she understood what I was saying and realised that what XR were advocating was only ‘baby steps’, but it was surely better than nothing and she didn’t see that their aims and the Socialist Party’s were incompatible. I didn’t think it was a good idea to disagree with that, even though what I would have liked to say was that it was worth thinking about whether XR’s aims, even in the unlikely event they were fulfilled within the current system, would bring us any nearer to the establishment of a socialist world which was the only feasible way to ensure the survival and indeed the flourishing of the natural environment and of all its living creatures. | <urn:uuid:12a628b0-86ce-41f8-bc41-68fcd0da4856> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/socialist-standard/2020s/2022/no-1414-june-2022/life-and-times-the-climate-campaigner/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571234.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20220811042804-20220811072804-00065.warc.gz | en | 0.988482 | 1,216 | 1.65625 | 2 |
Therefore, it is difficult to conclude that forgetting is a result of only the time duration. Regarding the word-length effect in short-term memory, which states that lists of longer word are harder to recall than lists of short words, researchers argue that interference plays a larger role due to articulation duration being confounded with other word characteristics. By constantly recalling important events, people and places in their minds they were able to keep them from getting fogy in their memories. And memories are not necessarily permanent: they can disappear over time. The longer the time, the more the memory trace decays and as a consequence more information is forgotten. Cognition: The Thinking Animal 3rd ed.
Older memories are sometimes more resistant to shocks or physical assaults on the than recent memories. Other Types of Forgetting Trace decay, interference, and lack of cues are not the only ways that memories can fail to be retrieved. Decay Theory Decay Theory suggests that memories fade and disappear over the natural passage of time, especially if they are not accessed frequently. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour. I will use myself as an example.
Also, she reads and does crossword puzzles often. This theory states that the events between learning and recall have no effects on recall; the important factor that affects is the duration that the information has been retained. According to the trace decay theory of forgetting, the events between learning and recall have no affect whatsoever on recall. This is particularly apparent when the input is relatively meaningless; the newly encoded memory comes to resemble those previously established i. The theory says that as we learn new information, it interferes with previous information, and therefore the engram grows fainter until we cannot recall it anymore. Negative afterimage without prior positive image.
This evidence comes from both laboratory experiments and everyday experience. Actively information is believed to be a major factor counteracting this temporal decline. The last few words that were presented in the list have not yet been displaced from short-term memory and so are available for recall. While you might have initially felt forgetful and unprepared, seeing the information presented on the test probably helped cue the retrieval of information you might not have known you even remembered. However, this could also be explained by displacement; as the participants were counting backwards, the numbers were being stored in their short term memory and therefore displacing the trigrams. Such a theory would propose that in case we don't endeavor to retrieve an occasion, the more time has passed since the occasion happened, the more probable we are to forget the occasion.
Short-term memory Within the system, evidence favours an interference theory of forgetting, based on various researchers' manipulation of the amount of time between a participant's retention and recall stages finding little to no effect on how many items they are able to remember. The answer is currently unknown. This theory would suggest that if we do not attempt to recall an event, the greater the time since the event the more likely we would be to forget the event. In order to eliminate rehearsal, incidental recall was measured. This breakdown in may reflect the presence of dominant attributes that are appropriate for items in both lists. Mechanisms of forgetting in short term memory.
Under interference theory, transience occurs because all memories interfere with the ability to recall other memories. Results are interpreted as support for an interference theory of short-term forgetting. Decay alone, although it may play some role, cannot entirely explain lapses in long-term memory. Yet even if all of the memories shared some information, other attributes not held in common could still serve to distinguish them. Is that difficult to recall? Since you don't actually need to know what the back of a penny looks like to differentiate it from other coins, you only really focus on the information you do need—the overall size, shape, and color of the coin.
Support for the idea that forgetting from short-term memory might be the result of decay over time came from research carried out by Brown 1958 in the United Kingdom, and in the United States. State internal Dependent Cues The basic idea behind state-dependent retrieval is that memory will be best when a person's physical or psychological state is similar at encoding and retrieval. In seeking to understand forgetting in the of memory, such phenomena as differences in the rates of forgetting for different kinds of information also must be taken into account. Without surreptitious rehearsal, information in short term memory decays. This suggests that we are sometimes cued to remember certain things by, for example, our emotional state or our environment. While the information is somewhere in your long-term memory, you are not able to actually retrieve and remember it.
This can be a real problem in my life. Memories are affected by how a person internalizes events through perceptions, interpretations, and emotions. An example would be growing up being taught that Pluto is a planet in our solar system, then being told as an adult that Pluto is no longer considered a planet. When I read back over them, the words strike a chord in my mind. Proactive and retroactive interference can impact how well we are able to recall a memory, and sometimes cause us to forget things permanently. Young children are similarly unaware that the intentional rehearsal or repetition of new information will their ability to retain it in memory. I think the clearest example of decay theory is the way that we remember our dreams. | <urn:uuid:71154964-2c8b-44d2-8b39-1c499beb7233> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | http://georgiajudges.org/decay-theory-psychology.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573908.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20220820043108-20220820073108-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.960715 | 1,094 | 3.59375 | 4 |
The city of Edinburgh has become the canvas for a new public art project.Giant photographic portraits have been pasted to the walls of the iconic McEwan Hall in Bristo Square and throughout closes along the Royal Mile.
Produced by Edinburgh College of Art (ECA) and Edinburgh University students, the striking black and white images are simulated to resemble CCTV footage.
Edinburgh is one of the most surveyed cities in the UK, with 1 camera to every 14 people. Edinburgh University alone has over 200 cameras stationed throughout its buildings and grounds.
The installation hopes to challenge the public’s conceptions of CCTV by displaying photographs of both the CCTV operators and those targeted by surveillance. | <urn:uuid:4769a54e-280e-495d-9444-85f4576e84fa> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.deadlinenews.co.uk/2011/07/12/mcewan-hall-art/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280718.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00401-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.955457 | 138 | 1.875 | 2 |
The Critter Hut is playground equipment that offers exploring and is brightly colored. Critter Hut comes with ¾-inch durable polyethylene plastic panels in fun and stimulating shapes and details as well as bright primary colors. The Critter hut is made for both indoor and outdoor use. The Hut is easy to assemble and can easily accommodate up to six children. The Critter Hut is offered for playground use in commercial settings such as parks, schools, and childcare facilities. The Critter Hut is both ASTM and CPSC compliant, which mean the design is safe. This sturdily built Critter Hut, weighing 206 pounds, offers longevity and a place for young ones to explore. The Critter Hut adds a great event for children ages two through five. | <urn:uuid:f92cddcc-a6d1-4b64-91ca-8700fc3d311d> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.playgroundequipment.com/critter-hut/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281746.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00281-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966359 | 153 | 1.523438 | 2 |
I too often get asked why in the world I left the Caribbean to come to New York almost a decade ago.
Saint Martin is, indeed, viewed as one of the most picture perfect destinations on the planet. Sandy beaches, tropical breeze, easygoing island vibe… Really, what else could you ask for?
Unfortunately, what those people don’t realize is that when hurricane season strikes, it is often unforgiving. Sint Maarten/Saint Martin’s economy is almost solely based on tourism, and a hurricane means destruction, weeks and weeks of renovations.
You would think that Caribbean islands would be well prepared for these super storms, but many of the homes tourists see as charming little shacks are simply made of colorful wood panels and sheet metal roofs. They stand no chance against harsh winds. Our roads flood easily and our wildlife takes months, sometimes even years, to replenish itself.
I still remember the gut wrenching feeling I felt, on my first day back to school after Hurricane Luis, in 1995. Before its devastation, the drive across the island was a beautiful ones, speckled in yellow butterflies.
It took almost a decade for them to come back.
Although I was only five when Hurricane Luis paid my island a visit, the memories are vivid in my mind. I can still picture my father cracking open the front door during the eye of the storm. First, seeing the sky, blinding and white, like a water-soaked sheet hanging low above our heads. Then, down at the upturned earth at my feet. Ripped roots and snapped trees all around us, the air dangerously still. I stared up into the light until it was time to go back in.
It hurt too much to look down.
I have been writing about hurricanes my whole life. Trying to make sense of them, mourn the losses, and learn to forgive them, see them as an inevitable part of nature’s cycle. I have written through anger and tears until I dropped the pen and accepted that what had happened was behind us, that it was time to rebuild. Even if, at times, it felt impossible. My Uncle’s disappearance at sea, almost two decades ago, was one of those times.
We are still rebuilding.
I come from a place
where September means
spiders crawling up mosquito nets
mosquito eggs in the water well
hurricanes and canned peas for days
Sleeping on half deflated pool mattresses
praying the roof stays on
the wind beating the boarded windows
and the dogs in the other room
howling like wolves
Where September means
unscrewing the planks on
the windows and doors
water to our ankles
the smell of upturned soil
and trees bent like zipwire
birds and frogs in the pool filter
Where I come from
is watching trees
car tires and sheet metal
dragged down the street
in newly-formed rivers
Mama mourning her brother
at the helm of his black sailboat
St. Croix and St. Thomas
because the harbor was
These past few years, we were all blessed and thankful that no hurricane headed right for our island’s shores. Today, however, we aren’t so lucky. Irma will hit us hard, and I sit here tonight, in my New York bedroom, feeling uneasy and helpless. There is nothing to do but pray that the storm will pass quickly, sparing my family and friends. Who knows how long telephone lines will be down, how much of the destruction will be fixable in the next few weeks.
As I get carried away in my thoughts and words, I send a virtual hug to all of those who will be affected by Hurricane Irma this week. All of those who have experience or heard of Luis’s destruction, and are too familiar with what is to come. Stay strong. Hold those that you love tightly. Keep them close. Be kind to your neighbors and friends. Material things are nothing in comparison to health and safety.
I will be sleeping lightly tonight, thinking of the island I will always call home. | <urn:uuid:0439c0ff-adc7-4daa-b002-47498c3be939> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://mamanaturelle.com/2017/09/06/writing-about-hurricanes/?like_comment=384&_wpnonce=c50334435d | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571090.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20220809215803-20220810005803-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.962807 | 860 | 1.617188 | 2 |
KATHIE DEASY — Remembering loved ones on Memorial Day
Published 12:09 am Saturday, May 23, 2020
On this day, I honor my nephew, Joe Ray, and cousin, Dennis Hanon, and more … for their service to our country.
They both passed through this life with the strength, loyalty and honor to God, their families and country!
So young and vital, but wounded in battle, so many ways, no one could ever know! We, their family, miss them so much.
Memorial Day was originally known as Decoration Day, because it was a time set aside to honor the nation’s Civil War dead by decorating their graves.
It was first widely observed on May 30, 1868, to commemorate the sacrifices of Civil War soldiers, by proclamation of General John A. Logan of the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization of former sailors and soldiers.
On May 5, 1868, Logan declared in General Order No. 11 that:
The 30th of May, 1868, is designated for the purpose of strewing with flowers, or otherwise decorating the graves of comrades who died in defense of their country during the late rebellion, and whose bodies now lie in almost every city, village, and hamlet Churchyard in the land. In this observance, no form of ceremony is prescribed, but posts and comrades will in their own way arrange such fitting services and testimonials of respect as circumstances may permit.
We pray for those gone and their families.
I have given a donation to the Paralyzed Veterans for more than 30 years.
My husband and I are true patriots, flag wavers and loyal to America and our leaders. We have such respect for our military, those who have past, retired or served our country in any way. Thank you …
Our son, Michael Sean Deasy, a true patriot, brilliant in business, well-read, active in music and the arts, went to be with his Lord after he battled in his mind and body untenably at the young age of 45. He was born to us May 26, so I will be thinking about him all day and wearing his favorite perfume on me, and while we know where he is and Who he’s with, we miss him, like crazy!
Love, love Mikey.
Kathie Deasy writes about religion in The Port Arthur News. She can be reached at firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:72346511-c3a1-4f1c-88df-2d02c67b32b4> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.panews.com/2020/05/23/kathie-deasy-remembering-loved-ones-on-memorial-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573744.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20220819161440-20220819191440-00475.warc.gz | en | 0.97434 | 515 | 1.859375 | 2 |
choice of profession - is a crucial step for each young man.If history attracts, monuments, you can choose a specialty associated with them.What is the profession of people, reducing the monuments of culture, and where it can be learned?
Who are the restorers
a specialist who deals with restoration and preservation of historical and cultural sites.This profession emerged in the Middle Ages and was necessary to give an attractive appearance of the artwork.But over time, the main task was to keep the restorer original appearance of the object.
Knowing the name of the profession of people, reducing the monuments of culture, is to understand the peculiarities of this specialty.
How does restorer
main objective is the preservation of modern restorer.Once you will recover or replenishing chips, cracks or other damage, you must arrange for the preservation of the object as such for as long as possible.
used for this purpose:
- Chemical treatment.
- determines the optimal humidity.
- choose the right lighting.
can definitely say that the restoration and conservation - these are the main activities of such a specialist.
Before you get started, the restorer examines the object determines the complexity of damage, the material from which the work of art.
Restorer - not an easy profession.Each specialist works with certain objects.It could be monuments, paintings, books and old materials in various materials.But very often the work is done as a team with historians and archaeologists, art historians may need to consult, chemists and physicists.
restoration methods for selection of specialty is not enough to know the name of the profession of people restoring cultural monuments.It is necessary to understand the principles of this activity, to determine whether it meets your desires and possibilities.
modern restoration can be divided into two types.
- Science.Is to maximize the preservation of the original form of art, with the traces of destruction are visible.But people see a painting or a monument in the form in which they were created by the artist.
- Commercial.The emphasis is on giving visual appeal and resume functionality of the object.Typically, such restoration bought antiquities owners who intend to use them in your everyday life.This reduction is very similar to the repair, but it requires special skills.
qualities that should have a specialist
restorer - a profession that can master not everyone.In order that the work has been successful and enjoyable, you must possess the following qualities:
- perseverance and patience;
- attentiveness and ability to concentrate;
- respect for the works of art;
- desire to work with his hands.
restorer can get a special institution of higher education or secondary professional.Also, you can master this science in school.The choice of places depends on the level of knowledge and skills.
The students received information about restorative materials and techniques.You need to read a lot of literature on the works of art, to understand how they were created.
So, knowing the name of the profession of people, reducing the monuments of culture, to understand the principles of their work, you can decide to choose a specialty and educational institution.You need to connect the life with the profession, which is really like.Only in this case, it will bring material and spiritual satisfaction. | <urn:uuid:586e0ece-dfc7-4004-bfd6-b8a572fd13f1> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://tipings.com/en/pages/526 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572089.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20220814234405-20220815024405-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.94321 | 670 | 2.75 | 3 |
About this Event
About the Workshop
Essay Prompts and Time Management
In-class essay writing is intimidating for many students; however, successful in-class writing depends not only on your composition skills but also on your ability to analyze the prompt and manage your time properly. This workshop will focus on two interrelated topics: (1) understanding and critically analyzing essay prompts, and (2) using time management strategies for the various stages of the in-class, timed writing process (pre-writing, composing the essay, and editing/revising).
Our writing workshops are one-hour group seminars that focus on specific writing topics. To register for this workshop please visit our online scheduling system (WCOnline) and click on the Spring 2021 Workshops schedule.
Registration closes 24 hours prior to the workshop date. All our Spring 2021 workshops will be conducted virtually through Zoom, so after you have registered for a workshop session, you will then receive the necessary link 12-24 hours prior to the workshop time.
To see the full list of topics we offer, visit our workshop topics page.
For more information regarding our workshops, please contact email@example.com.
0 people are interested in this event | <urn:uuid:ae3e00e3-91a5-410a-9afd-725d38f15c33> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://events.sjsu.edu/event/writing_workshop-essay_prompts_and_time_management_4100 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571234.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20220811042804-20220811072804-00070.warc.gz | en | 0.90022 | 253 | 2.203125 | 2 |
In this era of globalization, there is increasing interest in learning foreign languages, with one of the preferred languages being Spanish. If you are among those wishing to learn Spanish, selection of a quality language instructor with extensive language training experience and a thorough knowledge of the Spanish language is key to your success in leaning Spanish.
As a student, it is imperative that your instructor be able to present language instruction in an effective and interesting manner, but always within your comfort zone, and always in a manner consistent with your goal, whether leaning Spanish to be more effective in your business life, or learning simply to be able to handle everyday situations when traveling in Spanish speaking countries.
With Learn Spanish Videos Online, a working knowledge of business terminology will assist your business endeavors.( For specific business terminology, please contact CLS-Spanish email@example.comRosario136@aol.com) With Spanish for Travelers, you will gain a practical knowledge of useful words and phrases which will enhance your travel experience. Finally, Spanish Class Miami will provide you with a greater appreciation of the intricacies and subtleties of the beautiful Spanish language.
Not all students learn in the same way, and not all teaching techniques are effective with every student. Only an experienced trained instructor can determine what works for you. Mrs. Galindo-Redlich has over 35 years of language instruction experience at the university level, with several major language schools, via a weekly instructional radio program, as well as providing one on one personal language training for senior business executives and others preparing for a trip abroad.
Get Instructional Videos for Learning Spanish | <urn:uuid:6f92b4d8-5413-4031-9302-d8ede25921ad> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://copytaste.com/z4256 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560279410.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095119-00170-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.92699 | 327 | 1.671875 | 2 |
On Wednesday, Baltimore began commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Civil War with a unique recreation event. Warned of a possible assassination plot, President-elect Abraham Lincoln secretly traveled through Baltimore in the very early morning hours of Feb. 23, 1861, en route to Washington, D.C. for his inauguration.
The famous journey was recreated as Lincoln arrived at the Camden Street train station by carriage. Lincoln then addressed the media to discuss the need for his clandestine passage through Baltimore, a city heavily divided in 1861.
The city of Baltimore is steeped in Civil War history as the war’s first blood was shed during the Pratt Street Riot. The city’s cultural and historical partners have organized a robust calendar of special events and exhibitions to bring an important part of U.S. history alive for locals and visitors of all ages.[ Also Read: When All 44 U.S. Presidents Come in One Place ]
On the weekend of April 15-17, 2011, Baltimore will commemorate the Pratt Street Riot, with events that will reflect on the turbulent and critical years in which the city was occupied and the state became a battleground.
The weekend will include a procession on Pratt Street, the grand re-opening of President Street Station, living history theatrical presentations throughout the city, a Civil War Trails Expo, a symposium at the Maryland Historical Society, and Civil War living history encampments and candlelight tours at Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine.[ Also Read: What Do They Say about President Obama? ]
Beyond the weekend events in April, the city will also host exhibitions throughout the year to educate visitors on the importance Baltimore has had during the country’s history including:
Riots, Railroads and the Coming of Mr. Lincoln
February 23, 2011 – December 2011
The Sports Legends Museum at Camden Yards, housed in the former Camden train station, marks the 150th anniversary by exploring stories of Abraham Lincoln’s travels through Baltimore, from his journey to his inauguration under the cover of darkness to his final passage home aboard his funeral train.
The War Came By Train
Opens April 15, 2011
The B&O Railroad Museum will exhibit the largest assemblage of Civil War railroad equipment in the world, featuring locomotives and rail cars as well as military and personal artifacts (some never before seen on public display). A narrated, roundtrip train ride will be available to the original site of Camp Carroll, the largest Union encampment in Baltimore.
Divided Voices, Maryland in the Civil War
Opens April 16, 2011
The Maryland Historical Society shares stories of a state caught between North and South. A Civil War Expo will bring the 1860s to life with a time tunnel, live performances, music and other exciting features.
Personal Accounts of the Civil War Experience
Opens April 29, 2011
You can join the Mount Clare Museum House and experience Camp Carroll, a Civil War camp in what is now known as Carroll Park. A special exhibition will explore the personal side of war, both North and South, through objects and stories of people who personally witnessed and participated in the war.
The commemoration will continue in 2013 as the city honors Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad and the Emancipation Proclamation, and in 2014 with the Jubilee 1864.
It was announced by Visit Baltimore – the official sales and marketing organization for Baltimore that generates economic benefits for stakeholders through the attraction of convention, group and leisure visitors. | <urn:uuid:504564e1-f226-4bbd-a68c-127817aa7298> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.ramanmedianetwork.com/lincolns-secret-passage-through-baltimore-recreated/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281450.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00172-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.952851 | 709 | 2.8125 | 3 |
- This meeting has passed.
WS: Dare Valley Country Park.
September 15, 2021 @ 10:00 am - 4:00 pm
Leaders: Brian & Sue Dockerill
The Dare Valley Park was opened in 1973 as the result of the restoration of former colliery sites. Covering over 450 acres it ranges from woodland and scrub through grassland to cliffs and scree’s, the home of the less usual ferns. Altogether the botany is of such interest that Tim Rich and Ceri Gait, whom some of you will know, have published a book covering the wild flowers of the park.
Twenty-five ferns and fern allies have been recorded there – we may not see them all, but we’ll try our best!
The park is located near Aberdare at grid reference SN 9848 0262 and there is a park website at Dare Valley Country Park | Dare Valley Country Park (rctcbc.gov.uk)
As some of the scree areas may be inaccessible for a group, we are still exploring the site and trying to establish the best starting point and route to see as many ferns as possible. This will be a day meeting and a packed lunch plus suitable clothing for the weather and good footwear will be required.
We will send out more details, including a meeting point, a couple of weeks before the dates but for more information or to express an interest please contact Brian and Sue Dockerill e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org | <urn:uuid:6589ecf3-3a68-43e0-93e8-25e2cc92eb94> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://ebps.org.uk/event/ws-dare-valley-country-park-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572833.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817001643-20220817031643-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.946014 | 319 | 1.554688 | 2 |
Canada will welcome 350,000 immigrants per year by 2021 under the new plan of Express Entry. In 2018, Canada welcomed 310,000 and 330,000 in 2019. The numbers will increase in 2021 after a long break during the coronavirus period of 2020.
The Express Entry System of Canada will work on the basis of a Comprehensive Ranking System (CRS) that will sort the candidates who are eligible to apply for Canadian immigration. CRS is a point-based system that will prioritize the immigration of the most deserving candidates for Express Entry. Here are some things you need to learn about
Express Entry System today.
• In 2021, 401,000 new immigrants will enter Canada, out of which 108,500 will immigrate under the Express Entry System.
• The numbers will grow in 2022 and 2023. The expected number of immigrants to enter Canada in 2022 under Express Entry is 110,500 and 113,750 in 2023.
• In 2020, Canada issued 107,350 Express Entry invitations that were a record high even during the year’s pandemic season. Canada continues to provide permanent residence to immigrants under their Express Entry system.
• 2020 became the record-breaking year of the number of immigrants receiving Express Entry, with over 100,000 candidates approved for permanent residence. The last draw for Express Entry in Canada was held on the 23rd of December, which invited 5,000 immigrants who have a CRS score of more than 468.
• Only those candidates who submitted their expressions of interest on or before the 4th of June 2020 were invited for Express Entry System. Before then, the Express Entry System only invited candidates with Canadian work experience and provincial nominees.
• According to the reports, Canada will welcome over 400,000 new immigrants every year from 2021 to 2023.
• The new immigration and permanent residence programs will provide better employment opportunities and residential facilities to the immigrants. All immigrants will enjoy all benefits of a citizen once they receive permanent citizenship of Canada.
• They will receive world-class healthcare facilities, free education for children, and several retirement benefits.
• The people with present citizenship can invite their spouses and children under the age of 22 and sponsor their immigration under Express Entry. However, one cannot invite their parents or grandparents and sponsor their immigration as a citizen of Canada. They will have to apply for citizenship separately under the Express Entry and
CRS point system.
• Once an immigrant receives permanent residence, they can move to any Canadian province or territory permanently. However, if they receive immigration through the programs from the provinces, they cannot move out of their provinces.
• The Canadian passport will provide travel visa-free with more than 180 countries around the world. It is the first thing a person can do as soon as they receive citizenship in Canada. | <urn:uuid:91bfe2dc-c662-4f86-8b16-281f0f15b0ce> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://canadabylaw.com/about-us/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571234.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20220811042804-20220811072804-00066.warc.gz | en | 0.958296 | 569 | 1.742188 | 2 |
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Impact of iPod nano on Low-level Reader's Fluency
By Lorena Zúñiga Roa, Elementary ELL Teacher
Download a copy of my presentation here:
My purpose in conducting this research is to determine the advantage that a student with certain difficulties to learn to read and write may gain when using an Ipod Nano to record her voice while reading aloud and listening to herself after recording. Since this third grader was at level 16 DRA in September, I want to see if this technology implementation will enhance my understanding of her reading and writing process to find the right accommodation for her in class.
II. Research Questions
What happens when a teacher implements Ipods nanos to accelerate a student with certain reading & writing difficulties?
My school district, like many other school districts in Oregon and throughout the country, is extremely aware of the legal problems when classifying a specific student with a learning disability or difficulty to learn. My research has led me to be exceptionally careful when “labeling” a student. On the other hand, one student presents undeniable characteristics of dyslexia and, as teachers, we need to find ways to help her to overcome this issue. Moreover, this student is Hispanic who is learning English as a second language, which makes the process of teaching and learning a little bit more challenging each day.
According to the International Dyslexia Association, dyslexia is a neurologically-based disorder which interferes with the acquisition and processing of language. It is characterized, according to the National Institutes of Health, by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition, and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. In other words, dyslexia comes from a shortage in the phonological component of language. This means that a dyslexic student has poor reading comprehension, lack of growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.
Among their reading characteristics, a dyslexic student “does not make random reading errors”. They follow a pattern and are repetitive. Regarding writing, dyslexic students present an evident visual-motor integration problem, which lead them to illegible handwriting. They also have difficulties matching what they want to say with what they write down.
The first time that I met this student, who I am naming M for confidentiality purposes, I was impressed by her determination to learn to read. In January 2009, she was reading at a level 4 DRA. Her mother did not understand why her daughter was so behind “compared” to her cousins. She was trying to read faster, inventing words/stories from the pictures while reading. It was hard to see her suffering with every book in her hands. Working one-on-one, we reached level 16 by June 2009. In September 2009, M was in third grade and still at a level 16 DRA. In October she started to use Ipods Nanos, which allowed me to see if by listening to her voice after reading, it could help her to overcome the anxiety and improve her phonological connection and eye-printed word recognition.
My research about dyslexia has taught me that:
M matches all of these characteristics which leads me to think that she has a disability that has not been tested and this research may help me find a way to improve my teaching skills to support her learning process.
IV. Methods of Data Collection:
Since I see M everyday, I record her progress weekly on the Ipod. She is in my third grade NLD class from 10:35 to 12:05 for reading and writing in Spanish. Then I see her again from 2:40 to 3:00 for Reading Intervention and before that, she works with an instructional assistance under my supervision from 2:20 to 2:40 in another Intervention. This gives me the chance to teach her the phonemic awareness she needs to improve her reading skills. I will teach her how to listen to single words or syllable and break them up into individual phonemes. She should be able to take individual sounds and blend them into a word, change sounds, delete sounds, and compare sounds in her head, according to Susan Barton. In this way, she will be prepared to write them later. To teach these sounds, I have used:
I intend to gain information about her progress by going through her work, interviews, and questionnaires.
Surveys: I will use three kinds of questionnaires: Visual, Auditory, and Motor Processing questionnaires (See appendixes). They will be completed by her teachers (general, PE, Music, Art, and ELD).
Student work: I will look over her voice memos, around 20 so far, to see if there has been improvements since we started this research back in October 2009. Then, I’ll transcribe one minute of her readings (20 minutes in total) and I’ll record what the books says against what she reads. In this way, I’ll check accuracy and speed/words per minute.
Interview: To get more in-depth responses, I will conduct audio interviews of her mother, student, and teachers. These interviews will provide emotional, social, and other views toward this student.
V. Tentative Timeline
January 05, 2010: talk to the principal and present the research.
January 11, 2010: start to teach reading according to Susan Barton
January 14, 2010: start interviews
January 29, 2010: start to analyze data from interviews
January 18, 2010: start to handout questionnaires to teachers
February 12, 2010: gather answered questionnaires to start to analyze them
February 26, 2010: last voice memo recorded by the student work
VI. Reflections Before Beginning
I think I will document enough information to present to any specialist in diagnosis of dyslexia. I am not labeling M under any category and I just want to learn how to help her better during this year.
Barton, Susan. 1998. Bright Solutions for Dyslexia, Inc.
The Inernational Dyslexia Association. http://www.interdys.org/ [November 12, 2002]
National Institutes of Health. http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dyslexia/dyslexia.htm [Last updated March 12, 2009]
Mater, Nancy and sam Goldstein. 2001. Learning disabilities and challenging behaviors: a guide to intervention and classroom management. Baltimore, ML: Paul H Brookers Publishing. | <urn:uuid:3ca5788c-2c22-48e2-b0f2-04ff248eb554> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://wiki.canby.k12.or.us/groups/ipodusergroup/blog/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560285289.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095125-00149-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.958145 | 1,346 | 2.71875 | 3 |
By Spanish Red Cross, and Giovanni Zambello, IFRC
Jesús, a waiter by profession, is one of the many Spaniards who saw their unemployment benefits coming to an end during the peak of the economic crisis in Spain. “My situation was rather complicated. I was not longer receiving the dole and, of course, I still had to pay my bills. There was a moment when I saw myself in the street,” he says. Then, through friends, he got to know the Plan de Empleo of the Spanish Red Cross.
The Plan de Empleo (employment plan) is a project that the Spanish Red Cross has run since 2000 – well before the beginning of the current crisis – to promote the job placement of people at increased risk of social exclusion. Through this project, the organization advises, trains and steers people affected by the economic crisis towards a job or career, and offers them psychosocial support to help them regain confidence in their abilities. The programme also includes a specific module for those who would like to start their own business.
“The first thing they teach you is how to look for a job, to identify your skills and nurture them.” Jesús says. “In my case, as I had previous experience in the hospitality sector, I didn’t need to take any vocational courses. One day the Red Cross called me asking me to go for an interview at a restaurant and now I have an open-ended contract. I keep in touch with the Red Cross. They call me every now and then to ask how the situation is. I could not be happier than this.”
Carmen Cárdenas, who works in the Plan de Empleo of the Spanish Red Cross, says the project works with people from different backgrounds. “We work with those who have already participated in the programme before and have lost their job again, and people who were never unemployed before and now come to us for assistance. But also women who never worked before, as they previously relied on the income from their partners, and are now entering the labour market for the first time.”
“Work is a tool for social inclusion,” says Maika Sánchez, director of the preogramme. “Employment provides economic independence, an important source of self-esteem and social recognition, and is a form of participation in society. In the case of immigrant women, it is one of the fundamental tools of integration in the host society.”
According to a report published on Tuesday by the International Labour Organisation, global unemployment is at a record high in the wake of the economic crisis. 197 million people were out of work last year, and another 5 million people are expected to lose their job by the end of 2013.
In such scenario, young people are often hardest hit. In European countries where the issue is most acute, 12.7 per cent of all young people are not employed, in education or in training, which may result in discouragement, and depression, as well as in the loss of professional skills.
In this regard, the report calls for enhancing youth employability, particularly through better links between education, training and the labour market as well as enhancing vocational education.
In the last four years, the Spanish Red Cross has seen an increase of 40 per cent in the number of people assisted through the Plan de Empleo. In 2012, the figure rose to 63,000. Since the launch of the project 12 years ago, the National Society has reached a total of 258,269.
A key role is played in the programme by the over 20,000 firms that cooperate with the Spanish Red Cross in training people, offering internship opportunities and providing practical information on the labour market.
“We work closely with the private sector so we can design our course based on actual needs,” says Sandra Jiménez, coordinator of the Empleo y Mujer (Employment and Woman) of the Red Cross branch in Madrid. “However, it is important to mention that we are not a recruitment agency. We are the Red Cross and we work with people in situations of social vulnerability.
“What we are witnessing is a crisis that has heightened the unemployment rate and the social issues connect to that.” | <urn:uuid:335815bc-a5e9-4f62-bb93-d65b89c1a60a> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.ifrc.org/en/news-and-media/news-stories/europe-central-asia/spain/support-and-training-to-provide-hope-in-the-depths-of-a-crisis-60618/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280761.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00097-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.974532 | 890 | 2.0625 | 2 |
The body and blood of Christ
The Holy Eucharist completes Christian initiation. Those who have been raised to the dignity of the royal priesthood by Baptism and configured more deeply to Christ by Confirmation participate with the whole community in the Lord’s own sacrifice by means of the Eucharist.
At the Last Supper, on the night he was betrayed, our Savior instituted the Eucharistic sacrifice of his Body and Blood. This he did in order to perpetuate the sacrifice of the cross throughout the ages until he should come again, and so to entrust to his beloved Spouse, the Church, a memorial of his death and resurrection: a sacrament of love, a sign of unity, a bond of charity, a Paschal banquet ‘in which Christ is consumed, the mind is filled with grace, and a pledge of future glory is given to us.
The Eucharist is the source and summit of the Christian life. The other sacraments, and indeed all ecclesiastical ministries and works of the apostolate, are bound up with the Eucharist and are oriented toward it. For in the blessed Eucharist is contained the whole spiritual good of the Church, namely Christ himself, our Pasch.
The Eucharist is the efficacious sign and sublime cause of that communion in the divine life and that unity of the People of God by which the Church is kept in being. It is the culmination both of God’s action sanctifying the world in Christ and of the worship men offer to Christ and through him to the Father in the Holy Spirit.
Finally, by the Eucharistic celebration we already unite ourselves with the heavenly liturgy and anticipate eternal life, when God will be all in all.
In brief, the Eucharist is the sum and summary of our faith: Our way of thinking is attuned to the Eucharist, and the Eucharist in turn confirms our way of thinking.
Source: Catechism of the Catholic Church (1322-1327) | <urn:uuid:1513fc81-c789-49e0-9386-b578fee359d3> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.sacredheartbath.org/eucharist/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572908.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817122626-20220817152626-00078.warc.gz | en | 0.959417 | 416 | 2.453125 | 2 |
By: Dr. Janis Reed, BCE, Technical Service Manager with Control Solutions Inc.
Why is Pest Management Essential?
According to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Memorandum on Identification of Essential Critical Infrastructure Workers During COVID-19 Response, from Director, Christopher C. Krebs, Workers such as plumbers, electricians, exterminators, and other service providers who provide services that are necessary to maintaining the safety, sanitation, and essential operation of residences are essential workers.
You, the Pest Management Professional (PMP), are essential.
Communication will be crucial both during and after this pandemic; you will need to communicate much more, both internally with your co-workers and externally with your customers. Everyone needs to know what your company and you personally are doing to protect yourself, your customers, and your community.
Indoor services have become much less common. If they occur, Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) use has increased dramatically, not necessarily to protect you from pesticide exposure. Now, you must not only know what the pesticide label requirement is but also ensure that you have additional equipment such as masks, shoe covers, gloves, and hand sanitizer. For your protection as well as for that of your customer.
Indoor services might not be possible for reasons such as business shutdown, customer denied entry, suspension of service, or even lack of safety protocols. Hopefully, throughout the shelter-in-place and stay-at-home orders, you were able to continue servicing most of your accounts, particularly outside only services. Managing outdoor incursions of pests such as ants, cockroaches, rodents, and occasional invaders can help reduce the need for indoor services.
A number of businesses continued normal operations throughout the pandemic, such as grocery stores, pharmacies, and other essential public services. In these accounts, there was little impact on pest control services. More than likely, you were able to continue an integrated pest management plan, with little more than added PPE and social distancing. Moving forward, PMPs should try to be flexible in servicing these accounts due to new restrictions and health & safety guidelines.
Some businesses were open on a limited basis, with fewer staff and customers coming in/out. For these businesses such as many restaurants, PMPs have been able to provide service on a limited basis, scheduling indoor services when possible. Recognizing the need for additional PPE and social distancing and communication and flexibility are critical in these accounts as well.
Some businesses were forced to close completely. How do you proceed with these accounts? If the services were skipped, those that eventually reopen might see significant pest problems, especially if the business did not have time to plan properly for a close-down. Unfortunately, not many businesses were able to prepare before the stay-at-home orders were in place. Therefore, closing procedures such as proper storage of food/edible goods, trash disposal, and cleaning of grease traps, floor drains, and P-traps were not properly completed. Thorough cleaning and disinfecting of surfaces, even if that means a delay in re-starting pest control is recommended.
In these cases, where businesses were closed, and access was impossible, accounts become “start-ups” or initial services. These situations put PMPs in a difficult situation. Can we charge for these “catch-up” services? The customer didn’t choose to be shut down, they didn’t choose to stay away from the business, nor did they choose to stop service. The loss of many small businesses may lead to a limited number of potential customers; PMPs may face revenue reduction. Communication and flexibility with customers will be key moving forward. Things may never go back to the way they were before.
When customers are ready to re-start pest control services, begin your focus on the public health pests first, such as rodents and cockroaches. For cockroaches, start with a systematic inspection of the facility. When possible, physically remove pests using a HEPA vacuum. Use baits & insect growth regulators (IGRs) such as Doxem® Precise and Tekko® Pro. For rodents, also start with a systematic inspection of the facility, finding and sealing entry points. Deploy traps, glue boards, and repeat catching traps where possible. Limit possible food sources and place bait stations where applicable. Schedule a follow up in about 7-14 days. It is vital to bring the numbers of these pests down as quickly as possible.
Many of the same trends we see in commercial accounts may carry over into residential ones. Nothing will be the same. Essential workers may be working longer hours, have expanded duties, and be feeling more stressed. People who are still working, but their hours reduced, may have less disposable income, are spending more time at home and are also feeling added stress.
For the vast numbers of people working from home, homes have become everything to the people living there: workspaces, classrooms, restaurants, and entertainment venues. One unexpected consequence of spending so much time at home is it has made people more aware of pest activity in/around their spaces. This means more phone calls to PMPs. More time at home means more clutter, more food debris throughout the area from cooking at home and takeout containers, more trash, as well as possible hoarding of food/toilet paper. Many of these people may be feeling very isolated; some are starting to feel depression & anxiety. People’s daily routines are dramatically different, cleaning routines have changed, and parents are now employees, teachers, playmates, disciplinarians, and entertainers.
When servicing residential accounts, protect yourself and the customer with PPE and assess the situation as visually as possible. Avoid touching surfaces/items unnecessarily, avoid setting equipment down, and, most importantly, avoid touching your face.
Things may never go back to the way they were before. PMPs will have to sell, resell, sell their services again. We may see service frequency change – shift to one-time, no-contract services, and PMPs may face revenue reduction.
Most PMPs are still cautiously optimistic about the remainder of 2020, remember - PMP’s are essential! The pandemic does provide opportunities to grow your business if you are willing to be flexible. Add-on services such as disinfection services have become a popular additional offering. PMPs have the equipment, PPE, and knowledge of handling pesticides, so it’s a good fit for our industry. It is uncertain if these services will be sustainable over time but could create additional revenue in the short term. Other services PMPs might add that can help make you and your company more valuable to your client and solidify your relationship:
- Maid/cleaning services
- Mosquito services
- Drain cleaning
- Grease trap cleaning
- Heat treatments
- Power washing/cleaning
- Rodent control
Other ways to create value and flexibility with your customers:
- Allow customers to defer or pause existing service
- Adjust service frequency
- Allow flexible pay plans, monthly and quarterly, instead of yearly.
- Accept credit cards
- Accept bartering for relevant services
Getting back to “normal” may not be a realistic goal, but PMPs can learn to adapt, thrive, and be successful in the world post 2020. PMPs need to be extremely flexible and willing to communicate extensively to work with our customers to bring accounts back to where we were before the events of the past few months. For more information visit CSI-Pest.com. | <urn:uuid:a5b023fc-6490-4ccb-8a67-806272a2f30b> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.target-specialty.com/content/pest-control-during-and-after-pandemic?page=3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572870.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817062258-20220817092258-00678.warc.gz | en | 0.963739 | 1,579 | 1.679688 | 2 |
For many students, the course in Documentary Research is their first foray into making media. But that doesn’t mean they start slowly.
“Students can make media here from day one,” says Dr. Lora Taub-Pervizpour, chair of Muhlenberg’s Department of Media & Communication. “We occupy a distinctive niche in that we’ve got all the technology and tools and resources of a major university environment, but we offer them in the intimate liberal arts environment of Muhlenberg.”
In the course, students learn the fundamentals of creating and editing digital media, skills that form a strong foundation for future internships and careers. But the objectives of the class go beyond technical expertise — students develop an awareness of their responsibilities as storytellers.
“We help them learn not just how to make media, but how to make socially engaged, ethical, and compelling media,” says Dr. Taub-Pervizpour. “It’s also about how to think, how to keep learning and how to use technology on behalf of stories that matter.”
Among the pieces produced by Documentary Research students taught by Dr. Ranieri and Dr. Taub-Pervizpour are over 60 three-minute documentaries on “Local Heroes,” a look at the lives and work of local citizens who are making a daily difference in the Lehigh Valley.
Most recently, students are exploring the meanings of "place" in the local community and producing a collective archive called The Storymapping Project.
Nick Minnich '10 produced a 30-second piece on The Roxy Theatre:
Kristin Lapos '11 created a 2-minute story on the Museum of Indian Culture:
At the conclusion of the class, students hold public screenings of the pieces, often with the subjects and their friends, families and co-workers in the audience.
“Part of making media is giving students an audience beyond their professor and their classmates,” says Taub-Pervizpour. “Documentary work is inherently about community.”
Would you like to learn more about our Great Teachers and Great Courses? Take a look at our other stories to see the many aspects of our unique, boundary-breaking community. | <urn:uuid:333b4700-f6a8-4891-b3a6-5ddc5d8c4b94> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://muhlenberg.edu/academics/greatteachersgreatcourses/lorataubgreatteachersgreatcourses/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560283689.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095123-00346-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938422 | 481 | 2.390625 | 2 |
ERIC Number: ED116557
Record Type: RIE
Publication Date: 1975-Aug
Reference Count: 0
Design of the Preclass Instructional Package for Higher Education.
The Institute for Personal and Career Development (IPCD) provides graduate level instruction in a number of disciplines to groups of individuals who might otherwise not be able to obtain a graduate education. IPCD attempts to provide an alternate program that meets the needs of these individuals by emphasizing controls which would promote more efficient instruction and learning. These include such controls as (1) the compressed schedule; (2) a mastery of prerequisites; (3) course content; (4) instructional strategies; and (5) evaluation. This document highlights the importance of and methods of achieving the mastery of prerequisites through a specially designed preclass instructional package based on the competency-based model of instruction. The package includes an introduction to the course, instructions to the student, a list of course prerequisites stated as performance objectives, performance objectives for the first unit, a study directory, exercises and problems for the unit, self-assessment test, subsequent units, and a list of classroom activities stated as performance objectives. This package is intended to ensure the instructional effectiveness of the classroom sessions and the post class activities. (JMF)
Descriptors: Adult Students, Competency Based Education, Continuing Education Centers, Degree Requirements, Educational Technology, Flexible Schedules, Graduate Students, Graduate Study, Higher Education, Instructional Innovation, Part Time Students, Performance Factors, Scheduling
The Institute for Personal and Career Development, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan
Publication Type: Books
Education Level: N/A
Authoring Institution: Central Michigan Univ., Mount Pleasant. Inst. for Personal and Career Development. | <urn:uuid:d3938be0-27b6-4faf-916d-2ae4d1030aa1> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED116557 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280929.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00426-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.892689 | 364 | 1.515625 | 2 |
“A recent Kauffman report offers new and valuable insights into where venture-driven growth comes from. Literally. Not from what attributes of social media founders or which San Francisco coffee shops, but rather which sectors of the economy and which regions of the country. The findings are surprising and important for entrepreneurs thinking of starting a business, and policymakers thinking of helping them.”
“I’m not a big fan of ideas. Sure, ideas are great — some of my best friends are ideas. But managers tend to let our national obsession about having new ideas distract them from the hard work of building good products and successful ventures around what are almost always old ideas. So it was fun to see the great design OXO have at a competitor who claimed to ‘own’ an idea that both had built products around.”
CalPERS has launched the Sustainable Investment Research Initiative aimed at advancing the pension fund’s understanding of the impact sustainability factors have on financial performance, confirmed Anne Simpson, CalPERS senior portfolio manager and director of global governance.
“Submitted for your consideration: the Nightingale Ratio as the number of people helping others do something to the number of people actually doing that thing. In this case, the number of people helping entrepreneurs start something relative to the number of entrepreneurs actually starting something.”
When Shell started buying leases to drill in the Beaufort and Chukchi seas in 2005, the company was betting on Americans’ thirst for any oil locked under those Arctic waters, which could replace declining crude production from Alaska’s North Slope and other onshore resources.
Flash forward eight years, and the scenario has changed dramatically. Global energy expert Amy Myers Jaffe weighs the risks and return of drilling in the arctic.
An Idea Whose Time Has Come
It's not just Obama -- the entire world is ready to get serious about climate change.
Global energy experts Amy Myers Jaffe and Danielle Sperling share an exciting revelation in this Foreign Policy piece, “the entire world is ready to get serious about climate change.”
The Eberhardt School of Business at University of the Pacific is adding new programs in accounting for the fall term.
New programs of a master’s degree in accounting and a bachelor of science in accounting will launch in August 2013.
Last fall, the University of California Davis Graduate School of Management became the first school in the UC system to offer a master’s degree in accounting.
Crying at Work: Why the Stigma Is Wrong
Tears have long been verboten at the office, but they could be more beneficial than you think.
Is the negative stigma of crying at work wrong? Interesting piece in Inc. Mag about how an employee getting misty-eyed at the office may not necessarily be the disruptive disaster you imagine. Professor Elsbach is cited.
Can small-dollar loans paired with free financial education or rewards for saving/paying down debt truly motivate our financial choices? Dean Currall comments on two new SF startups – LendUp.com and SaveUp.com, led by bright, young, socially-conscious CEOs who believe that deploying behavioral economics can do just that.
NPR story about efforts to block the Keystone XL pipeline quotes Amy Jaffe, executive director of energy and sustainability: “It feels very invasive, but the reality is that it happens all around the United States. It’s not limited to just Texas . . .The bottom line is, it’s public good because we use so much oil in this country that we cannot afford in our current lifestyle to turn down infrastructure. We’re all participating in that by getting in our car.”
Starting January 1, New Securities and Exchange Commission rules, though under challenge by industry groups, are to require companies to start disclosing the use of certain conflict minerals. Professor Griffin comments on the affect that this will have on the price of affected goods as well as additional global implications.
If you own Apple stock, odds are good you bought it for the wrong reasons. Don’t sell it for the wrong reasons, too.
“Attention is a scarce resource. When there are many alternatives, options that attract attention are more likely to be considered,” wrote Brad M. Barber, a professor in the Graduate School of Management, University of California, Davis. There’s certainly no shortage of media coverage about Apple, which is still up nearly 30 percent for the year in spite of its recent slide.
California, even as it seeks to be the greenest U.S. state, stands a good chance of emerging as the nation’s top oil producer in the next decade, helping America toward what once seemed an unlikely goal of energy independence.
“There’s a strident environmental community that’s always very concerned about the possibility of ecological damage,” says Amy Myers Jaffe, executive director for energy and sustainability at the University of California-Davis. “It’s going to be a much more intense operating environment” for companies drilling in sensitive areas.
Wall street’s disproportionate sway over the U.S. economy has caused big problems in recent years, from the subprime crisis to high-frequency-trading debacles. But here’s one you may not have noticed: it’s crippling innovation. To understand how, look at the latest victim, the once mighty Hewlett-Packard. It’s hard to think of a company that’s been as loved and, more recently, loathed. Professor Elsbach is cited in this enlightening article about HP.
The New York Times op-ed on U.S. energy independence by Roger Cohen quotes Amy Myers Jaffe, executive director of energy and sustainability: “This is a transformative development . . .We see ourselves increasingly as this weakened country dependent on faraway events. But as we become energy independent our sense of our own power and freedom of movement will change — and with it our foreign policy in ways that are hard to predict. Oil is a different issue when it is not your own problem anymore.”
The 400 largest companies headquartered in California, representing almost $3 trillion in shareholder value, still resemble a “boys’ club” with women filling fewer than 10 percent of top executive jobs, a University of California, Davis, study has found. Incremental gains have been pitiful, in my opinion.
The Graduate School of Management’s eighth annual UC Davis Study of California Women Business Leaders—a yearly benchmark for the Golden State’s lack of progress in promoting women business leaders—paints a dismal picture for women in leadership during fiscal year 2011-2012.
The survey, the only one of its kind to focus on gender equity in the boardrooms and executive suites of corporate California, reports that some of the best known among the top companies, or the California 400, have no women leaders.
So, where are all the top women executives?
Not in California it seems.
A new study by the UC Davis School of Management of the Top 400 public companies in California found only one of 10 of the highest paid executive positions and board seats are held by women. That number has not changed significantly in the eight years the study was been conducted, researchers said.
Top companies headquartered in California could use a few binders full of women. A new report finds that female executives hold fewer than 1 in 10 of the top spots in the state’s 400 biggest companies. Worse yet, of the 85 Fortune 1000 companies based in California, just one is headed by an ethnic minority woman — Linda Lang of San Diego-based Jack in the Box. California’s numbers are on par with other states, but that’s still a pathetic record for a state as ethnically diverse as California, which leads the nation in so many other ways.
“I wrote yesterday on the race to the bottom — how corporations play states, and even cities, off one another in pursuit of the most lucrative benefits. At the same time, they complain about the burdensome taxes and regulations of California. But, as my colleague Martin Kenney so nicely notes in a recent column, California seems to be holding its own in spite of playing hard to get.” | <urn:uuid:bb72812c-be9a-4d68-b03a-7dd26305b49b> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://gsm.ucdavis.edu/featured-stories?page=27 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281069.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00264-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.94748 | 1,719 | 2.03125 | 2 |
Naugatuck Congregational Church 1851 Member List
The Confession of Faith and Covenant, of the Congregational Church in Naugatuck, [Conn.], Together with The Rules, and A Catalogue of Members.
Names in this online transcription include Adams, Andrews, Andrus, Arnts, Atwater, Baldwin, Bateman, Beadsley, Beardsley, Beebe, Beecher, Beers, Behman, Belden, Benham, Boughton, Bouton, Bradley, Bristor, Bulkley, Bunnel, Burwell, Byington, Calkings, Canfield, Carral, Chadwick, Chatfield, Clark, Cross, Culver, Dean, Dodd, Downs, Ells, Fanning, Fowler, Freeman, Frisbie, Garnzy, Gibbard, Goodyear, Gorham, Grilley, Gunn, Harris, Hawkins, Hickox, Hill, Hine, Hinman, Hoadley, Hodge, Hopkins, Hopkinss, Horton, Hotchkiss, Hoyt, Hubbel, Hull, Huntington, Jones, Judd, Lang, Lee, Lewis, Limburner, Lines, McNaughton, Mead, Morgan, Morris, Munson, Neal, Newton, Nichols, Norton, Osborn, Pardee, Partree, Patterson, Payne, Peck, Pettengell, Pettengill, Platt, Porter, Potter, Pratt, Roberts, Root, Russell, Sacket, Sackett, Sanford, Scott, Sherman, Smith, Spencer, Sperry, Stevens, Stoddard, Stone, Street, Talmadge, Teale, Teele, Thayer, Thomas, Thompson, Tirrell, Todd, Tuttill, Tuttle, Twitchel, Upson, Ward, Warner, Wheeler, White, Whitney, Wilmot, Wooden, Woodruff, Woodward.
Labels: Connecticut, Church Records
This page features a historical book or original document that was transcribed during 2005 as part of the Genealogy Today Subscription Data collection -- a project focused on capturing details about the lives of your ancestors, from their early years in school, through college and then into their careers, hobbies and group activities. The list of family names above represents unique last names of individuals found in these Naugatuck Congregational Church records.
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The Genealogy Today catalog number for this item is 11511. When inquiring about the information in this resource, please mention the catalog number. | <urn:uuid:38941692-83e7-4936-8fef-59169a50fef8> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://data.genealogytoday.com/search/Naugatuck_Congregational_Church_1851_Member_List.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560282140.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095122-00130-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.850284 | 637 | 1.90625 | 2 |
STEM learning interactive books, suitable for aged 12m+
The perfect book for bedtime, kids will love tucking each baby into its bed as they read along with this illustrated 12-page board book with pockets on each spread. Five play tags (piglet, chick, puppy, lamb, baby) are attached to the book with colorful ribbons. Tuck the tags into the pockets near the matching mamas to put them to bed! Tags store in a pocket at the front of the book between readings.
．Good Night, Baby board book with pockets and attached play tags
．12-page book with rhyming story helps kids match babies to their grown-up counterparts
．Five play tags (piglet, chick, puppy, lamb, baby) are tethered to book with colorful ribbons so they won't get lost
．Tug tags into pockets on each spread, and store them in a pocket at the front | <urn:uuid:13e041d1-1c4c-4de3-8c30-a1ed885de1a9> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.yumme.com.hk/products/tether-book-good-night-baby | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570879.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20220809003642-20220809033642-00666.warc.gz | en | 0.942979 | 200 | 1.96875 | 2 |
Possible consequences of eutrophication
This article is recommended by the editorial team.
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Ecological impacts
- 2.1 Increased biomass of phytoplankton resulting in algal blooms
- 2.2 Toxic or inedible phytoplankton species (harmful algal blooms)
- 2.3 Increased blooms of gelatinous zooplankton
- 2.4 Decreases in water transparency (increased turbidity)
- 2.5 Dissolved oxygen depletion or hypoxia resulting in increased incidences of fish kills and / or dead benthic animals
- 2.6 Species biodiversity decreases and the dominant biota changes
- 2.7 Increased biomass of macroalgae
- 3 Human health impacts
- 4 Socio-economic impacts
- 5 References
Enhanced plant production and improved fish yields are sometimes described as positive impacts of eutrophication, especially in countries where fish and other aquatic organisms are a significant source of food. However detrimental ecological impacts can in turn have other negative consequences and impacts which are described below. Essentially the entire aquatic ecosystem changes with eutrophication. The diagram below gives an overview on the eutrophication process and its causes and consequences.
Increased biomass of phytoplankton resulting in algal blooms
Phytoplankton or microalgae are photosynthesizing microscopic organisms. They contain chlorophyll and require sunlight in order to live and grow. Most phytoplankton are buoyant and float in the upper part of the ocean where sunlight penetrates the water. In a balanced ecosystem they provide food for a wide range of organisms such as whales, shrimp, snails and jellyfish. Among the more important groups are the diatoms, cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates and coccolithophores. Phytoplankton species require inorganic nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates, and sulfur which they convert into proteins, fats and carbohydrates. When too many of these nutrients (by natural or anthropogenic cause) are available in the water phytoplankton may grow and multiply very fast forming algal blooms. Algal blooms may occur in freshwater as well as marine environments. Only one or a small number of phytoplankton species are involved and some blooms discolor (green, yellow-brown or red) the water due to their high density of pigmented cells. Blooms in the ocean may cover a large area and are easily visible in satellite images.
Toxic or inedible phytoplankton species (harmful algal blooms)
Harmful algal blooms (HAB) are bloom events involving toxic or harmful phytoplankton. These cause harm through the production of toxins or by their accumulated biomass, which can effect co-occurring organisms and alter food web dynamics. Impacts include:
- Human illness,
- Mortality of fish, birds and mammals following consumption or indirect exposure to HAB toxins,
- Substantially economic losses to coastal communities and commercial fisheries.
Increased blooms of gelatinous zooplankton
Phytoplankton are the food source for numerous other organisms, especially the zooplankton. Zooplankton are heterotrophic plankton. They are primarily transported by ambient water currents but many have locomotion. Through their consumption and processing of phytoplankton and other food sources they play a role in aquatic food webs as a resource for higher trophic levels including fish. Zooplankton can be divided in two important groups: crustacean (copepods and krill) and gelatinous zooplankton. Gelatinous zooplankton have relatively fragile, plastic gelatinous bodies that contain at least 95% water and which lack rigid skeletal parts. The most well-known are the jellyfish. Eutrophication is believed to cause an increase in the relative importance of gelatinous versus crustacean zooplankton. On many areas of the world where the natural species diversity has been affected by pollution, over-fishing and climate change gelatinous zooplankton organisms may be becoming the dominant species.
Decreases in water transparency (increased turbidity)
The growth of phytoplankton can cause increased turbidity or decreased penetration of light into the lower depths of the water column. In lakes and rivers this can inhibit growth of submerged aquatic plants and affect species which are dependent on them (fish, shellfish).
Dissolved oxygen depletion or hypoxia resulting in increased incidences of fish kills and / or dead benthic animals
Oxygen is required for all life forms on the planet. Oxygen is produced by plants during (photosynthesis). At night animals and plants, as well as aerobic micro-organisms and decomposing dead organisms respire and so consume oxygen which results in a decrease in dissolved oxygen levels. Large fluctuations in dissolved oxygen levels may be the result of an algal blooms. While the algae population is growing at a fast rate, dissolved oxygen levels decrease. When these algae die, they are decomposed by bacteria which consume oxygen in this process so that the water can become temporarily hypoxic. Oxygen depletion, or hypoxia, is a common effect of eutrophication in water. The direct effects of hypoxia include fish kills, especially the death of fish that need high levels of dissolved oxygen. Changes in fish communities may have an impact on the whole aquatic ecosystem and may deplete fish stocks. In extreme cases hypoxic conditions promote the growth of bacteria that produce toxins deadly to birds and animals. Zones where this occurs are called dead zones.
Species biodiversity decreases and the dominant biota changes
Eutrophication leads to changes in the availability of light and certain nutrients to an ecosystem. This causes shifts in the species composition so that only the more tolerant species survive and new competitive species invade and out-compete original inhabitants. Examples are macroalgae and their massive biomass which inhibits the growth of other aquatic plants and algal blooms that consists of one type of phytoplankton species because other species are expelled.
Increased biomass of macroalgae
Algal blooms may also consist of marine seaweeds or macroalgae. These blooms are recognizable by large blades of algae that may wash up into the shoreline. The seaweed is harmless when it is alive, but when decomposed by anaerobic bacteria toxic gases (such as the colorless hydrogen sulfide (H2S)) can be released.
Human health impacts
Harmful algal bloom species have the capacity to produce toxins dangerous to humans. Algal toxins are observed in marine ecosystems where they can accumulate in shellfish and more generally in seafood reaching dangerous levels for human as well as animal health. Examples include paralytic, neurotoxic and diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning. Several algal species able of producing toxins harmful to human or marine life have been identified in European coastal waters. The table gives an overview of some species that are regularly observed and represent a risk for seafood consumers.
|Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP)||Mental confusion and memory loss, disorientation and sometimes coma||Diatoms of the genus Nitzschia||Shellfish (mussels)|
|Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP)||Muscular paralysis, state of shock and sometimes death||Genus Gymnodinium||Oysters, clams and crustaceans|
|Venerupin shellfish poisoning (VSP)||Gastrointestinal, nervous and hemorrhagic, hepatic symptoms and in extreme causes delirium and hepatic coma||Genus Prorocentrum||Oysters and clams|
|Diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning (DSP)||Gastrointestinal symptoms (diarrhoea, vomiting and abdominal pain)||Genus Dinophysis and Prorocentrum||Filtering shellfish (oysters, mussels and clams)|
|Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)||Muscular paralysis, difficulty in breathing, shock and in extreme causes death by respiratory arrest||Genus Alexandrium and Gymnodinium||Oysters, mussels, crustacean and fish|
Other marine mammals can be vectors for toxins, as in the case of ciguatera, where it is typically predator fish whose flesh is contaminated with the toxins originally produced by dinoflagellates and then poison humans. Symptoms include gastrointestinal and neurological effects.
Nearly all of the above described impacts have a direct or indirect socio-economic impact.
Impact on recreation and tourism
The enrichment of nutrients to an ecosystem can result in a massive growth of macroalgae. The existence of such dense algal growth areas can inhibit or prevent access to waterways. This decreases the fitness for use of the water for water sports (swimming, boating and fishing).
Algal blooms are unsightly and can have unpleasant smells for example:
- The appearance of a white yellowish foam on the beach in spring on the shores along the North Sea. The foam is formed by the wind that sweeps up the decaying remains of Phaeocystis algal colonies.
- When macroalgae or seaweed are decomposed by anaerobic bacteria hydrogen sulfide is (H2S) released. This gas is characterized by a very unpleasant characteristic foul odor of rotten eggs.
In some specific cases local authorities must rely on eutrophic waters for production of drinking water. Infected waters increases the costs of water treatment in order to avoid taste, odor and toxin problems in the water. Due to the toxins produced by harmful algal blooms commercial fish and shellfish may become unsuitable for consumption resulting in potential economical and financial problems for the fishing industries. In extreme cases beaches are closed due to the presence of toxic algal blooms.
- Eutrophication and health. European Commission (2002). Office for Official Publications of the European Communities: Luxembourg. ISBN 92-894-4413-4.28 pp.
- The National Eutrophication monitoring Programme Implementation Manual (Murray et al., 2002).
- Guiry, Michael D. (2013). Nitzschia Hassall, 1845. In: Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. (2013). AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=149045 on 2013-04-22.
- Guiry, Michael D. (2013). Gymnodinium Stein, 1878. In: Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. (2013). AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=109475 on 2013-04-22.
- Guiry, Michael D. (2013). Prorocentrum Ehrenberg, 1834. In: Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. (2013). AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=109566 on 2013-04-22.
- WoRMS (2013). Dinophysis Ehrenberg, 1839. In: Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. (2013). AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=109462 on 2013-04-22.
- Guiry, Michael D.; Moestrup, Ø. (2013). Alexandrium Halim, 1960. In: Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. (2013). AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=109470 on 2013-04-22.
Please note that others may also have edited the contents of this article. | <urn:uuid:61a4f029-6c32-42de-ab66-e484032f80be> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.marbef.org/wiki/Possible_consequences_of_eutrophication | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281069.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00272-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.860546 | 2,657 | 3.96875 | 4 |
We’ve always advocated the benefits of cycling, for wellbeing and for the environment. We have a host of free cycling initiatives for experienced and new cyclists to make it easier for you to start travelling by bike and equip you with the skills you need to keep your wheels safe and roadworthy.
Borrow a Brompton Bike or Electric Brompton
Want to trial a cycle commute but don’t own a bike? Borrow a pink Brompton or electric brompton for free for up to a month. Our Brompton folding bikes are a great way to start cycling in and around Bankside, three of the fleet are e-Brompton bikes, both can be folded and used as part of a longer bus or tube journey (and easily stored at work or home).
Hiring a Better Bankside Brompton will require the borrower to fill in a form at our office, and to agree to the terms and conditions..
As more and more people take to cycling around London, it’s important to check your bike is functioning as it should. Each session provides participants with a quick basic bike check which will assess:
- General roadworthiness of each bike
- Brake pads and brake cables are functioning properly
- Gears are functioning properly
- Wheels are spinning/aligned correctly
- Tyres well inflated and no indication of any inner tube punctures
You can see the next Dr Bike on our events page.
When locked on the street, bicycles in London can be vulnerable to theft.
We encourage the use of good quality locks (‘Sold Secure Gold’) secured to stationary objects, preferably a bike stand. Ensure your wheels and frame are secure. Secure your bike as close to the stand as possible to give any thieves little or no room to manoeuvre.
Better Bankside also support those cycling by offering free security marking and registration to the BikeRegister database. Every Police Force in the UK uses the BikeRegister database to search for stolen and recovered bikes.
Our wardens will apply a permanent mark to the underside of your bike frame with a unique BikeRegister ID, this ID is then registered with your details on the BikeRegister database. You are emailed secure online access to manage your account. The service is offered at most of our Dr Bikes or can be arranged for your workplace.
Secure Cycle Park
We’ve launched the new Better Bankside Secure Cycle Park on Ewer Street with an increased capacity and a digital entry system for ease of access for users – see more info here.
Contact us at email@example.com for more information or to sign up to any of these services. | <urn:uuid:cd505e2c-afca-450f-8416-9e798e10853c> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://betterbankside.co.uk/what-we-do/people-in-bankside/cycling-in-bankside/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570977.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20220809124724-20220809154724-00468.warc.gz | en | 0.904228 | 549 | 1.601563 | 2 |
October 2011: More than 23 million people were unemployed; of which 5 million in Spain.
Unemployment rate: Euro area: 10.2%; European Union: 9.7%; Spain: 22.6%; Greece: 17.6%
Youth unemployment rate: Euro area: 21.2%; European Unión: 21.4%; Spain: 48%; Greece: 43.5%
According to Eurostat[i], the euro area (EA17) seasonally-adjusted unemployment rate was 10.2% in September 2011, compared with 10.1% in August4. It was 10.1% in September 2010. The EU271 unemployment rate was 9.7% in September 2011, compared with 9.6% in August4. It was 9.6% in September 2010.
Eurostat estimates that 23.264 million men and women in the EU27, of whom 16.198 million were in the euro area, were unemployed in September 2011. Compared with August 2011, the number of persons unemployed increased by 174 000 in the EU27 and by 188 000 in the euro area. Compared with September 2010, unemployment rose by 215 000 in the EU27 and by 329 000 in the euro area.
These figures are published by Eurostat, the statistical office of the European Union.
Among the Member States, the lowest unemployment rates were recorded in Austria (3.9%), the Netherlands (4.5%) and Luxembourg (4.8%), and the highest in Spain (22.6%), Greece (17.6% in July) and Latvia (16.1% in the second quarter of 2011).
Compared with a year ago, the unemployment rate fell in fourteen Member States and increased in thirteen. The largest falls were observed in Estonia (17.9% to 12.8% between the second quarters of 2010 and 2011), Latvia (19.4% to 16.1% between the second quarters of 2010 and 2011) and Lithuania (18.2% to 15.5% between the second quarters of 2010 and 2011). The highest increases were registered in Greece (12.6% to 17.6% between July 2010 and July 2011), Spain (20.5% to 22.6%) and Cyprus (6.0% to 7.8%).
Between September 2010 and September 2011, the unemployment rate for males remained stable at 9.9% in the euro area and fell from 9.6% to 9.5% in the EU27. The female unemployment rate increased from 10.4% to 10.6% in the euro area and from 9.7% to 9.9% in the EU27.
In September 2011, 5.308 million young persons (under-25s) were unemployed in the EU27, of whom 3.290 million were in the euro area. Compared with September 2010, youth unemployment increased by 41 000 in the EU27 and by 71 000 in the euro area.
In September 2011, the youth unemployment rate was 21.4% in the EU27 and 21.2% in the euro area. In September 2010 it was 20.9% and 20.8% respectively. The lowest rates were observed in Austria (7.1%) and the Netherlands (8.0%), and the highest in Spain (48.0%) and Greece (43.5% in July).
In September 2011, the unemployment rate was 9.1% in the USA. In August 2011, it was 4.3% in Japan.
[i] http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3-31102011-BP/EN/3-31102011-BP-EN.PDF, 160/2011 -31 October 2011
Greece: figures of July 2011.
The euro area (EA17) consists of Belgium, Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Malta, theNetherlands, Austria, Portugal, Slovenia, Slovakia and Finland.
The European Union (EU27) includes Belgium (BE), Bulgaria (BG), the Czech Republic (CZ), Denmark (DK), Germany (DE), Estonia (EE), Ireland (IE), Greece (EL), Spain (ES), France (FR), Italy (IT), Cyprus (CY), Latvia (LV), Lithuania (LT), Luxembourg (LU), Hungary (HU), Malta (MT), the Netherlands (NL), Austria (AT), Poland (PL), Portugal (PT), Romania (RO), Slovenia (SI), Slovakia (SK), Finland (FI), Sweden (SE) and the United Kingdom (UK). | <urn:uuid:37c16b7b-612b-4712-a534-b1699f6259d5> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.politicapress.com/2011/11/european-unemployment-figures/?lang=en&pfstyle=wp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281424.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00330-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966047 | 954 | 2.21875 | 2 |
The Nuttall Encyclopædia/S
Saadi. See Sádi.
Saale, the name of several German rivers, the most important of which rises in the Fichtelgebirge, near Zell, in Upper Bavaria; flows northward, a course of 226 m., till it joins the Elbe at Barby; has numerous towns on its banks, including Jena, Halle, and Naumburg, to which last it is navigable.
Saarbrück (10), a manufacturing town in Rhenish Prussia, on the French frontier, where the French under Napoleon III. repulsed the Germans, August 2, 1870.
Sabadell (18), a prosperous Spanish town, 14 m. NW. of Barcelona; manufactures cotton and woollen textiles.
Sabæans, a trading people who before the days of Solomon and for long after inhabited South Arabia, on the shores of the Bed Sea, and who worshipped the sun and moon with other kindred deities; also a religious sect on the Lower Euphrates, with Jewish, Moslem, and Christian rites as well as pagan, called Christians of St. John; the term Sabæanism designates the worship of the former.
Sabaoth, name given in the Bible, and particularly in the Epistle of James, to the Divine Being as the Lord of all hosts or kinds of creatures.
Sabathai, Levi, a Jewish impostor, who gave himself out to be the Messiah and persuaded a number of Jews to forsake all and follow him; the sultan of Turkey forced him to confess the imposture, and he turned Mussulman to save his life (1625-1676).
Sabbath, the seventh day of the week, observed by the Jews as a day of “rest” from all work and “holy to the Lord,” as His day, specially in commemoration of His rest from the work of creation, the observance of which by the Christian Church has been transferred to the first of the week in commemoration of Christ's resurrection.
Sabellianism, the doctrine of one Sabellius, who, in the third century, denied that there were three persons in the Godhead, and maintained that there was only one person in three functions, aspects, or manifestations, at least this was the form his doctrine assumed in course of time, which is now called by his name, and is accepted by many in the present day.
Sabianism. See Sabæans.
Sabine, a river of Texas which, rising in the extreme N. of the State, flows SE. and S., forming for 250 m. the boundary between Louisiana and Texas, passes through Sabine Lake into the Gulf of Mexico after a navigable course of 500 in.
Sabine, Sir Edward, a noted physicist, born in Dublin; served in artillery in 1803, maintained his connection with it till his retirement in 1874 as general, but owes his celebrity to his important investigations into the nature of terrestrial magnetism; accompanied as a scientist Boss and Parry in their search for the North-West Passage (1819-20); was President both of the Royal Society from 1861 to 1879 and of the British Association in 1853 (1788-1883).
Sabines, an ancient Italian people of the Aryan stock, near neighbours of ancient Borne, a colony of whom is said to have settled on the Quirinal, and contributed to form the moral part of the Roman people. Numa, the second king of the city, was a Sabine. See Romulus.
Sable Island, a low, sandy, barren island in the Atlantic, 110 m. off the E. coast of Nova Scotia; is extremely dangerous to navigation, and is marked by three lighthouses; is gradually being washed away.
Sabots, a species of wooden shoes extensively worn by the peasants of France, Belgium, &c.; each shoe is hollowed out of a single block of wood (fir, willow, beech, and ash); well adapted for marshy districts.
Sacerdotalism, a tendency to attach undue importance to the order and the ministry of priests, to the limitation of the operation of Divine grace.
Sacheverel, Henry, an English Church clergyman, born at Maryborough, who became notorious in the reign of Queen Anne for his embittered attack (contained in two sermons in 1700) on the Revolution Settlement and the Act of Toleration; public feeling was turning in favour of the Tories, and the impolitic impeachment of Sacheverel by the Whig Government fanned popular feeling to a great height in his favour; was suspended from preaching for three years, at the expiry of which time the Tories, then in power, received him with ostentatious marks of favour; was soon forgotten; was an Oxford graduate, and a friend of Addison; a man of no real ability (1672-1724).
Sachs, Hans, a noted early German poet, born at Nürnberg; the son of a tailor, by trade a shoemaker; learned “the mystery of song” from a weaver; was a contemporary of Luther, who acknowledged his services in the cause of the Reformation; in his seventy-fourth year (1568), on examining his stock for publication, found that he had written 6048 poetical pieces, among them 208 tragedies and comedies, and this besides having all along kept house, like an honest Nürnberg burgher, by assiduous and sufficient shoemaking; a man standing on his own basis; wrote “Narrenschneiden,” a piece in which the doctor cures a bloated and lethargic patient by “cutting out half-a-dozen fools from his interior”; he sunk into oblivion during the 17th century, but his memory was revived by Goethe in the 18th (1494-1576).
Sachs, Julius, a German botanist and professor, born at Breslau; has written several works on botany, and experimented on the physiology of plants; b. 1832.
Sackville, Thomas, Earl of Dorset, poet and statesman, born at Buckhurst; bred for the bar; entered Parliament in 1558; wrote with Thomas Norton a tragedy called “Gorboduc,” contributed to a collection of British legends called the “Mirror of Magistrates” two pieces in noble verse (1536-1608).
Sacrament, a ceremonial observance in the Christian Church divinely instituted as either really or symbolically a means, and in any case a pledge, of grace.
Sacramentarian, a High Churchman who attaches a special sacred virtue to the sacraments of the Church.
Sacramento, largest river of California, rises in the NE. in the Sierra Nevada; follows a south-westerly course, draining the central valley of California; falls into Suisund Bay, on the Pacific coast, after a course of 500 miles, of which 250 are navigable.
Sacramento (29), capital of California, situated at the confluence of the Sacramento and American Rivers, 90 m. NE. of San Francisco; industries embrace flour and planing mills, foundries, potteries, &c.; has an art gallery, court-house, &c.; the tropical climate is tempered at night by cool sea breezes.
Sacred Wars. See Amphictyonic Council.
Sacrifice, anything of value given away to secure the possession of something of still higher value, and which is the greater and more meritorious the costlier the gift.
Sacring-bell, or Sanctus-bell, the bell which rings when the Host is elevated at the celebration of High Mass.
Sacy, Antoine Isaac, Baron Silvestre de, the greatest of modern Orientalists, born at Paris; by twenty-three was a master of classic, Oriental, and modern European languages; was appointed in 1795 professor of Arabic in the School of Oriental Languages, and in 1806 of Persian in the College de France, besides which he held various other appointments; founded the Asiatic Society in 1822; was created a baron by Napoleon Bonaparte, and entered the Chamber of Peers in 1832; published “Biographies of Persian Poets,” a standard Arabic grammar, &c.; his writings gave a stimulus to Oriental research throughout Europe (1758-1838).
Sadda, the name given to a Persian epitome of the Zend-Avesta.
Sadducees, a sect of the Jews of high priestly origin that first came into prominence by their opposition to the Pharisees, being the party in power when Pharisaism arose in protestation against their policy as tending to the secularisation of the Jewish faith, or the prostitution of it to mere secular ends. They represented the Tory or Conservative party among the Jews, as the Pharisees did the High Church party among us. The antagonism which thus arose on political grounds gradually extended to religious matters. In regard to religion they were the old orthodox party, and acknowledged the obligation of only the written law, and refused to accept tradition at the hands of the Scribes. They denied the immortality of the soul, the separate existence of spirits, and this they did on strictly Old Testament grounds, but this not from any real respect for the authority of Scripture, only as in accord with the main article of their creed, which attached importance only to what bears upon this present life, and which in modern times goes under the name of secularism. They were at bottom a purely political party, and they went out of sight and disappeared from Jewish history with the fall of the Jewish State, only the Pharisaic party surviving in witness of what Judaism is.
Sade, Donatien Alphonse François, Marquis de, French novelist, who, after fighting in the Seven Years' War, was sentenced to death for odious crimes, effected his escape, but was caught and imprisoned in the Bastille, where he wrote a number of licentious romances; died a lunatic (1740-1814).
Sádi, a celebrated Persian poet, born at Shiraz, of noble lineage, but born poor; bred up in the Moslem faith; made pilgrimages to Mecca no fewer than 15 times; spent years in travel; fell into the hands of the Crusaders; was ransomed by a merchant of Aleppo, who thought him worth ransoming at a cost; retired to a hermitage near Shiraz, where he died and was buried; his works, both in prose and verse, are numerous, but the most celebrated is the “Gulistan” (the rose-gardens), a collection of moral tales interlarded with philosophical reflections and maxims of wisdom, which have made his name famous all over both the East and the West (1184-1291).
Sadler, Sir Ralph, a politician and diplomatist; was employed by Henry VIII. in carrying out the dissolution of the monasteries, and conducted diplomatic negotiations with Scotland; distinguished himself at the battle of Pinkie; enjoyed the favour of Elizabeth; was Queen Mary's keeper in the Castle of Tutbury; was the bearer of the news of Queen Mary's execution to King James (1507-1587).
Sadoleto, Jacopo, cardinal, born in Modena; acted as secretary under Leo X., Clement VII., and Paul III., the latter of whom created him a cardinal in 1536; was a faithful Churchman and an accomplished scholar, and eminent in both capacities (1477-1547).
Sadowa. See Königgrätz.
Safed (17), a town of Palestine, 12 m. N. of Tiberias, occupied principally by Jews attracted thither in part by the expectation that the Messiah, when He appears, will establish His kingdom there; it spreads in horse-shoe fashion round the foot of a hill 2700 ft. high; is a seat of Hebrew learning.
Safety Lamp, name of a variety of lamps for safety in coal-mines against “fire-damp,” a highly explosive mixture of natural gas apt to accumulate in them; the best known being the “Davey Lamp,” invented by Sir Humphrey Davy; the “Geordie,” invented by George Stephenson, both of which, however, have been superseded by the Gray, Muesler, Marsant, and other lamps; all are constructed on the principle discovered by Davy and Stephenson, that a flame enveloped in wire gauze of a certain fineness does not ignite “fire-damp.”
Saffi, or Asfi (9), a decayed seaport of Morocco, on the Mediterranean coast, 120 m. NW. of the city of Morocco; has ruins of a castle of the Sultans and of the old Portuguese fortifications; has still a fair export trade in beans, wool, olive-oil, &c.
Sagar, a low island at the mouth of the Hûgli, a sacred spot and a place of pilgrimage to the Hindus; mostly jungle; sparsely peopled.
Sagas, a collection of epics in prose embodying the myths and legends of the ancient Scandinavians, originally transmitted from mouth to mouth, and that began to assume a literary form about the 12th century.
Sagasta, Praxedes Mateo, Spanish statesmen of liberal sympathies; took part in the insurrections of 1856 and 1866, and was for some time a fugitive in France; entered Prim's Cabinet, supported the elected King Amadeus, and since his abdication has led the Liberal party; has twice been Prime Minister; b. 1827.
Saghalien (12), a long narrow island belonging to Russia, situated close to the E. coast of Siberia, from which it is separated by the so-called Gulf of Tartary; stretches N. from the island of Yezo, a distance of 670 m.; is mountainous and forest-clad in the interior; has excellent coast fisheries, but a cold, damp climate prevents successful agriculture; rich coal-mines exist, and are wrought by 4000 or 5000 convicts. Ceded by Japan to Russia in 1875.
Saguenay, a large and picturesque river of Canada; carries off the surplus waters of Lake St. John, replenished by a number of large streams, and issuing a full-bodied stream, flows SE. through magnificent forest and mountain scenery till it falls into the St. Lawrence, 115 m. below Quebec, after a course of 100 m.; is remarkable for its depth, and is navigable by the largest ships.
Saguntum, a town of ancient Spain, was situated where now stands the town of Murviedro, 18 m. NE. of Valencia; famous in history for its memorable siege by Hannibal in 219 B.C., which led to the Second Punic War.
Sahara, the largest desert region in the world, stretches E. and W. across Northern Africa, from the Atlantic to the valley of the Nile, a distance of 3000 m., and on the N. is limited by the slopes of the Atlas Mountains, and on the S. by the valleys of the Senegal and Niger Rivers. The surface is diversified by long sweeps of undulating sand-dunes, elevated plateaux, hill and mountain ranges (8000 ft. highest) furrowed by dried-up water-courses, and dotted with fertile oases which yield date-palms, oranges, lemons, figs, &c. The most sterile tract is in the W., stretching in a semicircle between Cape Blanco and Fezzan. Rain falls over the greater part at intervals of from two to five years. Temperature will vary from over 100°F. to below freezing-point in 24 hours. There are a number of definite caravan routes connecting Timbuctoo and the Central Soudan with the Niger and coast-lands. Dates and salt are the chief products; the giraffe, wild ass, lion, ostrich, python, &c., are found; it is chiefly inhabited by nomadic and often warlike Moors, Arabs, Berbers, and various negro races. The greater part is within the sphere of French influence. “When the winds waken, and lift and winnow the immensity of sand, the air itself is a dim sand-air, and dim looming through it, the wonderfullest uncertain colonnades of sand-pillars whirl from this side and from that, like so many spinning dervishes, of a hundred feet of stature, and dance their huge Desert waltz there.”
Saharanpur (59), a town in the North-West Provinces of India, 125 m. N. of Delhi, in a district formerly malarious, but now drained and healthy; the population principally Mohammedans, who have recently built in it a handsome mosque.
Sahib (i. e. master), used in India when addressing a European gentleman; Mem Sahib to a lady.
Saigon (16), capital of French Cochin-China, on the river Saigon, one of the delta streams of the Mekhong, 60 m. from the China Sea; is handsomely laid out with boulevards, &c.; has a fine palace, arsenal, botanical and zoological gardens, &c.; Cholon (40), 4 m. SW., forms a busy trading suburb, exporting rice, cotton, salt, hides, &c.
Saint, a name applied to a holy or sacred person, especially one canonised; in the plural it is the name assumed by the Mormons.
St. Albans (13), an old historic city of Hertfordshire, on an eminence by the Ver, a small stream, which separates it from the site of the ancient Verulamium; has a splendid ancient abbey church, rebuilt in 1077; industries include brewing, straw-plaiting, silk-throwing, &c.; scene of two famous battles (1455 and 1461) during the Wars of the Roses.
St. Aloysius, Italian marquis, who renounced his title, became a Jesuit, devoted himself to the care of the plague-stricken in Rome; died of it, and was canonised (1568-1591).
St. Andrews (7), a famous city of Fife, occupies a bold site on St. Andrews Bay, 42 m. NE. of Edinburgh; for long the ecclesiastical metropolis of Scotland, and associated with many stirring events in Scottish history; its many interesting ruins include a 12th-century priory, a cathedral, “robbed” in 1559, a castle or bishop's palace built in the 13th century; has a university (St. Salvator's 1521 and St. Leonard's 1537) the first founded in Scotland, and is still an important educational centre, having several excellent schools (Madras College the chief); since the Reformation its trade has gradually dwindled away; fishing is carried on, but it depends a good deal on its large influx of summer visitors, attracted by the splendid golf links and excellent sea-bathing.
Saint Arnaud, Jacques Leroy de, a noted French marshal, born at Bordeaux; was already a distinguished soldier when he entered actively into the plans of Louis Napoleon to overthrow the Republic; assisted at the coup d'état, and was created a marshal in reward; commanded the French forces at the outbreak of the Crimean War, and took part in the battle of the Alma, but died a few days later (1796-1854).
St. Asaph (2), a pretty little city in Flintshire, 6 m. SE. of Rhyl; its cathedral, the smallest in the kingdom, was rebuilt after 1284, mainly in the Decorated style.
St. Bees (1), a village on the Cumberland coast, 4 m. S. of Whitehaven; has a Church of England Theological College, founded in 1816 by Dr. Law, bishop of Chester; designed for students of limited means; a ruined priory church of Henry I.'s time was renovated for the accommodation of the college.
St. Bernard, the name of two mountain passes in the Alps: 1, Great St. Bernard, in the Pennine Alps, leading from Martigny to Aosta, is 8120 ft. high, near the top of which stands a famous hospice, founded in 962, and kept by Augustinian monks, who, with the aid of dogs called of St. Bernard, do noble service in rescuing perishing travellers from the snow; 2, Little St. Bernard, in the Graian Alps, crosses the mountains which separate the valleys of Aosta and Tarantaise in Savoy. Hannibal is supposed to have crossed the Alps by this pass.
St. Brieuc (16), capital of the dep. of Côtes du Nord, Brittany, on the Gouet, and 2 m. from its mouth; has a 13th-century cathedral, ruins of an interesting tower, lyceum, &c.; at the mouth of the river is the port Le Ligné.
St. Christopher or St. Kitts (30), one of the Leeward Islands, in the West Indies archipelago, 45 m. NW. of Guadeloupe; a narrow mountainous island, 23 m. long; produces sugar, molasses, rum, &c.; capital is Basse-terre (7).
St. Clair, a river of North America, flowing in a broad navigable stream from Lake Huron into Lake St. Clair, which in turn pours its surplus waters by means of the Detroit River into Lake Erie.
St. Cloud (5), a town in the dep. of Seine-et-Oise, France; occupies an elevated site near the Seine, 10 m. W. of Paris; the fine château, built by Louis XIV.'s brother, the Duke of Orleans, was for long the favourite residence of the Emperor Napoleon, since destroyed; a part of the park is occupied by the Sèvres porcelain factory.
St. Cyr (3), a French village, 2 m. W. of Versailles, where Louis XIV., at the request of Madame de Maintenon, founded an institution for the education of girls of noble birth but poor, which was suppressed at the time of the Revolution, and afterwards converted into a military school by Napoleon.
Saint-Cyr, Laurent Gouvion, Marquis de, marshal of France, born at Toul; joined the army in 1792, and in six years had risen to the command of the French forces at Rome; fought with distinction in the German and Italian campaigns, and in the Peninsular War; won his marshal's baton during the Russian campaign of 1812; was captured at the capitulation of Dresden in 1813, much to the regret of Napoleon; created a peer after the Restoration, and was for some time Minister of War; wrote some historical works (1764-1830).
St. Davids (2), an interesting old cathedral town in Pembrokeshire, on the streamlet Alan, and not 2 m. from St. Brides Bay; its cathedral, rebuilt after 1180 in the Transition Norman style, was at one time a famous resort of pilgrims. On the other side of the Alan stand the ruins of Bishop Gower's palace.
St. Denis (48), a town of France, on a canal of the same name, 4 m. N. of Paris, noted for its old abbey church, which from the 7th century became the burying-place of the French monarchs. During the Revolution in 1793 the tombs were ruthlessly desecrated; there is also a school for the daughters of officers of the Legion of Honour, founded by Napoleon; manufactures chemicals, printed calicoes, &c.
St. Elias, Mount, an isolated, inaccessible volcanic mountain in the extreme NW. of Canada, close to the frontier of Alaska, 18,010 ft. high; has never been scaled.
St. Elmo's Fire. See Elmo's Fire, St.
St. Étienne (133), a busy industrial town of France, capital of department of Loire, on the Furens, 36 m. SW. of Lyons; has been called the “Birmingham of France”; is in the centre of a rich coal district, and produces every kind of hardware; the manufacture of ribbons is also an important industry; there is a school of mines.
Saint-Évremond, Charles Marguetel de Saint-Denis, Seigneur de, a celebrated French wit and author; won distinction as a soldier, and rose to be a field-marshal; his turn for satiric writing got him into trouble, and in 1661 he fled to England, where the rest of his life was spent; wrote charming letters to his friend Ninon de l'Enclos; enjoyed the favour of Charles II., and published satires, essays, comedies, &c., which are distinguished by their polished style and genial irony; was buried in Westminster (1613-1703).
St. Gall (230), a NE. canton of Switzerland, on the Austrian frontier; its splendid lake and mountain scenery and mineral springs render many of its towns popular holiday resorts; the embroidery of cottons and other textiles is an important industry. St. Gall (28), the capital, is situated on the Steinach, 53 m. E. of Zurich; is a town of great antiquity, and celebrated in past ages for its monastic schools; its magnificent mediæval cathedral has been restored; the old Benedictine monastery is used now for government purposes, but still contains its famous collection of MSS.; embroidering textiles is the chief industry.
St. Gothard, a noted mountain in the Lepontine Alps, 9850 ft. high, crossed by a pass leading from Lake Lucerne to Lake Maggiore; since 1882 traversed by a railway with a tunnel through from Göschenen to Airolo, a distance of 9¼ m.
St. Helena (4), a precipitous cliff-bound island lying well out in the Atlantic, 1200 m. off the W. coast of Africa; belongs to Britain; celebrated as Napoleon Bonaparte's place of imprisonment from 1815 till his death in 1821. Jamestown (2), the capital, is a second-class coaling station for the navy, and is fortified.
St. Helens (71), a thriving manufacturing town of Lancashire, on Sankey Brook, a feeder of the Mersey, 21 m. W. by S. of Manchester; is the chief centre of the manufacture of crown, plate, and sheet glass.
St. Helier (29), capital of Jersey Island, on St. Aubin Bay, on the S. side; is well fortified by Fort Regent and Elizabeth Castle, on a rocky islet near the shore; has a college, public library, &c.; fishing and shipbuilding are important industries.
St. Ives, 1, a town in Cornwall, 8 m. N. of Penzance, the inhabitants of which are chiefly engaged in the pilchard fisheries. 2, A town in Huntingdonshire, on the Ouse, 5 m. E. of Huntingdon, where Cromwell lived and Theodore Watts the artist was born.
St. James's Palace, an old, brick-built palace in Pall Mall, London, originally a hospital, converted into a manor by Henry VIII., and became eventually a royal residence. It gives name to the British court.
St. John, a river of North America, rises in the highlands of North Maine and crosses the continent in an easterly direction and falls into the Bay of Fundy after a course of 450 m., of which 225 m. are in New Brunswick; is navigable for steamers as far as Fredericton.
St. John (39), embracing the adjacent town of Portland, chief commercial city of New Brunswick, on the estuary of St. John River, 277 m. NW. of Halifax; has an excellent harbour; shipbuilding, fishing, and timber exporting are the chief industries; has a great variety of prosperous manufactures, such as machine and iron works, cotton and woollen factories, &c.; does a good trade with the West Indies.
St. Johns (26), capital of Newfoundland, situated on a splendid harbour on the peninsula or Avalon, in the E. of the island: is the nearest port of America to the continent of Europe; has oil and tan works, &c.
St. Joseph (103), a city of Missouri, on the Missouri River (here spanned by a fine bridge), 110 m. above Kansas City, is an important railway centre; as capital of Buchanan County it possesses a number of State buildings and Roman Catholic colleges; does a large trade in pork-packing, iron goods, &c.
Saint-Just, Louis Florelle de, a prominent French Revolutionist, born at Decize, near Nevers; as a youth got into disgrace with his family and fled to Paris, where, being bitten already by the ideas of Rousseau, he flung himself heart and soul into the revolutionary movement, became the faithful henchman of Robespierre, and finally followed his master to the guillotine, having in his zeal previously declared “for Revolutionists there is no rest but in the tomb”; “he was a youth of slight stature, with mild mellow voice, enthusiast olive-complexioned, and long black hair” (1767-1794).
St. Kilda. See Kilda, St.
St. Lawrence, one of the great rivers of North America; issues in a noble stream from Lake Ontario, and flowing due NE. discharges into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, forming a broad estuary; is 750 m. long and from 1 to 4 m. broad; the scenery in parts is very grand, notably in the expansion—the Lake of the Thousand Isles; is navigable for large steamers as far as Montreal: the Ottawa is its chief tributary; in winter navigation is suspended on account of the ice.
St. Ló (10), a town in Normandy, on a rocky eminence 60 m. SE. of Cherbourg; has textile manufactures; was the birthplace of Leverrier.
St. Louis, 1, One of the great commercial cities (575) of the United States, capital of Missouri State; situated on the Mississippi (here spanned by two fine bridges), 21 m. below its confluence with the Missouri; is a handsomely built city, and equipped with every modern convenience, entirely lit by electric light, &c.; has spacious parks, two universities, public libraries, &c.; is a centre for 18 railroads, which with the great river-way enables it to carry on a vast trade in grain, cotton, wool, furs, live stock, &c.; its tobacco manufacture is the greatest in the world. 2, Also capital (17) of the French colony of Senegal, in West Africa.
St. Lucia (42), a rocky, forest-clad island in the West Indies, the largest of the Windward group; exports sugar, cocoa, logwood, &c.; capital is Castries (8).
St. Malo (12), a strongly fortified seaport of France, on the Brittany coast (department of Ille-et-Vilaine), at the mouth of the Ranee; the old town is built over the Rocher d'Auron, an islet connected with the mainland by a causeway 215 yards long; there is a good harbour, and a considerable amount of shipping is done; potatoes, dairy-produce, and some cereals are exported. It was the birthplace of several distinguished French authors and sailors.
St. Michael's (126), the largest and most fertile of the Azores, 40 m. long by from 5 m. to 10 m. in breadth; is of volcanic origin; yields cereals, oranges, &c.
St. Michael's Mount, an islet, forming a precipitous granite mass, in Mount's Bay, Cornwall, connected with the mainland by a low causeway passable only at low tides; a fine old castle crowns its rocky height, and a small fishing village lies sheltered on the northern side.
St. Michel, Mont, a remarkable islet in St. Michel Bay, SW. corner of Normandy, 18 m. W. of Avranches; is formed of a single cone of granite, 242 ft. high, crowned by a historic Benedictine monastery; on the lower slopes is built a little fortified town; a causeway 1 m. long joins it to the mainland.
St. Nazaire (26), a flourishing seaport of France, on the Loire, 40 m. W. of Nantes, where large sums have been expended in improving its spacious docks to accommodate an increasing shipping-trade; its exports, brandy, coal, wheat, &c., are mainly from Nantes and the interior.
St. Neots (4), an old market-town of Huntingdonshire, on the Ouse, 8 m. SW. of Huntingdon; has an interesting old parish church, a corn exchange, and iron and paper works.
St. Nicholas, the patron saint of boys, who was fabled to bring presents to good children on Christmas eve; was bishop of Myra in the 4th century, and had taken a special interest in the young.
St. Omer (20), a fortified town of France, on the Aa, 26 m. SE. of Calais; has a fine old Gothic cathedral, a ruined Benedictine abbey church, a Catholic college, arsenal, &c.; manufactures embrace light textiles, tobacco pipes, &c.
St. Paul (168), capital of Minnesota State, finely situated on the Mississippi, a little below the mouth of the Minnesota River; in 1849 a village of 500 inhabitants; is now a beautiful and spacious city, equipped with colleges, libraries, government buildings, electric street-railways, &c.; is a centre for 10 railways, and carries on a large trade in distributing groceries and dry goods throughout the State.
St. Paul's School, at West Kensington, London, a famous charity school founded by John Colet (q. v.), dean of St. Paul's, for children of “every nation, country, and class”; originally stood in St. Paul's Churchyard, but was burned out by the Great Fire of 1666; the present building was opened in 1884. The endowment amounts to £10,000 a year, and 1000 boys and 400 girls are provided with education and board. There are a number of Oxford and Cambridge exhibitions.
St. Petersburg (1,036), capital of Russia, an imposing city, occupying a dreary, isolated site at the head of the Gulf of Finland, on the banks and delta islands (100) of the Neva, founded in 1702 by Peter the Great; a large number of bridges span the main stream and its numerous divisions; massive stone quays hold back the waters, but a rise of 12 ft. floods the city (a yearly occurrence in the poorer parts); the river is ice-bound nearly half the year, and is given over to sleighing, &c.; the short summer is hot; covers nearly 48 sq. m.; its palaces and government buildings for number and grandeur are unsurpassed; Neva View is the finest street in Europe; is the centre of Russian political, literary, scientific, and artistic life; has a university, numerous academies, cathedral, technical and training colleges, and libraries (the Imperial Public Library contains 1,200,000 vols.); connected with the Volga basin by a canal, and the centre of four railways, it is the commercial metropolis and chief port of Russia, and carries on half the foreign trade; exports one-fifth of the corn of Russia, besides flax, linseed, leather, petroleum, &c.; imports coal, machinery, &c.; principal manufactures are cotton goods and other textiles, leather, sugar, porcelain goods, &c.
St. Pierre, Henri Bernardin de, French novelist, born at Havre; an engineer by profession, was a disciple of Rousseau both sentimentally and speculatively; his chief work, “Paul and Virginia” (q. v.), shows here as in his other writings, says Professor Saintsbury, “a remarkable faculty of word-painting, and also of influencing the feelings” (1737-1814).
St. Quentin (48), a manufacturing town of France, on the Somme, 95 m. NE. of Paris; manufactures all kinds of cotton and woollen goods, machinery, paper, &c.; has a fine old Gothic church and town-hall; here the French were routed by the Spaniards in 1557, and by the Germans in 1871.
St. Réal, Abbé de, historian, born at Chambéry, where he settled in 1679, and where he died; was historiographer to the Duke of Savoy, and wrote the “History of the Conspiracy of Spain against Venice,” a masterpiece of its kind, and modelled on Sallust (1639-1692).
Saint Saëns, Charles Camille, a French musician, born in Paris; for 19 years organist of the Madeleine; composer of a number of operas (e. g. “Henri VIII.”) indifferently successful, and of much orchestral and chamber music of a masterly kind; is held to be one of the greatest of living pianists and organists; also noted for his musical critiques; b. 1835.
St. Simon, Claude Henri, Comte de, founder of French Socialism, and of a sect called after him St. Simonians, born in Paris, of an old noble family; grand-nephew of the succeeding, but renounced his title and devoted his life and all his means of living to the promotion of his Socialist scheme, reducing himself in the end to utter penury; he made few disciples, though some of them were men of distinction; he is credited by Carlyle with having discovered, “not without amazement, that man is still man, of which forgotten truth,” he bids us remark, “he had made a false application”; that is, we presume, by reorganisation from without instead of regeneration from within; his scheme was a reconstruction of society by the abolition of the hereditary principle, and the vesting of the instruments of production in the State and the administration of these for the welfare of all its members (1760-1825).
St. Simon, Louis de Rouvroy, Duc de, French courtier and diplomatist in the reign of Louis XIV.; left “Memoirs” in record of the times he lived in, depicting with remarkable sagacity the manners of the Court and the characters of the courtiers (1676-1755).
St. Simonians. See St. Simon, Comte de.
St. Tammany, an American-Indian chief, popularly canonised as a saint, and adopted as the tutelary genius by a section of the democratic party in the States; his motto was “Unite in peace for happiness; in war for defence.”
St. Thomas, 1, an unhealthy volcanic island (20) in the Gulf of Guinea, belonging to Portugal; produces coffee, cocoa, and some spices; chief town, St. Thomas (3), a port on the NE. 2, One of the Virgin Islands (14), 37 m. E. of Porto Rico; belongs to Denmark; since the abolition of slavery its prosperous sugar trade has entirely departed; capital, St. Thomas (12), is now a coaling-station for steamers.
St. Thomas's, a handsome hospital on the S. side of the Thames, opposite Westminster, founded in 1553, and with an annual revenue of £40,000.
Saint-Victor, Paul de, an ornate French writer, born in Paris; from 1851 was engaged in dramatic and other criticism, and established his reputation as a stylist of unusual brilliance. “When I read Saint-Victor I put on blue spectacles,” said Lamartine; author of several works on historical and æsthetic subjects (e. g. “Anciens et Modernes,” “Hommes et Dieux”) was for a number of years General Inspector of Fine Arts (1827-1881).
St. Vincent (41), one of the Windward Islands, in the West Indies, 105 m. W. of Barbadoes, belongs to Britain; a coaling and cable station; mountainous and volcanic; warm, but healthy climate; exports sugar, rum, spices, &c.; chief town is Kingston (6), a port on the SW. coast.
St. Vincent, Cape, a lofty and rugged headland in the extreme SW. of Portugal, off which have been fought several naval battles, the most memorable being the great victory on February 14, 1797, when Jervis and Nelson annihilated the Franco-Spanish fleet.
St. Vincent, John Jervis, Earl, a noted English admiral, born at Meaford Hill, Staffordshire; ran away to sea when a boy, and by gallantry at Quebec in 1759 and otherwise rose rapidly in the service; commanded the naval attack upon the French West Indies (1793), and four years later, as admiral of the Mediterranean fleet, shared with Nelson the honours of a brilliant victory over the combined fleets of France and Spain off Cape St. Vincent; was created an earl in reward; during 1801-1804 was a successful First Lord of the Admiralty (1734-1823).
Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin, the greatest of French literary critics, born at Boulogne-sur-Mer; adopted medicine as a profession in deference to the wishes of his widowed mother, and for some years studied at Paris, but even as a student had begun his career as a literary critic by contributions to the Globe newspaper; in 1827 became acquainted with Victor Hugo, whose commanding influence drew him into the Romantic movement, and determined for him a literary career; a critical work on French poetry in the 16th century (1828), two volumes of mediocre poetry (1829-1830), and a psychological novel, “Volupté” (1834), the fruit of spiritual and mental unrest, preceded his lectures at Lausanne on Port-Royal (1837), which, afterwards elaborated and published, contain some of his finest writings; an appointment in the Mazarin Library, Paris (1840), brought him a modest competence, and allowed him during the next 8 years to contribute without strain or stress to the Revue des Deux Mondes; was elected in 1845 to the Academy; three years later lectured for a session at Liège University; during 1849-1869 he contributed a weekly literary article to the Constitutionnel; these form his famous “Causeries du Lundi” and “Nouveaux Lundis,” which, for variety of human interest, critical insight, and breadth of sympathy, remain unsurpassed; was appointed professor of Latin in the Collège de France (1854), but his unpopularity with the students, owing to his support of Napoleon III., led to his resignation; as a senator in 1865 his popularity revived by his eloquent advocacy of freedom of thought, and on his decease some 10,000 people attended his funeral (1804-1869).
Sainte-Claire Deville, Henri Étienne, a noted French chemist, born in St. Thomas, West Indies; occupied for many years the chair of Chemistry in the Sorbonne, Paris; his important contributions to chemical knowledge include a process for simplifying the extraction of aluminium and platinum (1818-1881).
Saintes (15), an interesting old town in West France, dep. Charente-Inférieure, on the Charente, 28 m. SE. of Rochefort; known in ancient times as Mediolanum; has some splendid Roman remains, a cathedral, &c.; manufactures copper and iron goods, leather, &c.
Saintsbury, George, literary critic, born at Southampton; graduated at Merton College, Oxford; was engaged in scholastic work for a number of years at Manchester, Guernsey, and Elgin; in 1876 settled in London, and made a reputation for vigorous and scholarly criticism, devoting much of his time to French literature; elected to the Chair of English Literature in Edinburgh University, 1895; is the author of a “Short History of French Literature,” a “Short History of English Literature,” besides several volumes of essays, &c.; b. 1845.
Saïs, a city of ancient Egypt, on the delta, on the right bank of the W. branch of the Nile; gave name to two Egyptian dynasties founded by natives of it, was a religious centre, and eventually for a time capital, the temple of which was said to contain a veiled statue which became a subject of legend.
Saivas, in the Hindu religion the worshippers of Siva, one of the two great sections of the Hindus, the worshippers of Vishnu being the other.
Saki, a beer of alcoholic quality made in Japan from rice by fermentation. It is drunk hot at meals, and is in a small way intoxicating.
Sakuntala, in Hindu mythology a benignant female character, made the subject of a famous drama of Kálidása (q. v.), translated in 1789 by Sir William Jones.
Sakyamuni (i. e. the solitary of the Sakyas), the name given to Buddha, one of the tribe of the Sakyas in Northern India.
Sala, George Augustus, a well-known journalist, born in London, of Italian and English parentage; had some training in art before he began writing for Dickens's Household Words, &c.; lived a busy, rambling life; founded and edited Temple Bar; acted as war-correspondent for the Daily Telegraph; author of several popular novels, “Captain Dangerous” and “Quite Alone” among them, and books of travel, “A Trip to Barbary” and “America Revisited” (1828-1895).
Salaam, an Oriental term of salutation meaning “Peace,” especially among the Mohammedans.
Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria, the hero of the third crusade on the Saracen side; a man of noble and chivalrous character; served first as a soldier under Nureddin; rose to be vizier of Egypt, and ultimately sovereign in 1174; distinguished himself by the capture of Damascus, Aleppo, &c., and entering the Holy Land defeated the Christians at Tiberias, thereafter taking Jerusalem and laying siege to Tyre; found in Richard Coeur de Lion a foeman worthy of his steel, concluded a truce in 1192, and died the year after (1137-1193).
Salamanca (22), an interesting old city of Spain, capital of a province of the same name, occupies a hilly site on the Tormes, here spanned by a Roman bridge, 110 m. NW. of Madrid, long famous for its university, which in its heyday (16th century) numbered 8000 students, now fallen to 400; holds within its surrounding walls many fine old cathedrals, colleges, and other buildings; its industries are greatly fallen off, and consist mainly of cloth, linen, leather, and pottery manufacturing; in this neighbourhood Wellington won a great victory over the French on July 22, 1812.
Salamander, an elemental spirit conceived in the Middle Ages as an animal that lived in the fire as its proper element.
Salamis, a mountainous island of Greece, on the NW. coast of Attica, the strait between which and the mainland was the scene of a naval victory over the armament of Xerxes by the combined fleets of Athens, Sparta, and Corinth in 480 B.C.
Saldanha Oliveira e Daun João Carlos, Duke of, Portuguese statesman and soldier, played an honourable and patriotic part in many wars and crises of his country, notably in Brazil in the struggle between Dom Pedro and Dom Miguel, and during his occupancy of the Premiership on three several occasions between 1846-70; proved a mild constitutionalist, and enjoyed the confidence and support of England; was created a duke in 1846 (1790-1876).
Sale, George, Orientalist, born in Kent, and bred for the bar, contributed to the “Universal History” and the “General Dictionary,” but is best known as the translator of the “Korân,” with a preliminary dissertation and notes; he left a body of MSS. behind him (1690-1736).
Sale, Sir Robert Henry, British general; saw a great deal of fighting; was distinguished in the Burmese War of 1824-25, and in the war against Afghanistan in 1834, in both of which he was wounded, and afterwards in the latter country during 1841-42; he was killed at the battle of Mudki fighting against the Sikhs (1782-1865).
Salem, 1, a city (36) and seaport of the United States, founded in 1626 on a peninsula in Massachusetts Bay, 15 m. NE. of Boston; its foreign trade has fallen away, but a good coasting trade is done in ice and coal; manufactures include cottons, jutes, shoes, &c. 2, Capital (5) of Oregon, on the Willamette River, 720 m. N. of San Francisco.
Salerno (22), a city of South Italy, on a gulf of the name, 33 m. SE. of Naples; has some fine Gothic buildings, notably the cathedral of St. Matthew; had a European fame in the Middle Ages for its medical school and university, closed in 1817; cotton-spinning is the chief industry; in the neighbourhood are the ruins of Pæstum and an old Norman castle.
Salette, La, a French village amid Alpine scenery, 28 m. SE. of Grenoble; has become a place of pilgrimage, since the alleged appearance of the Virgin to two peasant children on 19th September 1846.
Salford (198), a suburb of Manchester, with cotton factories and iron-works, and with Manchester forms the second largest city in England.
Salic Law, a law which obtained among the Salian Franks, as also in certain German States, which excluded females from succession to the throne.
Salicylic Acid, produced in commercial quantities from carbolic acid; is a white crystalline powder, soluble in water, odourless, of a sweetish acid taste; largely used as an external antiseptic, and internally in the form of salicylate of sodium as a febrifuge and cure for acute rheumatism.
Salisbury (17), a cathedral city, and capital of Wiltshire, 84 m. WSW. of London; the cathedral, founded in 1225, and frequently added to and restored, is one of the finest specimens of Early English architecture; has a number of other interesting old buildings—churches, almshouses, inns, an endowed school, &c.; agriculture is the staple industry; also called New Sarum, and a mile to the N. is the half-obliterated site of Old Sarum, with many interesting historical associations; while round the neighbourhood sweeps the wide, undulating, pastoral Salisbury Plain, with its Druidical circle of Stonehenge (q. v.).
Salisbury, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoigne Cecil, Marquis of, statesman, educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; as Lord Cecil, represented Stamford in Parliament in 1853; was, as Lord Cranborne, Secretary for India in 1866 under Lord Derby; entered the House of Lords as Lord Salisbury in 1867, and distinguished himself as foremost in debate; became Secretary for India under Disraeli in 1874, and Secretary for Foreign Affairs in 1881, in which latter year he, on the death of Beaconsfield, became leader of the Conservative party; after this he was three times raised to the Premiership, the last time on Lord Roseberys retirement in 1890, by coalition with the Liberal Unionists (q. v.); was at one time a contributor to the Saturday Review, and is interested in scientific pursuits, chemistry in particular; b. 1830.
Sallust, Roman historian, born at Amiternum, in the territory of the Sabines, and attained the quæstorship and the tribunate, though a plebeian; for a misdemeanour was expelled the Senate; joined Cæsar's party in the Civil War, and became governor of Numidia; enriched himself by extortions, and returned to Rome a rich man, and gave himself to literature; wrote the “Catiline Conspiracy,” and the “War with Jugurtha,” among other works, in a terse and forcible style, and was the precursor of Livy and Tacitus; as a writer he affects the moralist, though he lived in vice (86-35 B.C.).
Salmasius, eminent French scholar, learned in Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Arabic, and other languages; succeeded Scaliger at Leyden, and associated with Casaubon, Grotius, and other scholars; embraced Protestantism; wrote a number of learned works, but his “Defence of Charles I.” proved a failure, and provoked from Milton a crushing reply; died a disappointed man, though he refused to sell his literary talent for money, when Richelieu tried hard to bribe him (1588-1653).
Salmon, George, mathematician and divine, born in Dublin, and there in 1839 graduated with mathematical honours at Trinity College; became a Fellow, entered the Church, and in 1866 was elected regius professor of Divinity, becoming provost of the college in 1888; has carried on with eminent success his dual studies, mathematics and theology, and has published some notable works in both sciences, e. g. in theology, “Non-Miraculous Christianity,” “Gnosticism and Agnosticism,” a scholarly and popular “Introduction to the New Testament,” and in mathematics “Analytic Geometry,” “The Higher Plane Curves,” &c. b. 1819.
Salomon, Johann Peter, a violinist and composer, born at Bonn; was in his youth attached, to the court of Prince Henry of Prussia, at which time he wrote some operas; came to London, and is remembered for the great stimulus he gave to musical culture, and especially the study of Haydn in England by his Philharmonic Concerts (1790) and production of that great master's symphonies; composed songs, glees, violin pieces, &c.; buried in Westminster Abbey (1745-1815).
Salonica or Saloniki (122), the Thessalonica of the Scriptures, the second port and city of Turkey in Europe; occupies a bold and rocky site at the head of the Gulf of Salonica, 370 m. SW. of Constantinople; is surrounded by walls, is well laid out, drained, &c.; contains many fine old mosques; has an increasing commerce, exporting corn, cotton, opium, wool, &c.; founded in 315 B.C., and has ever since been a place of considerable importance.
Salsette (108), an island N. of Bombay, and connected with it by a causeway, with richly cultivated fields and rock temples among other ruins.
Salt, Sir Titus, English manufacturer, born near Leeds; introduced the manufacture of alpaca, planted his factory at Saltaire, near Leeds, which he made a model village for his workers as a philanthropic employer of labour (1803-1876).
Salt Lake City (53), the capital of Utah, a high-lying city and stronghold of Mormonism, 11 m. from Great Salt Lake; contains the Mormon temple, which it took 40 years to build, and it has besides many fine churches, and the university of Deseret.
Salt Range, a tract of lofty tableland buttressed on either side by mountain ranges 3000 to 5000 ft. high, and stretching across the Punjab E. and W., between Jhelum and Indus Rivers; derives its name from the remarkably rich deposits of rock-salt, which are extensively worked.
Salts, in chemistry an important class of compound substances formed by the union of an acid with a metal or a base, that is, a substance having, like a metal, the power of replacing in part or in whole the hydrogen of the acid employed.
Saltus, Edgar, an interesting American writer, born in New York; a busy writer in fiction, biography (Balzac), and philosophy, e. g. “The Philosophy of Disenchantment” and “The Anatomy of Negation,” studies in a somewhat cheerful pessimism; b. 1858.
Salvador (780), the smallest but the most densely populated of the republics of Central America, about one-sixth the size of England and Wales; has a western foreshore between Guatemala (N.) and Nicaragua (S.), fronting the Pacific for 140 m.; slopes up from rich alluvial coast-lands to high plateaus, which stretch, seamed and broken by rivers and volcanoes, to the Cordillera frontier of Honduras on the E.; soil is extremely fertile and naturally irrigated by numerous streams, and produces in abundance coffee and indigo (chief exports), balsam, tobacco, sugar, cereals, &c.; has a warm, healthy climate. The natives are chiefly Indians of Aztec descent, but speaking Spanish. The government is vested in a president and chamber of deputies. Education is free and compulsory. Broke away from Spanish control in 1821; was a member of the Central American Confederacy, but since 1853 has enjoyed complete independence. Capital, San Salvador (q. v.).
Salvation Army, a modern religious organisation and propaganda, remarkable alike for its novel methods and phenomenal expansion; assumed its present quasi-military form in 1878, but is in reality the outgrowth of a mission founded in London in 1865 by the Rev. William Booth (q. v.), and nobly furthered by his wife. It is in essence a protest against the older conventional methods of propagating the Christian religion, and would seem by its remarkable success to have ministered to some latent and wide-spread need among the poorer classes. In 1895 it numbered 500,000 enrolled soldiers, 25,126 local officers, and 11,740 officers; these are spread over 35 countries. The members assume semi-military attire, march through the streets to the sound of musical instruments, displaying banners; but while these and other sensational devices bring its purposes home to the hearts of the people, its vitality rests upon the real spiritual devotion and self-sacrifice of its members. Various agencies of a more directly philanthropic kind (homes of rest, rescues, workshops, farms, etc.) have become attached to it, and are generously supported by the public. Funds are raised by means of the War Cry and other periodicals.
Salvini, Tommaso, a celebrated Italian tragedian, born, the son of an actor, at Milan; was trained to the stage, and joined Ristori's company; served with distinction in the revolutionary war of 1849, and returning to the stage won for himself a European fame, appearing in France, Spain, United States, England, &c.; achieved his greatest success in “Othello”; retired after 1884, and published “Leaves from My Autobiography”; b. 1830.
Salween, a river of Asia whose source is still uncertain; forms in its lower part the boundary between Siam and British Burma, and falls into the Gulf of Martaban; its upper course traverses the northern Shan district; only 80 m. of it are navigable.
Salzburg (174), a western province and duchy of Austria, borders on Bavaria between the Tyrol and Upper Austria; is woody and mountainous, especially in the S., where fine scenery is formed by the Alps; excellent meadowland favours a prosperous industry in the rearing of cattle and horses. The inhabitants, being Protestants, were severely persecuted by the Church, and 30,000 of them emigrated in 1730, and on the invitation of Frederick William of Prussia settled in Lithuania, that had been desolated by plague. Salzburg (28), the capital, occupies a fine site on the hill-girt banks of the Salzach (crossed by 3 bridges), 80 m. E. by S. of Münich; is a handsome and interesting city, with many fine old buildings, including a cathedral, archbishop's palace, imperial palace, monasteries, &c.; has a theological college, libraries, &c.; birthplace of Mozart; manufactures musical instruments, &c.
Salzkammergut (18), a beautiful mountain district of Austria, between Salzburg (W.) and Styria (E.); salt mines and springs give a rich yield of salt.
Sam Slick. See Slick.
Sam Weller. See Weller.
Samarcand (33), a city of West Turkestan, situated at the western base of the Tian-Shan Mountains, 130 m. SE. of Bokhara. Suffered at the hands of Genghis Khan in the 13th century; was Timur's capital in the 14th century, and has since been held sacred by the Moslems. Captured by the Russians in 1868, who have improved it, and built a handsome suburb on the west. Manufactures silk, cotton, paper, &c.
Samaria, a city of a district of the name between Judea and Galilee in the Holy Land, and which became the capital of the North Kingdom of Israel after the revolt from the Southern; was desolated by the hosts of Assyria in 720 B.C., and repeopled afterwards by Assyrian settlers, who were converted to the Jewish faith, and ministered to by a Jewish priest; when the Jews rebuilt the Temple of Jerusalem, the Samaritans' offer to aid was rejected, and the refusal led to a bitter hostility between the Jews and Samaritans ever after.
Samaritan Pentateuch, a version of the Pentateuch in use among the Samaritans, and alone accepted by them as canonical. It is of value from its independence of other versions.
Samaritans. See Samaria.
Samaveda, the section of the Veda that contains the chants, intended for singers.
Samian Sage, name given to Pythagoras as a native of Samos.
Samnites, a warlike people of ancient Italy in territory SE. of Rome; gave the Romans much trouble till, after two successive wars in 343 and 327 B.C., they were subdued in 290 B.C. A revolt in 90 B.C. led to their extermination as an nation.
Samoa, or Navigators' Islands (36), a group of 14 volcanic islands in the W. Pacific, of which three alone are of any size—Savaii, Upolu, and Tutuila; all are mountainous and richly wooded; climate is moist and warm; copra is the chief export, and cotton, coffee, tobacco, &c., are grown; the natives, a vigorous Polynesian race, have been Christianised; the islands are under the joint suzerainty of Britain, Germany, and the United States; the chief town of the group is Apia (2), at the head of a pretty bay in Upolu; near here R. Louis Stevenson spent the last five years of his life.
Samos, a fertile island in the Ægean Sea, about 30 m. long and 8 wide, separated from the coast of Ionia, three-quarters of a mile wide; had an extensive trade with Egypt and Crete; came through various fortunes under the chief Powers of ancient and mediæval Europe till it became subject to Turkey; had a capital of the same name, which in the fifth century B.C. was one of the finest cities in the world.
Samothrace, a mountainous, bleak island in the Ægean Sea, NW. of the mouth of the Dardanelles; has only one village of 2000 inhabitants; was in ancient times place of Cabiri worship (q. v.).
Samoyedes, a people of the Mongolian race, occupying the N. shores of Russia and Siberia from the White Sea to the Yenisei; live by hunting and fishing, and are idol-worshippers; they are fast disappearing.
Sampson, Dominie, a character in Scott's “Guy Mannering.”
Samson, ranked as judge of Israel, but the story of his life is as of a Jewish hero, distinguished for his feats of strength; employed in the service of his country against the Philistines.
Samson Agonistes, the strong man of a nation or race caught in the net of his and their enemies, and, encompassed by them, wrestling in his soul's agony to free himself from them; the imagery here being suggested by the story of Samson in the hands of the Philistines.
Samuel, a Jewish prophet, born, of the tribe of Levi, about 1155 B.C.; consecrated by his mother from earliest years to the service of the Lord; who became a judge when he was 40, anointed first Saul and then David to be king over the till then disunited tribes of Israel, and thus became the founder of the Jewish monarchy.
Samuel, Books of, two books of the Old Testament, originally one, and divided in the Septuagint into two, entitled respectively the First and Second Books of Kings; the narrative embraces a period of 125 years, and extends from the time of the Judges to the close of the reign of David, including the intermediate judgeship of Samuel and the reign of Saul, with the view of exalting the prophetic office on the one hand and the kingly office on the other.
San Antonio (53), the second city of Texas, of Spanish origin, on a river of the name, 80 m. W. of Austin; has a Catholic college, cathedral, arsenal, &c.; does a good trade in the produce of a fertile neighbourhood, and manufactures flour, leather, beer, &c.
San Diego (16), a thriving port in S. California, situated on a handsome bay of the same name, 124 m. SE. of Los Angeles; wool is the chief export.
San Domingo (25), capital of the Dominican Republic, a fortified port on the S. coast of Hayti; has a 16th-century Gothic cathedral, college, hospital, &c.; founded by Columbus.
San Francisco (342), capital of California, and commercial metropolis of the W. coast of America; occupies the NE. corner of a tongue of land stretching between the Pacific and San Francisco Bay, which, with San Pablo Bay and Suisun Bay—extensions to the N.—forms a handsome land-locked sheet of water 65 m. long, communicating with the ocean by Golden Gate Strait; has practically sprung into existence since the discovery of gold in 1847, and is now a spacious and evenly laid-out city, with every modern convenience—electric light, cable tramways, &c.; many of the dwelling-houses are of wood, but marble and granite give dignity to Government buildings, hotels, theatres, &c.; there is a remarkable number of religious sects; has a fine park, many free schools, a number of colleges, and a university; as the western terminus of the great continental railroads and outlet for the produce of a rich wheat district it has a large shipping trade; important industries are shipbuilding, whale-fishing, sugar-refining, iron-works, &c.
San José (18), a city of California, and capital of Santa Clara county, on the Guadalupe River, 50 m. SE. of San Francisco; has a couple of Catholic colleges, a Methodist university, pretty orchards, &c.; fruit-canning and the manufacture of flour and woollen goods are the chief industries. The name also of small towns in Guatemala, Lower California, and Uruguay.
San José (19), capital of Costa Rica, situated on a fertile and elevated plain between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific; grain, the vine, and many fruits are grown in the neighbourhood; flour-milling and distilling (Government works) are the principal town industries; there is a university.
San Juan (125), a mountainous province of the Argentine Republic, on the Chilian border; is rich in metals, but, save coal, not worked; agriculture is the chief industry. San Juan (12), on a river of the same name, is the capital, lies 98 m. N. of Mendoza; has public baths, a bull-ring, library, &c.; exports cattle and fodder, chiefly to Chile. The name of numerous other towns in different parts of Spanish South America.
San Marino (8), a little republic of Europe which has maintained its independence since the 4th century; comprises a town (same name) and several villages occupying rocky and elevated sites on the eastern slopes of the Apennines; some agriculture and cattle-rearing are done; is under the friendly protection of Italy.
San Remo (12), a town in Northern Italy, on a bay in the Gulf of Genoa, in the Riviera, 26 m. NE. of Nice; is sheltered by a semicircle of hills, and from its mild climate is a favourite winter resort; trades in olive-oil, palms, and lemons.
San Salvador (20), capital of Salvador (q. v.), situated on a fertile and elevated plain at the base of an extinct volcano; has suffered frequently and severely from earthquakes, and after the disaster of 1854 a new town, Nueva San Salvador, was built 12 m. to the SW., only to suffer a similar fate.
San Sebastian (30), a fortified seaport of North Spain, on a small peninsula jutting into the Bay of Biscay, 10 m. from the French frontier; is guarded by a strong citadel, and since its bombardment by Wellington in 1813 has been spaciously rebuilt; has a beautiful foreshore, and is a favourite watering-place; has a fair export trade.
San Stefano, a Turkish village, a few miles W. of Constantinople, where a preliminary treaty was signed between Turkey and Russia after the war of 1877-78.
Sanchez, Thomas, a Spanish casuist, born at Cordova; author of a treatise on the “Sacrament of Marriage,” rendered notorious from the sarcastic treatment it received at the hands of Pascal and Voltaire (1550-1610).
Sancho Panza, the immortal squire of Don Quixote. See Panza, Sancho.
Sanchoniathon, a Phoenician historian of uncertain date; author of a history of Phoenicia, of which only a few fragments remain, and that of a translation into Greek; he is supposed to have lived in the time of Semiramus.
Sancroft, William, an English prelate, born in Suffolk; rose through a succession of preferments to be Archbishop of Canterbury; was with six other bishops committed to the Tower for petitioning against James II.'s second Declaration of Indulgence; refused to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary, and was driven from his post, after which he retired to his native place (1616-1693).
Sand, George, the assumed name of Aurore Dupin, notable French novelist, born in Paris; married Baron Dudevant, a man of means, but with no literary sympathies; became the mother of two children, and after nine years effected a separation from him (1831) and went to Paris to push her way in literature, and involved herself in some unhappy liaisons, notably with Alfred de Musset (q. v.) and Chopin; after 1848 she experienced a sharp revulsion from this Bohemian life, and her last twenty-five years were spent in the quiet “Châtelaine of Nohant” (inherited) in never-ceasing literary activity, and in entertaining the many eminent littérateurs of all countries who visited her; her voluminous works reflect the strange shifts of her life; “Indiana,” “Lélia,” and other novels reveal the tumult and revolt that mark her early years in Paris; “Consuelo,” “Spiridion,” &c., show her engaged with political, philosophical, and religious speculation; “Elle et Lui” and “Lucrezia Floriani” are the outcome of her relations with Musset and Chopin; the calm of her later years is reflected in “La Petite Fadette,” “François le Champi,” and other charming studies of rustic life; her “Histoire de ma Vie” and posthumous letters also deserve notice; her work is characterised by a richly flowing style, an exuberant imagination, and is throughout full of true colour and vivid emotion (1804-1876).
Sandeau, Léonard Jules, French novelist, born at Aubusson; gave up law for literature; was George Sands first “friend” in Paris, and wrote with her “Rose et Blanche”; contributed to the Revue des Deux Mondes; wrote many novels and plays, and was elected to the Academy (1858), and during his later life held the librarianship at St. Cloud (1811-1883).
Sandemanians. See Glassites.
Sanderson, Burdon, English physiologist; professor of Physiology first at University College, London, and since 1882 at Oxford; is one of the greatest authorities on the subject; b. 1828.
Sanderson, Robert, English prelate, great casuist; became chaplain to Charles I. in 1631, and bishop of Lincoln in 1660 (1587-1663).
Sandhurst or Bendigo (27), a mining city of Victoria, Australia, on Bendigo Creek, 101 m. NW. of Melbourne; came into existence with the “gold rush” of 1851; mines are still of value; a good trade in grain, brewing, iron-founding, &c., is also done.
Sandringham, an estate in Norfolk of over 7000 acres, 7½ m. NE. of Lynn, the property of the Prince of Wales since 1862.
Sandwich (3), one of the old Cinque Ports (q. v.) in Kent, on the Stour, and once on the sea, but now, by the receding of the sea, 2 m. distant; 12 m. E. of Canterbury; an interesting place of many historical associations; has a splendid golf course, which attracts summer visitors.
Sandwich Islands. See Hawaiian Islands.
Sangha, the Buddhist Church, and the third term of the Triratna or Buddhist trinity, the two other being Buddha and Dharma, his law.
Sangraal. See Graal, Holy.
Sanhedrim, a council of the Jews which held its sittings in Jerusalem, and claimed authority and jurisdiction over the whole Jewish people; it was an aristocratic body, and was presided over by the high-priest; its authority was limited from time to time, and it ceased to exist with the fall of Jerusalem; there is no note of its existence prior to the Grecian period of Jewish history.
Sankara, a Hindu teacher of the philosophy or the Vedas, who lived some time between 800 and 200 B.C., and was the author of a number of commentaries on the sacred writings of the Hindus, the teachings of which he contributed to develop.
Sankhya, one of three systems of Hindu philosophy, Yoga and Vedânta being the other two, and the system which is most in affinity with the doctrine of Buddha.
Sannazaro, Jacopo, an Italian poet, enjoyed the favour of King Frederick III. of Naples, and wrote amongst other things a pastoral medley in verse and prose called “Arcadia,” which ranks as an Italian classic (1458-1530).
Sans Souci (i. e. No Bother), “an elegant, commodious little 'country box,' one storey high, on a pleasant hill-top near Potsdam”; the retreat of Frederick the Great after his wars were over, and in part sketched by himself, and where he spent the last 40 years of his life, specially as years advanced; it is 20 m. from Berlin, and the name is Frederick's own invention.
Sansculottes (i. e. fellows without breeches), a name of contempt applied by the aristocratic party in France to the Revolutionists, and at length accepted by the latter as a term of honour, as men who asserted their claim to regard on their naked manhood.
Sansculottism, belief in the rights of man, stript of all the conventional vestures and badges by which alone, and without any other ground of right, one man maintains an ascendency over another.
Sanskrit, the name given to the ancient literary language of the Hindus, still preserved in their literature, belongs to the Aryan family of languages, in their purest form and most perfect development.
Santa-Anna, Antonio de, a noted soldier and President of Mexico, entered the army as a boy, and from the proclamation of the Republic in 1822 till his final exile in 1867 was embroiled in all the wars, intrigues, and revolutions of his country; was four times President, and on the last occasion (1853) was appointed for life, but his habitual harshness alienated the people in two years; fled the country as on many former crises in his life; intrigued against the newly-established empire, but was captured and sentenced to death (1867); allowed to expatriate himself, and died in exile; he was one of the most forceful characters in Mexican history (1795-1876).
Santa Claus, contraction of St. Nicholas (q. v.).
Santa Cruz or Nitendi (5), the largest of the Queen Charlotte or Santa Cruz Islands, in the South Pacific, 100 m. N. of the New Hebrides; on one of the smaller islands Bishop Patteson was brutally murdered by the natives in 1871.
Santa Cruz or St. Croix (20), one of the Virgin Islands; produces sugar, rum, and cotton; ceded by France to Denmark in 1733; a serious nigger revolt took place in 1878; capital is Christianstadt (6).
Santa Cruz or Teneriffe (13), capital and chief seaport of the Canary Islands, situated on the NE. side of Teneriffe; has an excellent and strongly-fortified harbour; is an important coaling port for ocean steamers; cochineal, wine, and garden-produce are the chief exports.
Santa Fé, 1, on the Rio Solado, capital (15) of a rich agricultural province (240) of the Argentine Republic, lying N. of Buenos Ayres. 2, Capital (7) of New Mexico, U.S.; holds an elevated site amid the Rockies; is the centre of a good mining district; has the oldest Spanish cathedral in the United States.
Santals, one of the aboriginal tribes of India, inhabiting a district in the province of Bengal, which stretches southward from the Ganges; they are chiefly hunters, but also agriculturists; dwell by the forest edges, are fond of music, and are sun-worshippers; number considerably over a million.
Santander (42), a flourishing port of North Spain, stands on a fine bay facing the Bay of Biscay, 316 m. N. of Madrid; actively engaged in cigar-making, brewing, cotton-spinning, flour-milling, &c.; exports flour, wine, and cereals; a popular seaside resort.
Santerre, Antoine Joseph, a popular wealthy brewer, born in Paris; assisted at the fall of the Bastille; played a conspicuous part during the Revolution; became commander of the National Guard in 1792; proposed as a relief in famine that every citizen should live two days a week on potatoes, and that every man should hang his dog; conducted King Louis into the judgment, holding him by the arm; with a stamp of his foot ordered him to mount the guillotine; failed in quelling the insurrection in La Vendée, and was recalled; was made brigadier-general by Napoleon as a reward for keeping the peace which he would fain have disturbed on the 18th Brumaire in 1797 (1752-1809).
Santiago (393), capital of Chile, beautifully situated on a wide fertile and elevated plain overhung on the N. and E. by the snow-clad peaks of the Andes, 90 m. SE. of Valparaiso; the Mapocho, a mountain stream, passes through the N. part of the city, is handsomely laid out with spacious plazas, a noble alameda, and well-paved streets; has many fine public buildings, hotels, a cathedral, a university, art, agricultural, and military schools, botanical and zoological gardens, &c.; in the pretty neighbourhood there is a popular racecourse; is an important commercial centre, with a stock exchange, law-courts, and manufactures of cloth, flour, ships' biscuits, beer, ice, &c.
Santiago de Compostella (23), a city of Spain, in Galicia, of which it was formerly the capital, 26 m. NE. of Carril, on the coast; has an interesting old Romanesque cathedral, a noted place of pilgrimage in the Middle Ages, a university, and several ruined monasteries; manufactures linen, leather, &c.
Santiago de Cuba (71), formerly capital of Cuba, on a beautiful land-locked bay on the S. coast; the harbour is strongly fortified; is the see of an archbishop, and has an old Spanish cathedral, also flourishing sugar-factories, foundries, &c.
Santley, Charles, a well-known baritone singer, born in Liverpool; studied at Milan; made his début in 1857, and ever since has been an accepted favourite with the public both as an oratorio and operatic singer; has published a volume of reminiscences; b. 1834.
Santorin or Thera (17), a volcanic island in the Ægean, one of the Cyclades; is the southmost of the group, and lies 70 m. N. of Crete; the vine grows luxuriantly, and there is a good wine trade; has many interesting prehistoric remains; chief town, Thera or Phera, on the W. coast.
São Francisco, one of the great rivers of Brazil, for the most part navigable; rises in the SW., near the source of the Paraná, and flows N., NE., and SE. till it reaches the S. Atlantic after a course of 1800 m., forming in its lower part the boundary between the maritime provinces Sergipe and Alagoas; higher it divides Bahia and Pernambuco.
São Paulo (35), a manufacturing town of Brazil (minerals, coffee); capital of a productive and healthy State (1,387) of the same name, situated on a plain 310 m. W. by S. from Rio de Janeiro; has pretty suburbs, electric light, &c.; is the chief centre of the Brazilian coffee trade, and has manufactories of cotton, tobacco, spirits, &c.; is the seat of a law-school.
Saône, a tributary of the Rhône; rises among the Faucelles Mountains, in Vosges, and flows SW. and S. to the Rhône at Lyons; length 282 m., of which one-half is navigable.
Saône, Haute- (281), a department in the E. of France, near the Alsace border, between Vosges (N.) and Doubs (S.); forests abound; about one-half is under cultivation, and there are fine cherry orchards; watered by the Saône and its affluents.
Saône-et-Loire (620), an east-midland department of France, bounded SE. and W. by the Saône and Loire; has a fine fertile surface, and is noted for its cattle and abundant output of wine; iron and coal are wrought, and its towns are busy with the manufacture of cotton goods, pottery, machinery, &c.
Sapphire, a precious stone of the corundum class, and differing from the ruby (q. v.) only in colour, which is a blue of various shades; the finest specimens are found in Ceylon; its value depends chiefly on quality, and not so much (like the ruby) on size.
Sappho, a lyric poetess of Greece of the 7th century B.C., and a contemporary of Alcæus; was a woman of strong passions and of questionable morality, but of undoubted genius, her lyrics being among the masterpieces of antiquity, though only two of her odes and some short fragments of others remain; of her history little is known, and what is known is far from reliable.
Saracens, the name given in mediæval times to the Arabs or Mohammedans, and extended to all the non-Christian races with whom the Crusaders or Christian races came to grips.
Saragossa (95), an interesting city of Spain, and capital of Aragon, on the Ebro, which flows through it, 212 m. NE. of Madrid; its history goes back to far Roman times, and includes fierce struggles between Goths, Moors, and Spaniards, and a memorable siege by the French in 1808; being one of the earliest Christian cities of Spain it contains many interesting relics, cathedrals, &c.; there is a university, citadel, archiepiscopal palace, &c.; manufactures embrace cloth, silks, leather, &c.
Sarasate, Martin Meliton, a Spanish violinist, and one of the most finished of the day, a Basque by birth, but educated at Paris; has travelled over the world, winning fame and a fortune; made his first appearance in London in 1874; is composer of some light pieces; b. 1844.
Sarasvati, a Hindu goddess, and ultimately the wife of Brahma and goddess of music and eloquence.
Saratoff (122), a handsome city of Russia, on the Volga, 500 m. SE. of Moscow; has thriving industries in distilling, flour, oil, and tobacco, and trades in corn, salt, textiles, &c.; the government of Saratoff (2,433) is a prosperous agricultural district.
Saratoga Springs (12), one of the best-known watering-places of the United States, in New York State, 38 m. N. of Albany; plentifully supplied with mineral springs; once a village, now growing into a town of hotels, &c.; 12 m. to the E. is the scene of Burgoyne's surrender to Gates, October 17, 1777.
Sara`wak (320), a principality of North-West Borneo, fronting the Chinese Sea on the NW. and contiguous to Dutch Borneo; was granted as an independent Rajahship to Sir James Brooke by the sultan of Borneo in 1841, and governed by him and afterwards by his son, by whom it was put under British protection in 1888; is very fertile, and grows sugar, coco-nuts, rice, sago, rubber, tea, &c.; is rich in minerals, and mining is carried on of antimony, quicksilver, gold, and coal; capital Kuching (25), on the Sarawak River.
Sardanapálus, the last king of Assyria; led a luxurious, effeminate life, but surprised when at his ease by a large army of invaders he suddenly developed into a hero, till hard pressed at length and shut up in Nineveh, and after two years' defence finding resistance hopeless, he reared a funeral pile, and setting fire to it, threw himself upon it and perished in the flames.
Sardinia (682), an island of the Mediterranean, 170 m. long and 75 m. broad, the second largest, Sicily being larger, and to the S. of Corsica; is since 1859 part of the kingdom of Italy; it has a fruitful soil, and presents a diversified surface of hill and valley; the chief export is salt, and there are extensive fisheries; the capital is Cagliari, in the S.; it is rich in mineral resources, but the exploitation of these is in a backward state.
Sardis, capital of ancient Lydia, in Asia Minor, at the foot of Mount Tmolus, celebrated for its wealth, its trade, and luxury, through the market-place of which the river Pactolus flowed with its sands of gold.
Sardou, Victorien, a popular French playwright, born at Paris; gave up medicine for literature, and his first successes were “Monsieur Garat” and “Les Prés Saint-Gervais,” both in 1800; from that date his popularity and wealth began to flow in upon him; his work has been taken up by Sarah Bernhardt, for whom he wrote “Fédora,” “Théodora,” and “La Tosca” (1887); a number of his plays have been translated into English, such as “A Scrap of Paper,” “Diplomacy,” &c.; was elected to the Academy in 1877; his plays are characterised by clever dialogue and stage effects, and an emotionalism rather French than English; b. 1831.
Sarmatians or Sarmats, an ancient race, embracing several warlike nomadic tribes, who spoke the Scythian language, and inhabited the shores of the Black Sea and Eastern Europe as far as the Caucasus; fought with Mithridates against the Romans; were overwhelmed by the Goths in the 4th century A.D., and afterwards gradually absorbed by the Slavs.
Sarpedon, the “Nestor” and king of the Lycians, was son of Zeus and Europa.
Sarpi, Paul, an Italian historian of the monastic order, born at Venice; was a man of wide attainments and liberal views; was the champion of the Republic against the Pope; was summoned to Rome, and on his refusal to obey, excommunicated; his life being in peril he retired into his monastery, and wrote the “History of the Council of Trent,” with which his name has ever since been associated; he was held in high honour by the Venetians, and was honoured at his death by a public funeral (1565-1623).
Sarto, Andreo del (i. e. Andrew, the tailors son), a Florentine artist; painted in oil and fresco numerous works; died of the plague at Florence, his work displays accuracy of drawing and delicacy of feeling (1486-1531).
Sartor Resartus (i. e. the tailor patched), a book written by Carlyle at Craigenputtock (q. v.) in 1831, published piecemeal in Frazer's Magazine in 1833-34, and that first appeared in a book form in America, under Emerson's auspices, in 1836, but not in England till 1838. It professes to be on the philosophy of “clothes” (q. v.), and is divided into three sections, the first in exposition of the philosophy, the second on the life of the philosopher, and the third on the practical bearings of his idea. It is a book in many respects unparalleled in literature, and for spiritual significance and worth the most remarkable that has been written in the century. It was written in the time and for the time by one who understood the time as not another of his contemporaries succeeded in doing, and who interprets it in a light in which every man must read it who would solve its problems to any purpose. Its style is an offence to many, but not to any one who loves wisdom and has faith in God. For it is a brave book, and a reassuring, as well as a wise, the author of it regarding the universe not as a dead thing but a living, and athwart the fire deluges that from time to time sweep it, and seem to threaten with ruin everything in it we hold sacred, descrying nothing more appalling than the phoenix-bird immolating herself in flames that she may the sooner rise renewed out of her ashes and soar aloft with healing in her wings. See Carlyle, Thomas, Exodus from Houndsditch, Natural Supernaturalism, &c.
Saskatchewan, one of the great and navigable rivers of Canada, rises among the Rockies in two great branches, called respectively the North and South Saskatchewan, 770 and 810 m., which flowing generally E., unite, and after a course of 282 m. pass into Lake Winnipeg, whence it issues as the Nelson, and flows 400 m. NE. to Hudson's Bay. The upper branches traverse and give their name to one of the western territories of Canada.
Sassari (32), the second city of Sardinia, in the NW., prettily situated amid olive and orange groves, 12 m. from the Gulf of Asinara; has an old cathedral, castle, and university, and does a good trade in olive-oil, grain, &c.
Satan, an archangel who, according to the Talmud, revolted against the Most High, particularly when required to do homage to Adam, and who for his disobedience was with all his following cast into the abyss of hell. See Devil.
Satanic School, name applied by Southey to a class of writers headed by Byron and Shelley, because, according to him, their productions were “characterised by a Satanic spirit of pride and audacious impiety,” and who, according to Carlyle, wasted their breath in a fierce wrangle with the devil, and had not the courage to fairly face and honestly fight him.
Satellites (lit. attendants), name given to the secondary bodies which revolve round the planets of the solar system, of which the Earth has one, Mars two, Jupiter four, Saturn eight, Uranus four, and Neptune is known to have at least one, as Venus is surmised to have.
Satire, a species of poetry or prose writing in which the vice or folly of the times is held up to ridicule, a species in which Horace and Juvenal excelled among the Romans, and Dryden, Pope, and Swift among us.
Satrap, a governor of a province under the ancient Persian monarchy, with large military and civil powers; when the central authority began to wane, some of them set up as independent rulers.
Saturn, in the Roman mythology a primitive god of agriculture in Italy, often confounded with the Greek Kronos, the father of Zeus, and sovereign of the Golden Age; was represented as an old man bearing a sickle.
Saturn, the planet of the solar system whose orbit is outside that of Jupiter, is 880 millions of miles from the sun, round which it takes 10,759 days or nearly 30 years to revolve, revolving on its own axis in about 10½ hours; its diameter is nine times greater than that of the earth; it is surrounded by bright rings that appear as three, and is accompanied by eight moons; the rings are solid, and are supposed to consist of a continuous belt of moons.
Saturnalia, a festival in ancient Rome in honour of Saturn, in which all classes, free and bond, and young and old, enjoyed and indulged in all kinds of merriment without restraint.
Satyrs, in the Greek mythology semi-animal woodland deities who roamed the hills generally in the train of Dionysus (q. v.), dancing to rustic music; represented with long pointed ears, flat noses, short horns, and a hair-clad man's body, with the legs and hoofs of a goat; they are of lustful nature, and fond of sensual pleasure generally.
Sauerkraut, a favourite article of food in Germany and elsewhere in North Europe; formed of thinly sliced young cabbage laid in layers, with salt and spice-seeds, pressed in casks and allowed to ferment.
Sauerteig (i. e. leaven), an imaginary authority alive to the “celestial infernal” fermentation that goes on in the world, who has an eye specially to the evil elements at work, and to whose opinion Carlyle frequently appeals in his condemnatory verdict on sublunary things.
Saul, a Benjamite, the son of Kish, who fell in with Samuel as he was on the way in search of his father's asses that had gone astray, and from his stature and stately bearing was anointed by him to be first king of Israel; he distinguished himself in the field against the enemies of his people, but fell at the hands of the Philistines after a reign of 40 years, and after several insane attempts on the life of David, who had been elected to succeed him.
Saumarez, James, Baron de, English admiral, born at Guernsey; entered the navy at 13, distinguished himself in the American War, captured a French frigate in 1793, which brought him knighthood; was second in command at the battle of the Nile, and gained a great victory off Cadiz in 1801; was raised to the peerage in 1831 (1757-1836).
Saumur (14), a town of France, in the department of Maine-et-Loire, situated on the Loire and partly on an island in the river, 32 m. SE. of Angers; once famous for its Protestant theological seminary, and till the Edict of Nantes a stronghold of the Huguenots; has interesting churches, a castle (still used as an arsenal), and a noted cavalry school; has trade in grain, dried fruits, rosaries, &c.
Saussure, Horace Benedict de, geologist and physicist, born in Geneva; was the first to ascend Mont Blanc in the interest of science, and was distinguished for his researches in the same interest all over the Alps and on other mountain ranges; he invented or improved several scientific instruments (1740-1799).
Savage, Richard, English poet, with a worthless character, who gained the regard of Johnson; his chief poem, “The Wanderer,” of no poetic merit (1697-1743).
Savannah, a name used chiefly in Florida and neighbouring States to designate the wide treeless plains of these parts; is practically an equivalent for “pampa,” “prairie,” &c.; comes from a Spanish word meaning “a sheet.”
Savannah (54), a city and port of the United States, capital of Chatham County, Georgia, on the Savannah River, 18 m. from its mouth; well equipped with parks, electric light, handsome churches, government buildings, &c., an important naval stores station and second cotton port of the U.S., and has foundries, rice, flour, cotton, and paper-mills, &c.
Save, a tributary of the Danube, rises in the Julian Alps and flows SE. across Southern Austria till it joins the Danube at Belgrade after a course of 556 m., of which 366 are navigable.
Savigny, Karl von, a German jurist, born in Frankfort-on-the-Main, of French parentage; wrote a treatise on the Right of Property, became professor of Roman Law at Berlin; his chief works were the “History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages” and the “History of Roman Law in Modern Times” (1779-1861).
Saville, Sir Henry, a learned scholar, born in Yorkshire; was tutor to Queen Elizabeth and provost of Eton, and founder of the Savilian professorships of Geometry and Astronomy at Oxford (1549-1642).
Savona (24), a seaport of Italy, on the Gulf of Genoa, in the Riviera, 26 m. SW. of Genoa, in the midst of orange groves, &c.; handsomely laid out; has a 16th-century cathedral, castle, palace, picture gallery, &c.; exports pottery and has prosperous iron-works, glass-works, tanneries, &c.
Savonarola, Girolamo, Italian reformer, born at Ferrara of a noble family; was in his youth of a studious ascetic turn, became at 24 a Dominican monk, was fired with a holy zeal for the purity of the Church, and issued forth from his privacy to denounce the vices that everywhere prevailed under her sanction, with threats of divine judgment on her head, so that the impressions his denunciations made were deep and wide-spread; the effect was especially marked in Florence, where for three years the reformer's influence became supreme, till a combination of enemies headed by the Pope succeeded in subverting it to his ejection from the Church, his imprisonment, and final execution, preceded by that of his confederates Fra Domenico and Fra Silvestro; it was as a reformer of the morals of the Church and nowise of its dogmas that Savonarolo presented himself, while the effect of his efforts was limited pretty much to his own day and generation (1452-1498).
Savoy, Duchy of (532), in the SE. of France, on the Italian frontier, comprises the two departments of Haute-Savoie and Savoie; previous to 1860 constituted a province of the kingdom of Sardinia; Lake of Geneva bounds it on the N. and the lofty Graian Alps flank it on the E., forming part of the Alpine highlands; it is charmingly picturesque, with mountain, forest, and river (numerous tributaries of the Rhône); has excellent grazing lands; grows the vine abundantly, besides the usual cereals; the people are industrious and thrifty, but for the most part poor. Aix-les-Bains, Evian, and Challes are popular watering-places. Chambéry was the old capital.
Savoy, House of, an ancient royal house of Europe (represented now by the king of Italy), whose territorial possessions were constituted a county of the empire in the 12th century under the name Savoy; was created a duchy in the 15th century. By the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the island of Sicily was ceded to Savoy and the title of king bestowed upon the duke; in 1720 Victor Amadeus II. was forced to cede Sicily to Austria in exchange for Sardinia, which with Savoy and Piedmont, &c., constituted the kingdom of Sardinia till its dissolution in 1860, when Savoy was ceded to France and the remaining portion merged in the new Italian kingdom under Victor Emmanuel.
Savoy, The, a district of the Strand, London, in which a palace was built in 1245 called of the Savoy, in which John of France was confined after his capture at Poitiers; was burnt at the time of the Wat Tyler insurrection, but rebuilt in 1505 as a hospital; it included a chapel, which was damaged by fire in 1864, but restored by the Queen.
Saxe, Maurice, marshal of France, natural son of Augustus II., king of Poland (q. v.) distinguished himself under various war captains, Marlborough and Prince Eugene in particular, and eventually entered the service of France; commanding in the War of the Austrian Succession he took Prague and Egra, and was made a marshal, and appointed to the command of the army of Flanders, in which he gained victories and captured fortresses, and was thereafter loaded with honours by Louis XV.; was one of the strongest and most dissolute men of his age; died of dropsy, the result of his debaucheries (1698-1750).
Saxe-Coburg, Duke of, second son of the Queen, Duke of Edinburgh; married a daughter of Alexander II., czar of Russia; succeeded to the dukedom in 1893; retains his annuity as an English prince of £10,000; b. 1844.
Saxe-Weimar, Amalia, Duchess of, was of the Guelph family, and married to the duke, and in two years was left a widow and in government of the duchy, attracting to her court all the literary notabilities of the day, Goethe the chief, till in 1775 she resigned her authority to her son, who followed in her footsteps (1739-1807).
Saxo Grammaticus, a Danish chronicler who flourished in the 12th century; wrote “Gesta Danorum,” which brings the history of Denmark down to the year 1158, and is in the later sections of great value.
Saxon Switzerland, name given to a mountainous region in Saxony, SE. of Dresden.
Saxons, a people of the Teutonic stock who settled early on the estuary of the Elbe and the adjoining islands, who in their piratical excursions infested and finally settled in Britain and part of Gaul, and who, under the name of Anglo-Saxons, now hold sovereign sway over large sections of the globe.
Saxony (3,502), a kingdom of Germany, lies within the basin of the Elbe, facing on the E., between Bavaria (S.) and Prussia (N.), the mountainous frontier of Bohemia; a little less in size than Yorkshire, but very densely inhabited; spurs of the Erzgebirge, Fichtelgebirge, and Riesengebirge diversify the surface; is a flourishing mining and manufacturing country; Dresden is the capital, and other important towns are Leipzig, Chemnitz, and Freiburg; the government is vested in the king and two legislative chambers; is represented in the Reichstag and Reichsrath of the empire; by the time of the Thirty Years' War the electorate of Saxony, which in its heyday had stretched to the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Elbe, had sadly dwindled away; it suffered much at the hands of Frederick the Great during the Seven Years' War, and in 1815, having sided with Napoleon, a portion of its territory was, by the Congress of Vienna, ceded to Prussia; was defeated along with Austria in 1866, and thus joined the North German Confederation, to be incorporated afterwards in the new German Empire.
Saxony, Prussian (2,580), a province of Prussia, chiefly comprises that part of Saxony (q. v.) added to Prussia in 1815; situated in the centre of Prussia, N. of the kingdom of Saxony; is watered by the Elbe and its numerous affluents, and diversified by the Harz Mountains and Thuringian Forest; contains some of the finest growing land in Prussia; salt and lignite are valuable products, and copper is also mined; the capital is Magdeburg, and other notable towns are Halle (with its university), Erfurt, &c.
Sayce, Alexander Henry, philologist, born near Bristol; has written works on the monuments of the East, bearing chiefly on Old Testament history; b. 1846.
Scævola, Caius Mucius, a patriotic Roman who, when sentenced to be burnt alive by Lars Porsena the Etrurian, then invading Rome, for attempting to murder him, unflinchingly held his right hand in a burning brazier till it was consumed, as a mark of his contempt for the sentence. Porsena, moved by his courage, both pardoned him, and on hearing that 300 as defiant had sworn his death, made peace with Rome and departed. The name Scævola (i. e. left-handed) was given him from the loss of his right hand on the occasion.
Scafell, a Cumberland mountain on the borders of Westmorland, with two peaks, one 3210 ft., and the other 3161 ft. high, the highest in England.
Scale, Delfa, a prince of Verona, and a general of the Ghibellines in Lombardy, who offered Dante an asylum when expelled from Florence (1291-1329).
Scaliger, Joseph Justus, eminent scholar, son of the following, born at Agen; educated by his father; followed in his father's footsteps, and far surpassed him in scholarship; travelled over Europe, and became a zealous Protestant; accepted the chair of belles lettres in the University of Leyden on condition that he should not be called upon to lecture, and gave himself up to a life of study, especially on matters philological and literary; was a man of universal knowledge, and the creator of modern chronology (1540-1609).
Scaliger, Julius Cæsar, surnamed the Elder, classical scholar, became page to the Emperor Maximilian, and served him in war and peace for 17 years; at 40 quitted the army, and took to study the learned languages among other subjects; wrote a treatise on poetics and a commentary on the physics and metaphysics of Aristotle, and became an authority on the Aristotelian philosophy (1484-1558).
Scanderbeg (i. e. Prince or Bey Alexander), the patriot chief of Albania, and the great hero of Albanian independence, who in the 15th century renounced Islamism for Christianity, and by his military prowess and skill freed Albania from the Turkish yoke; throughout his lifetime maintained its independence, crushing again and again the Turkish armies; was known among the Christians as George Castriot (1403-1468).
Scanderoon or Alexandretta (2), the port of Aleppo, in Turkey in Asia, situated in the Gulf of Scanderoon, in the NE. of the Levant, 77 m. NW. of Aleppo; is itself an insignificant place, but has a large transit trade.
Scarborough (34), a popular seaside town and watering-place on the Yorkshire coast; built on rising ground on the shores of a fine bay; is a place of great antiquity, with interesting ruins; has churches, harbour, piers, and a fine promenade; noted for the manufacture of jet.
Scarpa, Antonio, Italian anatomist, professor at Pavia (1747-1832).
Scarron, Paul, a French humourist, writer of the burlesque, born, of good parentage, in Paris; entered the Church, and was for some years somewhat lax-living abbé of Mans, but stricken with incurable disease settled in Paris, and supported himself by writing; is chiefly remembered for his “Virgile Travesti” and “Le Roman Comique,” which “gave the impulse out of which sprang the masterpieces of Le Sage, Defoe, Fielding, and Smollett”; married in 1652 Françoise d'Aubigné, a girl of fifteen, afterwards the famous Madame de Maintenon (q. v.); was a man who both suffered much and laughed much (1610-1660).
Scattery Island, in the Shannon estuary, 3 m. SW. of Kilrush; an early Christian place of pilgrimage, with ruins and a “round tower”; is fortified and marked by a lighthouse.
Scepticism, primarily doubt respecting, and ultimately disbelief in, the reality of the super-sensible, or the transcendental, or the validity of the evidence on which the belief in it is founded, such as reason or revelation, and in religious matters is tantamount to infidelity more or less sweeping.
Sceptre, the symbol of royal power, power to command and compel, originally a club, the crown being the symbol of dominion.
Schadow, Johannes Gottfried, sculptor, born in Berlin; was trained in Rome under the best masters, returned to Berlin, and became Director of the Academy of Arts; laboured here for 62 years, and produced works which placed him among the first rank of artists; he had two sons, one of whom distinguished himself as a sculptor, and the other as a painter (1764-1850).
Schaff, Philip, a theologian, born in Switzerland; studied in Germany; came recommended by high names to the United States, and became professor first in Pennsylvania, and finally in New York (1819-1893).
Schaffhausen (38), a canton in the extreme N. of Switzerland, surrounded NE. and W. by Baden; the Rhine flanks it on the S.; is hilly, with fertile valleys sloping to the Rhine, and is chiefly given up to agriculture. The capital, Schaffhausen (19), occupies a picturesque site on the Rhine, 31 m. NW. of Constance; has a 12th-century cathedral, an interesting old castle, &c. The famous falls, the finest on the Rhine, are 3 m. below the town.
Schäffle, Dr. Albert, eminent German economist, born in Würtemberg; has written, besides other works, “The Quintessence of Socialism,” an able exposé; b. 1831.
Schall, Johann Adam von, Jesuit missionary to China, born at Cologne; was received with honours at the Imperial Court; obtained permission to preach, and founded churches to the spread of Christianity, a privilege which was revoked by the next emperor; he was subjected to imprisonment, which shortened his life (1591-1669).
Schamyl. See Shamyl.
Scharnhorst, Gerhard von, a Prussian general, distinguished as the organiser of the Prussian army, to the establishment of a national force instead of a mercenary; died of a wound in battle (1756-1813).
Scheele, Carl Wilhelm, Swedish chemist, born in Pomerania, was an apothecary at Upsala and Köping; during his residence at the latter made numerous important discoveries, and published many chemical papers, his chief work “Experiments on Air and Fire” (1742-1786).
Scheffel, Joseph Victor von, German poet, bred to law, but abandoned it for literature; his first and best work “Der Trompeter von Sakkingen,” a charming tale in verse of the Thirty Years' War, succeeded by “Gaudeamus,” a collection of songs and ballads familiar to the German students all over the Fatherland (1826-1886).
Scheffer, Ary, painter, born at Dordrecht, of German and Dutch parentage; settled in Paris; began as a genre-painter; illustrated Dante, Goethe, and Byron, and in the end painted religious subjects; he did excellent portraits also; was of the Romantic school (1795-1858).
Scheherazade, daughter of the grand vizier, who, in the “Arabian Nights,” marries the Sultan and saves her life by entertaining him night after night with her tales.
Scheldt, an important river of Belgium and Holland, rises in the French dep. of Aisne, and flows northwards past Cambrai (its highest navigable point) and Valenciennes, entering Belgium a little S. of Tournay and continuing northward, with Oudenarde, Ghent, and Antwerp on its banks; enters Holland, and at the island of S. Beveland splits into the Wester Scheldt and the Ooster Scheldt, which enter the North Sea, the former at Flushing, the latter at Bergen-op-Zoom; length 267 m., much the greater part being in Belgium.
Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph, German philosopher, born in Würtemberg; studied at Tübingen, where he became acquainted with Hegel; wrote first on theological subjects and then on philosophical; went to Jena and became a disciple and follower of Fichte; gradually abandoned Fichte's position and began to develop ideas of his own, and in conjunction with Hegel edited the Critical Journal of Philosophy; held afterwards a professorship at Münich and a lectureship at Berlin; his philosophy is no finished or completed system, but is essentially a history of the progressive stages through which he himself passed; during the reign of Hegel he kept silence, and only broke it when Hegel was dead; thought to outstrip him by another philosophy, but the attempt has proved fruitless of any important results (1775-1854).
Schemnitz (15), a town of Hungary, noted as a mining centre since Roman times, situated in the midst of a mountainous region, 65 m. N. by W. of Pesth; gold, silver, copper, and lead are largely wrought, chiefly in the interests of the State.
Schenkel, David, German theologian, born in Switzerland, became, after a pastorate at Schaffhausen, professor first at Basel and then at Heidelberg; was a man of liberal principles, and was zealous for the union of the Protestants, Lutheran and Reformed, in one body on a broad basis; is noted as author of a work entitled “Das Characterbild Jesu,” being an attempt to construe the character of Christ on rationalistic lines (1813-1885).
Scherer, Edmond, French critic, born in Paris, spent his early years in England, his mother being English; was for some time devoted to theology and the Church, but changed his views; settled in Paris, and took to journalism and politics, distinguishing himself more especially in literary criticism (1815-1889).
Schiller, Friedrich, German poet and dramatist, born at Marbach on the Neckar, son of an army-surgeon; bred first to law and then to medicine, but took chief interest in philosophy and literature, to the cultivation of which he by-and-by devoted his life; his first work, a play, “The Robbers,” which on its publication in 1782 produced quite a ferment, and was followed in 1783 by two tragedies, “Fresco” and “Kabale und Liebe”; but it was with “Don Carlos” in 1787 his mature authorship began, and this was followed by the “History of the Netherlands” and “History of the Thirty Years' War,” to be succeeded by “Wallenstein” (1799), “Maria Stuart” (1800), “The Maid of Orleans” (1801), “The Bride of Messina” (1803), and “Wilhelm Tell” (1804); he wrote besides a number of ballads and lyrics; in 1794 his friendship with Goethe began, and it was a friendship which was grounded on their common love for art, and lasted with life; he was an earnest man and a serious writer, and much beloved by the great Goethe (1759-1805). See Carlyle's “Life of Schiller,” and his essay on him in his “Miscellanies.”
Schlegel, August Wilhelm von, German man of letters, born at Hanover; studied theology at first, but turned to literature and began with poetry; settled in Jena, and in 1798 became professor of Fine Arts there; was associated in literary work with Madame de Staël for 14 years; delivered “Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature” at Vienna in 1708, and finished with a professorship of Literature at Bonn, having previously distinguished himself by translations into German of Shakespeare, Dante, &c.; he devoted himself to the study of Sanskrit when at Bonn, where he had Heine for pupil (1767-1845).
Schlegel, Friedrich von, German critic and author, born at Hanover, brother of preceding, joined his brother at Jena, and collaborated with him; became a zealous promoter of all the Romantic movements, and sought relief for his yearnings in the bosom of the Catholic Church; wrote lectures, severally published, on the “Philosophy of History,” of “Literature,” of “Life,” and on “Modern History,” and book on Sanskrit and the philosophy of India (1772-1829).
Schleicher, August, German philologist, did eminent service by his studies in the Indo-Germanic languages, and particularly in the Slavonic languages (1821-1868).
Schleiermacher, Friedrich Ernest Daniel, great German theologian, born at Breslau; brought up among the Moravians, his mind revolted against the narrow orthodoxy of their creed, which was confirmed by his study of Plato and the philosophy of the school of Kant, as it for him culminated in Schelling, though the religious feeling he inherited never left him; under these influences he addressed himself to the task of elaborating a theology in which justice should be done to the claims of the intellect and the emotions of the heart, and he began by translating Plato; soon he formed a school, which included among its members men such as Neander and others, distinguished at once for their learning and their piety, and to which all the schools of theology in Germany since have been more or less affiliated; his great merit lay in the importance he attached to the religious consciousness as derived from that of Christ, and the development therefrom in the life and history of the Church of Christ; it was to the religious interest he dedicated his life and consecrated all his learning, which was immense (1768-1834).
Schlemihl, Peter, the name of a man who in Chamisso's tale sold his shadow to the devil, a synonym of one who makes a desperate or silly bargain.
Schliemann, Heinrich, a German explorer, born in Mecklenburg-Schwerin; excavated at his own cost the ruins, among others in Greece, of Hissarlik, in the Troad, believing them to be those of Troy; spent 12 years in this enterprise, collecting the spoils and depositing them in safe keeping in Berlin; died at Naples before his excavations were complete (1822-1890).
Schlossner, Friedrich Christoph, German historian, born in Oldenburg; was studios of the moral factor in history, and gave especial prominence to it (1776-1861).
Schmalkaldic League, a league of the Protestant States of Germany concluded in 1531 at Schmalkalden, Prussia, in defence of their religious and civil liberties against the Emperor Charles V. and the Catholic States.
Schnitzer, Eduard, physician, born in Breslau; went to Turkey, entered the Turkish medical service, adopted the name Emin Pasha, and was appointed by Gordon medical officer of the Equatorial Province of Egypt, and raised to the rank of Pasha; soon after the outbreak of the Mahdist insurrection he was cut off from civilisation, but was discovered by Stanley in 1889 and brought to Zanzibar, after which he was murdered by Arabs (1840-1893).
Scholasticism, the name given to the philosophy that prevailed in Europe during the Middle Ages, particularly in the second half of them, and has been generally characterised as an attempt at conciliation between dogma and thought, between faith and reason, an attempt to form a scientific system on that basis, founded on the pre-supposition that the creed of the Church was absolutely true, and capable of rationalisation.
Scholiasts, name given to a class of grammarians who appended annotations to the margins of the MSS. of the classics.
Scholium, a marginal note explanatory of the text of a classic author.
Scholten, Hendrik, a Dutch theologian of the rationalistic school (1811-1885).
Schomberg, Duke of, French marshal, of German origin and the Protestant persuasion; took service under the Prince of Orange, and fell at the battle of the Boyne (1618-1690).
Schönbrunn, imperial palace near Vienna, built by Maria Theresa in 1744.
Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe, a noted American ethnologist, born in New York State; at 24 was geologist to an exploring expedition undertaken by General Cass to Lake Superior and the Upper Mississippi; married the educated daughter of an Ojibway chief; founded the Historical Society of Michigan and the Algic Society at Detroit; discovered the sources of the Mississippi in 1832; was an active and friendly agent for the Indians, and in 1847 began, under Government authorisation, his great work of gathering together all possible information regarding the Indian tribes of the United States, an invaluable work embodied in six great volumes; author also of many other works treating of Indian life, exploration, etc. (1793-1864).
Schoolmen, teachers of the scholastic philosophy (q. v.).
Schopenhauer, Arthur, a bold metaphysical thinker, born in Danzig, of Dutch descent; was early dissatisfied with life, and conceived pessimistic views of it; in 1814 jotted down in a note-book, “Inward discord is the very bane of human nature so long as a man lives,” and on this fact he brooded for years; at length the problem solved itself, and the solution appears in his great work, “Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung” (“The World as Will and Idea”), which he published in 1718; in it, as in others of his writings, to use the words of the late Professor Wallace of Oxford, Schopenhauer “draws close to the great heart of life, and tries to see clearly what man's existence and hopes and destiny really are, which recognises the peaceful creations of art as the most adequate representation the sense-world can give of the true inward being of all things, and which holds the best life to be that of one who has pierced, through the illusions dividing one conscious individuality from another, into that great heart of eternal rest where we are each members one of another essentially united in the great ocean of Being, in which, and by which, we alone live.” Goethe gives a similar solution in his “Wilhelm Meister”; is usually characterised as a pessimist, and so discarded, but such were all the wise men who have contributed anything to the emancipation of the world, which they never would have attempted but for a like sense of the evil at the root of the world's misery; and as for his philosophy, it is a protest against treating it as a science instead of an art which has to do not merely with the reasoning powers, but with the whole inmost nature of man (1788-1860).
Schouvaloff, Count Peter, a Russian ambassador, born at St. Petersburg; became in 1806 head of the secret police; came to England in 1873 on a secret mission to arrange the marriage of the Emperor Alexander II.'s daughter with the Duke of Edinburgh; was one of Russia's representatives at the Congress of Berlin (1827-1889). His brother, Count Paul, fought in the Crimean War, helped to liberate the Russian serfs, fought in the Russo-Turkish War, and was governor of Warsaw during 1895-1897; b. 1830.
Schreiner, Olive, authoress, daughter of a Lutheran clergyman at Cape Town; achieved a great success by “The Story of an African Farm” in 1883, which was followed in 1890 by “Dreams,” also later “Dream Life and Real Life”; she is opposed to the South African policy of Mr. Rhodes.
Schreiner, Right Hon. W. P., Premier of the Cape Parliament, brother of preceding; bred to the bar, favours arbitration in the South African difficulty, and is a supporter of the Africander Bond in politics.
Schubert, Franz Peter, composer, born, the son of a Moravian schoolmaster, at Vienna; at 11 was one of the leading choristers in the court-chapel, later on became leading violinist in the school band; his talent for composition in all modes soon revealed itself, and by the time he became an assistant in his father's school (1813) his supreme gift of lyric melody showed itself in the song “Erl King,” the “Mass in F,” etc.; his too brief life, spent chiefly in the drudgery of teaching, was harassed by pecuniary embarrassment, embittered by the slow recognition his work won, though he was cheered by the friendly encouragement of Beethoven; his output of work was remarkable for its variety and quantity, embracing some 500 songs, 10 symphonies, 6 masses, operas, sonatas, etc.; his abiding fame rests on his songs, which are infused, as none other are, by an intensity of poetic feeling—“divine fire” Beethoven called it (1797-1828).
Schulze-Delitzsch, Hermann, founder of the system of “people's savings-banks,” born at Delitzsch, and trained to the law; he settled in his native town and give himself to social reform, sat in the National Assembly in Berlin on the Progressionist side, but opposed Lasalle's socialistic programme; his project of “people's savings-banks” was started in 1850, and immediately took root, spreading over the country and into Austria, Italy, Belgium, etc. (1808-1883).
Schumann, Robert, an eminent German composer and musical critic, born at Zwickau, in Saxony; law, philosophy, and travel occupied his early youth, but in 1831 he was allowed to follow his bent for music, and settled to study it at Leipzig; two years later started a musical paper, which for more than 10 years was the vehicle of essays in musical criticism; during these years appeared also his greatest pianoforte works, songs, symphonies, and varied chamber music; “Paradise and the Part” and scenes from “Faust” appeared in 1843; symptoms of cerebral disease which in the end proved fatal, began to manifest themselves, and he withdrew to a quieter life at Dresden, where much of his operatic and other music was written; during 1850-54 he acted as musical director at Düsseldorf, but insanity at length supervened, and after attempting suicide in the Rhine he was placed in an asylum, where he died two years later; his work is full of the fresh colour and variety of Romanticism, his songs being especially beautiful (1810-1856).
Schürer, Emil, biblical scholar, born at Augsburg, professor of Theology at Kiel, author of “History of the Jewish People”; b. 1844.
Schuyler, Philip John, leader in the American War of Independence, born at Albany, of Dutch descent; served in arms under Washington, and health failing for action, became one of Washington's most sagacious advisers (1733-1804).
Schuylkill, a river of Pennsylvania, rises on the N. side of the Blue Mountains and flows SE. 130 m. to its junction with the Delaware River at Philadelphia; is an important waterway for the coal-mining industry of Pennsylvania.
Schwann, Theodor, German physiologist, born at Neuss; made several discoveries in physiology, and established the cell theory (1810-1882).
Schwanthaler, Ludwig, German sculptor, born at Münich, of an old family of sculptors; studied at Rome; has adorned his native city with his works both in bas-reliefs and statues, at once in single figures and in groups; did frescoes and cartoons also (1802-1848).
Schwärmerei (lit. going off in swarms, as bees under their queen), name given to a more or less insane enthusiasm with which a mass of men is affected.
Schwarz, Berthold, an alchemist of the 13th century, born at Fribourg, a monk of the order of Cordeliers; is credited with the discovery of gunpowder when making experiments with nitre.
Schwarz, Christian Friedrich, German missionary in India, born in Brandenburg; laboured 16 years at Trichinopoly, gained the friendship of the Rajah of Tanjore, and settled there in 1778; succeeded also in winning the favour of Hyder Ali of Mysore, and proved himself to be in all senses a minister of the gospel of peace (1726-1798).
Schwarzburg, House of, one of the oldest noble families of Germany; first comes into authentic history in the 12th century with Count Sizzo IV. (the first to take the title of Schwarzburg), and in the 16th century divides into the two existing branches, the Schwarzburg-Sondershausen and Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt—which give their names to two sovereign principalities of Central Germany wedged in between Prussia and the lesser Saxon States, the latter embracing part of the Thuringian Forest; both are prosperous agricultural and mining regions.
Schwarzenburg, Karl Philip, Prince von, Austrian general, born at Vienna, of a noble family there; entered the army and distinguished himself in the wars against the Turks, the French Republic, and Napoleon; fought at Austerlitz and Wagram, negotiated the marriage of Napoleon with Maria Louisa, commanded the Austrian contingent sent to aid France in 1812, but joined the allies against Napoleon at Dresden and Leipzig, and captured Paris in 1814 at the head of the army of the Rhine (1771-1820).
Schwarzwald, the Black Forest in Germany.
Schwegler, Albert, theologian, born at Würtemberg; treated first on theological subjects, then on philosophical; is best known among us by his “History of Philosophy,” translated into English by Dr. Hutcheson Stirling, “written, so to speak, at a single stroke of the pen, as, in the first instance, an article for an encyclopædia,” ... the author being “a remarkably ripe, full man” (1819-1857).
Schweinfurth, Georg August, German traveller in Africa, born at Riga; wrote “The Heart of Africa,” which gives an account of his travels among the mid-African tribes; b. 1836.
Schwenckfeld, Caspar von, a Protestant sectary, born in Lower Silesia, of a noble family; as a student of the Scriptures embraced the Reformation, but differed from Luther on the matter of the dependence of the divine life on external ordinances, insisting, as George Fox afterwards did, on its derivation from within; like Fox he travelled from place to place proclaiming this, and winning not a few disciples, and exposed himself to much persecution at the hands of men of whom better things were to be expected, but he bore it all with a Christ-like meekness; died at Ulm; his writings were treated with the same indignity as himself, and his followers were after his death driven from one place of refuge to another, till the last remnant of them found shelter under the friendly wing of Count Zinzendorf (q. v.) (1490-1561).
Schwerin (34), capital of the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin; has a pretty site on Lake of Schwerin (14 m. by 3), 47 m. SE. of Lübeck; has a 14th-century cathedral, Renaissance castle, arsenal, &c., and manufactures of lacquered ware, machinery, &c.
Schwyz (50), one of the three original cantons of Switzerland, German speaking and Catholic; Lake Zurich forms part of the N. border, and Lake Lucerne part of the S.; Zug with its lake is on the W.; is mountainous, but good pasturage favours cattle-breeding, sheep and goat rearing, &c.; important industries in cotton and silk are carried on; Einsiedeln, with its famous monastery, attracts thousands of pilgrims, and the Rigi is a favourite resort of summer visitors. The capital (7), same name, is prettily situated 26 m. E. of Lucerne.
Science, as it has been said, “has for its province the world of phenomena, and deals exclusively with their relations, consequences, or sequences. It can never tell us what a thing really and intrinsically is, but only why it has become so; it can only, in other words, refer us to one inscrutable as the ground and explanation of another inscrutable.” “A science,” says Schopenhauer, “anybody can learn, one perhaps with more, another with less trouble; but from art each receives only so much as he brings, yet latent within him.... Art has not, like science, to do merely with the reasoning powers, but with the inmost nature of man, where each must count only for what he really is.”
Scilly Islands, a rugged group of islands belonging to Cornwall, 27 m. SW. of Land's End; consists of six larger islands—St. Mary's (1528 acres, pop. 1200), the largest—and some 30 smaller, besides numerous rock clusters, the name Scilly being strictly applicable to a rocky islet in the NW. of the group; climate is damp and mild; the cultivation and export of large quantities of lilies is the principal industry, but generally industries have decayed, lighthouses have reduced greatly the hereditary occupation of pilotage, and emigration goes on; the only town is Hugh Town (with two hotels, banks, pier, &c.), on St. Mary's; there are some interesting ecclesiastical ruins, &c.; since 1834 much has been done to improve the condition of the islanders by the then proprietor Mr. A. J. Smith, and his nephew, T. A. Darien Smith, who succeeded in 1872.
Scioppius, Caspar, a Protestant renegade, born in the Palatinate; turned Catholic on a visit to Rome, and devoted his life to vilify his former co-religionists, and to invoke the Catholic powers to combine to their extermination; he was a man of learning, but of most infirm temper (1576-1649).
Scipio, P. Cornelius, the Elder, surnamed Africanus Major, a celebrated Roman general; was present at the engagement near the Tacinus and at Cannæ; was appointed proconsul of Spain at the age of 24, and made himself master of nearly the whole of it against the Carthaginians; on his return to Rome was made consul; transferred the seat of war against Carthage to Africa, and landed at Utica; met Hannibal on the field of Zama, and totally defeated him, and ended the Second Punic War in 202 B.C. (234-183 B.C.).
Scipio, P. Cornelius, the Younger, surnamed Africanus Minor, adopted by the preceding, the proper name being L. Paullus Æmelius; after distinguishing himself in Spain proceeded to Africa to take part in the Third Punic War; laid siege to Carthage, took it by storm, and levelled it with the ground in 146 B.C.; he was afterwards sent to Spain, where he captured Numantia after a stubborn resistance, to the extension of the sway of Rome; he was an upright and magnanimous man, but his character was not proof against assault; he died by the hand of an assassin.
Scone (pronounced Scoon), a, village in Perthshire, on the left bank of the Tay, 2 m. N. of Perth; once the capital of the Pictish kingdom, and the place of the coronation of the Scottish kings; near it is the seat of the Earl of Mansfield.
Scopas, Greek sculptor, born at Paros, who flourished in 4th century B.C.
Scoresby, William, scientist, born at Whitby; began life as a sailor; visited the Arctic regions twice over, and wrote an account of his explorations; took to the Church, and held several clerical charges, but retired in 1849, and gave himself to scientific researches, both at home and abroad (1787-1857).
Scory, John, a Cambridge Dominican friar in 1530, who became bishop of Rochester in 1551, and later of Chichester; was deprived of his living on Queen Mary's accession; recanted, but fled abroad, whence he issued his “Epistle to the Faytheful in Pryson in England”; returned in Elizabeth's reign, and became bishop of Hereford; d. 1585.
Scot, Reginald, author of a famous work, “The Discoverie of Witchcraft” (1584), remarkable as one of the earliest exposures of the absurdities of witchcraft and kindred superstitions, which provoked King James's foolish defence “Dæmonology”; son of a Kentish baronet; educated at Oxford, and spent a peaceful life gardening and studying; wrote also “The Hoppe Garden” (1538-1599).
Scotland (4,026), the northern portion of the island of Great Britain, separated from England by the Solway, Cheviots, and Tweed, and bounded N. and W. by the Atlantic and E. by the German Ocean; inclusive of 788 islands (600 uninhabited), its area, divided into 33 counties, is slightly more than one-half of England's, but has a coast-line longer by 700 m.; greatest length from Dunnet Head (most northerly point) to Mull of Galloway (most southerly) is 288 m., while the breadth varies from 32 to 175, Buchan Ness being the eastmost point and Ardnamurchan Point the westmost; from rich pastoral uplands in the S.—Cheviots, Moffat Hills, Lowthers, Moorfoots, and Lammermoors—the country slopes down to the wide, fertile lowland plain—growing fine crops of oats barley, wheat, &c.—which stretches, with a varying breadth of from 30 to 60 m., up to the Grampians (highest peak Ben Nevis, 4406 ft.), whence the country sweeps northwards, a wild and beautiful tract of mountain, valley, and moorland, diversified by some of the finest loch and river scenery in the world; the east and west coasts present remarkable contrasts, the latter rugged, irregular, and often precipitous, penetrated by long sea-lochs and fringed with numerous islands, and mild and humid in climate; the former low and regular, with few islands or inlets, and cold, dry, and bracing; of rivers the Tweed, Forth, Tay, Dee, and Clyde are the principal, and the Orkneys, Shetlands, and Hebrides the chief island groups; coal and iron abound in the lowlands, more especially in the plain of the Forth and Clyde, and granite in the Grampians; staple industries are the manufacture of cottons, woollens, linen, jute, machinery, hardware, paper, and shipbuilding, of which Glasgow is the centre and commercial metropolis, while Edinburgh (capital) is the chief seat of law, education, &c.; of cultivated land the percentage varies from 74.8 in Fife to 2.4 in Sutherland, and over all is only 24.2; good roads, canals, extensive railway and telegraph systems knit all parts of the country together; Presbyterianism is the established form of religion, and in 1872 the old parish schools were supplanted by a national system under school-boards similar to England; the lowlanders and highlanders still retain distinctive characteristics of their Teutonic and Celtic progenitors, the latter speaking in many parts of the Highlands their native Gaelic; originally the home of the Picts (q. v.), and by them called Alban or Albyn, the country, already occupied as far as the Forth and Clyde by the Romans, was in the 5th century successfully invaded by the Scots, a Celtic tribe from Ireland; in 843 their king Kenneth was crowned king of Picts and Scots, and by the 10th century the country (known to the Romans as Caledonia) began to be called Scotia or Scotland; government and power gradually centred in the richer lowlands, which, through contact with England, and from the number of English immigrants, became distinctively Anglo-Saxon; since the Union with England (q. v.) the prosperity of Scotland has been of steady and rapid growth, manufactures, commerce, and literature (in all branches) having flourished wonderfully.
Scots, The, a tribe of Celts from Ireland who settled in the W. of North Britain, and who, having gained the ascendency of the Picts in the E., gave to the whole country the name of Scotland.
Scott, David, Scotch painter, born in Edinburgh; he was an artist of great imaginative power, and excelled in the weird; his best picture, exhibited in 1828, was “The Hopes of Early Genius Dispelled by Death,” though his first achievements in art were his illustrations of the “Ancient Mariner”; but his masterpiece is “Vasco da Gama encountering the Spirit of the Cape”; he was a sensitive man, and disappointment hastened his death (1806-1849).
Scott, Sir George Gilbert, English architect, born in Buckinghamshire, son of Scott the commentator; was the builder or restorer of buildings both in England and on the Continent after the Gothic, and wrote several works on architecture.
Scott, Michael, a sage with the reputation of a wizard, who lived about the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries, of whose art as a magician many legends are related.
Scott, Thomas, commentator, born in Lincolnshire; became rector of Aston Sandford, Bucks; was a Calvinist in theology, author of the “Force of Truth” and “Essays on Religion,” the work by which he is best known being his “Commentary on the Bible,” a scholarly exposition (1747-1821).
Scott, Sir Walter, the great romancer, born in Edinburgh, through both father and mother of Scottish Border blood; his father, a lawyer, a man “who passed from the cradle to the grave without making an enemy or losing a friend,” his mother a little kindly woman, full of most vivid memories, awakening an interest in him to which he owed much; was a healthy child, but from teething and other causes lost the use of his right limb when 18 months old, which determined, to a marked extent, the course of his life; spent many of the months of his childhood in the country, where he acquired that affection for all natural objects which never left him, and a kindliness of soul which all the lower animals that approached him were quick to recognise; he was from the first home-bred, and to realise the like around his own person was his fondest dream, and if he failed, as it chanced he did, his vexation was due not to the material loss it involved, but to the blight it shed on his home life and the disaster on his domestic relationships; his school training yielded results of the smallest account to his general education, and a writer of books himself, he owed less to book-knowledge than his own shrewd observation; he proceeded from the school (the High School, it was) at 15 to his father's office and classes at the University, and at both he continued to develop his own bent more than the study of law or learning; at his sixteenth year the bursting of a blood-vessel prostrated him in bed and enforced a period of perfect stillness, but during this time he was able to prosecute sundry quiet studies, and laid up in his memory great stores of knowledge, for his mind was of that healthy quality which assimilated all that was congenial to it and let all that did not concern it slip idly through, achieving thereby his greatest victory, that of becoming an altogether whole man. Professionally he was a lawyer, and a good lawyer, but the duties of his profession were not his chief interest, and though he received at length a sheriffship worth £300 a year, and a clerkship to the court worth £1500, he early turned his mind to seek promotion elsewhere, and chose a literary career. His first literary efforts were translations in verse from the German, but his first great literary success was the publication, in 1802, of “The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border,” and in this he first gave evidence both of the native force and bent of his genius; it gave the keynote of all that subsequently proceeded from his pen. This was followed the same year by “Cadzow Castle,” a poem instinct with military ardour, and this by “The Lay of the Last Minstrel” in 1805; the first poem which gained him popular favour, by “Marmion” in 1808, and by “The Lord of the Isles” in 1814. Much as the rise of Scott's fame was owing to his poetical works, it is on the ground of his prose writings, as the freest and fullest exhibition of his genius, that it is now mainly founded. The period of his productivity in this line extended over 18 years in all, commencing with the year 1814. This was the year of the publication of “Waverley,” which was followed by that of “Guy Mannering,” “The Antiquary,” “Rob Roy,” “Old Mortality,” and “The Heart of Midlothian” in the year 1819, when he was smitten down by an illness, the effects of which was seen in his after-work. “The Bride of Lammermoor,” “Ivanhoe,” “The Monastery,” “The Abbot,” “Kenilworth,” and “The Pirate” belong to the years that succeeded that illness, and all more or less witness to its sorrowful effects, of which last “The Abbot” and “The Monastery” are reckoned the best, as still illustrating the “essential powers” of Scott, to which may be added “Redgauntlet” and “The Fortunes of Nigel,” characterised by Ruskin as “quite noble ones,” together with “Quentin Durward” and “Woodstock,” as “both of high value.” Sir Walter's own life was, in its inner essence, an even-flowing one, for there were in it no crises such as to require a reversal of the poles of it, and a spiritual new birth, with crucifixion of the old nature, and hence it is easily divisible, as it has been divided throughout, into the three natural periods of growth, activity, and death. His active life, which ranges from 1796 to 1826, lay in picturing things and traditions of things as in youth, a 25 years' period of continuous crescent expansiveness, he had learned to view them, and his slow death was the result, not of mere weariness in working, but of the adverse circumstances that thwarted and finally wrecked the one unworthy ambition that had fatally taken possession of his heart. Of Scott Ruskin says, “What good Scott had in him to do, I find no words full enough to express... Scott is beyond comparison the greatest intellectual force manifested in Europe since Shakespeare... All Scott's great writings were the recreations of a mind confirmed in dutiful labour, and rich with organic gathering of boundless resource” (1771-1832).
Scott, William Bell, painter and poet, brother of David Scott, born in Edinburgh; did criticism and wrote on artists; is best known by his autobiography (1811-1890).
Scranton (102), capital of Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania, on the Lackawanna River, 144 m. NW. of New York; does a large trade in coal, and is the centre of a busy steel, iron, and machinery industry.
Scribe, Eugene, French dramatist, a prolific and a successful, who produced plays for half a century, well adapted for the stage, if otherwise worthless (1791-1861).
Scribes, The (i. e. writers), a non-priestly class among the Jews devoted to the study and exposition of the Law, and who rose to a position of importance and influence in the Jewish community, were known in the days of Christ also by the name of Lawyers, and were addressed as Rabbis; their disciples were taught to regard them, and did regard them with a reverence superior to that paid to father or mother, the spiritual parent being reckoned as much above the natural, as the spirit and its interests are above the flesh and its interests.
Scriblerus, Martinus, the subject of a fictitious memoir published in Pope's works and ascribed to Arbuthnot (q. v.), intended to ridicule the pedantry which affects to know everything, but knows nothing to any purpose.
Scrivener, Frederick Henry Ambrose, New Testament critic, born at Bermondsey, Surrey, educated at Cambridge; head-master of Falmouth School from 1846 to 1856, and after 15 years' rectorship of Gerrans, became vicar of Hendon and prebendary of Exeter; his “Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament” ranks as a standard work; was editor of the Cambridge Paragraph Bible, and one of the New Testament revisers (1813-1891).
Scroggs, Sir William, an infamous Judge of Charles II.'s reign, who became Chief-Justice of the King's Bench in 1678, and whose name is associated with all manner of injustice and legal corruption; was impeached in 1680, and pensioned off by the king; d. 1683.
Scudéry, Madeleine de, French novelist, born at Havre, came to Paris in her youth, and there lived to an extreme old age; was a prominent figure in the social and literary life of the city; collaborated at first with her brother Georges, but subsequently was responsible herself for a set of love romances of an inordinate length, but of great popularity in their day, e. g. “Le Grand Cyrus” and “Clélie,” &c., in which a real gift for sparkling dialogue is swallowed up in a mass of improbable adventures and prudish sentimentalism (1607-1701).
Sculptured Stones, a name specially applied to certain varieties of commemorative monuments (usually rough-hewn slabs or boulders, and in a few cases well-shaped crosses) of early Christian date found in various parts of the British Isles, bearing lettered and symbolic inscriptions of a rude sort and ornamental designs resembling those found on Celtic MSS. of the Gospels; lettered inscriptions are in Latin, Ogam (q. v.), and Scandinavian and Anglican runes, while some are uninscribed; usually found near ancient ecclesiastical sites, and their date is approximately fixed according to the character of the ornamentation; some of these stones date as late as the 11th century; the Scottish stones are remarkable for their elaborate decoration and for certain symbolic characters to which as yet no interpretation has been found.
Scutari (50), a town of Turkey in Asia, on the Bosporus, opposite Constantinople; has several fine mosques, bazaars, &c.; large barracks on the outskirts were used as hospitals by Florence Nightingale during the Crimean War; has large and impressive cemeteries; chief manufactures are of silks, cottons, &c. Also name of a small town (5) in European Turkey, situated at the S. end of Lake Scutari, 18 by 16 m., in North Albania.
Scylla and Charybdis, two rocks opposite each other at a narrow pass of the strait between Italy and Sicily, in the cave of one of which dwelt the former, a fierce monster that barked like a dog, and under the cliff of the other of which dwelt the latter, a monster that sucked up everything that came near it, so that any ship passing between in avoiding the one become a prey to the other.
Scythians, the name of a people of various tribes that occupied the steppes of SE. of Europe and W. of Asia adjoining eastward, were of nomadic habit; kept herds of cattle and horses, and were mostly in a semi-savage state beyond the pale of civilisation; the region they occupied is called Scythia.
Seabury, Samuel, American prelate, born at Groton, Connecticut, graduated at Yale and studied medicine in Edinburgh; entered the Church of England in 1753, and devoted himself at first to missionary work; subsequently held “livings” in Long Island and New York State in 1782; was appointed bishop by the clergy of Connecticut; sought consecration at the hands of the English archbishops who were afraid to grant it, and had to resort to the bishops of the Scotch Episcopal Church for the purpose; did notable work in establishing and consolidating Episcopacy in America (1729-1796).
Sealed Orders, the orders given the commanding officer of a ship or squadron that are sealed up, which he is not allowed to open till he has proceeded a certain length into the high seas; an arrangement in order to ensure secrecy in a time of war.
Sea-Serpent, a marine monster of serpent-like shape whose existence is still a matter of question, although several seemingly authentic accounts have been circulated in attestation. The subject has given rise to much disputation and conjecture on the part of naturalists, but opinion mostly favours the supposition that these gigantic serpent-like appearances are caused by enormous cuttlefish swimming on the surface of the water, with their 20 ft. long tentacles elongated fore and aft. Other fishes which might also be mistaken for the sea-serpent are the barking-shark, tape-fish, marine snake, &c.
Sebastian. St., a Roman soldier at Narbonne, and martyred under Diocletian when it was discovered he was a Christian; is depicted in art bound naked to a tree and pierced with arrows, and sometimes with arrows in his hand offering them to Heaven on his knees, he having been shot first with arrows and then beaten to death.
Sebastiano del Piombo, Italian painter, born at Venice; was an excellent colourist, and collaborated with Michael Angelo (1485-1547).
Sebastopol (34), a fortified seaport of Russia, situated on a splendid natural harbour (4½ m. by ½), on the SW. of the Crimea; during the Crimean War was destroyed and captured by the French and English after a siege lasting from October 9, 1854, to September 18, 1855; has, since 1885, been restored, and is now an important naval station; exports large quantities of grain.
Sebillot, Paul, celebrated French folk-lorist; b. 1843.
Secker, Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Sibthorpe, Nottinghamshire; first studied medicine and graduated at Leyden in 1721, but was induced to take orders, and after a year at Oxford was ordained a priest in 1723; held various livings till his appointment to the Primacy in 1758; noted as a wise and kindly ecclesiastic (1693-1768).
Second-Sight, name given to the power of seeing things future or distant; a power superstitiously ascribed to certain people in the Highlands of Scotland.
Secularist, name given to one who, discarding as irrelevant all theories and observances bearing upon the other world and its interests, holds that we ought to confine our attention solely to the immediate problems and duties of this, independently of all presumed dependence on revelation and communications from a higher sphere.
Sedan (20), a town of France, in department of Ardennes, on the Maas, 164 m. NE. of Paris; once a strong fortress, but dismantled in 1875, where in 1870 Napoleon III. and 86,000 men under Marshal Macmahon surrendered to the Germans; noted for its cloth manufactories. Previous to the Edict of Nantes was a celebrated centre of Huguenot industry and theological learning.
Sedgemoor, district in central Somersetshire, 5 m. SE. of Bridgwater, scene of a famous battle between the troops of James II. and those of the Duke of Monmouth on July 6, 1685, in which the latter were completely routed.
Sedgwick, Adam, geologist, born at Dent, Yorkshire; graduated at Cambridge in 1808, became a Fellow in the same year, and in 1818 was elected to the Woodward chair of Geology; co-operated with Murchison in the study of the geological formation of the Alps and the Devonian system of England; strongly conservative in his scientific theories, he stoutly opposed the Darwinian theory of the origin of species; his best work was contributed in papers to the Geological Society of London, of which he was President 1829-1831; published “British Palæozoic Rocks and Fossils” (1785-1873).
Seeley, Sir John Robert, author of “Ecce Homo,” born in London; studied at Cambridge, became professor of History there in 1869 on Kingsley's retirement; his “Ecce Homo” was published in 1865, a piece of perfect literary workmanship, but which in its denial of the self-originated spirit of Christ offended orthodox belief and excited much adverse criticism; wrote in 1882 a work entitled “Natural Religion,” in which he showed the same want of sympathy with supernatural ideas, as also several historical works (1834-1895).
Segovia (14), a quaint old Spanish city, capital of a province (154) of the same name; crowns a rocky height looking down on the river Eresma, 32 m. NW. of Madrid; its importance dates from Roman times; has a great aqueduct, built in Trajan's reign, and a fine Moorish castle and Gothic cathedral; cloth-weaving the only important industry.
Segu (36), a town of West Africa, on the Joliba, 400 m. SW. of Timbuctoo; chiefly occupied by trading Arabs; once the capital of a now decayed native State.
Seine, an important river of France, rises in the tableland of Langres, takes a winding course to the NW., passing many important towns, Troyes, Fontainebleau, Paris, St. Denis, Rouen, &c., and discharges into the English Channel by a broad estuary after a course of 482 m., of which 350 are navigable.
Seine (3,142), the smallest but most populous department of France, entirely surrounded by the department of Seine-et-Oise; Paris and its adjacent villages cover a considerable portion of the area; presents a richly wooded, undulating surface, traversed by the Seine in a NW. direction.
Seine-et-Marne (356), a north-midland department of France lying E. of Seine; the Marne crosses the N. and the Seine the S.; has a fertile soil, which grows in abundance cereals, vegetables, and fruits; many fine woods, including Fontainebleau Forest, diversify its undulating surface. Melun (capital) and Fontainebleau are among its important towns.
Seine-et-Oise (628), a department of NW. France, encloses the department of Seine; grain is grown in well-cultivated plains and the vine on pleasant hill slopes; is intersected by several tributaries of the Seine, and the N. is prettily wooded. Versailles is the capital; Sèvres and St. Cloud are other interesting places.
Seine-Inférieure (839), a maritime department of North-West France, in Normandy, facing the English Channel; is for the most part a fertile plain, watered by the Seine and smaller streams, and diversified by fine woods and the hills of Caux; is a fruit and cider producing district; has flourishing manufactures. Rouen is the capital, and Havre and Dieppe are important trading centres.
Selborne, Roundell Palmer, Earl of, Lord Chancellor, born in Oxfordshire; called to the bar in 1837, and after a brilliant career at Oxford entered Parliament in 1847, and in 1861 became Solicitor-General in Palmerston's ministry, receiving at the same time a knighthood; two years later was advanced to the Attorney-Generalship; in 1872 was elected Lord Chancellor, a position he retained till 1874, and again held from 1880 to 1885; refused to adopt Mr. Gladstone's Home Rule policy for Ireland and joined the Liberal-Unionists, but declined to take office under Lord Salisbury; was raised to an earldom in 1882, received various honorary degrees; greatly interested himself in hymnology, and edited “The Book of Praise”; wrote also several works on Church questions (1812-1895).
Selby (6), a market-town of Yorkshire, on the Ouse, 15 m. S. of York; has a noted cruciform abbey church, founded in the 12th century, and exhibiting various styles of architecture; has some boat-building; manufactures flax, ropes, leather, bricks, &c.
Selden, John, born at Salvington, Sussex; adopted law as a profession, and was trained at Clifford's Inn and the Inner Temple, London; successful as a lawyer, he yet found time for scholarly pursuits, and acquired a great reputation by the publication of various erudite works bearing on old English jurisprudence and antiquities generally; a “History of Tithes” (1618), in which he combats the idea that “tithes” are divinely instituted, got him into trouble with the Church; was imprisoned in 1621 for encouraging Parliament to repudiate James's absolutist claims; from his entrance into Parliament in 1623 continued to play an important part throughout the troublous reign of Charles; sincerely attached to the Parliamentary side, he was one of the framers of the Petition of Right, and suffered imprisonment with Holies and the others; sat in the Long Parliament, but, all through out of sympathy with the extremists, disapproved of the execution of Charles; held various offices, e. g. Keeper of the Rolls and Records in the Tower; continued to write learned and voluminous works on biblical and historical subjects, but is best remembered for his charming 'Table-talk, a book of which Coleridge remarked, “There is more weighty bullion sense in this book than I can find in the same number of pages of any uninspired writer” (1584-1654).
Selene, in the Greek mythology the moon-goddess, the sister of Helios, and designated Phoebe as he was Phoebus; she became by Endymion the mother of 50 daughters.
Self-denying Ordinance, a resolution of the Long Parliament passed in 1644, whereby the members bound themselves not to accept certain executive offices, particularly commands in the army.
Selim I., a warlike sultan of Turkey, who, having dethroned and put to death his father, Bajazet II., entered upon a victorious career of military aggrandisement, overcoming the Persians in 1515, conquering and annexing Egypt, Syria, and the Hejaz in 1517, finally winning for himself the position of Imâm or head of the Mohammedan world; greatly strengthened his country, and strove according to his lights to deal justly with and ameliorate the condition of the peoples whom he conquered (1467-1520).
Seljuks, a Turkish people who in the 10th century, headed by a chief named Seljuk (whence their name), broke away from their allegiance to the khan of Kirghiz, adopted the Mohammedan faith, and subsequently conquered Bokhara, but were driven across the Oxus and settled HI Khorassan; under Toghril Beg, grandson of Seljuk, they in the 11th century won for themselves a wide empire in Asia, including the provinces of Syria and Asia Minor, whose rulers, by their cruel persecution of Christian pilgrims, led to the Crusade movement in Europe. The Seljuks were in part gradually absorbed by the advancing Mongol tribes, while numbers fled westward, where they were at length incorporated in the Ottoman Empire in the 14th century.
Selkirk (6), county town of Selkirkshire, on the Ettrick, 40 m. SE. of Edinburgh; famed at one time for its “Souters”; is a centre of the manufacture of tweeds.
Selkirkshire (27), a south inland county of Scotland; extends S. from the corner of Midlothian to Dumfriesshire, between Peebles (W.) and Roxburgh (E.); the grassy slopes of its hills afford splendid pasturage, and sheep-farming is a flourishing industry; manufactures are mainly confined to Galashiels and Selkirk; is traversed by the Ettrick and the Yarrow, whose romantic valleys are associated with much of the finest ballad literature of Scotland.
Selwyn, George, a noted wit in the social and literary life of London in Horace Walpole's time, born, of good parentage, in Gloucestershire; was expelled from Oxford in 1743 for blasphemy; four years later entered Parliament, and supported the Court party, and received various government favours; his vivacious wit won him ready entrance into the best London and Parisian society; is the chief figure in Jesse's entertaining “George Selwyn and his Contemporaries” (1719-1791).
Selwyn, George Augustus, the first bishop of New Zealand, in which capacity he wrought so zealously, that his diocese, by his extension of Episcopacy, was subdivided into seven; on his return to England he was made bishop of Lichfield (1809-1878).
Semaphore, a name applied to the mechanism employed for telegraphing purposes prior to the discovery of the electric telegraph; invented in 1767 by Richard Edgeworth, but first extensively used by the French in 1794, and afterwards adopted by the Admiralty in England; consisted at first of six shutters set in two rotating circular frames, which, by opening and shutting in various ways, were capable of conveying sixty-three distinct signals; these were raised on the tops of wooden towers erected on hills; later a different form was adopted consisting of a mast and two arms worked by winches. The speed at which messages could be transmitted was very great; thus a message could be sent from London to Portsmouth and an answer be received all within 45 seconds. The railway signal now in use is a form of semaphore.
Semele, in the Greek mythology the daughter of Cadmus and the mother of Dionysus by Zeus, was tempted by Hera to pray Zeus to show himself to her in his glory, who, as pledged to give her all she asked, appeared before her as the god of thunder, and consumed her by the lightning. See Dionysus.
Seminoles, a nomadic tribe of American Indians who from 1832 to 1839 offered a desperate resistance to the Americans before yielding up their territory SE. of the Mississippi (Florida, etc.); finally settled in the Indian Territory, where they now number some 3000, and receive an annuity from the American Government; missionary enterprise among them has been successful in establishing schools and churches.
Semipalatinsk (586), a mountainous province of Asiatic Russia, stretching between Lake Balkash (S.) and Tomsk; encloses stretches of steppe-land on which cattle and horses are reared; some mining of silver, lead, and copper is also done. Semipalatinsk, the capital (18), stands on the Irtish; has two annual fairs, and is an important trading mart.
Semi-Pelagianism. See Pelagius.
Semiramis, legendary queen of Assyria, to whom tradition ascribes the founding of Babylon with its hanging gardens, and is said to have surpassed in valour and glory her husband Ninus, the founder of Nineveh; she seems to have in reality been the Venus or Astarte of the Assyrian mythology. The story goes that when a child she was deserted by her mother and fed by doves.
Semiramis of the North, a name given to Margaret, Queen of Denmark; also to Catharine II. of Russia.
Semiretchinsk (758), a mountainous province of Asiatic Russia, stretches S. of Lake Balkash to East Turkestan and Ferghana on the S.; is traversed E. and W. by the lofty ranges of the Alatau and Tian-Shan Mountains; the vast bulk of the inhabitants are Kirghiz, and engaged in raising horses, camels, and sheep.
Semitic Races, races reputed descendants of Shem, including the Jews, the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, the Syrians, the Phoenicians, and the Arabs, and are “all marked,” as the editor has observed elsewhere, “by common features; such appear in their language, their literature, their modes of thinking, social organisation, and religious belief. Their language is poor in inflection, has few or no compound verbs or substantives, has next to no power of expressing abstract ideas, and is of simple primitive structure or syntax. Their literature has neither the breadth nor the flow of that of Greece or Rome, but it is instinct with a passion which often holds of the very depths of being, and appeals to the ends of the earth. In their modes of thinking they are taken up with concrete realities instead of abstractions, and hence they have contributed nothing to science or philosophy, much as they have to faith. Their social order is patriarchal, with a leaning to a despotism, which in certain of them, such as the Jews and Arabs, goes higher and higher till it reaches God; called, therefore, by Jude 'the Only Despot.'”
Semmering, a mountain of Styria, Austria, 60 m. SW. of Vienna, 4577 ft. above sea-level; is crossed by the Vienna and Trieste railway, which passes through 15 tunnels and over 16 viaducts.
Sempach (1), a small Swiss town, 9 m. NW. of Lucerne, on the Lake of Sempach; here on the 9th of July 1386 a body of 1500 Swiss soldiers completely routed the Austrians, 4000 strong, under Leopold, Duke of Austria.
Sen, Chunder. See Chunder Sen.
Sénancour, Étienne Pivert de, French writer, born at Paris; delicate in his youth; was driven by an unsympathetic father to quit his home at 19, and for some time lived at Geneva and Fribourg, where a brief period of happy married life was closed by the death of his young wife; returned to Paris in 1798; supported himself by writing, and latterly by a small Government pension granted by Louis Philippe; is best known as the author of “Obermann,” a work of which Matthew Arnold wrote, “The stir of all the main forces by which modern life is and has been impelled, lives in the letters of Obermann.... To me, indeed, it will always seem that the impressiveness of this production can hardly be rated too high” (1770-1846).
Senate (i. e. “an assembly of elders”), a name first bestowed by the Romans on their supreme legislative and administrative assembly; its formation is traditionally ascribed to Romulus; its powers, at their greatest during the Republic, gradually diminished under the Emperors; in modern times is used to designate the “Upper House” in the legislature of various countries, e. g. France and the United States of America; is also the title of the governing body in many universities.
Seneca, Annæus, rhetorician, born at Cordova; taught rhetoric at Rome, whither he went at the time of Augustus, and where he died A.D. 32.
Seneca, L. Annæus, philosopher, son of the preceding, born at Cordova, and brought to Rome when a child; practised as a pleader at the bar, studied philosophy, and became the tutor of Nero; acquired great riches; was charged with conspiracy by Nero as a pretext, it is believed, to procure his wealth, and ordered to kill himself, which he did by opening his veins till he bled to death, a slow process and an agonising, owing to his age; he was of the Stoic school in philosophy, and wrote a number of treatises bearing chiefly on morals; d. A.D. 65.
Senegal, an important river of West Africa, formed by the junction, at Bafulabé, of two head-streams rising in the highlands of Western Soudan; flows NW., W., and SW., a course of 706 m., and discharges into the Atlantic 10 m. below St. Louis; navigation is somewhat impeded by a sand-bar at its mouth, and by cataracts and rapids in the upper reaches.
Senegal (136), a French colony of West Africa, lying along the banks of the Senegal River. See Senegambia.
Senegambia, a tract of territory lying chiefly within the basins of the rivers Senegal and Gambia, West Africa, stretching from the Atlantic, between Cape Blanco and the mouth of the Gambia, inland to the Niger; embraces the French colony of Senegal, and various ill-defined native States under the suzerainty of France; the interior part is also called the French Soudan; the vast expanse of the contiguous Sahara in the N., and stretches of territory on the S., extending to the Gulf of Guinea, are also within the French sphere of influence, altogether forming an immense territory (1,000), of which St. Louis (q. v.) in Senegambia proper, is considered the capital; ground-nuts, gums, india-rubber, &c., are the chief exports.
Seneschal, an important functionary at the courts of Frankish princes, whose duty it was to superintend household feasts and ceremonies, functions equivalent to those of the English High Steward.
Sennaar (8), capital of a district of the Eastern Soudan, which lies between the Blue and the White Nile, situated on the Blue Nile, 160 m. SE. of Khartoum.
Sennacherib, a king of Assyria, whose reign extended from 702 to 681 B.C., and was distinguished by the projection and execution of extensive public works; he endeavoured to extend his conquests westward, but was baffled in Judea by the miraculous destruction of his army. See 2 Kings xix. 35.
Sens (14), an old cathedral town of France, on the Yonne, 70 m. SE. of Paris; the cathedral is a fine Gothic structure of the 12th century; has also an archbishop's palace, and is still surrounded by massive stone walls; does a good trade in corn, wine, and wool.
Senussi, a Mohammedan brotherhood in the Soudan, founded by Mohammed-es-Senussi from Mostaganem, in Algeria, who flourished between 1830 and 1860. The brotherhood, remarkable for its austere and fanatical zeal, has ramified into many parts of N Africa, and exercises considerable influence, fostering resistance to the encroachments of the invading European powers.
Sepoy, the name given to a native of India employed as a soldier in the British service in India.
September, the ninth month of the year, so called as having been the seventh in the Roman calendar.
September Massacres. An indiscriminate slaughter in Paris which commenced on Sunday afternoon, September 2, 1792, “a black day in the annals of men,” when 30 priests on their way to prison were torn from the carriages that conveyed them, and massacred one after the other, all save Abbé Secard, in the streets by an infuriated mob; and continued thereafter through horror after horror for a hundred hours long, all done in the name of justice and in mock form of law—a true Reign of Terror.
Septuagint, a version, and the oldest of any known to us, of the Hebrew Scriptures in Greek, executed at Alexandria, in Egypt, by different translators at different periods, commencing with 280 B.C.; it is known as the Alexandria version, while the name Septuagint, or LXX., was given to it on the ground of the tradition that it was the work of 70, or rather 72, Jews, who had, it is alleged, been Drought from Palestine for the purpose, and were fabled, according to one tradition, to have executed the whole in as many days, and, according to another, to have each done the whole apart from the rest, with the result that the version of each was found to correspond word for word with that of all the others; it began with the translation of the Pentateuch and was continued from that time till 130 B.C. by the translation of the rest, the whole being in reality the achievement of several independent workmen, who executed their parts, some with greater some with less ability and success; it is often literal to a painful degree, and it swarms with such pronounced Hebraisms, that a pure Greek would often fail to understand it. It was the version current everywhere at the time of the planting of the Christian Church, and the numerous quotations in the New Testament from the Old are, with few exceptions, quotations from it.
Sepulveda, Juan Gines, Spanish historian, born at Pozo-Blanco, near Cordova; in 1536 became historiographer to Charles V. and tutor to the future Philip II.; was subsequently canon of Salamanca; author of several historical works, of which a “History of Charles V.” is the most important, a work characterised by broad humanistic proclivities unusual in his day and country; d. 1574.
Seraglio, in its restricted sense applied in the East to a harem or women's quarters in a royal household; the former residence of the sultan of Turkey, occupies a beautiful site on the E. side of Constantinople, on a projecting piece of land between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmora, enclosing within its 3 m. of wall government buildings, mosques, gardens, &c., chief of which is the harem, which occupies an inner enclosure.
Seraing (34), a manufacturing town of Belgium, on the Meuse, 4 m. SW. of Liège; noted for its extensive machine-shops (locomotives, &c.); established in 1817 by John Cockerill, and now, with forges, coal-mines, &c., giving employment to some 12,000 men.
Serampur (36), a town of modern aspect in India, on the Hooghly, 13 m. N. of Calcutta; originally Danish, was purchased by the British in 1845; manufactures paper and mats, and is associated with the successful missionary enterprise of the Baptists Carey, Marshman, and Ward.
Seraphim, angels of the highest order and of etheriel temper, represented as guarding with veiled faces the Divine glory, and considered to have originally denoted the lightning darting out from the black thunder-cloud.
Serapis, an Egyptian divinity of partly Greek derivation and partly Egyptian, and identified with Apis.
Seraskier, a Turkish general, in especial the commander-in-chief or minister of war.
Serbonian Bog, a quagmire in Egypt in which armies were fabled to be swallowed up and lost; applied to any situation in which one is entangled from which extrication is difficult.
Serfs, under the feudal system a class of labourers whose position differed only from that of slaves in being attached to the soil and so protected from being sold from hand to hand like a chattel, although they could be transferred along with the land; liberty could be won by purchase, military service, or by residing a year and a day in a borough; these and economic changes brought about their gradual emancipation in the 15th and 16th centuries; mining serfs, however, existed in Scotland as recently as the 18th century, and in Russia their emancipation only took place in 1861.
Seringapatam (10), a decayed city of S. India, formerly capital of Mysore State, situated on an island in the Kaveri, 10 m. NE. of Mysore city; in the later 18th century was the stronghold of Tippoo Sahib, who was successfully besieged and slain by the British in 1799; has interesting ruins.
Serjeant-at-Arms, an officer attendant on the Speaker of the House of Commons, whose duty it is to preserve order and arrest any offender against the rules of the House.
Serpent, The, is used symbolically to represent veneration from the shedding of its skin, and sometimes eternity, and not unfrequently a guardian spirit; also prudence and cunning, especially as embodied in Satan; is an attribute of several saints as expressive of their power over the evil one.
Serpukoff (21), an ancient and still prosperous town of Russia, on the Nara, 57 m. S. of Moscow; has a cathedral, and manufactures of cottons, woollens, &c.
Serrano y Dominguez, Duke de la Torre, Spanish statesman and marshal; won distinction in the wars against the Carlists, and turning politician, became in 1845 a senator and favourite of Queen Isabella; was prominent during the political unrest and changes of her reign; joined Prim in the revolution of 1868, defeated the queen's troops; became president of the Ministry; commander-in-chief of the army, and in 1869 Regent of Spain, a position he held till Amadeus's succession in 1871; won victories against the Carlists in 1872 and 1874; was again at the head of the executive during the last months of the republic, but retired on the accession of Alfonso XII.; continued in active politics till his death (1810-1885).
Sertorius, Roman statesman and general; joined the democratic party under Marius (q. v.) against Sulla; retired to Spain on the return of Sulla to Rome, where he sought to introduce Roman civilisation; was assassinated 73 B.C.
Servetus, Michael, physician, born at Tudela, in Navarre; had a leaning to theology, and passing into Germany associated with the Reformers; adopted Socinianism, and came under ban of the orthodox, and was burnt alive at Geneva, after a trial of two months, under sanction, it is said, of Calvin (1511-1553).
Servia (2,227), a kingdom of Europe occupying a central position in the Balkan Peninsula between Austria (N.) and Turkey (S. and W.), with Roumania and Bulgaria on the E.; one-third the size of England and Wales; its surface is mountainous and in many parts thickly forested, but wide fertile valleys produce in great abundance wheat, maize, and other cereals, grapes and plums (an important export when dried), while immense herds of swine are reared on the outskirts of the oak-forests; is well watered by the Morava flowing through the centre and by the Save and Danube on the N.; climate varies considerably according to elevation; not much manufacturing is done, but minerals abound and are partially wrought; the Servians are of Slavonic stock, high-spirited and patriotic, clinging tenaciously to old-fashioned methods and ideas; have produced a notable national literature, rich in lyric poetry; a good system of national education exists; belong to the Greek Church; the monarchy is limited and hereditary; government is vested in the King, Senate, and National Assembly; originally emigrants in the 7th century from districts round the Carpathians, the Servians had by the 14th century established a kingdom considerably larger than their present domain; were conquered by the Turks in 1389, and held in subjection till 1815, when a national rising won them Home Rule, but remained tributary to Turkey until 1877, when they proclaimed their independence, which was confirmed by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878.
Servius Tullius, the sixth king of Rome from 578 to 534 B.C., divided the Roman territory into 30 tribes, and the people into 5 classes, which were further divided into centuries.
Sesostris, a legendary monarch of Egypt, alleged to have achieved universal empire at a very remote antiquity, and to have executed a variety of public works by means of the captives he brought home from his conquests.
Sestertius, a Roman coin either bronze or silver one-fourth of a denarius, originally worth 2½ asses but afterwards 4 asses, up to the time of Augustus was worth fully 2d., and subsequently one-eighth less; Sestertium, a Roman “money of account,” never a coin, equalled 1000 sestertii, and was valued at £8, 15s.
Settle, Elkanah, a playwright who lives in the pages of Dryden's satire “Absalom and Achitophel”; was an Oxford man and littérateur in London; enjoyed a brief season of popularity as author of “Cambyses,” and “The Empress of Morocco”; degenerated into a “city poet and a puppet-show keeper,” and died in the Charterhouse; was the object of Dryden's and Pope's scathing sarcasms (1648-1723).
Setubal (English, St. Ubes) (15), a fortified seaport of Portugal, at the mouth of the Sado, on a bay of the same name, 17 m. SE. of Lisbon; has a good trade in wine, salt, and oranges; in the neighbourhood is a remarkable stalactite cave.
Seven Champions of Christendom, St. George, of England; St. Denis, of France; St. James, of Spain; St. Anthony, of Italy; St. Andrew, of Scotland; St. Patrick, of Ireland; and St. David, of Wales—often alluded to by old writers.
Seven Deadly Sins, Pride, Wrath, Envy, Lust, Gluttony, Avarice, and Sloth.
Seven Dolours of the Virgin, the prediction of Simeon (Luke ii. 35); the flight into Egypt; the loss of the child in Jerusalem; the sight of her Son bearing the cross; the sight of Him upon the cross; the descent from the cross; and the entombment—the festival in connection with which is celebrated on the Friday before Palm Sunday.
Seven Sages of Greece, Solon of Athens, his motto “Know thyself”; Chilo of Sparta, his motto “Consider the end”; Thales of Miletus, his motto “Whoso hateth suretyship is sure”; Bias of Priene, his motto “Most men are bad”; Cleobulus of Lindos, his motto “Avoid extremes”; Pittacus of Mitylene, his motto “Seize Time by the forelock”; Periander of Corinth, his motto “Nothing is impossible to industry.”
Seven Sleepers, seven noble youths of Ephesus who, to escape the persecution of Decius, fled into a cave, where they fell asleep and woke up at the end of two centuries.
Seven Wise Masters, the title of a famous cycle of mediæval tales which centre round the story of a young prince who, after baffling all efforts of former tutors, is at last, at the age of 20, instructed in all knowledge by Sindibad, one of the king's wise men, but having cast his horoscope Sindibad perceives the prince will die unless, after presentation at the court, he keeps silence for seven days; one of the king's wives, having in vain attempted to seduce the young man, in baffled rage accuses him to the king with tempting her virtue, and procures his death-sentence; the seven sages delay the execution by beguiling the king with stories till the seven days are passed, when the prince speaks and reveals the plot; an extraordinary number of variants exist in Eastern and Western languages, the earliest written version being an Arabian text of the 10th century: a great mass of literature has grown round the subject, which is one of the most perplexing as well as interesting problems of storiology.
Seven Wonders of the World, the pyramids of Egypt, the hanging gardens of Babylon, the tomb of Mausolus, the temple of Diana at Ephesus, the Colossus of Rhodes, the statue of Jupiter by Phidias at Olympia, and the Pharos at Alexandria.
Seven Years' War, the name given to the third and most terrible struggle between Frederick the Great of Prussia and Maria Theresa, empress of Austria, for, the possession of Silesia, which embroiled almost all Europe in war, and which had far-reaching effects on the destinies of England and France as well as Prussia; began in 1756 by Frederick's successful advance on Dresden, anticipating Maria Theresa's intention of attempting the recovery of Silesia, lost to her in the previous two wars. With Austria were allied France, Sweden, Poland, and Russia, while Prussia was supported till 1761 by England. In 1762 Peter III. of Russia changed sides, and Frederick, sometimes victorious, often defeated, finally emerged successful in 1763, when the war was brought to a close by the Peace of Hubertsburg. Besides demonstrating the strength and genius of Frederick and raising immensely the prestige of Prussia, it enabled England to make complete her predominance in North America and to establish herself securely in India, while at the same time it gave the death-blow to French hopes of a colonial empire.
Severn, the second river of England, rises on the E. side of Plinlimmon, in Montgomeryshire, and flows in a circuitous southerly direction through Montgomeryshire, Shropshire, Worcestershire, and Gloucestershire, falling into the Bristol Channel after a course of 210 m.; is navigable to Welshpool (180 m.); chief tributaries are the Terne, Wye, and the Stratford Avon; there is a “bore” perceptible 180 m. from the mouth.
Severus, L. Septimius, Roman emperor, born in Leptis Magna, in Africa; was in command at Pannonia, and elected emperor on the murder of Pertinax, and after conquering his rivals achieved victories in the East, especially against the Parthians, and thereafter subdued a rebellion in Britain, and secured South Britain against invasions from the north by a wall; died at York (146-211).
Sévigné, Madame de, maiden name Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, the most charming of letter-writers, born at Paris; married at 18 the dissolute Marquis de Sévigné, who left her a widow at 25; her beauty and rare charms attracted many suitors, to one and all of whom, however, she turned a deaf ear, devoting herself with touching fidelity to her son and daughter, and finding all her happiness in their affection and in the social intercourse of a wide circle of friends; her fame rests on her letters, written chiefly to her daughter in Provence, which reflect the brightest and purest side of Parisian life, and contain the tender outpourings of her mother's heart in language of unstudied grace (1626-1696).
Seville (144), a celebrated Spanish city and river port on the Guadalquivir, 62 m. NE. of Cadiz; an iron bridge connects it with Triana, a large suburb on the other side of the river; many of the old picturesque Moorish buildings have given place to modern and more commodious structures and broader streets; the great Gothic cathedral (15th century), containing paintings by Murillo, &c., is among the finest in Europe; the Moorish royal palace, the great Roman aqueduct (in use until 1883), the museum, with masterpieces of Murillo, Velasquez, &c., the university, archbishop's palace, Giralda Campanile, and the vast bull-ring, are noteworthy; chief manufactures embrace cigars, machinery, pottery, textiles, &c.; while lead, quicksilver, wines, olive-oil, and fruits are exported; is capital of a province (545).
Sèvres (7), a French town on the Seine, 10½ m. SW. of Paris, celebrated for its fine porcelain ware (especially vases), the manufacture of which was established in 1755; has a school of mosaic work and museums for pottery ware of all ages and countries.
Sèvres, Deux- (354), a department of West France; is watered by two rivers, and in the N. thickly wooded; a varied agriculture, cattle and mule breeding, and cloth manufacture are the principal industries. Niort is the capital.
Seward, Anna, poetess, born at Eyam, Derbyshire, but from the age of seven spent her life at Lichfield, where her father was residentiary canon; was a friend and indefatigable correspondent of Mrs. Piozzi, Dr. Darwin, Southey, Scott, and others; author of “Louisa,” a novel in poetry, “Sonnets” and other poems, which had in their day considerable popularity; her correspondence is collected in 6 vols. (1747-1809).
Seward, William Henry, American statesman, born at Florida, New York State; was called to the bar at Utica in 1822, and soon took rank as one of the finest forensic orators of his country; engaged actively in the politics of his State, of which he was governor in 1838 and 1840; entered the U.S. senate in 1849 as an abolitionist, becoming soon the recognised leader of the Anti-Slavery party; was put forward by the Republican party as a candidate for presidential nomination, but failing in this he zealously supported Lincoln, under whom he served as Secretary of State, conducting with notable success the foreign affairs of the country during the Civil War and up to the accession of President Grant in 1869; spent his closing years in travel and retirement (1801-1872).
Sextant, an instrument used in navigation (sometimes also in land-surveying) for measuring the altitudes of celestial bodies and their angular distances; consists of a graduated brass sector, the sixth part of a circle, and an arrangement of two small mirrors and telescope; invented in 1730 by John Hadley.
Seychelles (16), a group of some 30 islands, largest Mahé (59 sq. m.), situated in the Indian Ocean, 600 m. NE. of Madagascar; taken from the French by Britain in 1798, and now under the governor of Mauritius; are mountainous and mostly surrounded by coral reefs; export fibres, nuts, palm-oil, &c.; Victoria, in Mahé, is the chief town, and an imperial coaling station.
Sforza (i. e. stormer), Italian family celebrated during the 15th and 16th centuries, founded by a military adventurer, a peasant of the name of Muzia Allendolo, and who received the name; they became dukes of Milan, and began by hiring their services in war, in which they were always victorious, to the highest bidder, the first of the number to attain that rank being Francesco Sforza, the son of the founder, in 1450 (1401-1466), the last of the series being François-Marie (1492-1535).
Sgraffito, a decorative wall painting, produced by layers of plaster applied to a moistened surface and afterwards operated on so as to produce a picture.
Shadwell, Thomas, dramatist, who lives as the “MacFlecknoe” of Dryden's “Absalom and Achitophel,” born, of a good family, in Norfolk; studied law and adopted literature, in which he made a successful start with the comedy “The Sullen Lovers” (1668); his numerous plays, chiefly comedies, are of little poetic value, but serve as useful commentaries on the Restoration period; quarrelled with and satirised Dryden in the “Medal of John Bayes,” which drew forth the crushing retort in Dryden's famous satire; succeeded Dryden as poet-laureate in 1688 (1640-1692).
Shafites, a sect of the Sunnites or orthodox Mohammedans, so called from Shafei, a descendant of Mohammed.
Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of, a notable politician, prominent in the times of Cromwell and Charles II., born, of good parentage, in Dorsetshire; passed through Oxford and entered Lincoln's Inn; sat in the Short Parliament of 1640; changed from the Royalist to the Parliamentary side during the Civil War, and was a member of Cromwell's Council of State, but latterly attacked the Protector's Government, and was one of the chief promoters of the Restoration; Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1661, and later a member of the “Cabal”; he in 1672 was created an earl and Lord Chancellor, but, hoodwinked by Charles in the secret Treaty of Dover, went over to the Opposition, lost his chancellorship, supported an Anti-Catholic policy, leagued himself with the Country Party, and intrigued with the Prince of Orange; came into power again, after the “Popish Plot,” as the champion of toleration and Protestantism, became President of the Council, and passed the Habeas Corpus Act; his virulent attacks on James and espousal of Monmouth's cause brought about his arrest on a charge of high treason (1681), and although acquitted he deemed it expedient to flee to Holland, where he died; one of the ablest men of his age, but of somewhat inscrutable character, whose shifting policy seems to have been chiefly dominated by a regard for self; is the “Achitophel” of Dryden's great satire (1621-1683).
Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of, grandson of the preceding, philosopher, born in London; was an ardent student in his youth, made the grand tour, and entered Parliament in 1694, moving to the Upper House on the death of his father in 1699, where, as a staunch Whig, he gave steady support to William III.; withdrew from politics, never a congenial sphere to him, on the accession of Anne, and followed his bent for literature and philosophy; in 1711 his collected writings appeared under the title “Characteristics,” in which he expounds, in the polite style of the 18th century, with much ingenuity and at times force, a somewhat uncritical optimism, enunciating, among other things, the doubtful maxim that ridicule is the test of truth (1671-1713).
Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, seventh Earl of, statesman and philanthropist, born in London; was a distinguished graduate of Oxford, and entered Parliament as a Conservative in 1826, took office under Wellington in 1828, and was a lord of the Admiralty in Peel's ministry of 1834; succeeded to the earldom in 1851; but his name lives by virtue of his noble and lifelong philanthropy, which took shape in numerous Acts of Parliament, such as the Mines and Collieries Act (1842), excluding women and boys under 13 working in mines; the Better Treatment of Lunatics Act (1845), called the Magna Charta of the insane; the Factory Acts (1867); and the Workshop Regulation Act (1878); while outside Parliament he wrought with rare devotion in behalf of countless benevolent and religious schemes of all sorts, notably the Ragged School movement and the better housing of the London poor; received the freedom of Edinburgh and London; was the friend and adviser of the Prince Consort and the Queen (1801-1885).
Shah (Pers. “King”), an abbreviation of Shah-in-Shah (“King of Kings”), the title by which the monarchs of Persia are known; may also be used in Afghanistan and other Asiatic countries, but more generally the less assuming title of Khan is taken.
Shah-Jehan (“King of the World”), fifth of the Mogul emperors of Delhi; succeeded his father in 1627; a man of great administrative ability and a skilled warrior; conquered the Deccan and the kingdom of Golconda, and generally raised the Mogul Empire to its zenith; his court was truly Eastern in its sumptuous magnificence; the “Peacock Throne” alone cost £7,000,000; died in prison, a victim to the perfidy of his usurping son Aurungzebe; d. 1666.
Shakers, a fanatical sect founded by one Ann Lee, so called from their extravagant gestures in worship; they are agamists and communists.
Shakespeare, William, great world-poet and dramatist, born in Stratford-on-Avon, in Warwickshire; his father, John Shakespeare, a respected burgess; his mother, Mary Arden, the daughter of a well-to-do farmer, through whom the family acquired some property; was at school at Stratford, married Anne Hathaway, a yeoman's daughter, at 18, she eight years older, and had by her three daughters; left for London somewhere between 1585 and 1587, in consequence, it is said, of some deer-stealing frolic; took charge of horses at the theatre door, and by-and-by became an actor. His first work, “Venus and Adonis,” appeared in 1593, and “Lucrece” the year after; became connected with different theatres, and a shareholder in certain of them, in some of which he took part as actor, with the result, in a pecuniary point of view, that he bought a house in his native place, extended it afterwards, where he chiefly resided for the ten years preceding his death. Not much more than this is known of the poet's external history, and what there is contributes nothing towards accounting for either him or the genius revealed in his dramas. Of the man, says Carlyle, “the best judgment not of this country, but of Europe at large, is slowly pointing to the conclusion that he is the chief of all poets hitherto—the greatest intellect, in our recorded world, that has left record of himself in the way of literature. On the whole, I know not such a power of vision, such a faculty of thought, if we take all the characters of it, in any other man—such a calmness of depth, placid, joyous strength, all things in that great soul of his so true and clear, as in a tranquil, unfathomable sea.... It is not a transitory glance of insight that will suffice; it is a deliberate illumination of the whole matter; it is a calmly seeing eye—a great intellect, in short.... It is in delineating of men and things, especially of men, that Shakespeare is great.... The thing he looks at reveals not this or that face, but its inmost heart, its generic secret; it dissolves itself as in light before him, so that he discerns the perfect structure of it.... It is a perfectly level mirror we have here; no twisted, poor convex-concave mirror reflecting all objects with its own convexities and concavities, that is to say, withal a man justly related to all things and men, a good man.... And his intellect is an unconscious intellect; there is more virtue in it than he himself is aware of.... His art is not artifice; the noblest worth of it is not there by plan or pre-contrivance. It grows up from the deeps of Nature, through this noble sincere soul, who is a voice of Nature.... It is Nature's highest reward to a true, simple, great soul that he got thus to be part of herself.” Of his works nothing can or need be said here; enough to add, as Carlyle further says, “His works are so many windows through which we see a glimpse of the world that was in him.... Alas! Shakespeare had to write for the Globe Playhouse; his great soul had to crush itself, as it could, into that and no other mould. It was with him, then, as it is with us all. No man works save under conditions. The sculptor cannot set his own free thought before us, but his thought as he could translate into the stone that was given, with the tools that were given. Disjecta membra are all that we find of any poet, or of any man.” Shakespeare's plays, with the order of their publication, are as follows: “Love's Labour's Lost,” 1590; “Comedy of Errors,” 1591; 1, 2, 3 “Henry VI.,” 1590-1592; “Two Gentlemen of Verona,” 1592-1593; “Midsummer-Night's Dream,” 1593-1594; “Richard III.,” 1593; “Romeo and Juliet,” 1591-1596 (?); “Richard II.,” 1594; “King John,” 1595; “Merchant of Venice,” 1596; 1 and 2 “Henry IV.,” 1597-1598; “Henry V.,” 1599; “Taming of the Shrew,” 1597 (?); “Merry Wives of Windsor,” 1598; “Much Ado about Nothing,” 1598; “As You Like It,” 1599; “Twelfth Night,” 1600-1601; “Julius Cæsar,” 1601; “All's Well,” 1601-1602 (?); “Hamlet,” 1602, “Measure for Measure,” 1603; “Troilus and Cressida,” 1603-1607 (?); “Othello,” 1604; “Lear,” 1605; “Macbeth,” 1606; “Antony and Cleopatra,” 1607; “Coriolanus,” 1608; “Timon,” 1608; “Pericles,” 1608; “Cymbeline,” 1609; “Tempest,” 1610; “Winter's Tale,” 1610-1611; “Henry VIII.,” 1612-1613 (1564-1616).
Shakespeare of Divines, an epithet sometimes applied to Jeremy Taylor (q. v.) on account of his poetic style.
Shalott, Lady of, subject of a poem of Tennyson's in love with Lancelot; wove a web which she must not rise from, otherwise a curse would fall on her; saw Lancelot pass one day, entered a boat and glided down to Camelot, but died on the way.
Shamanism, the religion of the native savage races of North Siberia, being a belief in spirits, both good and evil, who can be persuaded to bless or curse by the incantations of a Priest called a Shaman.
Shammai, an eminent Jewish rabbi of the time of Herod, who held the position of supreme judge in the Sanhedrim under the presidency of Hillel (q. v.), and whose narrow, rigid orthodoxy and repressive policy became the leading principles of his school, “the House of Shammai,” which, however, carried the system to a pitch of fanatical zeal not contemplated by its originator.
Shamrock, a small trefoil plant, the national emblem of Ireland; it is matter of dispute whether it is the wood-sorrel, a species of clover, or some other allied trefoil; the lesser yellow trefoil is perhaps the most commonly accepted symbol.
Shamyl, a great Caucasian chief, head of the Lesghians, who combined the functions of priest and warrior; consolidated the Caucasian tribes in their resistance to the Russians, and carried on a successful struggle in his mountain fastnesses for thirty years, till his forces were worn out and himself made captive in 1859; d. 1871.
Shanghai (380), the chief commercial city and port of China, on the Wusung, an affluent of the Yangtse-kiang, 12 m. from the coast, and 160 m. SE. of Nanking; large, densely-peopled suburbs have grown round the closely-packed and walled city, which, with its narrow, unclean streets, presents a slovenly appearance; the French and English occupy the broad-streeted and well-built suburbs in the N.; the low-lying site exposes the city to great heat in the summer, and to frequent epidemics of cholera and fever; an extensive system of canals draws down a great part of the interior produce, and swells the export trade in tea, silk, cotton, rice, sugar, &c.
Shannon, the first river of Ireland, and largest in the British Islands, rises in the Cuilcagh Mountains, Co. Cavan; flows in a south-westerly direction through Loughs Allen, Ree, and Derg, besides forming several lough expansions, to Limerick, whence it turns due W., and opens out on the Atlantic in a wide estuary between Kerry (S.) and Clare (N.); has an entire course of 254 m., and is navigable to Lough Allen, a distance of 213 m.
Shans or Laos, the name of a people, descendants of aborigines of China, forming several large tribes scattered round the frontiers of Burma, Siam, and South China, whose territory, roughly speaking, extends N. as far as the Yunnan Plateau of South China; some are independent, but the bulk of the tribes are subject to Siam, China, and the British in Burma; practise slavery, are Buddhists, somewhat superstitious, indolent, pleasure-loving, and for the most part peaceable and content; chased gold and silver work, rice, cotton, tobacco, &c., are their chief exports.
Sharon, a fertile region in Palestine of the maritime plain between Carmel and Philistia.
Sharp, Abraham, a schoolmaster of Liverpool, and subsequent bookkeeper in London, whose wide knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, &c., attracted Flamsteed (q. v.), by whom he was invited in 1688 to enter the Greenwich Royal Observatory, where he did notable work, improving instruments, and showing great skill as a calculator; published “Geometry Improved,” logarithmic tables, &c. (1651-1742).
Sharp, Becky, an intriguing character in Thackeray's “Vanity Fair,” very clever, but without heart.
Sharp, Granville, a noted abolitionist, born in London; trained for the bar, but accepted a post in the London Ordnance Office, which he held until the outbreak of the American War; was a voluminous writer on philology, law, theology, &c., but mainly devoted himself to the cause of negro emancipation, co-operating with Clarkson in founding the Association for the Abolition of Negro Slavery, and taking an active interest in the new colony for freedom in Sierra Leone; won a famous decision in the law-courts to the effect that whenever a slave set foot on English soil he becomes free; he was also one of the founders of the Bible Society (1734-1813).
Sharp, James, archbishop of St. Andrews, born in Banff Castle; educated at Aberdeen University, visited England, where he formed important friendships, and in 1643 was appointed “regent” or professor of Philosophy at St. Andrews, a post he resigned five years later to become minister of Crail; during the Protectorate he sided with the “Resolutioners” or Moderates, and appeared before Cromwell in London to plead their cause; in 1660 received a commission to go to London to safeguard the interests of the Scottish Church, a trust he shamefully betrayed by intriguing with Charles at Breda, and with Clarendon and the magnates of the English Church to restore Prelacy in Scotland, he himself (by way of reward) being appointed Archbishop of St. Andrews; henceforward he was but a pliant tool in the hands of his English employers, and an object of intense hatred to the Covenanters; in 1668 his life was attempted in Edinburgh by Robert Mitchell, a covenanting preacher, and ultimately on Magus Muir, May 1679, he was mercilessly hacked to pieces by a band of Covenanters headed by Hackston and John Balfour (1618-1679).
Shaster, a book containing the institutes of the Hindu religion or its legal requirements.
Shawnees, a tribe of American Indians located originally in the eastern slopes of the Alleghanies, but now removed to Missouri, Kansas, and the Indian Territory.
Sheba, believed to be a region in South Arabia, along the shore of the Red Sea.
Shechinah, a glory as of the Divine presence over the mercy-seat in the Jewish Tabernacle, and reflected from the winged cherubim which overshadowed it, the reality of which it is the symbol being the Divine presence in man.
Sheepshanks, John, art collector, born at Leeds, son of a manufacturer; presented in 1856 a collection of works by British artists to the nation, now housed in South Kensington (1787-1863).
Sheerness (14), a fortified seaport and important garrison town with important naval dockyards in Kent, occupying the NW. corner of Sheppey Isle, where the Medway joins the Thames, 52 m. E. of London; is divided into Blue-town (within the garrison, and enclosing the 60 acres of docks), Mile-town, Banks-town, and Marina-town (noted for sea-bathing).
Sheffield (324), a city of Yorkshire, and chief centre of the English cutlery trade, built on hilly ground on the Don near its confluence with the Sheaf, whence its name, 41 m. E. of Manchester; is a fine, clean, well-built town, with notable churches, public halls, theatres, &c., and well equipped with libraries, hospitals, parks, colleges (e. g. Firth College), and various societies; does a vast trade in all forms of steel, iron, and brass goods, as well as plated and britannia-metal articles; has of late years greatly developed its manufactures of armour-plate, rails, and other heavier goods; its importance as a centre of cutlery dates from very early times, and the Cutlers' Company was founded in 1624; has been from Saxon times the capital of the manor district of Hallamshire; it is divided into five parliamentary districts, each of which sends a member to Parliament.
Sheffield, John, Duke of Buckinghamshire, son of the Earl of Mulgrave, whose title he succeeded to in 1658; served in the navy during the Dutch wars of Charles II.; held office under James II., and was by William III. created Marquis of Normanby; a staunch Tory in Anne's reign, he was rewarded with a dukedom, lost office through opposing Marlborough, but was reinstated after 1710, and in George I.'s reign worked in the Stuart interest; wrote an “Essay on Poetry,” &c. (1649-1721).
Sheikh, the chief of an Arab tribe; used often as a title of respect, Sheikh-ul-Islam being the ecclesiastical head of Mohammedans in Turkey.
Sheil, Richard Lalor, Irish patriot, born in Tipperary; bred to the bar; gave himself for some time to literature, living by it; joined the Catholic Association; was distinguished for his oratory and his devotion, alongside of O'Connell, to Catholic emancipation; supported the Whig Government, and held office under Melbourne and Lord John Russell (1791-1851).
Shekel, among the ancient Hebrews originally a weight, and eventually the name of a coin of gold or silver, or money of a certain weight, the silver = 5s. per oz., and the gold = £4.
Shelburne, William Petty, Earl of, statesman, born in Dublin; succeeded to his father's title in 1761, a few weeks after his election to the House of Commons; held office in the ministries of Grenville (1763), of Chatham (1766), and of Rockingham (1782); his acceptance of the Premiership in 1782, after Rockingham's death, led to the resignation of Fox and the entry of William Pitt, at the age of 23, into the Cabinet; his short ministry (July 1782 to Feb. 1783) saw the close of the Continental and American wars, and the concession of independence to the colonies, collapsing shortly afterwards before the powerful coalition of Fox and North; in 1784, on his retirement from politics, was created Marquis of Lansdowne; was a Free-Trader, supporter of Catholic emancipation, and otherwise liberal in his views, but rather tactless in steering his way amid the troublous politics of his time (1737-1805).
Sheldonian Theatre, “Senate House” of Oxford; so called from Gilbert Sheldon, archbishop of Canterbury, who built it.
Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft, author of “Frankenstein,” daughter of William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft; became the wife of the poet Shelley in 1816 after a two years' illicit relationship; besides “Frankenstein” (1828), wrote several romances, “The Last Man,” “Lodore,” &c., also “Rambles in Germany and Italy”; edited with valuable notes her husband's works (1797-1851).
Shelley, Percy Bysshe, born at Field Place, near Horsham, Sussex, eldest son of Sir Timothy Shelley, a wealthy landed proprietor; was educated at Eton, and in 1810 went to Oxford, where his impatience of control and violent heterodoxy of opinion, characteristic of him throughout, burst forth in a pamphlet “The Necessity of Atheism,” which led to his expulsion in 1811, along with Jefferson Hogg, his subsequent biographer; henceforth led a restless, wandering life; married at 19 Harriet Westbrook, a pretty girl of 16, a school companion of his sister, from whom he was separated within three years; under the influence of William Godwin (q. v.) his revolutionary ideas of politics and society developed apace; engaged in quixotic political enterprises in Dublin, Lynmouth, and elsewhere, and above all put to practical test Godwin's heterodox view on marriage by eloping (1814) to the Continent with his daughter Mary, whom he married two years later after the unhappy suicide of Harriet; in 1816, embittered by lord Eldon's decision that he was unfit to be trusted with the care of Harriet's children, and with consumption threatening, he left England never to return; spent the few remaining years of his life in Italy, chiefly at Lucca, Florence, and Pisa, in friendly relations with Byron, Leigh Hunt, Trelawney, &c.; during this time were written his greatest works, “Prometheus Unbound,” “The Cenci,” his noble lament on Keats, “Adonais,” besides other longer works, and most of his finest lyrics, “Ode to the South Wind,” “The Skylark,” &c.; was drowned while returning in an open sailing-boat from Leghorn to his home on Spezia Bay; “An enthusiast for humanity generally,” says Professor Saintsbury, “and towards individuals a man of infinite generosity and kindliness, he yet did some of the cruellest and some of not the least disgraceful things from mere childish want of realising the pacta conventa of the world;” Shelley is pre-eminently the poet of lyric emotion, the subtle and most musical interpreter of vague spiritual longing and intellectual desire; his poems form together “the most sensitive,” says Stopford Brooke, “the most imaginative, and the most musical, but the least tangible lyrical poetry we possess” (1792-1821).
Shenandoah, a river of Virginia, formed by two head-streams rising in Augusta Co., which unite 85 m. W. of Washington, and flowing NE. through the beautiful “Valley of Virginia,” falls into the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, after a course of 170 m.; also the name of a town (16) in Pennsylvania, 138 m. NW. of Philadelphia; centre of an important coal district.
Shenstone, William, poet, born, the son of a landed proprietor, at Hales-Owen, Shropshire; was educated at Pembroke College, Oxford, and during the years 1737-42 produced three vols. of poetry, the most noted being “The Schoolmistress”; succeeded to his father's estate in 1745, and entered with much enthusiasm and reckless expenditure into landscape-gardening, which won him in his day a wider reputation than his poetry; his “Essays” have considerable critical merit and originality, while his poetry—ballads odes, songs, &c.—has a music and grace despite its conventional diction (1714-1763).
Sheol, the dark underworld or Hades of the Hebrews, inhabited by the shades of the dead.
Shepherd Kings or Hyksos, a tribe of shepherds, alleged to have invaded Lower Egypt 2000 years before Christ, overthrown the reigning dynasty, and maintained their supremacy for 200 years.
Shepherd of Salisbury Plain, name of the hero, a shepherd of the name of Saunders, in a tract written by Hannah More, characterised by homely wisdom and simple piety.
Sheppard, Jack, a notorious criminal, whose audacious robberies and daring escapes from Newgate Prison made him for a time the terror and talk of London; drew some 200,000 people to witness his execution at Tyburn; figures as the hero of a well-known novel by Harrison Ainsworth (1702-1724).
Sheppey, Isle of, an islet in the estuary of the Thames, at the mouth of the Medway, belonging to Kent, from which it is separated by the Swale (spanned by a swing-bridge); great clay cliffs rise on the N., and like the rest of the island, are rich in interesting fossil remains; corn is grown, and large flocks of sheep raised; chief town is Sheerness (q. v.), where the bulk of the people are gathered; is gradually diminishing before the encroaching sea.
Sherborne (4), an interesting old town of Dorsetshire, pleasantly situated on rising ground overlooking the Yeo, 118 m. SW. of London; has one of the finest Perpendicular minsters in South England, ruins of an Elizabethan castle, and King Edward's School, founded in 1550, and ranking among the best of English public schools.
Sherbrooke, Robert Low, Viscount, statesman, born, the son of a rector, at Bingham, Notts; graduated at Oxford; obtained a Fellowship, and in 1836 was called to the bar; six years later emigrated to Australia; made his mark at the Sydney bar, taking at the same time an active part in the politics of the country; returned to England in 1850, and entered Parliament, holding office under Lord Aberdeen (1853) and Lord Palmerston (1855); education became his chief interest for some time, and in 1866 he fiercely opposed the Whig Reform Bill, but subsequently made amends to his party by his powerful support of Gladstone's Irish Church Disestablishment Bill, and was included in the Liberal ministry of 1868 as Chancellor of the Exchequer, a post he held till 1873, when he became Home Secretary; a man of great intellectual force and independency of judgment; created a viscount in 1880; was D.C.L. of Oxford and LL.D. of Edinburgh (1811-1892).
Shere Ali, Ameer of Afghanistan, son and successor of Dost Mohammed, at first favoured by Britain, but at last distrusted and was driven from the throne (1823-1879).
Sheridan, Philip Henry, a distinguished American general, born, of Irish parentage, in Albany, New York; obtained a cadetship at West Point Military Academy, and entered the army as a second-lieutenant in 1853; served in Texas and during the Civil War; won rapid promotion by his great dash and skill as commander of a cavalry regiment; gained wide repute by his daring raids into the S.; cleared the Confederates out of the Shenandoah Valley in 1864, and by his famous ride (October 19, 1864) from Winchester to Cedar Creek snatched victory out of defeat, routing the conjoined forces of Early and Lee; received the thanks of Congress, and was created major-general; took an active part under Grant in compelling the surrender of Lee, and in bringing the war to a close; subsequently during Grant's presidency was promoted to lieutenant-general; visited Europe in 1870 to witness the Franco-German War, and in 1883 succeeded Sherman as general-in-chief of the American army (1831-1888).
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley Butler, dramatist and politician, born in Dublin; educated at Harrow; was already committed to literature when, in 1773, he settled down in London with his gifted young wife, Elizabeth Linley, and scored his first success with the “Rivals” in 1775, following it up with the overrated “Duenna”; aided by his father-in-law became owner of Drury Lane Theatre, which somewhat lagged till the production of his most brilliant satirical comedy, “The School for Scandal” (1777) and the “Critic” set flowing the tide of prosperity; turning his attention next to politics he entered Parliament under Fox's patronage in 1780, and two years later became Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs in Rockingham's ministry; his great speech (1787) impeaching Hastings for his treatment of the Begums placed him in the front rank of orators, but although he sat for 32 years in Parliament, only once again reached the same height of eloquence in a speech (1794) supporting the French Revolution, and generally failed to establish himself as a reliable statesman; meanwhile his theatrical venture had ended disastrously, and other financial troubles thickening around him, he died in poverty, but was accorded a burial in Westminster Abbey (1751-1816).
Sherif or Shereef, a title of dignity among Mohammedans of either sex bestowed upon descendants of the Prophet through his daughters Fatima and Ali; as a distinguishing badge women wear a green veil, and men a green turban.
Sheriff, in England the chief officer of the Crown in every county, appointed annually, and intrusted with the execution of the laws and the maintenance of peace and order, with power to summon the posse commitatus. The office originated in Anglo-Saxon times, when it exercised wide judicial functions which have been gradually curtailed, and such duties as remain—the execution of writs, enforcement of legal decisions, &c., are mostly delegated to an under-sheriff (usually a lawyer) and bound-bailiffs, while the sheriff himself, generally a person of wealth (the office being unsalaried and compulsory, but not necessarily for more than one year) discharges merely honorary duties. In Scotland the sheriff, or sheriff-depute as he is called, is the chief judge of the county, and has under him one or more sheriffs-substitute, upon whom devolves the larger portion of the important and multifarious duties of his office. In America the sheriff is the chief administrative officer of the county, but exercises no judicial functions at all.
Sheriffmuir, a barren spot stretching N. of the Ochils, in Perthshire, 5 m. NE. of Stirling; was the scene of an indecisive conflict between 9000 Jacobites under the Earl of Mar and 3500 Royalists under the Duke of Argyll, November 13, 1715.
Sherlock, Thomas, English prelate, born in London; became bishop in succession of Bangor, Salisbury, and London, declining the Primacy; wrote several theological works, and took up arms against the rationalists of the day, such as Collins and Woolston (1678-1761).
Sherlock Holmes, an amateur detective, a creation of Dr. Conan Doyle.
Sherman, William Tecumseh, a distinguished American general, born, the son of a judge, in Lancaster, Ohio; first saw service as a lieutenant of artillery in the Indian frontier wars in Florida and California; resigned from the army in 1853, and set up as a banker in San Francisco, but at the outbreak of the Civil War accepted a colonelcy in the Federalist ranks; distinguished himself at the battles of Bull Run (1861) and Shiloh (1862); received promotion, and as second in command to Grant rendered valuable service in reducing Vicksburg and Memphis; was present at the victory of Chattanooga, and during 1864 entered into command of the SW.; captured the stronghold of Atlanta, and after a famous march seaward with 65,000 men took Savannah, which he followed up with a series of victories in the Carolinas, receiving, on 26th April 1865, the surrender of General Johnston, which brought the war to a close; was created general and commander-in-chief of the army in 1869, a position he held till 1869; published memoirs of his military life (1820-1891).
Sherwood Forest, once an extensive forest, the scene of Robin Hood's exploits, in Nottinghamshire, stretching some 25 m. between Worksop and Nottingham, but now a hilly, disafforested tract occupied by country houses and private parks, several villages, and the town of Mansfield.
Shetland or Zetland (29), a group of over 100 islands, islets, and skerries, of which 29 are inhabited, forming the northernmost county of Scotland, lying out in the Atlantic, NNE. of the Orkneys; Mainland (378 sq. m.), Fell, and Unst are the largest; the coast-line is boldly precipitous and indented, while the scenery all over the island is very grand; the soil is peaty, ill adapted to cultivation, but there is considerable rearing of stock, and the little shaggy pony is well known; fishing is the chief industry, herring, cod, ling, &c. Lerwick (q. v.) is the capital.
Shibboleth, a word by which the Gileadites distinguished an Ephraimite from his inability to sound the sh in the word, and so discovered whether he was friend or foe; hence it has come to denote a party cry or watchword.
Shields, North, a flourishing seaport of Northumberland, on the Tyne, near the mouth, 8 m. NE. of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and lying within the municipal borough of Tynemouth (47); is of quite modern growth, and of a plain, uninteresting appearance; has a theatre, free library, Mariners' Home, fine park, &c.; the docks cover 79 acres, and a large export trade in coal is carried on.
Shields, South (78), a busy seaport and popular watering-place in Durham, with a frontage of 2 m. on the south bank of the Tyne, 9 m. NE. of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, a place of residence from ancient times, with Roman remains, &c.; has a theatre, public library, marine school, two fine parks with central parade, 50 acres of docks, &c.; exports immense quantities of coal and coke.
Shiites, a sect of the Mohammedans, who reject the “Sunna” (q. v.) and championed the claims of Ali Mahommed's cousin and son-in-law to succeed to the Caliphate, and maintain the divine right of his descendants to represent the prophet in the Mohammedan Church. The Persians belong to this sect.
Shikarpur (42), capital of a district (853) in N. Sind, India, situated on rich alluvial ground, 18 m. W. of the Indus, and 330 m. N. of Karachi; since the opening of the Indus Valley Railway it has lost much of its importance as a commercial entrepôt between India and Khorassan; vicinity produces excellent grain crops, and carpets, cottons, &c., are manufactured in the town.
Shiloh, a village 20 m. N. of Jerusalem, sacred as the site of the resting-place of the Tabernacle on the settlement of the Jews in the land of promise. Is a name also of the Messiah.
Shinar, the vast alluvial plain extending along the Tagus and Euphrates, forming the country of Chaldea and Babylonia.
Shintoism, the native religion of Japan; a system of ancestor worship chiefly, combined with which is a religious homage paid to the Mikado.
Ship-Money, a tax levied by Charles I. at the suggestion of Noy, the Attorney-General, who based its imposition on an old war-tax leviable on port-towns to furnish a navy in times of danger, and which Charles imposed in a time of peace without consent of Parliament, and upon inland as well as port-towns, provoking thereby wide-spread dissatisfaction, and Hampden's refusal to pay, which with the trial and decision in favour of Charles contributed to bring about the Civil War, which cost Charles his life; was declared illegal by the Long Parliament in 1640.
Shipton, Mother, a prophetess of English legend, whose preternatural knowledge revealed in her prophecies, published after her death, was ascribed to an alliance with the devil, by whom it was said she became the mother of an ugly impish child.
Shiraz (30), a celebrated city of Persia, occupying a charming site on an elevated plain, 165 m. NE. of Bushire; founded in the 8th century; was for long a centre of Persian culture, and a favourite resort of the royal princes; its beauties are celebrated in the poems of Häfiz and Sádi, natives of the place; has been thrice wrecked by earthquakes, and presents now a somewhat dilapidated appearance.
Shiré, a river of East Africa, flows out of Lake Nyassa, and passes in a southerly course through the Shiré Highlands, a distance of 370 m., till it joins the Zambesi; discovered by Livingstone.
Shirley, James, dramatist, born in London, educated at Oxford and Cambridge; entered the Church, but turning Catholic resigned, and after trying teaching established himself in London as a play-writer; wrote with great facility, producing upwards of thirty plays before the suppression of theatres in 1642; fell back on teaching as a means of livelihood, and with a temporary revival of his plays after the Restoration eked out a scanty income till fear and exposure during the Great Fire brought himself and his wife on the same day to a common grave; of his plays mention may be made of “The Witty Fair One,” “The Wedding,” “The Lady of Pleasure,” “The Traitor,” etc. (1596-1666).
Shishak, the name of several monarchs of Egypt of the twenty-second dynasty, the first of whom united nearly all Egypt under one government, invaded Judea and plundered the Temple of Jerusalem about 962 B.C.
Shittim Wood, a hard, close-grained acacia wood of an orange-brown colour found in the Arabian Desert, and employed in constructing the Jewish Tabernacle.
Shoa (1,500), the southmost division of Abyssinia (q. v.); was an independent country till its conquest by Theodore of Abyssinia in 1855; is traversed by the Blue Nile, and has a mixed population of Gallas and Abyssinians.
Shoddy, a stuff woven of old woollen fabrics teased into fibre and of new wool intermixed.
Shoeburyness, a town in Essex, near Southend, a stretch of moorland utilised by the Government for gunnery practice.
Sholapur (61), chief town in the Presidency of Bombay, in a district (750) of the name, 283 m. E. of Bombay; has cotton and silk manufactures.
Shore, Jane, the celebrated mistress of Edward IV.; was the young wife of a respected London goldsmith till she was taken up by the king, through whom, till the close of the reign, she exercised great power, “never abusing it to any man's hurt, but to many a man's comfort and relief”; was ill-treated and persecuted by Richard III. for political purposes; subsequently lived under the patronage of Lord Hastings, and afterwards of the Marquis of Dorset, surviving till 1527; the story of her life has been made the subject of many ballads, plays, etc.
Shoreditch (120), parliamentary borough of East London; returns two members to Parliament; manufactures furniture, boot and shoes, beer, etc.
Shoreham, New, a seaport 6 m. W. of Brighton; has oyster and other fisheries, and shipbuilding yards.
Shorthouse, Joseph Henry, author of “John Inglesant,” born in Birmingham; wrote also “Sir Percival” and “Little Schoolmaster Mark,” etc.; is remarkable for his refined style of writing, latterly too much so; his first work, “John Inglesant,” published in 1881, is his best; b. 1834.
Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, a celebrated English admiral, born at Clay, in Norfolk; was apprenticed to a cobbler, but ran away to sea, and rose from grade to grade till in 1674 we find him a lieutenant in the Mediterranean fleet; was knighted in 1689 for his gallantry as commander of a ship in the battle of Bantry Bay, and in the following year as rear-admiral was prominent at the engagement off Beachy Head; in 1692 gave heroic assistance to Admiral Russell at La Hogue, and in 1702 to Rooke at Malaga; elevated to the commandership of the English fleets he in 1705 captured Barcelona, but on his way home from an unsuccessful attack upon Toulon was wrecked on the Scilly Isles and drowned (1650-1707).
Shrewsbury (27), county town of Shropshire, situated on a small peninsula formed by a horse-shoe bend of the Severn, 42 m. W. by N. of Birmingham; three fine bridges span the river here, connecting it with several extensive suburbs; a picturesque old place with winding streets and quaint timber dwelling-houses, a Norman castle, abbey church, ruined walls, etc. The public school, founded by Edward VI., ranks amongst the best in England; figures often in history as a place where Parliament met in 1397-98, and in 1403 gave its name to the battle which resulted in the defeat of Hotspur and the Earl of Douglas by Henry IV.; it was taken by the Parliamentarians in 1644; chief industries are glass-painting, malting, and iron-founding.
Shropshire or Salop (236), an agricultural and mining county of England, on the Welsh border, facing Montgomery chiefly, between Cheshire (N.) and Hereford (S.); is divided into two fairly equal portions by the Severn, E. and N. of which is low, level, and fertile, excepting the Wrekin (1320 ft.), while on the SW. it is hilly (Clee Hills, 1805 ft.); Ellesmere is the largest of several lakes; Coalbrookdale is the centre of a rich coal district, and iron and lead are also found. Shrewsbury is the capital; it consists of four Parliamentary divisions.
Shrovetide, confession-time, especially the days immediately before Lent, when, in Catholic times, the people confessed their sins to the parish priest and afterwards gave themselves up to sports, and dined on pancakes, Shrove Tuesday being Tuesday before Ash Wednesday, or the first day of Lent.
Shumla or Shumna (24), a fortified city of Bulgaria, 80 m. SE. of Rustchuk; has an arsenal, barracks, etc., is an important strategical centre between the Lower Danube and the East Balkans.
Shylock, the Jew in Shakespeare's “Merchant of Venice.”
Siam (9,000 of Siamese, Chinese, Shans, and Malays), occupies the central portion of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, wedged in between Annam and Cambodia (E.) and Burma (W.), and extending down into the Malay Peninsula; the wide Gulf of Siam forms the southern boundary; the rich alluvial valleys of the Menam and the Mekhong produce great quantities of rice (chief export), teak-wood, hemp, tobacco, cotton, etc., but of the land surface only about one-twentieth is cultivated, a large portion of the rest lying under forest and jungle; the Siamese are indolent, ignorant, ceremonious, and the trade is mainly in the hands of the Chinese; the mining of gold, tin, and especially rubies and sapphires, is also carried on. Buddhism is the national religion, and elementary education is well advanced; government is vested in a king (at present an enlightened and English-educated monarch) and council of ministers; since Sir J. Bowring's treaty in 1856, opening up the country to European trade and influences, progress has been considerable in roads and railway, electric, telephonic, and postal communication. Bangkok (q. v.) is the capital. In 1893 a large tract of territory NE. of the Mekhong was ceded to France.
Siamese Twins, twins born in Siam, of Chinese parents, whose bodies were united by a fleshy band extended between corresponding breast-bones; were purchased from their mother and exhibited in Europe and America, realised a competency by their exhibitions, married and settled in the States; having lost by the Civil War, they came over to London and exhibited, where they died, one 2½ hours after the other (1811-1874).
Sibbald, Sir Robert, physician and naturalist, born in Edinburgh, of Balgonie, Fife; established a botanic garden in Edinburgh, and was one of the founders of the Royal College of Physicians (16411712).
Siberia (5,000), a vast Russian territory in North Asia (one and a third times the size of Europe), stretching from the Ural Mountains (W.) to the seas of Behring, Okhotsk, and Japan (E.), bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean and on the S. by China and the Central Asiatic provinces of Russia; forms in the main an immense plain, sloping from the Altai and other mountain ranges on the S. to the dreary, ice-bound littoral on the N., drained by the northward-flowing Obi, Irtish, Yenesei, Lena, &c., embracing every kind of soil, from the fertile grain-growing plains of the S. and rich grazing steppe-land of the W. to the forest tracts and bogland of the N. and experiencing a variety of climates, but for the most part severely cold; hunting, fishing, and mining are the chief industries, with agriculture and stock-raising in the S. and W. The great Trans-Siberian Railway, in construction since 1891, is opening up the country, which is divided into eight “governments,” the chief towns being Tomsk, Irkutsk, Omsk, and Tobolsk; three-fifths of the population are Russians, chiefly exiles and descendants of exiles. Russian advance in Asia against the Tartars was begun in 1850, and was carried on by warlike Cossack marauders, followed by hunters, droves of escaping serfs, and persecuted religious sects.
Sibyl, name given to a woman, or rather to a number of women, much fabled of in antiquity, regarded by Ruskin as representing the voice of God in nature, and, as such, endowed with visionary prophetic power, or what in the Highlands of Scotland is called “second-sight”; the most famous of the class being the Sibyl of Cumæ, who offered King Tarquin of Rome nine books for sale, which he refused on account of the exorbitant sum asked for them, and again refused after she had burnt three of them, and in the end paid what was originally asked for the three remaining, which he found to contain oracular utterances bearing on the worship of the gods and the policy of Rome. These, after being entrusted to keepers, were afterwards burned, and the contents replaced by a commission appointed to collect them in the countries around, to share the same fate as the original collection. The name is applied in mediæval times to figures representative of the prophets who foretold the coming of Christ; the prophets so represented were reckoned sometimes 10, sometimes 12 in number; they are, says Fairholt, “of tall stature, full of vigour and moral energy; the costume rich but conventional, ornamented with pearls and precious stones.”
Sicilian Vespers, name given to a massacre of the French in Sicily at the hour of vespers on the eve of Easter Monday in 1282, the signal for the commencement being the first stroke of the vesper bell; the massacre included men and women and children to the number of 8000 souls, and was followed by others throughout the island.
Sicily (3,285), the largest island in the Mediterranean, lying off the SW. extremity of Italy, to which it belongs, and from which it is separated by the narrow strait of Messina, 2 m. broad; the three extremities of its triangular configuration form Capes Faro (NE.), Passaro (S.), and Boco (W.); its mountainous interior culminates in the volcanic Etna, and numerous streams rush swiftly down the thickly-wooded valleys; the coast-lands are exceptionally fertile, growing (although agricultural methods are extremely primitive) excellent crops of wheat and barley, as well as an abundance of fruit; sulphur-mining is an important industry, and large quantities of the mineral are exported; enjoys a fine equable climate, but malaria is in parts endemic; the inhabitants are a mixed—Greek, Italian, Arabic, &c.—race, and differ considerably in language and appearance from Italians proper; are ill-governed, and as a consequence discontented and backward, even brigandage not yet being entirely suppressed. Palermo, the largest city, is situated on the precipitous N. coast. As part of the “Kingdom of the Two Sicilies,” comprising Sicily and Naples, it was overrun by Garibaldi in 1860, and in the same year was incorporated with the kingdom of Italy.
Sickingen, Franz von, a German free-lance, a man of a knightly spirit and great prowess; had often a large following, Götz von Berlichingen of the number, and joined the cause of the Reformation; lost his life by a musket-shot when besieged in the castle of Landstuhl; he was a warm friend of Ulrich von Hutten (1481-1523).
Sicyon, a celebrated city of ancient Greece, was situated near the Corinthian Gulf, 7 m. NW. of Corinth; was an important centre of Grecian art, especially of bronze sculptures and painting; in the time of Aratus (251 B.C.) figured as one of the chief cities of the Achæan League; only a few remains now mark its site.
Siddons, Sarah, the greatest tragic actress of England, born at Brecon, the daughter and eldest child of Roger Kemble, manager of an itinerant theatrical company; became early a member of her father's company, and at 19 married an actor named Siddons who belonged to it; her first appearance in Drury Lane as Portia in 1755 was a failure; by 1782 her fame was established, after which she joined her brother, John Kemble, at Covent Garden, and continued to act there till her retirement in 1812; she was distinguished in many parts, and above all Lady Macbeth, in which character she took farewell of the stage; she appeared once again in London after this in 1815, for the benefit of her brother Charles, and again a few nights in Edinburgh in aid of a widowed daughter-in-law (1755-1831).
Sidereal Year, the period during which the earth makes a revolution in its orbit with respect to the stars.
Sidgwick, Henry, writer on ethics, born at Shipton, Yorkshire; professor of Moral Philosophy at Cambridge; “Methods of Ethics,” being a compromise between the intuitionalists and utilitarians, “the Principles of Political Economy,” and the “Elements of Politics”; he holds a high place in all these three studies; b. 1838.
Sidlaw Hills, a range of hills extending from Kinnoul Hill, near Perth, NE. to Brechin, in Forfarshire; most interesting point Dunsinane (1114 ft.).
Sidmouth (4), a pretty little watering-place on the S. Devonshire coast, 14 m. ESE. of Exeter; lies snugly between high cliffs at the mouth of a small stream, the Sid; is an ancient place, and has revived in popularity since the opening of the railway; has a fine promenade 1½ m. long.
Sidmouth, Henry Addington, Viscount, statesman, born in London, the son of a physician; studied at Oxford, and was called to the bar, but gave up law for politics, entered Parliament in 1783, and was Speaker from 1789 till 1801, in which year, after the fall of Pitt over Catholic emancipation, he formed a ministry, assuming himself the offices of First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer. This ministry of the “King's Friends” went out of office in 1804, after negotiating the Peace of Amiens (1802), and in subsequent governments of Pitt Sidmouth held various offices, being an unpopular Home Secretary from 1812 to 1821; created viscount in 1805 (1757-1844).
Sidney or Sydney, Algernon, a noted politician and soldier of extreme republican views, second son of Robert, second Earl of Leicester; first came into public notice in 1641-1642 by his gallant conduct as leader of a troop of horse in the Irish Rebellion; came over to England in 1643, joined the Parliamentarians, rose to a colonelcy and command of a regiment in 1645; was subsequently governor of Dublin and of Dover (1647), entered Parliament (1646), and although appointed one of the commissioners to try Charles I., absented himself from the proceedings, but afterwards approved of the execution; withdrew from politics during Cromwell's Protectorate, but on the reinstating of the Long Parliament (1659) became a member of the Council of State; was on a diplomatic mission to Denmark when the Restoration took place, and till his pardon in 1677 led a wandering life on the Continent; intrigued with Louis XIV. against Charles II., assisted William Penn in drawing up the republican constitution of Pennsylvania, was on trumped-up evidence tried for complicity in the Rye House Plot and summarily sentenced to death by Judge Jeffreys, the injustice of his execution being evidenced by the reversal of his attainder in 1689 (1622-1683).
Sidney, Sir Philip, poet, and one of the most attractive figures at Elizabeth's court, born at Penshurst, Kent, the son of Sir Henry Sidney, lord-deputy of Ireland; quitted Oxford in 1572, and in the manner of the time finished his education by a period of Continental travel, from which he returned imbued with the love of Italian literature; took his place at once in the court of Elizabeth, his uncle, the Earl of Leicester, being then high in favour, and received rapid promotion, being sent as ambassador in 1576 to the court of Vienna; nor was his favour with the queen impaired by his bold “Remonstrance” against her marriage with the Duke of Anjou, and in 1583 received a knighthood; two years later, “lest she should lose the jewel of her dominions” the queen forbade him to accompany Drake to the West Indies, and appointed him governor of Flushing, but in the following year he received his death-wound at the battle of Zutphen gallantly leading a troop of Netherlander against the Spaniards; his fame as an author rests securely on his euphuistic prose romance “Arcadia,” his critical treatise “The Defence of Poesy,” and above all on his exquisite sonnet-series “Astrophel and Stella,” in which he sings the story of his hapless love for Penelope Devereux, who married Lord Rich; was the friend of Edmund Spenser, and the centre of an influential literary circle (1554-1586).
Sidon, an ancient Phoenician city on the E. of the Mediterranean, 20 m. N. of Tyre, with an extensive commerce; was famed for its glass and purple dye; also suffered many a reverse of fortune.
Siebengebirge, a range of hills on the right bank of the Rhine, 20 m. above Köln, distinguished by its seven high peaks.
Siegfried, a hero of various Scandinavian and Teutonic legends, and especially of the “Nibelungen Lied” (q. v.), was rendered invulnerable by bathing in the blood of a dragon which he had slain, except at a spot on his body which had been covered by a falling leaf; he wore a cloak which rendered him invisible, and wielded a miraculous sword named Balmung (q. v.).
Siemens, Werner von, a celebrated German electrician and inventor, born at Lenthe, Hanover; served in the Prussian artillery, and rendered valuable services in developing the telegraphic system of Prussia; patented a process for electro-plating in gold and silver, and was the first to employ electricity in exploding submarine mines; retired from the army in 1849, and along with Halske established a business in Berlin for telegraphic and electrical apparatus, which has become notable throughout the world, having branches in several cities; made many contributions to electrical science; was ennobled in 1888 (1816-1892).
Siemens, Sir William (Karl William), younger brother of the preceding, born at Lenthe, Hanover; like his brother took to science, and in 1844 settled in England, naturalising in 1859; was manager of the English branch of the Siemens Brothers firm, and did much to develop electric lighting and traction (Portrush Electric Tramway); his inventive genius was productive of a heat-economising furnace, a water-meter, pyrometer, bathometer, &c.; took an active part in various scientific societies; was President of the British Association (1882), and received a knighthood in 1883 (1823-1883).
Sienna or Siena (28), an interesting old Italian city of much importance during the Middle Ages, in Central Italy, 60 m. S. of Florence, is still surrounded by its ancient wall, and contains several fine Gothic structures, notably its cathedral (13th century) and municipal palace; has a university and institute of fine arts; silk and cloth weaving, and a wine and oil trade are the chief industries.
Sierra, the name given to a range of mountains with a saw-like ridge.
Sierra Leone (75), a British maritime colony since 1787, on the W. coast of Africa, having a foreshore of 180 m. between Rivières du Sud (N.) and Liberia (S.); includes the peninsula of Sierra Leone proper with its densely-wooded Sugar-Loaf Mountain, and a number of coast islands, and stretches back to a highland eastern frontier ill defined; the climate is hot, humid, and unhealthy; has been called “The White Man's Grave”; is fertile, but not well exploited by the indolent negro population, half of whom are descendants from freed slaves; ground-nuts, kola-nuts, ginger, hides, palm-oil, &c., are the principal exports. Freetown (q. v.) is the capital. The executive power is exercised by a governor and council of five.
Sierra Madre, the main cordillera system of Mexico, extending in a northerly direction to Arizona, and forming the western buttress of a fertile plateau stretching eastwards; to the W. the States of Sinaloa and Sonora slope downwards to the sea.
Sierra Morena, a mountain chain in South Spain, forming the watershed between the valleys of the Gaudiana (N.) and Guadalquivir (S.); has valuable deposits of lead, silver, quicksilver, and other metals.
Sierra Nevada, 1, a mountain range in South Spain, 60 m. in length; lies for the most part in Granada, crossing the province E. and W. in bold, rugged lines, and clad on its higher parts with perpetual snow, whence the name; Mulhacen (11,660 ft.) is the highest peak. 2, A mountain system in California, stretching NW. and SE. 450 m., and forming the eastern buttress of the Great Central Valley; highest peak Mount Whitney (14,886 ft.). 3, A lofty mountain group in Colombia, South America, stretching NE. almost to the borders of Venezuela.
Sieyès, Abbé, a conspicuous figure all through the French Revolution, the Consulate, and the Empire, who thought in his simplicity that the salvation of France and the world at large depended on sound political institutions, in the drafting of which he spent his life; was born in Frèjus, of the bourgeois class; represented Paris in the States General; sat in the Centre in the Legislative Assembly; renounced the Christian religion in favour of the Goddess of Reason; projected a constitution which was rejected; supported Napoleon; fled to Belgium on the return of the Bourbons, and returned to France in 1830, by which time he was politically defunct (1748-1836).
Sigismund, emperor of Germany, son of the Emperor Charles IV., was markgrave of Brandenburg, king of Hungary, and palatine of the Rhine; struggled hard to suppress the Hussites; held the Council of Constance, and gave Huss (q. v.) a safe-conduct to his doom; he is the “Super Grammaticam” of Carlyle's “Frederick” (1362-1437).
Sigismund is the name of three kings of Poland, the last of whom died in 1632.
Signorelli, Luca, the precursor of Michael Angelo in Italian art, born at Cortona; studied at Arezzo under Piero della Francesca, and became distinguished for the accurate anatomy of his figures and for the grandeur and originality of design exhibited in his admirable frescoes of religious subjects at Loretto, Orviëto, and elsewhere (1441-1525).
Sigourney, Mrs., American authoress, was a prolific writer; wrote tales, poems, essays, chiefly on moral and religious subjects; was called the American Hemans (1791-1863).
Sigurd. See Siegfried.
Sikhs (lit. disciples), a native religious and military community, scattered, to the number of nearly two millions, over the Punjab, and forming some fifteen States dependent on the Punjab government; founded (1469) by Baber Nanak as a religious monotheistic sect purified from the grosser native superstitions and practices; was organised on a military footing in the 17th century, and in the 18th century acquired a territorial status, ultimately being consolidated in to a powerful military confederacy by Ranjit Singh, who, at the beginning of the 19th century, extended his power over a wider territory. In 1845-46 they crossed their E. boundary, the Sutlej, and invaded English possessions, but were defeated by Gough and Hardinge, and had to cede a considerable portion of their territory; a second war in 1848-49 ended in the annexation of the entire Punjab, since when the Sikhs have been the faithful allies of the English, notably in the Indian Mutiny.
Sikkim (7), a small native State in North-East India, lying on the southern slopes of the Himalayas, between Nepal (W.) and Bhotan (E.); under British protection; the ruling family being Buddhist, and of Tibetan descent.
Silage, the name given to green fodder, vegetables, &c., stored in stacks or pits (or silos) under heavy pressure, the process being known as ensilage. The practice of thus preserving green crops for fodder dates from earliest times, but its general adoption in Britain only began in 1882 since when its spread has been rapid. Originally the process in vogue involved slight fermentation, resulting in “sour silage,” but in 1884 it was found that by delaying the application of pressure for a day or two a rise of temperature took place sufficiently great to destroy the bacteria producing fermentation, the result being “sweet silage.” Both kinds are readily eaten by cattle.
Silence, Worship of, Carlyle's name for the sacred respect for restraint in speech till “thought has silently matured itself, ... to hold one's tongue till some meaning lie behind to set it wagging,” a doctrine which many misunderstand, almost wilfully, it would seem; silence being to him the very womb out of which all great things are born.
Silenus, a satyr who attended Dionysus, being his foster-father and teacher; assisted in the war of the giants, and slew Enceladus; had the gift of vaticination; is represented as mounted on an ass and supported by other satyrs.
Silesia (4,224), a province of South-East Prussia, stretching S. between Russian Poland (E.) and Austria (W. and S.); the Oder flows NW. through the heart of the country, dividing the thickly forested and in parts marshy lands of the N. and E. from the mountainous and extremely fertile W.; rich coal-fields lie to the S., and zinc is also a valuable product; agriculture and the breeding of cattle, horses, and sheep flourish, as also the manufacture of cottons, linens, &c.; Breslau is the capital; for long under the successive dominions of Poland and Bohemia, the Silesian duchies became, in the 18th century, a casus belli between Austria and Prussia, resulting in the Seven Years' War (q. v.) and the ultimate triumph of Frederick the Great of Prussia.
Silesia, Austrian (602), that portion of the original Silesian country preserved to Austria after the unsuccessful struggle with Prussia; forms a duchy and crownland of Austria, and extends SW. from the border of Prussian Silesia; agriculture and mining are the chief industries.
Silhouette, name given to the profile of a portrait filled in with black; a design familiar to the ancients, and in vogue in France during the reign of Louis XV.
Silistria (12), a town of Bulgaria, on the Danube, 70 m. below Rustchuk; occupies a fine strategical position, and is strongly fortified; withstood successfully a 39 days' siege by the Russians during the Crimean War; cloth and leather are the chief manufactures.
Silius Italicus, a Roman poet; was consul in the year of Nero's death, and his chief work an epic “Punica,” relating the events of the Second Punic War, a dull performance.
Silliman, Benjamin, American chemist and geologist, born in North Stratford (now Trumbull), Connecticut; graduated at Yale, and was called to the bar in 1802, but in the same year threw up law for science; became professor of Chemistry at Yale, a position he held for 50 years (till 1853); did much to stimulate the study of chemistry and geology by lectures throughout the States; founded (1818) the American Journal of Science, and was for 28 years its editor; during 1853-55 was lecturer on Geology at Yale; his writings include “Journals of Travels in England, Holland, and Scotland” (1779-1864). Benjamin Silliman, son of preceding, also an active scientist along his father's lines; founded the Yale School of Science, and filled the chairs of Chemistry at Louisville (1849-1854) and at Yale (till 1869); was co-editor of the Journal of Science (1845-85), and wrote various popular text-books of chemistry and physics (1816-1885).
Silloth (3), a watering-place of Cumberland, on the Solway Firth, 20 m. W. of Carlisle; has good docks and an increasing commerce.
Silures, one of the ancient British tribes occupying the SE. of Wales; conjectured to be of Non-Aryan stock, and akin to the Iberians; offered a fierce resistance to the invading Romans.
Silvanus, an Italian divinity, the guardian of trees, fields, and husbandmen; represented as a hale, happy, old man.
Simeon, St., the aged seer who received the infant Christ in his arms as He was presented to the Lord by His mother in the Temple; usually so represented in Christian art.
Simeon Stylites, famous as one of the Pillar Saints (q. v.).
Simferopol (36), a town in the Crimea, 49 m. NE. of Sebastopol; surrounded by gardens, orchards, and vineyards; exports a great quantity of fruit.
Simla (15, but largely increased in summer), the chief town of a district in the Punjab, and since 1864 the summer hill-quarters of the British Government in India; beautifully situated on the wooded southern slopes of the Himalayas, 7156 ft. above sea-level, and 170 m. N. of Delhi; has a cool and equable climate, and possesses two vice-regal palaces, government buildings, beautiful villas, &c.
Simms, William Gilmore, a prolific American writer, born at Charleston, South Carolina; turned from law to literature; engaged in journalism for some years, and found favour with the public as a writer of poems, novels, biographies, &c., in which he displays a gift for rapid, vivid narrative, and vigour of style; “Southern Passages and Pictures” contains characteristic examples of his poetry, and of his novels “The Yemassee,” “The Partisan,” and “Beauchampe” may be mentioned (1806-1870).
Simon, Jules, French statesman and distinguished writer on social, political, and philosophic subjects, born at Lorient; succeeded Cousin in the chair of Philosophy at the Sorbonne; entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1848; lost his post at the Sorbonne in 1852 for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to Napoleon III.; subsequently became Minister of Education under Thiers (1871-73), a life-senator in 1875, and in 1876 Republican Prime Minister; later more conservative in his attitude, he edited the Echo Universel, and was influential as a member of the Supreme Educational Council, and as permanent secretary of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences; his voluminous works include treatises on “Liberty,” “Natural Religion,” “Education,” “Labour,” &c., and various philosophic and political essays (1814-1896).
Simon, Richard, a celebrated French biblical scholar, born at Dieppe; entered the Congregation of the Oratory in 1659, and became professor of Philosophy at the College of Juilly; was summoned to Paris, and under orders of his superiors spent some time in cataloguing the Oriental MSS. in the library of the Oratory; his free criticisms and love of controversy got him into trouble with the Port-Royalists and the Benedictines, and the heterodoxy of his “Histoire Critique du Vieux Testament” (1678) brought about his withdrawal to Belleville, where he remained as curé till 1682, when he retired to Dieppe to continue his work on Old and New Testament criticism; he ranks as among the first to deal with the scriptural writings as literature, and he anticipated not a few of the later German theories (1638-1712).
Simon Magus, a sorcerer, one who by his profession of magic aggrandised himself at the expense of the people of Samaria, and who, when he saw the miracles wrought by the Apostles, and St. Peter in particular, offered them money to confer the like power on himself; Peter's well-known answer was not without effect on him, but it was only temporary, for he afterwards appeared in Rome and continued to impose upon the people so as to persuade them to believe him as an incarnation of the Most High. Hence Simony, the sin of making gain by the buying or selling of spiritual privileges for one's material profit.
Simonides of Amorgos, a Greek poet who flourished in the 7th century B.C.; dealt in gnome and satire, among the latter on the different classes of women.
Simonides of Ceos, one of the most celebrated lyric poets of Greece; spent most of his life in Athens, employed his poetic powers in celebrating the events and heroes of the Persian wars; gained over Æschylus the prize for an elegy on those who fell at Marathon; composed epigrams over the tombs of the Spartans who fell at Thermopylæ, and in his eightieth year was crowned victor at Athens; shortly after this was invited by Hiero to Syracuse, at whose court he died; his poetry was distinguished at once for sweetness and finish; he was a philosopher as well as a poet (556-467 B.C.).
Simoom or Simoon, a hot, dry wind-storm common to the arid regions of Africa, Arabia, and parts of India; the storm moves in cyclone (circular) form, carrying clouds of dust and sand, and produces on men and animals a suffocating effect.
Simplon, a mountain in the Swiss Alps, in the canton of Valais, traversed by the famous Simplon Pass (6594 ft. high), which stretches 41 m. from Brieg in Valais to Domo d'Ossola in Piedmont, passing over 611 bridges and through many great tunnels, built by Napoleon 1800-6.
Simpson, Sir James Young, physician, born, the son of a baker, at Bathgate, Linlithgowshire; graduated M.D. at Edinburgh in 1832; was assistant to the professor of Pathology and one of the Presidents of the Royal Medical Society before his election to the chair of Midwifery in 1840; as an obstetrician his improvements and writings won him wide repute, which became European on his discovery of chloroform in 1847; was one of the Queen's physicians, and was created a baronet in 1866; published “Obstetric Memoirs,” “Archæological Essays,” &c. (1811-1870).
Simrock, Karl Joseph, German scholar and poet, born at Bonn; studied at Bonn and Berlin, where he became imbued with a love for old German literature, in connection with which he did his best-known work; modernised the “Nibelungen Lied” (1827), and after his withdrawal from the Prussian service gave himself to his favourite study, becoming professor of Old German in 1850, and popularising and stimulating inquiry into the old national writings by volumes of translations, collections of folk-songs, stories, &c.; was also author of several volumes of original poetry (1802-1876).
Sims, George Robert, playwright and novelist, born in London; was for a number of years on the staff of Fun and a contributor to the Referee and Weekly Dispatch, making his mark by his humorous and pathetic Dagonet ballads and stories; has been a busy writer of popular plays (e. g. “The Lights o' London,” “The Romany Rye”) and novels (e. g. “Rogues and Vagabonds,” “Dramas of Life”); contributed noteworthy letters to the Daily News on the condition of the London poor; b. 1847.
Simson, Robert, mathematician, born in Ayrshire; abandoned his intention of entering the Church and devoted himself to the congenial study of mathematics, of which he became professor in the old university at Glasgow (1711), a position he held for 50 years; was the author of the well-known “Elements of Euclid,” but is most celebrated as the first restorer of Euclid's lost treatise on “Porisms” (1687-1768).
Sinai, Mount, one of a range of three mountains on the peninsula between the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Akaba, at the head of the Red Sea, and from the summit or slopes of which Moses is said to have received the Ten Commandments at the hands of Jehovah.
Sincerity, in Carlyle's ethics the one test of all worth in a human being, that he really with his whole soul means what he is saying and doing, and is courageously ready to front time and eternity on the stake.
Sinclair, name of a Scottish family of Norman origin whose founder obtained from David I. the grant of Roslin, near Edinburgh.
Sinclair, Sir John, philanthropist and statistician, born at Thurso Castle, bred to the bar; succeeding to the family estate devoted himself to his duties as a landed proprietor; sat for different constituencies in Parliament; published in 1784 “History of the Revenue of the British Empire,” and in 1791-99, in 21 vols., “Statistical Account of Scotland” (1754-1835).
Sind, Sindh, or Scinde (2,903), a province of North-West India, in the Presidency of Bombay; extends from Beluchistan and Punjab (N.) to the Indian Ocean and Runn of Cutch (S.); traversed by the Indus, whose delta it includes, and whose broad alluvial valley-tracts yield abundant crops of wheat, barley, hemp, rice, cotton, etc., which are exported, and give employment to the majority of the people; N. and E. are wide stretches of desert-land, and in the S. are the Hala Mountains; was annexed to the British possessions after the victories of Sir Charles Napier in 1843; chief city and port is Kurrachee.
Sindia, the hereditary title of the Mahratta dynasty in Gwalior, Central India, founded in 1738 by Ranojee Sindia, who rose from being slipper-bearer to the position of hereditary prime minister of the Mahrattas; these princes, both singly and in combination with other Mahratta powers, offered determined resistance to the British, but in 1803 the confederated Mahratta power was broken by Sir Arthur Wellesley, and a large portion of their territory passed into British hands. Gwalior having been restored (1805), and retaken in 1844, the Sindia dynasty was reinstated under a more stringent treaty, and Boji Rao Sindia proved faithful during the Mutiny, receiving various marks of good-will from the British; was succeeded by his adopted son, a child of six, in 1886.
Singapore, 1, (185, chiefly Chinese), the most important of the British Straits Settlements (q. v.); consists of the island of Singapore and upwards of 50 islets, off the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, from which it is separated by a narrow strait (2 to ½ m. broad); is hot, humid, and low-lying, yet healthy, and possessing a fertile soil which grows all kinds of spices, fruits, sugar-cane, coffee, etc.; purchased by the British in 1824. 2, Capital (160) and port, on the Strait of Singapore, close to the equator; the chief emporium of trade with the East Indies and South-Eastern Asia generally; is a picturesque and handsome town, strongly fortified, and an important naval coaling station and depôt, with spacious harbour, docks, etc.
Sinology, the science treating of the language, literature, laws, and history of the Chinese.
Sinon, a wily Greek who beguiled the Trojans and persuaded them to admit the Wooden Horse into the city, to its ruin.
Sinope (8), a seaport of Turkey in Asia, situated on a narrow isthmus connecting with the mainland the rocky headland of Cape Sinope which projects into the Black Sea, 350 m. NE. of Constantinople; possesses two fine harbours, naval arsenal, Byzantine ruins, etc.; an ancient Greek town, the birthplace of Diogenes, and capital of Mithridates; it was captured by the Turks in 1461, who themselves in 1853 suffered a disastrous naval defeat in the Bay of Sinope at the hands of the Russians.
Sion, capital of the Swiss canton of Valais, on the Rhine, 42 m. E. of Lausanne; is a mediæval town, with an old Gothic cathedral, and in the neighbourhood ruined castles.
Siout or Asioot (32), capital of Upper Egypt; commands a fine view near the Nile, 200 m. S. of Cairo; has a few imposing mosques and a government palace; is a caravan station, and noted for its red and black pottery; occupies the site of the ancient city of Lycopolis.
Sioux or Dakota Indians, a North American Indian tribe, once spread over the territory lying between Lake Winnipeg (N.) and the Arkansas River (S.), but now confined chiefly to South Dakota and Nebraska. Failure on the part of the United States Government to observe certain treaty conditions led to a great uprising of the Sioux in 1862, which was only put down at a great cost of blood and treasure; conflicts also took place in 1876 and 1890, the Indians finding in their chief, Sitting Bull, a determined and skilful leader.
Sirdar, a name given to a native chief in India.
Siren, an instrument for measuring the number of aërial vibrations per second, and thereby the pitch of a given note.
Sirens, in the Greek mythology a class of nymphs who were fabled to lure the passing sailor to his ruin by the fascination of their music; Ulysses, when he passed the beach where they were sitting, had his ears stuffed with wax and himself lashed to the mast till he was at a safe distance from the influence of their charm. Orpheus, however, as he passed them in the Argonautic expedition so surpassed their music by his melodious notes, that in very shame they flung themselves into the sea and were changed into boulders.
Sirius or The Dog-Star, the brightest star in the heavens, one of the stars of the Southern constellation of Canis Major; is calculated to have a bulk three times that of the sun, and to give 70 times as much light. See Dog-Days.
Sirkar, a name used in India to designate the government.
Sirocco. See Simoom.
Sismondi, Jean Charles Léonard Simonde de, celebrated Swiss historian, born at Geneva; son of a Protestant clergyman of Italian descent; the family fortune was lost in the troublous days of the French Revolution, and exile in England and Italy followed, but in 1800 Sismondi returned to Geneva, and having received a municipal appointment gave himself to literary pursuits; the works which have established his reputation are his great histories of “The Italian Republics in the Middle Ages,” “European Literature,” and “A. History of the French”; wrote also on political economy (1773-1842).
Sistine Chapel, celebrated chapel of the Vatican at Rome, constructed by order of Pope Sixtus IV., and decorated with frescoes by Michael Angelo, representing a succession of biblical subjects, including among others the “Creation of the World,” the “Creation of Man,” the “Creation of Woman,” the “Temptation of Eve,” the “Deluge,” “Judith and Holophernes,” “David and Goliath,” “The Last Judgment,” &c.
Sistova (12), a town of Bulgaria, on the Danube, 33 m. above Rustchuk; carries on trade in wine, leather, and cereals; was captured by the Russians in 1877.
Sisyphus, a mythical king of Corinth, who for some offence he gave the gods was carried off to the nether world, and there doomed to roll a huge block up a hill, which no sooner reached the top than it bounded back again, making his toil endless.
Sitka or New Archangel (1), capital of Alaska, on the W. coast of Baranof Island, overhung by snowy mountains; has a good harbour; salmon fishing and curing the chief employment of most of the inhabitants, mostly Indians.
Siva or Çiva, the Destroyer in the Hindu trinity, in which Brahma is the Creator and Vishnu the Preserver; Vishnu representing, as it were, death issuing in life, and Siva life issuing in death, the transition point, and Brahma, who, by means of them, “kills that he may make alive.” He is worshipped as “Mahâdêva” or the great god, and his worshippers are called Saivas or Çaivas, as distinct from those of Vishnu, which are called Vaishnavas. The linga (q. v.) is his symbol, in emblem of the creation which follows destruction. See Psalm xc. 3.
Sivaji, the founder of the Mahratta power in India, a bold warrior but an unlettered, of Rajput descent, brought up at Poona; began his career at 19; on his succession assumed the title of rajah in 1664, and was enthroned at Raigpur in 1674, and died sovereign of the whole Deccan (1627-1680).
Six Articles. See Bloody Statute.
Sixtus, the name of five Popes. S. I., St., Pope from 116 to 125; S. II., St., Pope from 257 to 259; S. III., Pope from 432 to 440; S. IV., Pope from 1471 to 1484; S. V., Pope from 1585 to 1590; of whom only two are of any note.
Sixtus IV., born near Savona, the son of a fisherman; became general of the Franciscans; succeeded Paul II. as Pope; was notorious for his nepotism; abetted Pazzi in his conspiracy against the Medici at Florence, but was a good administrator, and a man of liberal views; b. 1414.
Sixtus V., born near Monalto, of poor parents, was of the Franciscan order, and famed as a preacher; was elected successor to Gregory XIII., during whose pontificate he affected infirmity, to reveal himself a vigorous pontiff as soon as he was installed; set himself at once to stamp out disorder, reform the administration, and replenish the exhausted treasury of the Church; he allowed freedom of worship to the Jews, and yet was zealous to put down all heresy in the Christian States of Europe; his services to Rome were not repaid with gratitude, for the citizens destroyed his statue on his death; b. 1521.
Sizar, a poor student at the universities of Cambridge and Oxford, so called from the size or allowance of food they were recipients of out of the college buttery.
Skager-Rack, an arm of the North Sea stretching NE. between Norway and Denmark, and connecting the Cattegat with the North Sea, 140 m. long and 70 broad, the deep water being on the Norwegian coast.
Skald, an old Scandinavian poet, a reciter or singer of poems in praise of the Norse warriors and their deeds.
Skean-dhu, a small dirk which a Highlander wears in his stocking.
Skeat, Walter William, English philologist, born in London; professor of Anglo-Saxon at Cambridge; author of “Etymological Dictionary of the English Language,” and a great authority on Early English literature; the first Director of the Dialect Society, established in 1873; b. 1835.
Skeggs, Miss, a character in the “Vicar of Wakefield,” boastful for her aristocratic connections and delicacy of taste, but vulgar at bottom.
Skelton, John, early English satirist, his chief poetic works being “Why come ye not to Courte,” a satire against Wolsey; the “Book of Colin Clout,” against the corruption of the Church; and the “Book of Phyllyp Sparrow,” the grief of a nun for the death of her sparrow; Erasmus calls him “the glory and light of English letters” (1460?-1528).
Skene, William Forbes, Scottish historian, born in Kincardineshire, bred to law; devoted 40 years of his life to the study of the early, in particular the Celtic, periods of Scottish history, and was from 1881 historiographer for Scotland (1809-1892).
Skerryvore, a rock with a lighthouse, one of an extensive reef 10 m. W. of Tiree, on the west coast of Scotland; the light is a revolving one; is seen at the distance of over 18 nautical miles.
Skiddaw, a mountain in Cumberland, 3054 ft. in height; is some 6 m. from Keswick, whence it is of easy ascent.
Skimpole, Harold, a plausible character in “Bleak House,” who was in the habit of sponging his friends.
Skinner, John, author of “Tullochgorum,” born in Bervie, Aberdeenshire; originally a schoolmaster; became an Episcopal clergyman (1721-1807).
Skipton (10), a market-town in Yorkshire, 26 m. NW. of Leeds; population largely engaged in agriculture; has manufactures of cotton and woollen goods.
Skobeleff, Michael, a Russian general, distinguished himself by his bravery in the Russian service, particularly in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78; was a leader in the Panslavist movement; died suddenly (1841-1882).
Skye (16), next to Lewis the largest of the Hebrides Islands, belongs to the Inner group, and is included in Inverness-shire, from the mainland of which it is separated by the narrow channel Kyle Rhea; has a deeply indented coast-line, and a picturesquely diversified surface of mountain, moor, and loch; the most notable features being the lofty Coolin Hills (highest point 3234 ft.), Loch Coruisk, Glen Sligachan, and the wild columnar height of basalt, the Quiraing; sheep and Highland cattle are raised, and valuable ling, cod, and herring fisheries are carried on in the coastal waters. Portree is the chief town and port, but is little better than a small village.
Slade, Felix, antiquary and art-collector; left his art-collection to the British Museum, and money to found Slade professorships of art at Oxford, Cambridge, and London Universities (1789-1868).
Slave Coast, name given to the Bight of Benin, in West Africa, from Lagos to the Volta River.
Slavonia, a kingdom that at one time included Croatia and that lies between the Drave and the Military Frontier.
Slavs, an important branch of the Aryan race-stock, comprising a number of European peoples chiefly in East Europe, including the Russians, Bulgarians, Servians, Bohemians, Poles, Croatians, Moravians, Silesians, Pomeranians, &c. At the dawn of history we find them already settled in Europe, chiefly in the neighbourhood of the Carpathians, whence they spread N., S., and W., assuming their present position by the 7th century. They are estimated to number now 100,000,000, and the various languages spoken by them are notable, compared with the Teutonic and Celtic tongues, for their rich inflections.
Slawkenbergius, an author quoted and referred to in “Tristram Shandy,” distinguished by the length of his nose, and a great authority on the subject of noses.
Sleeping Beauty, a princess who was by enchantment shut up to sleep 100 years in a castle surrounded by a dense forest, and was delivered from her trance at the end of that term by a prince, to admit whom the forest opened of itself.
Sleipnir, in the Scandinavian mythology the horse of Odin, which had eight legs, as representing the wind with its eight principal “airts.”
Sleswick-Holstein (1,217), a province of North Prussia, stretching up to Denmark, between the North Sea and the Baltic; various canals cross the country, bearing to the coast the export produce—corn and cattle; the land is highly cultivated, and fishing is an important industry on the Baltic coast; Flensburg, the chief seaport, and Sleswick (15), the capital, are both situated on inlets of the Baltic; the latter lies 28 m. NW. of Kiel, consists of a single street 3½ m. long, and possesses a fine Gothic cathedral with a fine altar-piece, &c., the sections representing the history of the Passion of Christ.
Slick, Sam, a clockmaker and pedlar, a character illustrating Yankee peculiarities, and remarkable for his wit, his knowledge of human nature, and his use of “soft sawder,” a creation of Judge Haliburton's (q. v.).
Sligo, 1, a maritime county of North-West Ireland (98), in the province of Connaught; fronts the Atlantic on the N. between Mayo (W.) and Leitrim (E.), Roscommon forming the S. boundary; the land, sloping N. to the coast from the Ox Mountains, is chiefly under grass for cattle pasture, and divided into small holdings; Sligo Bay is a fine sheet of water, and in the S. and E. are the picturesque Loughs Arrow and Gill; the manufacture of coarse woollens and linens and fishing are the principal industries; the Moy, Owenmore, and Garvogue are navigable rivers. 2, At the mouth of the Garvogue stands Sligo (10), the county town, 137 m. NW. of Dublin; has ruins of a 13th-century Dominican abbey, a Roman Catholic cathedral, and exports cattle, corn, butter, &c.
Sloane, Sir Hans, physician and naturalist, born in co. Down, Ireland, of Scotch descent; settled as a physician in London; attained the highest distinction as a professional man; his museum, which was a large one, of natural objects, books, and MSS. became by purchase the property of the nation, and formed the nucleus of the British Museum (1660-1753).
Slöjd (sleight), a system of manual training adopted to develop technical skill originally in the schools of Sweden and Finland; is education of the eye as well as the hand.
Slop, Doctor, a choleric physician in “Tristram Shandy.”
Slough of Despond, a deep bog in the “Pilgrim's Progress,” into which Christian sinks under the weight of his sins and his sense of their guilt.
Slovaks, a Slavonic peasant people numbering some 2,000,000, subject to the crown of Hungary since the 11th century, and occupying the highlands of North-West Hungary; speak a dialect of Czech.
Slovenians, a Slavonic people akin to the Servians and Croatians in Austro-Hungary, dwelling chiefly in Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola.
Sly, Christopher, a drunken sot of a tinker in the “Induction” to “Taming of the Shrew.”
Smart, Christopher, English poet, born in Kent; was a Fellow of Cambridge and a friend of Johnson's; author of the “Song to David,” now famous, much overrated, think some; he was subject to insanity, and it was written during lucid intervals; he was the author of a prose translation of Horace (1722-1771).
Smeaton, John, civil engineer, born near Leeds; began life as a mathematical instrument-maker; made improvements in mill-work, and gained the Copley Medal in 1758; visited the principal engineering works in Holland and Belgium; was entrusted with the rebuilding of Eddystone Lighthouse (q. v.) after it was in 1755 burnt down, which he finished in 1759; did other engineering work in the construction of canals, harbours, and mills, rising to the summit of his profession (1724-1792).
Smectymnuus, a pamphlet written in 1641, the title of which is made up of the initial letters of the names of the authors.
Smelfungus, a name given by Sterne to Smollett as author of volume of “Travels through France and Italy,” for the snarling abuse he heaps on the institutions and customs of the countries he visited; a name Carlyle assumes when he has any seriously severe criticisms to offer on things particularly that have gone or are going to the bad.
Smiles, Samuel, author of “Self-Help,” born in Haddington; was bred to medicine, and professed it for a time, but abandoned it for literary and other work; wrote the “Life of George Stephenson” in 1857, followed by “Self-Help” two years after; b. 1812.
Smith, Adam, political economist, born in Kirkcaldy, Fife; studied at Glasgow and Oxford, went to Edinburgh and became acquainted with David Hume and his confrères; was appointed to the chair of Logic in Glasgow in 1751, and the year after of Moral Philosophy; produced in 1759 his “Theory of Moral Sentiments,” visited Paris with the young Duke of Buccleuch, got acquainted with Quesnay, D'Alembert, and Necker, and returning in 1766, settled in his native place under a pension from the Duke of Buccleuch, where in 1776 he produced his “Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,” a work to which he devoted 10 years of his life, and which has had a world-wide influence, and that has rendered his name world-famous; in 1778 he settled in Edinburgh as Commissioner of Customs for Scotland, and in 1787 was elected Lord Rector of Glasgow University (1723-1790).
Smith, Alexander, poet, born in Kilmarnock; began life as a pattern-designer, contributed to the Glasgow Citizen, wrote a volume of poems, “A Life Drama,” and produced other works in a style characterised as “spasmodic,” and which, according to Tennyson, “showed fancy, but not imagination” (1880-1807).
Smith, George, Assyriologist, born at London; trained as a bank-note engraver, but attracted the attention of Sir Henry Rawlinson by his interest in cuneiform inscriptions, and in 1867 received an appointment in the British Museum; acquired great skill as an interpreter of Assyrian inscriptions, published “Annals of Assurbanipal,” and in 1872 discovered a tablet with the “Chaldean Account of the Deluge”; carried through important expeditions (1871-3-6) in search of antiquities in Nineveh and other parts of Assyria, accounts of which he published; wrote also histories of Babylonia, Assyria, Sennacherib, &c. (1840-1876).
Smith, Goldwin, English man of letters, born in Berks; was at one time intimately associated with Oxford University, went to America and became professor of English History in Cornell University, and since 1871 has settled in Canada, and believes that Canada will be annexed to the United States; has written a number of books and pamphlets, one on the “Relations between England and America” and another on “The Political Destiny of Canada”; he is an ultra-Liberal; b. 1823.
Smith, James and Horace, authors of the famous parodies “The Rejected Addresses,” born at London: James, in business as a solicitor, and Horace, a wealthy stockbroker; both were occasional contributors to the periodical press before the public offer of a prize for the best poetical address to be spoken at the re-opening of Drury Lane Theatre prompted them to issue a series of “Rejected Addresses,” parodying the popular writers of the day—Wordsworth, Southey, Coleridge, Scott, Byron, &c.; intensely clever, these parodies have never been surpassed in their kind; Horace was also a busy writer of novels now forgotten, and also published two vols. of poetry; James subsequently wrote a number of Charles Mathews' “Entertainments” (James, 1775-1839; Horace, 1779-1849).
Smith, John, Cambridge Platonist, born in Northamptonshire; left “Select Discourses,” giving signs both of spiritual insight and vigour of thinking (1616-1652).
Smith, John, sailor, born in Lincolnshire; had a life of adventure and peril, and became leader of the English colonists of Virginia; established friendly relations with the Indians, returned to this country twice over, and introduced Pocahontas (q. v.) to the Queen; died at Gravesend (1580-1631).
Smith, Sydney, political writer and wit, born at Woodford, Essex, of partly English and partly Huguenot blood; educated at Westminster and Oxford, bred for the Church; after a brief curacy in Wiltshire settled in Edinburgh from 1798 to 1803, where, while officiating as a clergyman, he became one of the famous editors of the Edinburgh Review, and a contributor; settled for a time afterwards in London, where he delivered a series of admirable lectures on ethics, till he was appointed to a small living in Yorkshire, and afterwards to a richer living in Somerset, and finally a canonry in St. Paul's; his writings deal with abuses of the period, and are, except his lectures perhaps, all out of date now (1771-1845).
Smith, Sir William, classical and biblical scholar, born in London; distinguished himself at the university there and took a course of law at Gray's Inn, but followed his bent for scholarship, and in 1840-42 issued his great “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,” following it up with the “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology” and the “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography”; did eminent service to the cause of education by a series of popular editions of Greek and Latin texts, school grammars, dictionaries, &c.; not less valuable are his “Dictionary of the Bible,” &c.; was editor of the Quarterly Review from 1867, and in 1892 received a knighthood (1813-1893).
Smith, William Robertson, biblical scholar and critic, born at Keig, Aberdeenshire; educated for the Scottish Free Church, became professor of Hebrew in the connection at Aberdeen; was prosecuted for heresy in the matter of the origin of the books of the Old Testament, and finally removed from the chair; became joint-editor of the “Encyclopædia Britannica,” and finally professor of Arabic at Cambridge; he was a man of versatile ability, extensive scholarship, keen critical acumen, and he contributed not a little to vindicate the claims of the scholar in regard to the Bible (1846-1894).
Smith, Sir William Sidney, British admiral, born at Westminster; entered the navy at 12, became a captain after many gallant services at 18, was naval adviser to the king of Sweden and knighted, joined Lord Hood off Toulon and helped to burn the French fleet; was taken prisoner by the French in 1796, and after two years made his escape; forced Napoleon to raise the siege of Acre, and was wounded at Aboukir; was rewarded with a pension of £1000, and raised in the end to the rank of admiral (1764-1840).
Smithfield or Smoothfield, an open space of ground in London, N. of Newgate, long famous for its live-stock markets; in olden times lay outside the city walls, and was used as a place of recreation and of executions; the scene of William Wallace's execution and the death of Wat Tyler; gradually surrounded by the encroaching city, the cattle-market became a nuisance, and was abolished in 1855; is partly laid out as a garden.
Smithsonian Institution, a celebrated American institution “for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” in Washington; founded and endowed by James Macie Smithson, a natural son of the Duke of Northumberland, a zealous chemist and mineralogist, after having had a paper rejected by the Royal Society, of which he was a Fellow. The building is one of the finest in the capital; is under government control, and the President of the United States is ex officio the head of the institution; encourages scientific research, administers various funds, and directs expeditions for scientific purposes.
Smoky City, Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania, from the effect produced by the bituminous coal used in the manufactories.
Smolensk (34), an ancient town of Russia, and capital of a government (1,412) of the same name, on the Dnieper, 244 m. SW. of Moscow; is surrounded by walls; has a fine cathedral, and is strongly fortified; carries on a good grain trade; here in 1812 Napoleon defeated the Russians under Barclay de Tolly and Bagration on his march to Moscow in August 1812.
Smollett, Tobias George, novelist, born at Dalquhurn, Dumbartonshire, of good family; bred to medicine, but drifted to literature, in prosecution of which he set out to London at the age of 18; his first effort was a failure; he took an appointment as a surgeon's mate on board a war-ship in 1746, which landed him for a time in the West Indies; on his return to England in 1748 achieved his first success in “Roderick Random,” which was followed by “Peregrine Pickle” in 1751, “Count Fathom” in 1755, and “Humphrey Clinker” in 1771, added to which he wrote a “History of England,” and a political lampoon, “The Adventures of an Atom”; his novels have no plot, but “in inventive tale-telling and in cynical characterisation he is not easily equalled” (1721-1771).
Smriti, in the Hindu religion the name given to traditional usage, as opposed to Sruti, or revelation, and from which proceeded, at a later date, the body of laws, such as that of Manu, in which the morality prescribed is, “sound, solid, and practical.”
Smyrna (210), a town of great antiquity, since ancient times the chief port of Asia Minor; is situated amid surrounding hills at the head of the Gulf of Smyrna, an arm of the Ægean Sea; has no imposing structures, and is, especially in the Turkish quarter, ill-drained and crowded; is the seat of the Turkish Governor-General of the province, of archbishops, Roman Catholic, Greek, and Armenian; manufactures embrace carpets, pottery, cottons and woollens; a splendid harbour favours a large import and export trade; for long a possession of Greece and then of Rome, it finally fell into the hands of the Turks in 1424.
Smyrna, Gulf of, an inlet of the Ægean Sea, 40 m. in length by 20 m. in breadth, with an excellent anchorage.
Snake River, chief tributary of the Columbia; rises in Wyoming amid the Rockies; flows S. and NW. through Idaho, forming the Shoshone Falls, rivalling Niagara, which they exceed in height; through Southern Washington it flows W. under the name of the Lewis River or Fork, and discharges into the Columbia after a course of 1050 m.
Snake-stones, stones popularly believed to cure the bites of snakes, probably due to a porosity in their substance drawing off the poison.
Snider, Jacob, American mechanical genius; invented a method of converting muzzle-loading rifles into breech-loading; died unrewarded in 1866.
Snodgrass, Augustus, a member of the Pickwick Club in the “Pickwick Papers.”
Snorri Sturlason, Icelandic historian and poet; published the collection of sagas entitled “Heimskringla,” among which were many songs of his own composition; was a man of position and influence in Iceland, but having provoked the ill-will of Haco was at his instigation assassinated in 1241. See Edda.
Snowdon, a mountain range in Carnarvon, North Wales, extending from the coast to near Conway; it has five distinct summits, of which Moel-y-Wyddfa (the conspicuous peak) is the highest, being 3560 ft.; the easiest ascent is from Llanberis on the N., and is the route usually taken by tourists, for whose behoof there is a house on the summit.
Soane, Sir John, English architect, who left his house in Lincoln's Inn Fields with art collection to the nation at his death in 1837.
Sobieski, surname of the great patriot king of Poland, John III., in the 17th century; born at Olesko, in Galicia; was elected king of Poland in 1674, having, by repeated victories over the Turks and Russians, shown himself the greatest soldier of his country; proved a wise and brave ruler, a true leader of his people, and with unbroken success defied the utmost efforts of the infidel Turks (1624-1696).
Sobraon (4), a town in the Punjab, India, on the Sutlej, in the vicinity of which Sir Henry Gough won the decisive victory over the Sikhs, 10th February 1846.
Socage, name given to a feudal tenure by a certain and determinate service other than knight service.
Social War, name given to an Insurrection of the allied States in Italy against the domination of Rome, and which lasted from 90 to 88 B.C., in consequence of their exclusion from the rights of citizenship and the privileges attached; they formed a league to assert their rights, which ended in defeat.
Socialism, a social system which, in opposition to the competitive system that prevails at present, seeks to reorganise society on the basis, in the main, of a certain secularism in religion, of community of interest, and co-operation in labour for the common good, agreeably to the democratic spirit of the time and the changes required by the rise of individualism and the decay of feudalism.
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, a society founded in 1698 which during the last 200 years has originated and supported a number of agencies, both in this country and abroad, for propagating Christian knowledge; distributed into a number of separate departments.
Society Islands (24), an archipelago in the South Pacific, consisting of 13 principal islands and numerous islets, the chief being Tahiti; they are mountainous, and engirdled by belts of flat land as well as coral reefs; have a fertile soil and luxuriant vegetation, while the climate is healthy though enervating; the inhabitants are intelligent but indolent, and the land is worked by immigrant races.
Society of Jesus, the Jesuit order founded by Ignatius Loyola (q. v.).
Socinians, a sect of the Unitarian body who, in the 16th century, take their name from Faustus Socinus (q. v.), who, besides denying the doctrine of the Trinity, deny the divinity of Christ and the divine inspiration of Scripture; they arose into importance originally in Poland, and in the 17th century spread by degrees in Prussia, the Netherlands, and England.
Socinus, Faustus, a theologian, born in Italy; had for his views to exile himself for years, and was much persecuted for his opinions; in Cracow, where he dwelt for a time, he was by a mob dragged from a sick-bed half-naked along the street, had his house robbed and his papers burned (1530-1601).
Sociology, the science which treats of the nature and the developments of society and of social institutions; a science to which Herbert Spencer, in succession to Comte, has contributed more than any other scientist, deducing, as he does, a series of generalisations by comparison of individual organisms with social.
Socotra (10), an island off the E. coast of Africa, 148 m. NE. of Cape Guardafui, over 70 m. long and 20 m. broad; it is mountainous, surrounded by a margin of plain land from 2 to 4 m. broad; is comparatively barren; is inhabited by Mohammedans, who rear sheep, goats, and cattle; exports aloes, hides, and pearls; the sultan is a feudatory of Britain.
Socrates, Athenian philosopher, pronounced by the Delphic oracle the wisest of men; was the son of Sophroniscus, a statuary, and Phænarete, a midwife; was brought up to his father's profession, in which it would seem he gave promise of success; he lived all his days in Athens, and gathered about him as his pupils all the ingenuous youth of the city; he wrote no book, propounded no system, and founded no school, but was ever abroad in the thoroughfares in all weather talking to whoso would listen, and instilling into all and sundry a love of justice and truth; of quacks and pretenders he was the sworn foe, and he cared not what enmity he provoked if he could persuade one and another to think and do what was right; “he was so pious,” says Xenophon in his “Memorabilia,” “that he did nothing without the sanction of the gods; so just, that he never wronged any one, even in the least degree; so much master of himself, that he never preferred the agreeable to the good; so wise, that in deciding on the better and the worse he never faltered; in short, he was the best and happiest man that could possibly exist;” he failed not to incur enmity, and his enemies persecuted him to death; he was charged with not believing in the State religion, with introducing new gods, and corrupting the youth, convicted by a majority of his judges and condemned to die; thirty days elapsed between the passing of the sentence and its execution, during which period he held converse with his friends and talked of the immortality of the soul; to an offer of escape he turned a deaf ear, drank the hemlock potion prepared for him with perfect composure, and died; “the difference between Socrates and Jesus Christ,” notes Carlyle in his “Journal,” “the great Conscious, the immeasurably great Unconscious; the one cunningly manufactured, the other created, living and life-giving; the epitome this of a grand and fundamental diversity among men; but did any truly great man ever,” he asks, “go through the world without offence, all rounded in, so that the current moral systems could find no fault in him? most likely never” (469-399 B.C.).
Socrates, Apology of, a work of Plato's, being a speech put into the mouth of Socrates before the Areopagus (q. v.) in his defence in answer to the charge brought against him, and which Plato wrote after his death.
Socrates, Church historian of the 4th century, born at Byzantium; bred to the bar; his “Ecclesiastical History” embraces a period from 306 to 439, a work of no great merit.
Sodom and Gomorrah, two ancient cities which, for their wickedness were, as the Bible relates, consumed with fire from heaven; they are supposed to have stood near the S. border of the Dead Sea, though they were not, as was at one time supposed, submerged in the waters of it.
Sofala, a Portuguese maritime district of South-East Africa, stretching from the Zambesi S. to Delagoa Bay, and forming the S. portion of the colony of Mozambique. Sofala (1), chief port on a bay of the same name, is a place of little importance.
Sofia (50), capital since 1878 of Bulgaria; is a fortified town, situated in the broad valley of the Isker, a tributary of the Danube, 75 m. NW. of Philippopolis; has recently largely undergone reconstruction, and with hotels, banks, a government palace, &c., presents a fine modern appearance; has a national university; is an important trade emporium, and is on the Constantinople and Belgrade railway; manufactures cloth, silks, leather, &c., and has long been famed for its hot mineral springs.
Sofronia, a Christian maiden of Jerusalem, who, to avert a general massacre of the Christians by the Mohammedan king, accused herself of the crime for which they were all to suffer, and whose story with the issue is touchingly related in Tasso's “Jerusalem Delivered.”
Soissons (11), a fortified town of North France, dep. Aisne, on the Aisne, 65 m. NE. of Paris; has a 12th-century cathedral and ruins of a famous abbey; chief industries are brewing and the manufacture of various textiles; was a place of much importance in early times, and figures in the wars of Clovis and Pepin, frequently in the Hundred Years' War, and in 1870 was captured by the Germans; is considered the key to Paris from the Netherlands side.
Sokoto (11,000), a native kingdom of West Central Africa, within territories administered now by the British Government; lies between the Soudan (N.) and the river Benuë (S.), the main affluent of the Niger; the dominant people are the Fulahs, exercising sway over various native tribes; is a country capable of much agricultural development, and has large deposits of iron. Wurno (15), the capital, is on the Gandi, 18 m. E. of the town of Sokoto.
Solano, name given to a hot oppressive wind in the Mediterranean.
Solar Cycle, a period of 28 years, within which the first day of the year passes successively through the same sequence of week-days.
Solar Myth, a myth, the subject of which is a deified personification of the sun or phenomena connected with it.
Solar Year, the period of 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes and 52 seconds which the earth takes to complete a revolution of the sun.
Soldan, a corruption of Sultan, and denoting in mediæval romance the Saracen king.
Solecism, the name given to a violation of the syntax or idiom of a language, as well as to an incarnate absurdity of any kind, whether in mind or morals.
Solemn League and Covenant. See Covenant.
Solent, the western portion, Spithead (q. v.) being the eastern, of the strait which separates the Isle of Wight from the mainland of Hants, 17 m. long, with an average breadth of 3 m., but at its W. entrance, opposite Hurst Castle, contracts to ¾ m.
Soleure (86), a canton of North-West Switzerland, between Bern (W. and S.) and Aargau (E); is hilly, but fertile and well cultivated, especially in the valley of the Aar; inhabitants are mainly Catholics and German-speaking. Soleure, the capital (8), situated on the Aar, 18 m. NE. of Berne, has a fine cathedral, and manufactures of cottons, clocks, and cement.
Solfata`ra, a fissure or crevice in the earth which emits sulphurous and other vapours, and in regions where volcanoes have ceased to be active; they are met with in South Italy, the Antilles, Mexico, and Java.
Solferino, a village in North Italy, 20 m. NW. of Mantua, where the Austrians were defeated by the French and Piedmontese in 1859.
Solidarity, community of interest or responsibility; also that community of being which binds humanity into one whole, so that each affects and is affected by all.
Solidus, a Roman gold coin adopted by the Franks, and first coined by them in gold, but subsequently in silver, when it was equivalent to one-twentieth of the libra, or pound; as the “sol” or “sou” it depreciated greatly in value; was minted in copper, and on the introduction of the decimal system its place was taken by a five-centime piece; the “soldo” in Italy, and the Solidus L.S.D. owe their origin to this coin.
Solingen (37), a manufacturing town of Prussia, situated near the Wupper, 13 m. E. of Düsseldorf; has long been famed for its steel and iron works and cutlery manufactures.
Solomon, king of Israel from 1015 to 977 B.C., second son of David and Bathsheba, and David's successor; in high repute far and wide for his love of wisdom and the glory of his reign; he had a truly Oriental passion for magnificence, and the buildings he erected in Jerusalem, including the Temple and a palace on Mount Zion, he raised regardless of an expense which the nation resented after he was gone; the burden of which it would seem had fallen upon them, for when his successor, following in his courses, ascended the throne, ten of the tribes revolted, to the final rupture of the community, and the fall of first the one section and then the other under alien sway.
Solomon of England, an appellation conferred on Henry VII., and also satirically on James I., characterised by Sully as “the wisest fool in Christendom.”
Solomon of France, a title bestowed on Louis IX.
Solomon Islands (167), a large group of islands in the West Pacific, 500 m. E. of New Guinea, the N. islands of which belong to Germany, and the S. to Britain; are volcanic in origin, mountainous, wooded, and thickly populated by Melanesian savages, who are totem worshippers, and still practise cannibalism.
Solomon's Ring, a ring worn by Solomon, in which was a stone from which, according to the Rabbins, he learned whatever he wished to know.
Solon, the great Athenian law-giver, and one of the seven sages of Greece (q. v.), born in Athens, was of royal degree, and kinsman of Pisistratus; began life as a trader, and in that capacity acquired a large experience of the world, and he soon turned his attention to political affairs, and showed such wisdom in the direction of them that he was elected archon in 594 B.C., and in that office was invested with full power to ordain whatever he might deem of advantage for the benefit of the State; he accordingly set about the framing of a constitution in which property, not birth, was made the basis of the organisation, and the title to honour and office in the community; he divided the citizens into four classes, gave additional power to the assemblies of the people, and made the archons and official dignitaries responsible to them in the administration of affairs; when he had finished his work, he ordered the laws he had framed to be engraved on tablets and set up in a public place, then took oath of the people to observe them for ten years, after which he left the country and set out on travel; at the end of the ten years he returned, to find things lapsing into the old disorder, and Pisistratus ready to seize the sovereignty of the State, whereupon he withdrew into private life, and died the subject of a tyrant at the age of eighty (640-559 B.C.).
Solstice, summer and winter, the two recurring periods of the year at which the sun is farthest distant N. or S. from the equator, which mark midsummer and midwinter, the times being the 21st of June and 22nd of December; also applied to the two points in the ecliptic (q. v.), which the sun appears to reach on these two dates.
Solway Firth, an arm of the Irish Sea, and in its upper part forming the estuary of the river Esk, separating Cumberland from the S. of Scotland (Kirkcudbright and Dumfries); stretches inland from Balcarry Point 36 m., and from 2 to 20 m. broad; receives the Annan, Dee, Nith, Eden, and Derwent, and has valuable salmon-fishings; the spring tides ebb and flow with remarkable rapidity, the “bore” often reaching a speed of from 8 to 10 m. an hour; is spanned near Annan by a railway viaduct 1960 yards long.
Solway Moss, a moss, now drained and cultivated, in Cumberland, on the Scottish border, that was the scene of the defeat of the Scotch army in 1542, a disaster which broke the heart of James V.
Solyman II., surnamed The Magnificent, the tenth and greatest of the Ottoman sultans, the son and successor of Selim I.; succeeded his father at 24; set himself at once to reform abuses and place the internal administration on a strict basis, and after making peace with Persia and allaying tumult in Syria, turned his arms westwards, captured Belgrade, and wrested the island of Rhodes from the Knights of St. John; he twice over led his army into Hungary; in connection with the latter invasion laid siege to Vienna, from which he was obliged to retire after the loss of 40,000 men, after which he turned his arms to the east, adding to his territory, and finally to the North of Africa, to the conquest of the greater part of it; he died at Szigeth while opening a new campaign against Hungary; d. 1566.
Soma, the intoxicating juice of a plant offered in libation to a Hindu god, especially to Indra (q. v.), to strengthen him in his war with the demons, and identified with the invigorating and inspiring principle in nature which manifests itself at once in the valour of the soldier and the inspiration of the poet; as a god Soma is the counterpart of Agni (q. v.).
Somai, Brahmo. See Brahmo-Somaj.
Somaliland, a broad plateau of East Africa, bounded by the Gulf of Aden on the N. and the Indian Ocean on the SE.; inhabited by the Somalis, a pastoral people, who rear camels, sheep, and oxen, and are of the Mohammedan faith; are under chiefs, and jealous of strangers.
Somerset House, a handsome Government building in London, with a double frontage on the Strand and the Victoria Embankment, built on the site of the palace of the Protector Somerset, and opened in 1786; accommodates various civil departments of the Government—the Inland Revenue, Audit and Exchequer, Wills and Probate, Registry-General. The east wing is occupied by King's College and School.
Somersetshire (484), a maritime county of England, fronting the Bristol Channel, between Devon (N.) and Gloucester (SW.), with Wilts and Dorset on the E. and S.; diversified by the Mendips (NE.), Quantock Hills, Exmoor (SW.), and other smaller elevations; is yet in the main occupied by wide level plains largely given over to pastoral and dairy farming; watered by the Bristol Avon, the Parret, and other lesser streams; its orchards rank next to those of Devon; is prolific in Roman, Saxon, and ancient British remains; Taunton is the county town, but Bath the largest.
Somerville, Mrs. Mary, a lady skilled in mathematics and physics, born at Jedburgh; was brought up at Burntisland and Edinburgh; contributed to the Transactions of the Royal Society; wrote a book entitled the “Mechanism of the Heavens” on the suggestion of Lord Brougham, as a popularisation of Laplace's “Mechanique Céleste,” which was followed by her “Connection of the Physical Sciences,” “Physical Geography,” and “Molecular and Microscopic Science,” the last published in her ninetieth year; died at Naples (1770-1872).
Somme, 1, a river of North France; rises in the department of Aisne, near St. Quentin, and flows 150 m. SW. and NW. to the English Channel; navigable as far as Abbeville. 2, A department (546) of North France, fronting the English Channel, between Seine-Inférieure (S.) and Pas-de-Calais (N.); one of the most prosperous agricultural and manufacturing districts of France; Amiens (q. v.) is the chief town.
Somnath (7), an ancient maritime town of Oujarat, India, in the SW. of the peninsula of Kathiawar; has interesting memorials of Krishna, who, it is alleged, is hurled in the vicinity; close by is a famous ruined Hindu temple, despoiled in the 11th century of its treasures, sacred idol, and gates; in 1842 Lord Ellenborough brought hack from Afghanistan gates which he thought to be the famous “Gates of Somnath,” but doubt being cast on their authenticity, they were eventually placed in the arsenal of Agra.
Somnath, Idol of, “a mere mass of coarse crockery,” says Jepherson Brick, an imaginary friend of Carlyle's, “not worth five shillings, sat like a great staring god, with two diamonds for eyes, which one day a commander of the Faithful took the liberty to smite once as he rode up with grim battle-axe and heart full of Moslem fire, and which thereupon shivered into a heap of ugly potsherds, yielding from its belly half a waggon-load of gold coins; the gold coins, diamond eyes, and other valuables were carefully picked up by the Faithful; confused jingle of potsherds was left lying; and the idol of Somnath, once showing what it was, had suddenly come to a conclusion.”
Somnus, the god of Sleep, a brother of Death, and a son of Night, represented, he and Death, as two youths sleeping or holding inverted torches in their hands; near the dwelling of Somnus flowed the river of Lethe, which crept along over pebbles, and invited to sleep; he was attended by Morpheus, who inspired pleasing dreams.
Sonata, a musical composition chiefly designed for solo instruments, especially the pianoforte, and consisting generally of three or four contrasted movements—the allegro, adagio, rondo, minuetto or scherzo; reaches its noblest expression in the sonatas of Beethoven.
Sonderbund, the name given to the union of the Catholic cantons (Lucerne, Zug, Freiburg, and Valais) of Switzerland, which led to the civil disturbances of 1845-1846, and the war of 1847.
Sonnet, a form of poetical composition invented in the 13th century, consisting of 14 decasyllabic or hendecasyllabic iambic lines, rhymed according to two well-established schemes which bear the names of their two most famous exponents, Shakespeare and Petrarch. The Shakespearian sonnet consists of three four-lined stanzas of alternate rhymes clinched by a concluding couplet; the Petrarchan of two parts, an octave, the first eight lines rhymed abbaabba, and a sestet, the concluding six lines arranged variously on a three-rhyme scheme.
Sons of the Prophets. See Nebiim.
Sontag, Henrietta, a German singer, born at Coblenz; made her début at 15; had a brilliant career twice over (1806-1854).
Soochoo (500), a large city in China, 50 m. NW. of Shanghai; is intersected by canals, walled all round, and manufactures fine silk.
Sopherim, The, the name by which the Scribes (q. v.) are designated in Jewish literature.
Sophia, Electress of Hanover, youngest daughter of Elizabeth, queen of Bohemia (q. v.), and mother of George I. (1630-1714).
Sophia, St., the personification of the Divine wisdom, to whom, as to a saint, many churches have been dedicated, especially the Church of Constantinople.
Sophie Charlotte, wife of Friedrich I. of Prussia, born in Hanover, daughter of Electress Sophia; famous in her day both as a lady and a queen; was, with her mother, of a philosophic turn; “persuaded,” says Carlyle, “that there was some nobleness for man beyond what the tailor imparts to him, and even very eager to discover it had she known how”; she had the philosopher Leibnitz often with her, “eagerly desirous to draw water from that deep well—a wet rope with cobwebs sticking to it often all she got—endless rope, and the bucket never coming to view” (1668-1705).
Sophists, a sect of thinkers that arose in Greece, and whose radical principle it was that we have only a subjective knowledge of things, and that we have no knowledge at all of objective reality, that things are as they seem to us, and that we have no knowledge of what they are in themselves; “on this field,” says Schwegler, “they disported, enjoying with boyish exuberance the exercise of the power of subjectivity, and destroying, by means of a subjective dialectic, all that had been ever objectively established,” such as “the laws of the State, inherited custom, religious tradition, and popular belief.... They form, in short, the German Aufklärung (q. v.), the Greek Illumination (q. v.). They acknowledged only private judgment and ignored the existence of a judgment that is not private, and has absolute rights irrespective of the sentiments of the individual.”
Sophocles, Athenian tragic poet, born at Colonos, a suburb of Athens; when but 16, such was his musical talent, he was selected to lead the choir that sang the song of triumph over the victory of Salamis; his first appearance as a dramatist was in 488 B.C., when he had Æschylus as his rival and won the prize, though he was seven years afterwards defeated by Euripides, but retrieved the defeat the year following by the production of his “Antigone.” That same year one of the 10 strategi (or generals) and he accompanied Pericles in his war against the aristocrats of Samos. He wrote a number of dramas, over 100 it is alleged, but only 7 survive, and these in probable order are “Ajax,” “Antigone,” “Electra,” “Oedipus Tyrannus,” “Trachineæ,” “Oedipus Coloneus,” and “Philoctetes.” Thus are all his subjects drawn from Greek legend, and they are all alike remarkable for the intense humanity and sublime passion that inspires them and the humane and the high and holy resolves they stir up.
Sorata, a volcanic peak in the Bolivian Andes, 21,470 ft. in height.
Sorbonne, a celebrated college of Paris, taking its name from its founder, Robert of Sorbon, chaplain to Saint Louis in the 13th century; was exclusively devoted to theology, and through the rigour of its discipline and learning of its professors soon exercised a predominant influence on the theological thought of Europe, which it maintained until the new learning of the Renaissance (16th century), together with its own dogmatic conservatism, left it hopelessly stuck in the “Sorbonnian bog” of derelict scholastic theology; became an object of satiric attacks by Boileau, Voltaire, and others, and was suppressed in 1789 at the outburst of the Revolution; was revived by Napoleon in 1808; is at present the seat of the Académie Universitaire de Paris, with faculties of theology, science, and literature.
Sordello, a Provençal poet whom Dante and Virgil met in Purgatory sitting solitary and with a noble haughty mien, but who sprang up at sight of Virgil and embraced him and accompanied him a part of his way; Browning used his name, as the title of a poem showing the conflict a minister experiences in perfecting his craft.
Sorel, Agnes, the mistress of Charles VII. of France, who had a great influence over him; had been maid of honour to the queen (1409-1450).
Sorrow, Sanctuary of, Goethe's name for the fold of Christ, wherein, according to His promise (Matt. v. 4) the “mourners” who might gather together there would find relief and be comforted, the path of sorrow leading up to the “porch” of the sanctuary.
Sorrow, Worship of, Goethe's name for the Christian religion, “our highest religion, for the Son of Man,” Carlyle adds, interpreting this, “there is no noble crown, well worn or even ill worn, but is a crown of thorns.”
Sorrows of the Virgin. See Seven Dolours.
Sorrows of Werther, a work by Goethe and one of his earliest, the production of which constituted a new era in the life of the poet, and marks a new era in the literature of Europe, “as giving expression to a class of feelings deeply important to modern minds, but for which our older poetry offered no exponent, and perhaps could offer none, because they are feelings that arise from Passion incapable of being converted into Action, and belong to an ignorant, uncultivated, and unbelieving age such as ours,” feelings that Byronically, “in dark wayward” mood reflect a mere sense of the miseries of human life.
Sortes Virgilianæ, consulting the pages of Virgil to ascertain one's fortune, by opening the book at random, putting the finger on a passage and taking that for the oracle of fate one is in quest of.
Sostratus, architect of the Pharos of Alexandria, lived in the 3rd century B.C., and was patronised by Ptolemy Philadelphus.
Sothern, Edward Askew, comedian, born in Liverpool; at 23 went on the stage, and for some time was a member of the stock company of the Theatre Royal, Birmingham; afterwards acted in America, and made his mark in Tom Taylor's “Our American Cousin” (1858) in the small part of Lord Dundreary, which he gradually developed into an elaborate and phenomenally successful caricature of an English peer, and in which he appeared thousands of times in America and England; scored a great success also as David Garrick in Robertson's well-known comedy (1826-1881).
Soubise, Duc de, French soldier; served first under Prince Maurice of Orange, and commanded the Huguenots against Louis XIII., but after some successes was compelled to take refuge in England; distinguished himself at the defence of Rochelle, but was defeated again and had to betake himself to England as before, where he died (1589-1641).
Soubise, Prince de, marshal of France; was aide-de-camp to Louis XV. in Flanders, was favoured by Pompadour, held an important command in the Seven Years' War, but was defeated by Frederick the Great at Rossbach (1713-1787).
Soudan or “The Land of the Blacks,” the cradle of the negro race, a vast tract of territory stretching E. and W. across the African continent from the Atlantic (W.) to the Red Sea and Highlands of Abyssinia (E.), between the Sahara (W.) and the Gulf of Guinea and the central equatorial provinces (S.); divided into (a) Upper Soudan, embracing Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Ashanti, Dahomey, Liberia, and west coast-lands; (6) Lower Soudan, including the Fulah States, Massina, Gando, Sokoto, &c.; (c) Egyptian Soudan, which in 1882 was subdivided into (1) West Soudan, including Dar-Fur, Kordofan, Bahr-el-Ghazal, and Dongola; (2) Central Soudan, comprising Khartoum, Sennaar, Berber, Fashoda, and the Equatorial Province, &c.; (3) Eastern Soudan, bordering on the Red Sea, and embracing Taka, Suakim, and Massowah; (4) Harar, stretching E. of Abyssinia. The extension of Egyptian rule into this territory began in 1819 with the capture of Khartoum, which became the base of military operations, ending in the gradual conquest of the surrounding regions in 1874. A serious revolt, fanned by religious fanaticism, broke out in 1882, and headed by the Mahdi (q. v.) and his lieutenant Osman Digna, ended in the utter rout of the Egyptian forces under Hicks Pasha and Baker Pasha; Gordon, after a vain attempt to relieve him, perished in Khartoum; but Stanley was more successful in relieving Emin Bey in the Equatorial Province. Anarchy and despotism ensued until the victorious campaign of Kitchener (q. v.) again restored the lost provinces to Egypt.
Soufflot, French architect of the Pantheon of Paris (1713-1780).
Soul, the name given to the spiritual part of man, the seat of reason (q. v.) and conscience, by which he relates and subordinates himself to the higher spiritual world, inspiring him with a sense of individual responsibility.
Soult, Nicolas-Jean de Dieu, duke of Dalmatia and marshal of France, born at St. Amans-la-Bastide, department of Tarn; enlisted as a private in 1785, and by 1794 was general of a brigade; gallant conduct in Swiss and Italian campaigns under Masséna won him rapid promotion, and in 1804 he was created a marshal; served with the emperor in Germany, and led the deciding charge at Austerlitz, and for his services in connection with the Treaty of Tilsit received the title of Duc de Dalmatia; at the head of the French army in Spain he outmanoeuvred the English in 1808, conquered Portugal, and opposed to Wellington a skill and tenacity not less than his own, but was thwarted in his efforts by the obstinate incompetence of Joseph Bonaparte; turned Royalist after the abdication of Napoleon, but on his return from Elba rallied to the emperor's standard, and fought at Waterloo; was subsequently banished, but restored in 1819; became active in the public service, and was honoured as ambassador in England in 1838; retired in 1845 with the honorary title of “Marshal-General of France” (1769-1851).
Sound, The, a strait, 50 m. long, between Sweden and Denmark, which connects the Cattegat with the Baltic Sea; dues at one time levied on ships passing through the channel were abolished in 1857, and over three millions paid in compensation, Britain contributing one-third and undertaking to superintend the navigation and maintain the lighthouses.
South, Robert, an English divine, born at Hackney; obtained several preferments in the Church, but refused a bishopric; was distinguished for his hostility to the Dissenters, and was never tired of heaping ridicule on them and their principles; wrote a book in defence of the Trinity in a somewhat rationalistic view of it, which involved him in a furious controversy with Dr. Sherlock; was a man of great wit and good sense as well as refinement; his chief writings consist of “Sermons” (1633-1716).
South African Company. See Rhodesia.
South African Republic. See Transvaal.
South Australia (320), second largest of the five colonies of Australia, stretches N. and S. in a broad band, 1850 in. long, through the heart of the continent from the Southern Ocean to the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Arafura Sea, having Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria on the E., and Western Australia on the W.; ten times the size of Great Britain, but the greater portion comprises the Northern Territory, which consists, save a low alluvial coastal strip, of parched and uninhabited tableland. South Australia proper begins about 26° S. latitude, and is traversed southwards by the Finke River as far as Eyre Lake (3706 sq. m.), by the Flinders Range, and the lower Murray River in the E., and diversified here and there by low ranges and Lake Amadeus (NW.), Torrens and Gairdner (S.); the S. coast is penetrated by the great gulfs of Spencer and St. Vincent, round and to the N. and E. of which the bulk of the population is gathered in a region not much larger than Scotland; is the chief wheat-growing colony, and other important industries are mining (chiefly copper), sheep-rearing, and wine-making; chief exports, wool, wheat, and copper; the railway and telegraph systems are well developed, the Overland Telegraph Line (1973 m.) stretching across the continent from Adelaide to Port Darwin being a marvel of engineering enterprise. Adelaide is the capital. The governor is appointed by the crown, and there are a legislative council or upper house, and an assembly or lower house. State education is free. Began to be settled in 1836, and five years later became a Crown colony.
South Sea Bubble, the name given to the disastrous financial project set on foot by Harley (q. v.) to relieve the national debt and restore public credit, which produced an unparalleled rush of speculation, ending in the ruin of thousands of people. Through the efforts of Harley a company of merchants was induced in 1711 to buy up the floating national debt of £10,000,000 on a government guarantee of 6 per cent. interest, and a right to a monopoly of trade in the South Seas. The shares rose by leaps and bounds as tales of the fabulous wealth of the far South Seas circulated, till, in 1720, £200 shares were quoted at £1000; earlier in the same year the company had taken over the entire national debt of upwards of 30 millions. In the craze for speculation which had seized the public hundreds of wild schemes were floated. At length the “Bubble” burst. The chairman and several directors of the company sold out when shares had reached £1000; suspicion followed, confidence vanished, stock fell, and in a few days thousands from end to end of the country were bewailing their ruin. The private estates of the fraudulent directors were confiscated for the relief of the sufferers. To Sir Robert Walpole belongs the credit of extricating the finances of the country from the muddle into which they had fallen.
Southampton (94), an important seaport of South Hampshire, 79 m. SW. of London, situated on a small peninsula at the head of Southampton Water (a fine inlet, 11 m. by 2), between the mouths of the Itchen (E.) and the Test (W.); portions of the old town-walls and four gateways still remain; is the head-quarters of the Ordnance Survey; has splendid docks, and is an important steam-packet station for the West Indies, Brazil, and South Africa; yacht and ship building and engine-making are flourishing industries.
Southcott, Joanna, a prophetess, born in Devon, of humble parents; became a Methodist; suffered under religious mania; gave herself out as the woman referred to in Revelation xii.; imagined herself to be with child, and predicted she would on a certain day give birth to the promised Prince of Peace, for which occasion great preparations were made, but all to no purpose; she died of dropsy two months after the time predicted; she found numbers to believe in her even after her death; she traded in passports to heaven, which she called “seals,” and persuaded numbers to purchase them (1750-1814).
Southern Cross, a constellation of the southern heavens, the five principal stars of which form a rough and somewhat irregular cross, the shape of which is gradually changing; it corresponds in the southern heavens to the Great Bear in the northern.
Southey, Robert, poet-laureate, born, the son of a linen-draper, at Bristol; was expelled from Westminster School for a satirical article in the school magazine directed against flogging; in the following year (1793) entered Balliol College, where he only remained one year, leaving it a Unitarian and a red-hot republican; was for a time enamoured of Coleridge's wild pantisocratic scheme; married (1795) clandestinely Edith Frickes, a penniless girl, sister to Mrs. Coleridge, and in disgrace with his English relatives visited his uncle in Lisbon, where in six months he laid the foundation of his knowledge of Spanish history and literature; the Church and medicine had already, as possible careers, been abandoned, and on his return to England he made a half-hearted effort to take up law; still unsettled he again visited Portugal, and finally was relieved of pecuniary difficulties by the settlement of a pension on him by an old school friend, which he relinquished in 1807 on receiving a pension from Government; meanwhile had settled at Keswick, where he prosecuted with untiring energy the craft of authorship; “Joan of Arc,” “Thalaba,” “Madoc,” and “The Curse of Kehama,” won for him the laureateship in 1813, and in the same year appeared his prose masterpiece “The Life of Nelson”; of numerous other works mention may be made of his Histories of Brazil and the Peninsular War, Lives of Bunyan and Wesley, and “Colloquies on Society”; declined a baronetcy offered by Peel; domestic affliction—the death of children, and the insanity and death of his wife—saddened his later years, which were brightened in the last by his second marriage (1839) with the poetess and his twenty years' friend, Caroline Bowles; as a poet Southey has few readers nowadays; full of miscellaneous interest, vigour of narrative, and spirited rhythm, his poems yet lack the finer spirit of poetry; but in prose he ranks with the masters of English prose style “of a kind at once simple and scholarly” (1774-1843).
Southport (41), a watering-place of Lancashire, situated on the southern shore of the Ribble estuary, 18 m. N. of Liverpool; is a town of quite modern growth and increasing popularity; has a fine sea-shore, esplanade, park, theatre, public library, art gallery, etc.
Southwark (339), or the Borough, a division of London, on the Surrey side of the Thames, opposite the City, and annexed to it in 1827; it sends three members to Parliament, and among its principal buildings are St. Saviour's Church and Guys Hospital.
Southwell, Robert, poet, born in Norfolk; studied at Douay, and became a Jesuit priest; came to England as a missionary, was thrown into prison, tortured ten times by the rack, and at length executed at Tyburn as a traitor for disseminating Catholic doctrine; his poems are religious chiefly, and excellent, and were finally collected under the title “St. Peter's Complaint,” “Mary Magdalen's Tears, and Other Works”; “The Burning Babe” is characterised by Professor Saintsbury as a “splendid poem” (1560-1595).
Souvestre, Émile, French novelist and playwright, born at Morlaix; at 30 he established himself in Paris as a journalist, and became noted as a writer of plays and of charming sketches of Breton life, essays, and fiction; “Les Derniers Bretons” and “Foyer Breton” are considered his best work (1806-1854).
Souza, Madame de (maiden name Adelaide Filleul), French novelist, born in Paris, and educated in a convent, on her leaving which she was married to the Comte de Flahaut, a man much older than herself, and with whom she lived unhappily; fled to Germany and then to England on the outbreak of the Revolution; afterwards returned to Paris, and as the wife of the Marquis de Souza-Botelho presided over one of the most charming of salons, in which the chief attraction was her own bright and gifted personality; her novels, “Eugène de Rothelin,” “Eugénie et Mathilde,” etc., breathe the spirit of the old régime, and are full of natural and vivacious pictures of French life (1761-1836).
Sowerby Bridge (10), manufacturing town in West Riding of Yorkshire, 3 m. SW. of Halifax; cotton-spinning, woollen manufactures, and dyeing are the chief; it was the birthplace of Tillotson.
Soy, a sauce or condiment used in Japan and China; prepared from a bean which is extensively cultivated in those countries.
Soyer, Alexis, a famous cook, born at Meaux; turned aside from a tempting career as a vocalist and took up gastronomy as a profession; during the 1830 Revolution he narrowly escaped with his life to London, which he henceforth made his head-quarters, rising to the position of cook to the Reform Club; rendered important services as a culinary expert in Ireland during the 1847 famine, and at the Crimea (1855); was the author of various highly popular works on the art of cooking, “The Modern Housewife,” “Shilling Cookery Book,” etc. (1809-1858).
Spa (7), a watering-place in Belgium, 20 m. SE. of Liège; a favourite health and fashionable resort on account of its springs and its picturesque surroundings, the number of visitors during the season amounting to 12,000.
Spahi, an Algerine cavalry soldier serving in the French army.
Spain (17,800), a kingdom of South-West Europe, which with Portugal (less than one-fifth the size of Spain) occupies the entire Iberian Peninsula, and is divided from France on the N. by the Pyrenees Mountains, and on the E. and S. is washed by the Mediterranean; the NW. corner fronts the Bay of Biscay (N.) and the Atlantic (W.), while Portugal completes the western boundary; its area, three and one-third times the size of England and Wales, is, along with the Canaries and the Balearic Isles, divided into 49 provinces, although the more familiar names of the 14 old kingdoms, states, and provinces (New and Old Castile, Galicia, Aragon, etc.) are still in use; forms a compact square, with a regular, in parts precipitous, coast-line, which is short compared with its area; is in the main a highland country, a vast plateau (2000 to 3000 ft. high) occupying the centre, buttressed and crossed by ranges (Sierra Nevada in the S., Sierra de Guadarrama, Sierra Morena, etc.), and diversified by the long valleys of the Ebro, Douro, Tagus, Guadalquivir, and other lesser rivers, all of which are rapid, and only a few navigable; climate varies considerably according as one proceeds to the central plains, where extremes of heat and cold are experienced, but over all is the driest in Europe; agriculture, although less than a half of the land is under cultivation, is by far the most important industry, and Valencia and Catalonia the provinces where it is most successfully carried out, wheat and other cereals, the olive and the vine, being the chief products; other important industries are mining, the Peninsula being extremely rich in the useful minerals; Merino sheep farming, anchovy and sardine fisheries, wine-making, and the manufacture of cotton, silk, leather, and paper; chief exports are wine, fruits, mineral ores, oil and cork; Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, and Malaga are the chief towns; the widest variety of character exists among the natives of the various provinces, from the hard-working, thrifty Catalan to the lazy, improvident Murcian, but all possess the southern love “of song, dance, and colour,” and have an inherent grace and dignity of manner; Roman Catholicism is the national religion; and although systems of elementary and secondary schools are in vogue, education over all is in a deplorably backward condition; the Government is a hereditary and constitutional monarchy; the Cortes consists of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies; universal suffrage and trial by jury are recent innovations. The outstanding fact in the history of Spain, after the downfall of the Roman Empire, of which she had long formed a part, is the national struggle with the Moors, who overran the peninsula in the 8th century, firmly established themselves, and were not finally overthrown till Granada, their last possession, was taken in 1492; sixteen years later the country became a united kingdom, and for a brief period, with its vast American colonies and wide European possessions, became in the 16th century the dominant power of Europe; since then she has lagged more and more in the race of nations, and her once vast colonial empire has gradually crumbled away till now, since the unsuccessful war with America in 1898, only an island or two remains to her.
Spalato (15), a historic and flourishing town of Dalmatia, finely situated on a promontory on the E. side of the Adriatic, 160 m. SE. of Fiume; a place of considerable antiquity, and one of the great cities of the Roman world; is chiefly famed for the vast palace built by Diocletian, and which became his residence after his abdication; subsidiary buildings and grounds were enclosed by walls, within which now a considerable part of the town stands; the noblest portions of the palace are still extant; the modern town carries on an active trade in grain, wine, cattle, etc.; is noted for its liqueurs.
Spalding, a market-town in Lincolnshire, 34 m. SE. of Lincoln, in the heart of the Fens; is a very ancient place; has a trade in agricultural produce, and is a railway centre.
Spallanzani, Lazaro, a noted Italian scientist, born at Scandiano, in Modena; held chairs of Philosophy and Greek in the Universities of Reggio and Modena, but more attracted to natural science he in 1768 became professor of Natural History at Pavia; wrote elaborate accounts of expeditions to Sicily and elsewhere; overturned Button's theory of spontaneous generation, and in important works made some valuable contributions to physiological science (1729-1799).
Spandau (45), an important town and fortress of Prussia, in Brandenburg, at the confluence of the Spree and Havel, 8 m. W. by N. of Berlin; fortifications are of the strongest and most modern kind, and in the “Julius Tower” of the powerful citadel the German war-chest of £6,000,000 is preserved; there is an arsenal and large Government cannon-foundries, powder-factories, etc.
Spanheim, Friedrich, a theological professor at Geneva (1631), and afterwards at Leyden (1641); author of the work on “Universal Grace” (1600-1648). His son, Ezechiel Spanheim (1629-1710) became professor of Eloquence in his native town, Geneva, and after acting as tutor to the sons of the Elector Palatine was employed on several important diplomatic missions to Italy, England, and France; meanwhile devoted his leisure to ancient law and numismatics, publishing learned works on these subjects. Friedrich Spanheim, brother of preceding, was a learned Calvinistic professor of Theology at Heidelberg (1685), and afterwards at Leyden (1632-1701).
Spanish Main (i. e. mainland), a name given at one time to the Central American provinces of Spain bordering on the Caribbean Sea, and also to the Caribbean Sea itself.
Sparks, James, president of Harvard University, born in Connecticut; bred a carpenter, took to study, attended Harvard, where he graduated, studied theology, and became Unitarian, becoming a minister in that body, but retired from the ministry and settled in Boston; edited the North American Review; wrote and edited biographies of eminent Americans, and edited the writings of Benjamin Franklin and George Washington (1789-1866).
Sparta or Lacedemon, the capital of ancient Laconia, in the Peloponnesus, on the right bank of the Eurotas, 20 m. from the sea; was 6 m. in circumference, consisted of several distinct quarters, originally separate villages, never united into a regular town; was never surrounded by walls, its walls being the bravery of its citizens; its mythical founder was Lacedemon, who called the city Sparta from the name of his wife; one of its early kings was Menelaus, the husband of Helen; Lycurgus (q. v.) was its law-giver; its policy was aggressive, and its sway gradually extended over the whole Peloponnesus, to the extinction at the end of the Peloponnesian War of the rival power of Athens, which for a time rose to the ascendency, and its unquestioned supremacy thereafter for 30 years, when all Greece was overborne by the Macedonian power.
Spartacus, leader of the revolt of the slaves at Rome, which broke out about 73 B.C.; was a Thracian by birth, a man of powerful physique, in succession a shepherd, a soldier, and a captain of banditti; was in one of his predatory expeditions taken prisoner and sold to a trainer of gladiators, and became one of his slaves; persuaded his fellow-slaves to attempt their freedom, and became their chief and that of other runaways who joined them; for two years they defied and defeated one Roman army after another sent to crush them, and laid Italy waste, till at the end of that time Licinius Crassus, taking up arms in earnest, overpowered them in a decisive battle at the river Silarus, in which Spartacus was slain.
Spasmodic School, name given to a small group of minor poets about the middle of the 19th century, represented by Philips, James Bailey, Sydney Dobell, and Alexander Smith, from their strenuous, overstrained, and unnatural style.
Specific Gravity, the weight of a body compared with another of equal bulk taken as a standard, such as the weight of a cubic inch of water.
Spectrum, the name given to coloured and other rays of pure light separated by refraction in its transmission through a prism, as exhibited on a screen in a darkened chamber.
Spectrum Analysis, name given to the method of determining the composition of a body by means of the spectrum of light which it gives forth or passes through it, founded on the principle that a substance powerfully absorbs exactly the rays it radiates, and every substance has its own absorbing powers; or it may be defined the method of distinguishing different kinds of matter by their properties in relation to light.
Speculative, The, that which we think and which as such goes no deeper than the intellect, which is but the eye of the soul, not the heart of it. See Spiritual, The.
Spedding, James, editor of Bacon, born at Mirehouse, near Keswick, son of a Cumberland squire; scholar and honorary Fellow of Cambridge; became in 1847 Under-Secretary of State with £2000 a year; devoted his life to the study of Bacon, the fruit of which the “Letters and the Life of Francis Bacon, including all his Occasional Works, newly selected and set forth with a Commentary, Biographical and Historical,” in 7 vols.; a truly noble man, and much esteemed by his contemporaries in literature (1808-1881).
Speke, John Banning, African explorer, born in Somersetshire; became a soldier, and served in the Punjab; joined Burton in 1854 in an expedition into Somaliland, and three years after in an attempt to discover the sources of the Nile, and setting out alone discovered Victoria Nyanza, which he maintained was the source of the river, but which Burton questioned; on his return he published in 1863 an account of his discovery, which he was about to defend in the British Association when he was shot by the accidental discharge of his gun while he was out hunting (1827-1864).
Spence, Joseph, a miscellaneous writer, born in Hants; educated at and a Fellow of Oxford; his principal work, “Polymetis; or, an Inquiry into the Agreement between the Works of the Roman Poets and the Remains of Ancient Artists”; his “Anecdotes” are valuable from his acquaintance with the literary class of the time, and have preserved his name (1699-1768).
Spencer, Herbert, systematiser and unifier of scientific knowledge up to date, born at Derby, son of a teacher, who early inoculated him with an interest in natural objects, though he adopted at first the profession of a railway engineer, which in about eight years he abandoned for the work of his life by way of literature, his first effort being a series of “Letters on the Proper Sphere of Government” in the Nonconformist in 1842, and his first work “Social Statics,” published in 1851, followed by “Principles of Psychology” four years after; in 1861 he published a work on “Education,” and his “First Principles” the following year, after which he began to construct his system of “Synthetic Philosophy,” which fills a dozen large volumes, and has established his fame as the foremost scientific philosopher of the time. Following in the lines of Auguste Comte and John Stuart Mill, he takes a wider sweep than either of them, fills the field he occupies with fuller and riper detail, resolves the whole of science into still more ultimate principles, and works the whole up into a more compact and comprehensive system. He is valiant before all for science, and relegates everything and every interest to Agnosticism that cannot give proof of its scientific rights. “What a thing is in itself,” he says, “cannot be known, because to know it we must strip it of all that it becomes, of all that has come to adhere to it.” The ultimate thus arrived at he finds to be, and calls, Energy, and that therefore, he says, we don't and can't know. That a thing is what it becomes seems never to occur to him, and yet only the knowledge of that is the knowledge of the ultimate of being, which is the thing he says we cannot know. To trace life to its roots he goes back to the cell, whereas common-sense would seem to require us, in order to know what the cell is, to inquire at the fruit. This is the doctrine of St. John, “The Word was God.” In addition to agnosticism another doctrine of Spencer's is Evolution, but in maintaining this he fails to see he is arguing for an empty conception barren of all thought, which thought is the alpha and omega of the whole process, and is as much an ultimate as and still more so than the energy in which he absorbs God. Indeed, his philosophy is what is called the Aufklärung (q. v.) in full bloom, and in which he strips us of all our spiritual content or Inhalt, and under which he would lead us out of “Houndsditch” (q. v.), not with, but without, all that properly belongs to us; b. 1820.
Spencer Gulf, a deep inlet on the coast of South Australia, 180 m. by 90 m.
Spener, Philip Jacob, German Protestant theologian, founder of the Pietists (q. v.), born in Alsace, studied in Strasburg; in 1670 held a series of meetings which he called “Collegia Pietatis,” whence the name of his sect; established himself in Dresden and in Berlin, but Halle was the centre of the movement; he was an earnest and universally esteemed man (1636-1705).
Spenser, Edmund, author of the “Faërie Queene,” and one of England's greatest poets; details of his life are scanty and often hypothetical; born at London of poor but well-connected parents; entered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, as a “sizar” in 1569, and during his seven years' residence there became an excellent scholar; took a master's degree, and formed an important friendship with Gabriel Harvey; three years of unsettled life followed, but were fruitful in the production of the “Shepheards' Calendar” (1579), which at once placed him at the head of the English poets of his day; had already taken his place in the best London literary and political circles as the friend of Sir Philip Sidney and Leicester, and in 1580 was appointed private secretary to Lord Grey, then proceeding to Ireland as the Lord Deputy, and although his master soon returned to England Spencer continued to make his home in Ireland, where he obtained some civil appointments, and in 1591 entered into possession of a considerable portion of the forfeited estates of the Earl of Desmond, adjacent to his house, Kilcolman Castle, co. Cork; seems to have been a pretty stern landlord, and, as expounded in his admirable tract, “A View of the Present State of Ireland,” the advocate of a policy of “suppression and repression”; consequently was little loved by the Irish, and on the outbreak of Tyrone's rebellion in 1598 his house was sacked and burned, and he himself forced to flee to London, where he died a few weeks later “a ruined and heart-broken man”; the rich promise of the “Shepheards' Calendar” had been amply fulfilled in the “Complaints,” “Amoretti,” “Colin Clout's Come Home Again,” the “Epithalamium” the finest bridal song in any language, and above all in the six published books of “The Faërie Queene” (1589 and 1596), in which all his gifts and graces as a poet are at their best; “He may be read,” says Professor Saintsbury, “in childhood, chiefly for his adventure; in later youth, for his display of voluptuous beauty; in manhood, for his historical and ethical weight; in age, for all combined” (1552-1599).
Spermaceti, a white waxy matter obtained in an oily state from the head of the sperm-whale inhabiting the Pacific and Indian Oceans; candles made of it yield a particularly steady and bright light.
Spey, a river in the N. of Scotland which, rising in Badenoch, flows NE. through Inverness, Elgin, and Banffshire, falls into the Moray Firth after a course of 107 miles; the salmon-fisheries are valuable; it is the swiftest of the rivers of Great Britain.
Spezia (20), the chief naval station, “the Portsmouth,” of Italy; occupies a strongly fortified site at the head of a bay on the W. side of Italy, 56 m. SE. of Genoa; here are the naval shipbuilding yards, national arsenal, navy store-houses, besides schools of navigation, manufactures of cables, sail-cloth, &c.
Sphinx, a fabled animal, an invention of the ancient Egyptians, with the body and claws of a lioness, and the head of a woman, or of a ram, or of a goat, all types or representations of the king, effigies of which are frequently placed before temples on each side of the approach; the most famous of the sphinxes was the one which waylaid travellers and tormented them with a riddle, which if they could not answer she devoured them, but which Oedipus answered, whereupon she threw herself into the sea. “Such a sphinx,” as we are told in “Past and Present,” “is this life of ours, to all men and nations. Nature, like the Sphinx, is of womanly celestial loveliness and tenderness, the face and bosom of a goddess, but ending in the claws and the body of a lioness ... is a heavenly bride and conquest to the wise and brave, to them who can discern her behests and do them; a destroying fiend to them who cannot. Answer her riddle—Knowest thou the meaning of to-day?—it is well with thee. Answer it not; the solution for thee is a thing of teeth and claws.”
Spice Islands. See Moluccas.
Spinello, Aretino, a celebrated Italian fresco-painter, born at Arezzo, where, with visits to Florence, his life was chiefly spent; was in his day the rival of Giotto, but few of his frescoes are preserved, and such of his paintings as are to be found in various galleries of Europe are inferior to his frescoes (1330-1410).
Spinola, Ambrosio, Marquis of, great Spanish general under Philip II. of Spain, born at Genoa, with a following of 9000, maintained at his own expense, took Ostend after a resistance of 3 years, in consequence of which feat he was appointed commander-in-chief, in which capacity maintained and again maintained a long struggle with Prince Maurice of Nassau, terminated only with the death of the latter; his services on behalf of Spain, in the interest of which he spent his fortune, were never acknowledged, and he died with poignant grief (1571-1630).
Spinoza, Benedict, great modern philosopher, born in Amsterdam, of Jews of Portuguese extraction in well-to-do circumstances, and had been trained as a scholar; began with the study of the Bible and the Talmud, but soon exchanged the study of theology in these for that of physics and the works of Descartes, in which study he drifted farther and farther from the Jewish creed, and at length openly abandoned it; this exposed him to a persecution which threatened his life, so that he left Amsterdam and finally settled at The Hague, where, absorbed in philosophic study, he lived in seclusion, earning a livelihood by polishing optical glasses, which his friends disposed of for him; his days were short; he suffered from ill-health, and died of consumption when he was only 44; he was a man of tranquil temper, moderate desires, purity of motive, and kindly in heart; his great work, his “Ethica,” was published a year after his death; he had held it back during his lifetime because he foresaw it would procure him the name of atheist, which he shrank from with horror; Spinoza's doctrine is summed up by Dr. Stirling thus, “Whatever is, is; and that is extension and thought. These two are all that is; and besides these there is nought. But these two are one; they are attributes of the single substance (that which, for its existence, stands in need of nothing else), very God, in whom, then, all individual things and all individual ideas (modes of extension those, of thought these) are comprehended and take place”; thus we see Spinoza includes under the term extension all individual objects, and under thought all individual ideas, and these two he includes in God, as He in whom they live and move and have their being,—a great conception and a pregnant, being the speculative ground of the being of all that lives and is; not without good reason does Novalis call him “Der Gott-getrunkene Mensch,” the God-intoxicated man (1632-1677).
Spinozism, the pantheism of Spinoza (q. v.), which regards God as the one self-subsistent substance, and both matter and thought attributes of Him.
Spires or Speyer, an old German town on the left bank of the Rhine, in the Palatinate, 14 m. SW. of Heidelberg, the seat of a bishop and with a cathedral, of its kind one of the finest in Europe, and the remains of the Retscher, or imperial palace, where in 1529 the Diet of the Empire was held at which the Reformers first got the name of Protestants, because of their protestation against the imperial decree issued at Worms prohibiting any further innovations in religion.
Spirit (lit. breath of life), in philosophy and theology is the Divine mind incarnating itself in the life of a man, and breathing in all he thinks and does, and so is as the life-principle of it; employed also to denote any active dominating and pervading principle of life inspired from any quarter whatever and coming to light in the conduct.
Spirit, The Holy, the Divine Spirit manifested in Christ which descended upon His disciples in all its fulness when, shortly after His decease, their eyes were opened to see the meaning of His life and their hearts to feel the power of it.
Spiritual, The, the fruit of the quickening and abiding action of a higher principle at the centre of the being, operating so as to suffuse the whole of it, pervade the whole of it, to its utmost limits, which, seating itself in the heart of the thoughts and affections, works and weaves itself into all the life tissues and becomes part and parcel of the very flesh and blood. No idea, however true, however elevated or elevating one may feel it, is spiritual till it centralises in the heart and affects all the issues thereof.
Spiritualism, a term that has two very different meanings, denoting at one time the doctrine that the only real is the spiritual (q. v.), and at another time a belief in the existence of spirits whom we, by means of certain media, can hold correspondence with, and who, whether we are conscious of it or not, exercise in some cases an influence over human destiny, more particularly of the spirits of dead men with whom in their disembodied state we can by means of certain mediums hold correspondence, and who, from their continued interest in the world, do in that state keep watch and ward over its affairs as well as mingle in them, forming a world of spirits gone from hence, yet more or less active in the sense world.
Spithead, the eastern portion of the strait which separates the Isle of Wight from the Hampshire coast, 14 m. long, with an average breadth of 4 m.; is a sheltered and safe riding for ships, and as such is much used by the British navy; receives its name from a long “spit” of sandbank jutting out from the mainland. See the Solent.
Spitzbergen, the name of an Arctic archipelago lying 400 m. N. of Norway, embracing West Spitzbergen (15,260 sq. m.), North-East Land, Stans Foreland, King Charles land or Wiche Island, Barents Land, Prince Charles Foreland, besides numerous smaller islands; practically lies under great fields of ice, enormous glaciers, and drifts of snow, pierced here and there by mountain peaks, hence the name Spitzbergen; the home of vast flocks of sea-birds, of polar bears, and Arctic foxes, while herds of reindeer are attracted to certain parts by a scanty summer vegetation; there are no permanent inhabitants, but the fiord-cut shores are frequented in summer by Norwegian seal and walrus hunters.
Splügen, an Alpine pass in the Swiss canton of the Grisons; the roadway 24 m. long, opened in 1822, crosses the Rhætian Alps from Chur, the capital of Grisons, to Chiavenna, in Lombardy, and reaches a height of 6595 ft.
Spohr, Ludwig, musical composer and violinist, born in Brunswick; produced both operas and oratorios, “Faust” among the former, the “Last Judgment” and the “Fall of Babylon” among the latter; his violin-playing was admirable, producing from the tones of the instrument the effects of the human voice; wrote a handbook for violinists (1784-1859).
Spoleto (8), an ancient city of Central Italy, built on the rocky slopes of a hill, in the province of Umbria, 75 m. NE. of Rome; is protected by an ancient citadel, and has an interesting old cathedral with frescoes by Lippo Lippi, and an imposing 7th-century aqueduct; was capital of a Lombard duchy, and in 1220 was joined to the Papal States.
Spontini, Gasparo, Italian operatic composer, born at Majolati; settled in Paris in 1803, and a year later made his mark with the little opera “Milton,” and subsequently established his fame with the three grand operas, “La Vestale,” “Ferdinand Cortez,” and “Olympia”; from 1820 to 1842 was stationed at Berlin under court patronage, and in the face of public and press opposition continued to write in a strain of elevated and melodious music various operas, including his greatest work “Agnes von Hohenstaufen” (1774-1851).
Sporades, a group of islands in the Ægean Sea, of which the largest is the Mitylene.
Spottiswoode, John, archbishop of St. Andrews; accompanied James VI. to London, was zealous for the establishment of Episcopacy in Scotland; was archbishop of Glasgow before he was translated to St. Andrews; officiated at coronation of Charles I. at Holyrood in 1633, and was two years after made Chancellor of Scotland; wrote a “History of the Church of Scotland”; was buried in Westminster (1565-1639).
Spottiswoode, William, mathematician and physician, born in London; was Queen's printer, as his father had been before him; published numerous important papers on scientific subjects, his greatest work “The Polarization of Light,” a subject on which he was a great authority (1825-1883).
Spree, a river of Prussia, rises in East Saxony close to the Bohemian border, follows a winding and generally N. and NW. course of 227 m. till its Junction with the Havel at Spandau; chief towns on its banks are Bautzen, Kottbus, Lübben, and Berlin; is connected with the Oder by the Frederick William Canal.
Sprengel, Carl, physician and botanist, born in Pomerania; held professorship in Halle; wrote on the history of both medicine and botany (1766-1833).
Sprenger, Aloys, eminent Orientalist, born in the Tyrol; studied in Vienna; went to India in 1843, where he diligently occupied his mind in study, and on his return in 1857 was appointed professor of Oriental Languages at Bern, from which he was translated to Heidelberg; edited Persian and Arabic works, and wrote the “Life and Doctrine of Mohammed”; b. 1813.
Springfield, 1, capital (34) of Illinois, situated in a flourishing coal district, 185 m. SW. of Chicago; has an arsenal, two colleges, and a handsome marble capitol; coal-mining, foundries, and flour, cotton, and paper mills are the chief industries; the burial-place of Abraham Lincoln. 2, A nicely laid out and flourishing city (62) of Massachusetts, capital of Hampden County, on the Connecticut River (spanned here by five bridges), 99 m. W. by S. of Boston; settled in 1635; has important manufactories of cottons, woollens, paper, and a variety of other articles, besides the United States armoury. 3, Capital (22) of Greene County, Missouri, 232 m. WSW. of St. Louis; has rapidly increasing manufactories of cottons, woollens, machinery, &c.; in the vicinity was fought the battle of Wilson's Creek, 10th August 1861. 4, Capital (38) of Clark County, Ohio, on Lagonda Creek and Mad River, 80 m. NE. of Cincinnati; is an important railway centre, and possesses numerous factories of machinery, bicycles, paper, &c.
Spurgeon, Charles Haddon, a great preacher, born at Kelvedon, Essex; had no college training; connected himself with the Baptists; commenced as an evangelist at Cambridge when he was but a boy, and was only 17 when he was appointed to a pastorate; by-and-by on invitation he settled in Southwark, and held meetings which were always requiring larger and larger accommodation; at length in 1861 the Metropolitan Tabernacle, capable of accommodating 6000, was opened, where he drew about him large congregations, and round which he, in course of time, established a number of institutions in the interest at once of humanity and religion; his pulpit addresses were listened to by thousands every Sunday, and were one and all printed the week following, and circulated all over the land and beyond it till they filled volumes; no preacher of the time had such an audience, and none such a wide popularity; he preached the old Puritan gospel, but it was presented in such a form and in such simple, idiomatic phrase, as to commend it as no less a gospel to his own generation: besides his sermons as published, other works were also widely circulated; special mention may be made of “John Ploughman's Talk” (1834-1892).
Spurzheim, Johann Caspar, phrenologist, born in Trèves; went to study medicine at Vienna; attended the lectures of Gall and became a disciple, accompanying him on a lecturing tour through Central Europe, and settling with him in 1807 in Paris; in 1813 he separated from Gall, and went to lecture in England with much acceptance; in 1832 he proceeded to America with the same object, but he had hardly started on his mission when he died at Boston; he wrote numerous works bearing on phrenology, education, &c. (1776-1832).
Sruti, the name given to sacred and revealed tradition, or revelation generally, among the Hindus.
Staal, Jean, a French lady of humble circumstances, of metaphysical turn; skilled in the philosophies of Descartes and Malebranche; was in the Bastille for two years for political offences; was a charming woman, and captivated the Baron de Staal; left Memoirs and Letters (1693-1750).
Stabat Mater, A Latin hymn on the dolours of the Virgin, beginning with these words, and composed in the 13th century by Jacopone da Todi, a Franciscan monk, and set to music by several composers, the most popular being Rossini's.
Stadium, the course on which were celebrated the great games (foot-racing, wrestling, &c.) of ancient Greece, held at Olympia, Athens, and other places; the most famous was that laid out at Olympia; length 600 Greek feet, which was adopted as the Greek standard of measure, and equalled 606½ English feet.
Stadtholder, an anglicised form of the Dutch “stadhouder” (i. e. stead-holder), a title conferred on the governors of provinces in the Low Countries, but chiefly associated with the rulers of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht; in 1544 the title was held by William the Silent, and continued to be the designation of the head of the new republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands until 1802, when William V. was compelled to resign his stadtholdership to France, the country afterwards assuming a monarchical government.
Staël, Madame de, distinguished French lady, born in Paris, daughter of Necker, and only child; a woman of eminent ability, and an admirer of Rousseau; wrote “Letters” on his character and works; married a man ten years older than herself, the Baron de Staël-Holstein, the Swedish ambassador in Paris, where she lived all through the events of the Revolution in sympathy with the royal family; wrote an appeal in defence of the queen, and quitted the city during the Reign of Terror; on her return in 1795 her salon became the centre of the literary and political activity of the time; the ambition of Napoleon excited her distrust, and forced her into opposition so expressed that in 1801 she was ordered to leave Paris within 24 hours, and not to come within 40 leagues of it; in 1802 she was left a widow, and soon after she went first to Weimar, where she met Goethe and Schiller, and then to Berlin; by-and-by she returned to France, but on the publication of her “Corinne,” was ordered out of the country; after this appeared her great epoch-making work on Germany, “L'Allemagne,” which was seized by the French censors; after this she quitted for good the soil of France, to which she had returned; settled in Switzerland, at Coppet, where she died (1766-1817).
Staffa (“pillar Island”), an uninhabited islet of basaltic formation off the W. coast of Scotland, 54 m. W. of Oban; 1½ m. in circumference, and girt with precipitous cliffs, except on the sheltered NE., where there is a shelving shore; is remarkable for its caves, of which Fingal's Cave is the most famous, having an entrance 42 ft. wide and 66 ft. high, and penetrating 227 ft.
Stafford (20), county town of Staffordshire, on the Sow, 29 m. NNW. of Birmingham; has two fine old churches, St. Mary's and St. Chad's, interesting architecturally, King Edward's grammar school, and Stafford Castle finely situated on the outskirts; is an important railway centre, and noted for its boot and shoe manufactures.
Staffordshire (1,083), a midland mining and manufacturing county of England, wedged in on the N. between Cheshire (W.) and Derby (N.), and extending southward to Worcester, with Shropshire on the W., and Leicester and Warwick on the E.; with the exception of the wild and hilly “moorland” in the N. consists of an undulating plain crossed by the Trent, and intersected in all directions by canals and railways; embraces two rich coal-fields, one in the “Black Country” of the S., where rich deposits of iron-stone are also worked, and one in the N., embracing the district of the “Potteries”; famous breweries exist at Burton; Wolverhampton is the largest town.
Stagirite, The, Aristotle (q. v.), so called from his native place Stagira.
Stahl, Friedrich Julius, writer of jurisprudence, born at Münich, of Jewish parents; embraced Christianity; wrote “The Philosophy of Law”; became professor thereof at Berlin; was a staunch Lutheran, and a Conservative in politics (1802-1861).
Staines (5), a pretty little town of Middlesex, on the Thames (spanned here by a fine granite bridge), 6 m. SE. of Windsor; St. Mary's church has a tower designed by Inigo Jones; has breweries, mustard-mills, and other factories; in the neighbourhood are Runnymede and Cooper's Hill (q. v.).
Stair, John Dalrymple, 1st Earl of, eldest son of James Dalrymple (1619-1695) of Stair (a distinguished lawyer in his day, who rose to be President of the Court of Session; wrote a well-known work, “Institutes of the Law of Scotland”; as a Protestant supported the Prince of Orange, and by him was raised to the peerage as viscount in 1690); adopted law as a profession, and was called to the bar in 1672; got into trouble with Claverhouse, and was fined and imprisoned, but in 1687 was received into royal favour, became Lord Advocate, a Lord Ordinary in the Court of Session, and subsequently as Secretary of State for Scotland was mainly responsible for the massacre of Glencoe (q. v.); was created an earl in 1703, and later was active in support of the union of the English and Scottish Parliaments (1648-1707).
Stair, John Dalrymple, 2nd Earl of, second son of preceding; entered the army at 19, and fought with his regiment, the Cameronians, at Steinkirk; studied law for some time at Leyden, but went back to the army, and by 1701 was a lieutenant-colonel in the Scots Foot Guards, and in 1706 colonel of the Cameronians; fought with distinction under Marlborough at Venlo, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and, as commander of a brigade, at the siege of Lille and at Malplaquet; was active in support of the Hanoverian succession, and subsequently in the reigns of George I. and II. filled important diplomatic and military posts (1673-1747).
Stalactite, a cone of carbonate of lime attached like an icicle to the roof of a cavern, and formed by the dripping of water charged with the carbonate from the rock above; Stalagmite being the name given to the cone formed on the floor by the dripping from a stalactite above.
Stalybridge (44), a manufacturing town of Cheshire and Lancashire, on both banks of the Tame, 7½ m. E. by N. of Manchester; is of modern growth, and noted for its large cotton-yarn and calico factories, iron-foundries and machine-shops.
Stamford (8), an interesting old town, partly in Lincolnshire and partly in Northamptonshire, on the Welland, 12 m. WNW. of Peterborough; was one of the five Danish burghs, and is described in Domesday Book (q. v.); a massacre of Jews occurred here in 1140, and in Plantagenet times it was a place of ecclesiastical, parliamentary, and royal importance; figures in the Wars of the Roses and the Civil War of Charles I.'s time; has three fine Early English churches, a corn exchange, two handsome schools, Browne's Hospital, founded in Richard III.'s reign, and Burghley House, a noble specimen of Renaissance architecture; the Stamford Mercury (1695) is the earliest provincial newspaper; the district is mainly agricultural.
Stamford (16), a town of Connecticut, situated amid surrounding hills in Long Island Sound, 33 m. NE. of New York; is a summer resort, and has iron and bronze foundries, etc.
Stamford Bridge, a village of Yorkshire, on the Derwent, 9¼ m. NE. of York; the scene of Harold's victory over the invading forces of Harold Haarfager on September 25, 1066.
Stamp Act, a measure passed by Grenville's Ministry in 1765 enacting that all legal documents used in the colonies should bear Government stamps. The Americans resisted on the ground that taxation without representation in Parliament was unjust. Riots broke out, and the stamped paper was carefully avoided. In 1766 Pitt championed the cause of the colonists, and largely through his eloquence Government in that year was induced to repeal the Act.
Standing Stones, rude unhewn stones standing singly or in groups in various parts of the world, and erected at remote periods, presumably in memory of some great achievement or misfortune, or as having some monumental reference.
Standish, Miles, one of the Puritan fathers, of Lancashire birth, and a cadet of a family of knightly rank in the county; served in the Netherlands as a soldier, and went to America in the Mayflower in 1620, and was helpful to the colony in its relations both with the Indians and the mother-country; is the hero of a poem of Longfellow's.
Stanfield, Clarkson, English landscape-painter, born in Sunderland, of Irish descent; began as a scene-painter; his first picture, “Market-boats on the Scheldt,” proving a success, he devoted himself to easel-painting, and his principal works were “Wreckers off Fort Rouge,” “A Calm at Sea,” “The Abandoned,” “The Bass Rock”; his frequent visits to the Continent supplied him with fresh subjects; and Ruskin says of one of his pictures, “it shows as much concentrated knowledge of the sea and sky as, diluted, would have lasted any of the old masters for life” (1793-1866).
Stanhope, Lady Hester Lucy, born at Chevening, Kent, the eldest daughter of the third Earl of Stanhope, and niece of William Pitt; a woman of unusual force of character and attractiveness; from 1803 to 1806 was, as the confidant and housekeeper of her uncle William Pitt, a leader of society; retired with a Government pension after Pitt's death, but impelled by her restless nature, led an unsettled life in Southern Europe, and finally settled in Syria in 1814, making her home in the old convent of Mar Elias, near Mount Lebanon, where, cut off from Western civilisation, for 25 years she exercised a remarkable influence over the rude tribes of the district; assumed the dress of a Mohammedan chief, and something of the religion of Islam, and in the end came to look upon herself as a sort of prophetess; interesting accounts of her strange life and character have been published by her English physician, Dr. Madden, and others (1776-1839).
Stanhope, Philip Henry, Earl, historian, born at Walmer, only son of the fourth Earl of Stan hope; graduated at Oxford in 1827, and three years later entered Parliament as a Conservative; held office as Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs in Peel's Ministry of 1834-35, and as Secretary to the Indian Board of Control during 1845-46; succeeded his father in 1855, before which he was known by the courtesy title of Lord Mahon; literature was his chief interest, and as a historian and biographer he has a deservedly high reputation for industry and impartial judgment; a “History of England from 1713 to 1783,” a “History of Spain under Charles II.,” “Historical and Critical Essays,” and Lives of Pitt, Condé, and Belisarius, are his most important works (1805-1875).
Stanislas I., Leczinski, king of Poland, born in Lemberg; afterwards sovereign of the Duchies of Bar and Lorraine; became the father-in-law of Louis XV. (1677-1766).
Stanley. Arthur Penrhyn, widely known as Dean Stanley, having been dean of Westminster, born at Alderley, in Cheshire, son of the rector, who became bishop of Norwich; was educated at Rugby under Dr. Arnold, and afterwards at Balliol College, Oxford; took orders, and was for 12 years tutor in his college; published his “Life of Dr. Arnold” in 1844, his “Sinai and Palestine” in 1855, after a visit to the East; held a professorship of Ecclesiastical History in Oxford for a time, and published lectures on the Eastern Church, the Jewish Church, the Athanasian Creed, and the Church of Scotland; accompanied the Prince of Wales to the East in 1862, and became dean of Westminster next year in succession to Trench; wrote “Historical Monuments of Westminster Abbey” and “Christian Institutions”; he had been married to Lady Augusta Bruce, and her death deeply affected him and accelerated his own; he was buried beside her in Henry VII.'s chapel; he was an amiable man, an interesting writer, and a broad churchman of very pronounced views (1815-1881).
Stanley, Henry Morton, African explorer, born in Denbigh, Wales, in humble circumstances, his parental name being Rowlands, he having assumed the name of Stanley after that of his adopted father, Mr. Stanley, New Orleans; served in the Confederate army; became a newspaper foreign correspondent, to the New York Herald at length; was summoned to go and “find Livingstone”; after many an impediment found Livingstone on 10th November 1871, and after staying with him, and accompanying him in explorations, returned to England in August next year; in 1874 he set out again at the head of an expedition, solved several problems, and returned home; published “Congo and its Free State,” “In Darkest Africa,” &c.; represents Lambeth, North, in Parliament, having been elected in 1895; b. 1840.
Stannary, a general term used to cover the tin mines of a specified district, the miners themselves, and such customs and privileges as appertain to the workers and the mines. In England the term is specially associated with the stannaries of Devon and Cornwall, which by an Act of Edward III. were conferred in perpetuity upon the Prince of Wales as Duke of Cornwall, who holds the title of Lord Warden of the Stannaries. Special Stannary Courts for the administration of justice amongst those connected with the mines are held in the two counties, and are each presided over by a warden and a vice-warden. Up to 1752 representative assemblies of the miners, called Stannary Parliaments, were held. Appeals from the Stannary Courts may be made now to the higher courts of England.
Star-Chamber, a court which originated in the reign of Edward III., and consisted practically of the king's ordinary council, meeting in the Starred Chamber, and dealing with such cases as fell outside the jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery; was revived and remodelled by Henry VII., and in an age when the ordinary courts were often intimidated by powerful offenders, rendered excellent service to the cause of justice; was further developed and strengthened during the chancellorship of Wolsey, and in the reign of James I. had acquired jurisdiction as a criminal court over a great variety of misdemeanours—perjury, riots, conspiracy, high-treason, &c. Already tending to an exercise of unconstitutional powers, it in the reign of Charles I. became an instrument of the grossest tyranny, supporting the king in his absolutist claims, and in 1641 was among the first of the many abuses swept away by the Long Parliament.
Stars, The, are mostly suns, but being, the nearest of them, at a distance from us more than 500,000 times our distance from the sun, are of a size we cannot estimate, but are believed to be 300 times larger than the earth; they are of unequal brightness, and are, according to this standard, classified as of the first, second, down to the sixteenth magnitude; those visible to the naked eye include stars from the first to the sixth magnitude, and number 3000, while 20,000,000 are visible by the telescope; of these in the Milky Way (q. v.) alone there are 18,000,000; they are distinguished by their colours as well as their brightness, being white, orange, red, green, and blue according to their temperature and composition; they have from ancient date been grouped into constellations of the northern and the southern hemispheres and of the zodiac (q. v.), the stars in each of which being noted by the Greek letters, as [Greek: alpha], [Greek: beta], according to their brightness; they all move more or less, and some go round each other, and are called double according as there are two or more of them so revolving; besides stars singly visible there are others called clusters or nebulæ (q. v.).
Stars and Stripes, the flag of the United States, the stripes representing the original States of the Union, and stars those annexed since.
Staten Island, 1, belonging to New York State (52), and comprising the county of Richmond; is a picturesque island (14 m. long), 5 m. SW. of New York, separated from Long Island by the Narrows and from New Jersey by the Kill van Kull and Staten Island Sound; pretty watering-villages skirt its shores, and Forts Richmond and Wadsworth guard the entrance to the Narrows. 2, A lofty, precipitous, and rugged island, snow-clad most of the year, belonging to Argentina, lying to the SE. of Tierra del Fuego, from which it is separated by Le Maire Strait (40 m.).
States-General, name given to an assembly of the representatives of the three estates of nobles, clergy, and bourgeoisie, or the Tiers État as it was called, in France prior to the Revolution of 1789, and which was first convoked in 1302 by Philip IV.; they dealt chiefly with taxation, and had no legislative power; they were convoked by Louis XIII. in 1614, and dismissed for looking into finance, and not convoked again till the last time in 1789, for the history of which see Carlyle's “French Revolution.”
States-Rights, doctrine of the contention of the Democrats in the United States that the several States of the Union have all the rights, powers, and privileges not expressly made over to the central government, and by extremists even the right of secession.
Stationers' Hall, the hall of the old Company of London Stationers, incorporated in 1557, who enjoyed till the Copyright Act of 1842 the sole right of having registered at their offices every pamphlet, book, and ballad published in the kingdom. Although no longer compulsory, the practice of entering books at Stationers' Hall is still found useful for copyright purposes. The register-rolls of books entered at Stationers' Hall have been carefully preserved, and are of the highest value to the literary historian.
Stations of the Cross, steps in the passage of Jesus from the judgment-hall to Calvary, or representations of these, before each one of which the faithful are required to kneel and offer up a prayer.
Statius, Publius Papinius, a Latin poet, born in Naples; lived at Rome, flourished at court, particularly that of Domitian, whom he flattered, but retired to his native place after defeat in a competition; his chief work is the “Thebaïs,” an epic in 12 books, embodying the legends connected with the war against Thebes; he ranks first among the poets of the silver age; a collection of short pieces of his named “Silvæ” have been often reprinted (61-96).
Staubbach (dust stream), a famous waterfall in Bern, near Lauterbrunnen, 8 m. S. of Interlaken, with a sheer descent of 980 ft.; in the sunlight it has the appearance of a rainbow-hued transparent veil, and before it reaches the ground it is dissipated in silvery spray.
Staunton, Howard, a famous chess-player; was an Oxford man, and led a busy life as a journalist and miscellaneous writer in London; won the chess championship in 1843, and did much to extend the scientific study of the game by various publications, “The Chess-Player's Handbook,” &c.; was also held in high repute as a Shakespearian scholar; published well-annotated editions of Shakespeare's works and a facsimile of the first folio (1810-1874).
Stavanger (24), a flourishing port of Norway, on a fiord on the SW. coast, 100 m. S. of Bergen; is of modern aspect, having been largely rebuilt; has two excellent harbours, a fine 11th-century Gothic cathedral, and is the centre of important coast fisheries.
Stavropol (657), a Russian government on the Caspian Sea, the inhabitants of which are chiefly nomads and breed horses, with a capital of the same name (36) on a hill, a modern town and a prosperous, both in manufacture and trade.
Steel, Sir John, sculptor, born at Aberdeen; studied at Edinburgh and Rome; made his mark in 1832 by a model of a statue, “Alexander and Bucephalus,” and soon took rank with the foremost and busiest sculptors of his day; his works are mostly to be found in Edinburgh, and include the equestrian statue of Wellington, statues of Sir Walter Scott (in the Scott Monument), Professor Wilson, Dr. Chalmers, Allan Ramsay, etc.; the splendid figure of Queen Victoria over the Royal Institution gained him the appointment (1844) of sculptor to Her Majesty in Scotland, and on the unveiling of his fine equestrian statue of Prince Albert in 1876 he was created a knight (1804-1891).
Steele, Sir Richard, a famous English essayist, born, the son of an attorney, in Dublin; educated as a foundationer at the Charterhouse and at Oxford; enamoured of a soldier's life, enlisted (1694) as a cadet in the Life Guards; in the following year received an ensigncy in the Coldstream Guards, and continued in the army till 1706, by which time he had attained the rank of a captain; a good deal of literary work was done during his soldiering, notably “The Christian Hero” and several comedies; appointed Gazetteer (1707), and for some two years was in the private service of the Prince Consort, George of Denmark; began in 1709 to issue the famous tri-weekly paper the Tatler, in which, with little assistance, he played the part of social and literary censor about town, couching his remarks in light and graceful essays, which constituted a fresh departure in literature; largely aided by Addison, his old school companion, he developed this new form of essay in the Spectator and Guardian; sat in Parliament as a zealous Whig, and in George I.'s reign was knighted and received various minor court appointments; continued a busy writer of pamphlets, &c., but withal mismanaged his affairs, and died in Wales, secured from actual penury by the property of his second wife; as a writer shares with Addison the glory of the Queen Anne Essay, which in their hands did much to purify, elevate, and refine the mind and manners of the time (1671-1729).
Steen, Jan, Dutch painter, born in Leyden; was a genre painter of the style of Rembrandt, and his paintings display severity with sympathy and a playful humour; he is said to have led a dissipated life, and to have left his wife and a large family in extreme destitution (1626-1679).
Steevens, George, commentator on Shakespeare, born at Stepney; in 1736 edited 20 of Shakespeare's plays carefully reprinted from the original quartos, and in 1731 his notes with those of Johnson in another edition; a further edition, with a number of gratuitous alterations of the text, was issued by him in 1793, and that was the accepted one till the publication of Knight's in 1838 (1736-1800).
Stein, Baron von, Prussian statesman, born at Nassau; rose rapidly in the service of the State, and became Prussian Prime Minister under William III. in 1807, in which capacity he effected important changes in the constitution of the country to its lasting benefit, till Napoleon procured his dismissal, and he withdrew to Austria, and at length to St. Petersburg, where he was instrumental in turning the general tide against Napoleon (1757-1831).
Stein, Charlotte von, a lady friend of Goethe's, born at Weimar; Goethe's affection for her cooled on his return from Italy to see her so changed; she never forgave him for marrying a woman beneath him; letters by Goethe to her were published in successive editions, but hers to him were destroyed by her (1742-1827).
Steinmetz, Carl Friedrich von, Prussian general, born at Eisenach; distinguished himself in the war of 1813-1814, and inflicted crushing defeats on the Austrians in 1866; fell below his reputation in the Franco-German War, and was deprived of his command after the battle of Gravelotte, but was elected Governor-General of Posen and Silesia (1796-1877).
Steinthal, Heymann, German philologist, born at Gröbzig, in Anhalt; studied at Berlin, where in 1863 he became professor of Comparative Philology, and in 1872 lecturer at the Jewish High School on Old Testament Criticism and Theology; author of various learned and acute works on the science of language; b. 1823.
Stella, the name under which Swift has immortalised Hester Johnson, the story of whose life is inseparably entwined with that of the great Dean; was the daughter of a lady-companion of Lady Gifford, the sister of Sir William Temple, who, it is conjectured, was her father. Swift first met her, a child of seven, when he assumed the duties of amanuensis to Sir William Temple in 1688, and during his subsequent residence with Sir William (1696-1699) stood to her in the progressive relationship of tutor, friend, and lover; but for some unaccountable reason it would seem they never married, although their mutual affection and intimacy endured till her death; to her was addressed, without thought of publication, the immortal “Journal to Stella,” “the most faithful and fascinating diary the world has ever seen,” which throws an invaluable flood of light on the character of Swift, revealing unsuspected tendernesses and affections in the great satirist (1681-1728).
Stencilling, a cheap and simple process of printing on various surfaces letters or designs; the characters are cut out in thin plates of metal or card-board, which are then laid on the surface to be imprinted, and the colour, by means of a brush, rubbed through the cut spaces.
Steno, Nicholas, a noted anatomist, born at Copenhagen, where he studied medicine and kindred sciences with great enthusiasm; became widely known in European medical circles by his important investigations into the natural functions of glands (salivary and parotid), the heart, brain, &c.; in 1667 became physician to the Grand-Duke of Tuscany, residing at Florence, where he renounced Lutheranism for Catholicism; made valuable geological investigations, but finally gave himself up to a religious life; was created a bishop, and in 1677 Vicar-Apostolic of North Germany; chiefly remembered for his contributions to anatomical science (1638-1687).
Stentor, a Grecian herald who accompanied the Greeks in the Trojan War, and whom Homer describes as “the great-hearted, brazen-voiced Stentor, whose shout was as loud as that of fifty other men,” hence the epithet stentorian.
Stephen, king of England from 1135 to 1154, nephew of Henry I., his mother being Adela, daughter of William I.; acquired French possessions through the favour of his uncle and by his marriage; in 1127 swore fealty to his cousin Matilda, daughter of Henry I., as his future sovereign, but on the death of his uncle usurped the throne, an action leading to a violent civil war, which brought the country into a state of anarchy; the Scots invaded on behalf of Matilda, but were beaten back at Northallerton (the Battle of the Standard, 1138); foreign mercenaries introduced by the king only served to embitter the struggle; the clergy, despoiled by the king, turned against him, and in the absence of a strong central authority the barons oppressed the people and fought with one another; “Adulterine Castles” sprang up over the country, and “men said openly that Christ and His saints were asleep”; in 1141 Matilda won the battle of Lincoln and for a few months ruled the country, but “as much too harsh as Stephen was too lenient,” she rapidly became unpopular, and Stephen was soon again in the ascendant; the successes of Henry, son of Matilda, led in 1153 to the treaty of Wallingford, by which it was arranged that Stephen should retain the crown for life, while Henry should be his heir; both joined in suppressing the turbulent barons and the “Adulterine Castles”; more fortunately circumstanced, Stephen had many qualities which might have made him a popular and successful king (1105-1154).
Stephen, the name of nine Popes; S. I., Pope from 253 to 257, signalised by his zeal against the heresies of his time; S. II., Pope from 752 to 757, in whose reign, under favour of Pepin le Bref, began the temporal power of the Popes; S. III., Pope from 768 to 772, sanctioned the worship of saints and images; S. IV., Pope from 816 to 817; S. V., Pope from 885 to 891, distinguished for his charity; S. VI., Pope from 896 to 897, strangled after a reign of 18 months; S. VII., Pope from 829 to 831, entirely under the control of his mistresses; S. VIII., Pope from 939 to 942; S. IX., Pope from 1057 to 1058, vigorously opposed the sale of benefices and the immorality of the clergy.
Stephen, George, archæologist, born in Liverpool; settled in Sweden, and became professor of English in Copenhagen; his great work entitled “Old Northern Runic Monuments of Scandinavia and England”; b. 1813.
Stephen, James, slavery abolitionist, born in Dorsetshire; held a post in the West Indies; wrote “Slavery in the British West Indies,” an able book; had sons more or less distinguished in law and law practice (1759-1832).
Stephen, Leslie, man of letters, born at Kensington, educated at Eton and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, of which he became a Fellow; became editor of the Cornhill and of the first 26 volumes of the “Dictionary of National Biography”; is the author of “Hours in a Library” and “History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century,” books that have produced a deep impression; has also produced several biographies, distinguished at once by accuracy, elegance, and critical acumen; b. 1832.
Stephen, St., protomartyr of the Christian Church, who was (Acts vii.) stoned to death in A.D. 33; his death is a frequent subject of the old painters, the saint himself being less frequently depicted, but when so he is represented usually in a deacon's dress, bearing a stone in one hand and a palm-branch in the other, or both hands full of stones.
Stephens, James, Fenian conspirator, born in Kilkenny; became “Head Centre,” and zealous in the Fenian cause both in Ireland and America; was arrested in Dublin, but escaped; found his way to New York, but was deposed, and has sunk out of sight; b. 1824.
Stephen's, St., the Parliament House of Westminister, distinguished from St. James's, which denotes the Court, as Downing Street does the Government.
Stephenson, George, inventor of the locomotive, born, the son of a poor colliery engineman, at Wylam, near Newcastle; was early set to work, first as a cowherd and then as a turnip-hoer, and by 15 was earning 12s. a week as fireman at Throckley Bridge Colliery, diligently the while acquiring the elements of education; married at 21, and supplemented his wage as brakesman at Killingworth Colliery by mending watches and shoes; in 1815 invented a safety-lamp for miners, which brought him a public testimonial of £1000; while at Killingworth turned his attention to the application of steam to machinery, and thus constructed his first locomotive in 1814 for the colliery tram-road; railway and locomotive construction now became the business of his life; superintended the construction of the Stockton and Darlington Railway (1821-25), the Liverpool and Manchester Railway (1826-29), over which he ran his locomotive the “Rocket” at a maximum rate of 35 m. an hour; in the outburst of railway enterprise which now ensued Stephenson's services were in requisition all over the country; became principal engineer on many of the new railways; bought the country-seat of Tapton, near Chesterfield, to which he retired for much-needed rest; a man of character, gentle and simple in his affections, strong and purposeful in his labours, who, as he himself says, “fought for the locomotive single-handed for nearly 20 years,” and “put up with every rebuff, determined not to be put down” (1781-1848).
Stephenson, Robert, son of preceding, born at Willington Quay, was well educated at Newcastle, and for a session at Edinburgh University; began in 1823 to assist his father, and from 1824 to 1827 fulfilled an engineering engagement in Colombia, South America; rendered valuable service in the construction of the “Rocket,” and as joint-engineer with his father of the London and Birmingham line, was mainly responsible for its construction; turning his attention specially to bridge-building he constructed the Britannia and Conway Tubular bridges, besides many others, including those over the Nile, St. Lawrence, &c.; was returned to the House of Commons in 1847; received the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour from the French emperor, and many other distinctions at home and abroad; was buried in Westminster Abbey (1803-1859).
Stepniak, Russian Nihilist and apostle of freedom; exiled himself to England; author of “Underground Russia” (1852-1895).
Steppes, the name given to wide, treeless plains, barren except in spring, of the SE. of Russia and SW. of Siberia.
Stereoscope, a simple optical apparatus which, when two photographs of an object taken from slightly different standpoints (so as to secure the appearance it presents to either eye singly) are placed under its twin magnifying lenses, presents to the eyes of the looker a single picture of the object standing out in natural relief.
Sterling, John, a friend of Carlyle's, born at Kames Castle, Bute, son of Captain Sterling of the Times; studied at Glasgow and Cambridge; a man of brilliant parts and a liberal-minded, but of feeble health; had Julius Hare for tutor at Cambridge, and became Hare's curate at Hurstmonceaux for eight months; wrote for reviews, and projected literary enterprises, but achieved nothing; spent his later days moving from place to place hoping to prolong life; formed an acquaintanceship with Carlyle in 1832; became an intelligent disciple, and believed in him to the last; Hare edited his papers, and wrote his life as a clergyman, and Carlyle, dissatisfied, wrote another on broader lines, and by so doing immortalised his memory (1806-1843).
Stern, Daniel. See Agoult.
Sterne, Laurence, English humourist, born at Clonmel, Ireland, son of Roger Sterne, captain in the army; his mother an Irishwoman; was educated at Halifax and Cambridge, by-and-by took orders, and received livings in Sutton and Shillington, became a prebend at York, and finally got a living at Coxwold; in 1759 appeared the first two volumes of “Tristram Shandy,” and in 1767 the last two; in 1768 his “Sentimental Journey,” and in the interim his “Sermons,” equally characteristic of the man as the two former productions. Stopford Brooke says, “They have no plot, they can scarcely be said to have any story. The story of 'Tristram Shandy' wanders like a man in a labyrinth, and the humour is as labyrinthine as the story. It is carefully invented, and whimsically subtle; and the sentiment is sometimes true, but mostly affected. But a certain unity is given to the book by the admirable consistency of the characters,” his masterpieces, among which is “Uncle Toby”; the author died in London of pulmonary consumption (1713-1763).
Sternhold, Thomas, principal author of the first English metrical version of the Psalms, originally attached to the Prayer-Book as augmented by John Hopkins; continued in general use till Tate and Brady's version of 1696 was substituted in 1717; was a Hampshire man, and held the post of Groom of the Robes to Henry VIII. and Edward VI. (1500-1549).
Steropes, one of the three Cyclops (q. v.).
Stesichorus, a celebrated Greek lyric poet, born in Sicily; contemporary of Sappho, Aleacus, and Pittacus; at his birth it is said a nightingale alighted on his lips and sang a sweet strain (632-652 B.C.).
Stettin (116), capital of Pomerania, and a flourishing river-port on both banks of the Oder, 30 m. from its entrance into the Baltic, and 60 m. NE. of Berlin; lies contiguous to, and is continuous with, the smaller towns of Bredow, Grabow, and Züllchow; principal buildings are the royal palace (16th century), the Gothic church of St. Peter (12th century), and St. James's (14th century); is a busy hive of industry, turning out ships, cement, sugar, spirits, &c., and carrying on a large export and import trade.
Steuben, Baron von, general in the American War of Independence, born in Magdeburg; originally in the Prussian service under Frederick the Great, and had distinguished himself at the siege of Prague and at Rossbach; emigrating to America at the end of the Seven Years' War he offered his services, which were readily welcomed, and contributed to organise and discipline the army, to the success of the revolution (1730-1794).
Stevenson, Robert, an eminent Scottish engineer, born at Glasgow, the son of a West India merchant; adopted the profession of his stepfather Thomas Smith, and in 1796 succeeded him as first engineer to the Board of Northern Lighthouses, a position he held for 47 years, during which he planned and erected as many as 23 lighthouses round the coasts of Scotland, his most noted erection being that on the Bell Rock; introduced the catoptric system of illumination and other improvements; was also much employed as a consulting engineer in connection with bridge, harbour, canal, and railway construction (1772-1850).
Stevenson, Robert Louis Balfour, novelist and essayist, grandson of the preceding, born at Edinburgh, where in 1875 he was called to the bar, after disappointing his father by not following the family vocation of engineering; had already begun to write for the magazines, and soon abandoned law for the profession of letters, in which he rapidly came to the front; in 1878 appeared his first book, “An Inland Voyage,” quickly followed by “Travels with a Donkey,” “Virginibus Puerisque,” “Familiar Studies”; with “Treasure Island” (1883) found a wider public as a writer of adventure and romance, and established himself permanently in the public favour with “Kidnapped” (1886, most popular story), “The Master of Ballantrae,” “Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde,” &c.; his versatility in letters was further revealed in his charming “A Child's Garden of Verse,” “Ballads,” “Memories and Portraits,” and “A Footnote to History” (on Samoan politics); in 1890 failing health induced him to make his home in the island of Samoa, where he died and is buried; “His too short life,” says Professor Saintsbury, “has left a fairly ample store of work, not always quite equal, seldom quite without a flaw, but charming, stimulating, distinguished as few things in this last quarter of a century have been” (1850-1894).
Steward, Lord High, in early times the highest office of state in England, ranking in power next to the sovereign; hereditary during many centuries, the office lapsed in the reign of Henry IV., and since has been revived only on special occasions, e. g. a coronation, a trial of a peer, at the termination of which the office is demitted, the Lord High Steward himself breaking in two his wand of office.
Stewart, Balfour, physicist, born in Edinburgh; after finishing his university curriculum went to Australia and engaged for some time in business; returned to England; became director at Kew Observatory, and professor of Natural Philosophy at Owens College, Manchester; made discoveries in radiant heat, and was one of the founders of spectrum analysis (q. v.); published text-books on physics, in wide repute (1828-1887).
Stewart, Dugald, Scottish philosopher, born in Edinburgh, son of Matthew Stewart; attended the High School and the University; studied one session at Glasgow under Dr. Reid; assisted his father in conducting the mathematical classes in Edinburgh, and succeeded Adam Ferguson in the Moral Philosophy chair in 1785, a post, the active duties of which he discharged with signal success for twenty-five years, lecturing on a wide range of subjects connected with metaphysics and the science of mind; he wrote “Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind,” “Philosophical Essays,” &c.; “His writings,” says Carlyle, who held him in high veneration, “are not a philosophy, but a making ready for one. He does not enter on the field to till it; he only encompasses it with fences, invites cultivators, and drives away intruders; often (fallen on evil days) he is reduced to long arguments with the passers-by to prove that it is a field, that this so highly-prized domain of his is, in truth, soil and substance, not clouds and shadows. It is only to a superficial observer that the import of these discussions can seem trivial; rightly understood, they give sufficient and final answer to Hartley's and Darwin's and all other possible forms of Materialism, the grand Idolatry, as we may rightly call it, by which, in all times, the true Worship, that of the Invisible, has been polluted and withstood” (1753-1858).
Stewart, House of. See Stuart.
Stewart, Matthew, mathematician, born at Rothesay; bred for the Church, was for a time minister of Roseneath, and succeeded Maclaurin as professor of Mathematics in Edinburgh in 1747; was the author of a mathematical treatise or two, and the lifelong friend of Robert Simson (1717-1785).
Steyer (17), a manufacturing town of Upper Austria, at the junction of the Steyer and Enns, 20 m. NE. of St. Valentin; noted for its flourishing iron and steel manufactures, of which it is the chief seat in Austria.
Stheno, one of the three Gorgons (q. v.).
Stieler, a celebrated German cartographer, born at Gotha; his atlases are deservedly held in high esteem for their excellence (1775-1836).
Stier, Rudolf Ewald, German theologian; was a devout student of the Bible as the very Word of God, and is best known as the author of the “Words of the Lord Jesus” (1800-1862).
Stigand, archbishop of Canterbury and favourite of Edward the Confessor, who advanced him to the bishoprics of Elmham and Winchester and to the Primacy in 1052; his appointment was popularly regarded as uncanonical, and neither Harold nor William the Conqueror allowed him to perform the ceremony of coronation; through William's influence was by the Pope deprived of his office and condemned to imprisonment.
Stigmata, impressions of marks corresponding to certain wounds received by Christ at His crucifixion, and which certain of the saints are said to have been supernaturally marked with in memory of His. St. Francis in particular showed such marks.
Stilicho, a Roman general, son of a Vandal captain under the emperor Valens; on the death of Theodosius I., under whom he served, became the ruler of the West, and by his military abilities saved the Western Empire; defeated Alaric the Goth in a decisive battle and compelled him to retire from Italy, as he did another horde of invading barbarians afterwards; aspired to be master of the Roman empires, but was assassinated at Ravenna in 403.
Still, John, bishop of Bath and Wells, born at Grantham; rose in the Church through a succession of preferments: is credited with the authorship of one of the oldest comedies in the English language, “Gammer Gurton's Needle,” turning on the loss and recovery by her of the needle with which she was mending her goodman's breeches (1543-1607).
Stilling, Jung, a German mystic; studied medicine at Strasburg, and when there became acquainted with Goethe, who took a liking for him and remained his warm friend; settled as a physician at Elberfeldt and became professor at Marburg and at Heidelberg; he was distinguished for his skill in operations on the eye, and is said to have restored to sight without fee or reward 3000 poor blind persons; he is best known by his autobiography; Carlyle defines him as the German “Dominie Sampson.”
Stillingfleet, Edward, bishop of Worcester, born in Dorsetshire; was a scholarly man, wrote on apologetics, in defence of the Church of England as a branch of the Church Catholic, in support of the doctrine of the Trinity, and in advocacy of harmony in the Church; was an able controversialist and a generous minded; was a handsome man, and popularly called the “Beauty of holiness” (1635-1699).
Stipple, a mode of engraving by dots instead of lines, each dot when magnified showing a group of small ones.
Stirling, James Hutchison, master in philosophy, born in Glasgow; bred to medicine and practised for a time in South Wales; went to Germany to study the recent developments in philosophy there, on his return to Scotland published, in 1863, his “Secret of Hegel: being the Hegelian System in Origin, Principle, Form, and Matter,” which has proved epoch-making, and has for motto the words of Hegel, “The Hidden Secret of the Universe is powerless to resist the might of thought! It must unclose before it, revealing to sight and bringing to enjoyment its riches and its depths.” It is the work of a master-mind, as every one must feel who tackles to the study of it, and of one who has mastered the subject of it as not another in England, or perhaps even in Germany, has done. The grip he takes of it is marvellous and his exposition trenchant and clear. It was followed in 1881 by his “Text-book to Kant,” an exposition which his “Secret” presupposes, and which he advised the students of it to expect, that they might be able to construe the entire Hegelian system from its root in Kant. It is not to the credit of his country that Dr. Stirling has never been elected to a chair in any of her universities, though it is understood that is due to the unenlightened state of mind of electoral bodies in regard to the Hegelian system and the prejudice against it, particularly among the clergy of the Church. He was, however, elected to be the first Gifford Lecturer in Edinburgh University, and his admirers have had to content themselves with that modicum of acknowledgment at last. He is the author of a critique on Sir William Hamilton's theory of perception, on Huxley's doctrine of protoplasm, and on Darwinianism, besides a translation of Schwegler's “History of Philosophy,” with notes, a highly serviceable work. His answer to Huxley is crushing. He is the avowed enemy of the Aufklärung and of all knowledge that consists of mere Vorstellungen and does not grasp the ideas which they present; b. 1820.
Stirling, William Alexander, Earl of, poet, born at Menstrie, near Alloa; was for a time tutor to the family of Argyll; was the author of sonnets called “Aurora,” some curious tragedies, and an “Elegy on the Death of Prince Henry”; he was held in high honour by James VI. and followed him to London, obtained a grant of Nova Scotia, and made Secretary of State for Scotland; he has been ranked as a poet with Drummond of Hawthornden, who was his friend (1580-1640).
Stirling-Maxwell, See Maxwell, Stirling.
Stirling (17), the county town of Stirlingshire, and one of the most ancient and historically-interesting cities of Scotland; occupies a fine site on the Forth, 36 m. NW. of Edinburgh and 29 m. NE. of Glasgow; most prominent feature is the rocky castle hill, rising at the westward end of the town to a height of 420 feet, and crowned by the ancient castle, a favourite Stuart residence, and associated with many stirring events in Scottish history, and utilised now as a garrison-station; interesting also are “Argyll's Lodging,” Greyfriars Church (Pointed Gothic of the 15th century), the fine statue of Bruce, &c.; has manufactures of tartans, tweeds, carpets, &c., and a trade in agricultural and mining products.
Stirlingshire (126), a midland county of Scotland, stretching E. and W. from Dumbarton (W.) to the Forth (E.); between Lanark (S.) and Perth (N.) it forms the borderland between the Lowlands and the Highlands; Loch Lomond skirts the western border, and on the northern Loch Katrine, stretching into Perthshire; Ben Lomond and lesser heights rise in the NW.; main streams are the Avon, Carron, Bannock, &c.; between Alloa and Stirling stretches the fertile and well-cultivated plain, “The Carse of Stirling”; in the W. lies a portion of the great western coal-field, from which coal and iron-stone are largely extracted; principal towns are Stirling (q. v.), Falkirk, and Kilsyth; interesting remains of Antoninus' Wall, from Forth to Clyde, still exist; within its borders were fought the battles of Bannockburn, Sauchieburn, Stirling Bridge, Falkirk, &c.
Stirrup Cup, a “parting cup” given by the Highlanders to guests when they are leaving and have their feet in the stirrups.
Stobsæus, Joannes, a native of Stobi, in Macedonia; flourished at the end of the 5th and beginning of the 6th century; celebrated as the compiler (about 500 A.D.) of a Greek Anthology, through which many valuable extracts are preserved to us from works which have since his day been lost.
Stock Exchange, a mart for the buying and selling of Government stocks, company shares, and various securities, carried on usually by the members of an associated body of brokers having certain rules and regulations. Such associations exist now in most of the important cities of the United Kingdom and commercial world generally (on the Continent are known as Bourses). The London Stock Exchange, transacting business in handsome buildings in Capel Court, facing the Bank of England, was established in 1801, stock-exchange transactions previous to then being carried on in a loose, ill-regulated fashion by private parties chiefly in and around Change Alley, the scene of the memorable South Sea Bubble (q. v.) speculation. The great development in stock-exchange business in recent times is due chiefly to the sale of foreign and colonial bonds, and the remarkable growth and spread of joint-stock companies since the Joint-Stock Company Act of 1862.
Stockholm (246), capital of Sweden; occupies a charming site on the channel leading out of Lake Mälar into a bay of the Baltic; stands partly on the mainland and partly on nine islands, communication between which is facilitated by handsome bridges and a busy service of boats; its wooded and rocky islands, crowned with handsome buildings, its winding waterways, peninsulas, crowded wharves, and outlook over the isleted lake, combine to make it one of the most picturesque cities of Europe; Town Island, the nucleus of the city, is occupied by the royal palace, House of Nobles, principal wharf, &c., while on Knights' Island stand the Houses of Parliament, law-courts, and other public buildings; Norrmalm, with the Academy of Science, National Museum, Academy of Fine Arts, Hop Garden, &c., is the finest quarter of the city; manufactures embrace sugar, tobacco, silks, linen, cotton, &c., besides which there are flourishing iron-works and a busy export trade in iron and steel, oats, and tar, despite the hindrance caused by the ice during three or four months in winter; founded in 1255 by Birger Jarl.
Stockmar, Baron de, statesman, born at Coburg; bred to medicine, became physician to Leopold I. of Belgium, and at length his adviser; was adviser also of Queen Victoria before her accession; accompanied Prince Albert to Italy before his marriage, and joined him thereafter in England as the trusted friend of both the queen and him; he had two political ideals—a united Germany under Prussia, and unity of purpose between Germany and England (1757-1863).
Stockport (70), a cotton town of East Cheshire; occupies a site on the slopes of a narrow gorge overlooking the confluence of the Thame and Goyt (forming the Mersey), 37 m. E. of Liverpool; a handsome viaduct spans the river; has an old grammar-school, free library, technical school, &c.; during the present century has grown to be a busy centre of cotton manufactures, and has besides flourishing iron and brass foundries, machine-shops, breweries, &c.
Stockton-on-Tees (69), a prosperous manufacturing town and port of Durham, on the Tees, 4 m. from its mouth; an iron bridge spanning the river connects it with Thornaby-on-Tees; has the usual public buildings; steel and iron shipbuilding building, potteries, foundries, machine-shops are flourishing industries; iron and earthenware are the chief exports, and with imports of corn and timber give rise to a busy and increasing shipping, facilitated by the excellent river-way.
Stoics, the disciples of Zeno; derived their name from the stoa or portico in Athens where their master taught and founded the school in 340 B.C. The doctrines of the school were completely antagonistic to those of Epicurus, and among the disciples of it are to be reckoned some of the noblest spirits of the heathen world immediately before and after the advent of Christ. These appear to have been attracted to it by the character of its moral teachings, which were of a high order indeed. The principle of morality was defined to be conformity to reason, and the duty of man to lie in the subdual of all passion and a composed submission to the will of the gods. It came short of Christian morality, as indeed all Greek philosophy did, in not recognising the Divine significance and power of humility, and especially in its failure to see, still more to conform to, the great doctrine of Christ which makes the salvation of a man to depend on the interest he takes in, as well as in the fact of the salvation of, other men. The Stoic was a proud man, and not a humble, and was content if he could only have his own soul for a prey. He did not see—and no heathen ever did—that the salvation of one man is impossible except in the salvation of other men, and that no man can save another unless he descend into that other's case and stand, as it were, in that other's stead. It is the glory of Christ that He was the first to feel Himself, and to reveal to others, the eternal validity and divinity of this truth. The Stoic morality is selfish; the morality of Christ is brotherly.
Stoke-upon-Trent (24), chief seat of the “Potteries,” in Staffordshire, on the Trent and the Trent and Mersey Canal, 15 m. SE. of Crewe; is of modern growth, with free library, infirmary, public baths, statue to Wedgwood, &c., and is busily engaged in the manufacture of all sorts of porcelain ware, earthenware, encaustic tiles, &c., besides which there are flourishing iron-works, machine-shops, coal-mines, &c.
Stokes, Sir George Gabriel, mathematician and physicist, born in Skreen, co. Sligo; he is great in the department of mathematical physics, and has been specially devoted to the study of hydro-dynamics and the theory of light; has opened new fields of investigation, and supplied future experimenters with valuable hints; he was one of the foremost physicists of the day; b. 1819.
Stolberg, Christian, Count, German poet of the Göttingen school, to which Bürger and Voss belonged, born in Hamburg; was with his brother a friend of Goethe's, and held a civil appointment in Holstein (1748-1821).
Stolberg, Friedrich Leopold, Count of, German poet, born in Holstein, brother of preceding; held State appointments in Denmark; joined the Romish Church, and showed a religious and ascetic temper (1750-1819).
Stole, a long scarf worn by bishops and priests in the administration of the sacraments of the Church, and sometimes when preaching, as well as in symbol of authority.
Stone Age, the name given to that period in the history of civilisation when the weapons of war and the chase and the implements of industry were made of stone, prior to employment for these purposes of bronze, characteristic of the age succeeding.
Stone Circles, circles of standing stones (q. v.) found in various parts of Great Britain, North Europe generally, and also, but of more recent origin, in North India; were certainly, in the most of cases, set up to mark the circular boundary of a place of burial; erroneously ascribed to the Druids; from the character of numerous cinerary urns exhumed, seem to have belonged to the bronze age in Great Britain; most interesting are those of Stennis, in Orkney, with a circumference of 340 ft., Avebury, in Wiltshire, and Stonehenge (q. v.).
Stonehaven (4), fishing port and county town of Kincardineshire, situated at the entrance of Carron Water (dividing the town) into South Bay, 16 m. SSW. of Aberdeen; has a small harbour, and is chiefly engaged in herring and haddock fishing.
Stonehenge, the greatest and best preserved of the stone circles (q. v.) of Britain, situated in Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, 7 m. N. of Salisbury; “consists of two concentric circles, enclosing two ellipses”; the diameter of the space enclosed is 100 ft.; the stones are from 13 ft. to 28 ft. high; is generally regarded as an exceptional development of the ordinary stone circle, but the special purpose of its unusual construction is still a matter of uncertainty.
Stonyhurst, a celebrated Roman Catholic college in East Lancashire, 10 m. N. of Blackburn; established in 1794 by certain Jesuit fathers who, after the suppression of their seminary at St. Omer, in France, by the Bourbons, took up their residence at Bruges and then at Liège, but fled thence to England during the Revolution, and accepted the shelter offered them at Stonyhurst by Mr. Weld of Lulworth; there are about 300 students, and upwards of 30 masters; a preparatory school has been established at Hodder, a mile distant; in 1840 was affiliated to the University of London, for the degrees of which its students are chiefly trained; retains in its various institutions many marks of its French origin.
Stool of Repentance, in Scotland in former times an elevated seat in a church on which for offences against morality people did penance and suffered rebuke.
Storm, Theodore Woldsen, German poet and exquisite story-teller, born in Sleswig; was a magistrate and judge in Sleswig-Holstein (1817-1888).
Storm-and-Stress Period, name given in the history of German literature to a period at the close of the 18th century, when the nation began to assert its freedom from artificial literary restraint, a period to which Goethe's “Goetz von Berlichingen” and Schiller's “Robbers” belong, and the spirit of which characterises it; the representatives of the period were called Kraftmänner (Power-men), who “with extreme animation railed against Fate in general, because it enthralled free virtue, and with clenched hands or sounding shields hurled defiance towards the vault of heaven.”
Storms, Cape of, name originally given in 1486 to the Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese navigator Bartholomew Dias.
Stornoway, a fishing-port, the capital of Lewis, and the chief town in the Outer Hebrides, with Stornoway Castle adjoining.
Storthing (i. e. great court), the national Parliament of Norway, composed of two chambers, the Lagthing or Upper Chamber, and the Odelsthing or Lower.
Story, Joseph, American jurist and judge, born in Massachusetts (1779-1845).
Story, William Wetmore, poet and sculptor, son of preceding; b. 1819.
Stothard, Thomas, artistic designer and book illustrator, as well as painter, born in London, son of an innkeeper; illustrated, among other works, “Pilgrim's Progress,” and along with Turner, Rogers' “Italy” (1755-1834).
Stourbridge, manufacturing town in Worcestershire; its staple manufactures are glass and pottery.
Stow, John, English antiquary, born in London; bred a tailor; took to antiquarian pursuits, which he prosecuted with the zeal of a devotee that spared no sacrifice; wrote several works on antiquities, the chief and most valuable being his “Survey of London and Westminster”; he ended his days in poverty (1525-1605).
Stowell, William Scott, eminent English judge, born at Heworth, brother of Lord Eldon; famed for his judicial decisions (1745-1836).
Strabo, ancient geographer, born at Amasia, in Pontus; flourished in the reign of Augustus, and the early part of that of Tiberius; was a learned man, lived some years in Rome, and travelled much in various countries; wrote a history of 43 books, all lost, and a work on geography, in 17 books, which has come down to us entire all to the 7th; the work is in general not descriptive; it comprehends principally important political events in connection with the countries visited, with a notice of their illustrious men, or whatever seemed to him characteristic in them or was of interest to himself; born about 63 B.C.
Straddha, the funeral rites and funeral offerings for the dead among the Hindus.
Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of, English statesman, born in London, of an old Yorkshire family; studied at Cambridge; after some months' travel on the Continent entered Parliament in 1614, but took no active part in affairs till 1621; he took sides at first with the party for freedom, but in 1622 felt compelled to side with the king, to his elevation of greater and greater influence as his counsellor; his policy, named “Thorough,” was to establish a strong Government with the king at the head, and to put down with a strong hand all opposition to the royal authority; appointed Lord-Deputy in Ireland in 1633, he did all he could to increase the royal resources, and was at length, in 1640, exalted to the Lord-Lieutenancy, being at the same time created Earl of Strafford; he had risen by this time to be the chief adviser of the king, and was held responsible for his arbitrary policy; after the meeting of the Long Parliament he was impeached for high treason; the impeachment seemed likely to fail, when a Bill of Attainder was produced; to this the king refused his assent, but he had to yield to the excitement his refusal produced, and as the result Strafford was beheaded on Tower Hill (1593-1641).
Straits Settlements (507, of which 150 are Chinese), British colony in the East Indies, embracing the British possessions in the Malay Peninsula (on the Strait of Malacca), Singapore, Malacca, Penang, and the Keeling Islands and Christmas Island; were under the jurisdiction of the Governor-General of India till 1867, in which year they passed under the control of the Colonial Office at home.
Stralsund (28), a fortified seaport of North Prussia, on Strela Sound, opposite the island of Rügen, in the Baltic, and 66 m. NW. of Stettin, forms of itself an islet, and is connected with the mainland (Pomerania) by bridges; is a quaint old town, dating back to the 13th century; figures often in the wars of Prussia, and is now a place of considerable commercial importance.
Strangford, Percy C. S. Smythe, Viscount, diplomatist; graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1800; entered the diplomatic service, and in the following year succeeded to the title; was ambassador to Portugal, Sweden, Turkey, and Russia; translated the “Rimas” of Camoëns, and was raised to the peerage (1825) as Baron Penshurst (1780-1855).
Strangford, Percy E. F. W. Smythe, son of preceding, diplomatist and noted philologist, born at St. Petersburg; passed through Harrow and Oxford; entered the diplomatic service; became attaché at Constantinople, and during the Crimean War served as Oriental Secretary, acquiring the while a profound grip of the Eastern Question, and an unrivalled knowledge of European and Asiatic languages—Turkish, Persian, Arabic, Slavonic, Afghan, Basque, &c.; succeeded to the title in 1855, and henceforth resided chiefly in London; was President of the Asiatic Society, and was considered by Freeman “our greatest English philologist”; author of various articles on political, geographical, and philological subjects (1825-1869).
Stranraer (6), a royal burgh and seaport of Wigtownshire, finely situated at the southern extremity of Loch Ryan, 73 m. W. of Dumfries; has an interesting 16th-century castle, and a handsome town-hall and court-house; there is some shipping in agricultural produce, and steamers ply daily between Stranraer and Larne, in Ireland.
Straparola, Giovanni Francesco, author of a famous collection of stories after the style of Boccaccio's “Decameron,” partly borrowed and partly genuine folk-stories, which ranks as an Italian classic, and has been translated into various European languages; flourished in the 16th century.
Strap, Hugh, a simple-hearted friend and adherent of Roderick Random in Smollett's novel of that name.
Strappado, an obsolete military punishment by drawing a culprit to the top of a beam and then letting him drop the length of the rope.
Strasburg (124), capital, since 1871, of Alsace-Lorraine, on the Ill, a few miles above its confluence with the Rhine, 89 m. N. of Basel; a place of great strategical importance, and a fortress of the first class; is a city of Roman origin, and contains a magnificent Gothic cathedral (11th century) with a famous astronomical clock, an imperial palace, university, &c.; manufactures embrace beer, leather, cutlery, jewellery, &c.; there is also a busy transit trade; a free town of the German empire in the 13th century; fell into the hands of the French in 1681, and was captured by the Germans, after a seven weeks' siege, on 28th September 1870, after which it became finally German, as it was originally, by the peace of Frankfort, May 1871.
Stratford (40), manufacturing town in Essex, on the Lee, 4 m. NE. of London.
Stratford de Redcliffe, Sir Stafford Canning, first Viscount, a distinguished ambassador, born in London, son of a well-connected merchant, and cousin to Canning the statesman; passed from Cambridge to the Foreign Office in 1807 as a précis-writer to his cousin; in three years had risen to the post of minister-plenipotentiary at Constantinople, where he speedily gave evidence of his remarkable powers as a diplomatist by arranging unaided the treaty of Bucharest (1814) between Russia and Turkey, and so setting free the Russian army to fall upon Napoleon, then retreating from Moscow; as minister to Switzerland aided the Republic in drawing up its constitution, and in the same year (1815) acted as commissioner at the Congress of Vienna; was subsequently employed in the United States and various European capitals, but his unrivalled knowledge of the Turkish question brought him again, in 1842, to Constantinople as ambassador, where his remarkable power and influence over the Turks won him the title of “Great Elchi”; exerted in vain his diplomatic skill to prevent the rupture between Turkey and Russia, which precipitated the Crimean War; resigned his embassy in 1858; was raised to the peerage in 1852; sat in Parliament for several years previous to 1842, but failed to make his mark as a debater; ranks among the great ambassadors of England (1786-1880).
Stratford-on-Avon (8), a pleasant old market-town of Warwickshire, on the right bank of the Avon, 8 m. SW. of Warwick and 110 m. NW. of London; forever famous as the birth and burial place of Shakespeare, with whom all that is of chief interest in the town is associated, the house he was born in, his old school, Anne Hathaway's cottage on the outskirts, the fine Early English church (14th century), where he lies buried, the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, museum, &c.; is Visited annually by some 20,000 pilgrims; a thriving agricultural centre.
Strathclyde or Northern Cumbria, an ancient kingdom of the Britons, which originated in the 8th century, and comprised the W. side of Scotland between the Solway and the Clyde; Alclyde or Dumbarton was the capital; was permanently annexed to Scotland in 1124 under David I.
Strathfieldsaye, an estate in Hampshire with a fine Queen Anne mansion, 7 m. NE. of Basingstoke, purchased by Parliament for £263,000, and presented to the Duke of Wellington in 1817.
Strathmore (“Great Valley”), the great plain of Scotland stretching for 100 m. (5 to 10 m. broad), in a north-easterly direction from Dumbartonshire to Stonehaven, in Kincardineshire, between the great mountain barrier of the Highlands, the Grampians, and the Southern Lennox, Ochil, and Sidlaw Hills; in a more restricted sense denotes the plain between Perth and Brechin.
Strathpeffer, a watering-place in Ross and Cromarty, 5 m. W. of Dingwall, a great health-resort, and much frequented on account of its mineral waters and bracing air and other attractions.
Strauss, David Friedrich, German theological and biblical critic, born at Ludwigsburg, in Würtemberg; studied in the Theological Institute of Tübingen under Baur, was ordained in 1830, and went in 1834 to Berlin to attend the lectures of Hegel and Schleiermacher, and returning to Tübingen gave lectures on Hegel in 1832, he the while maturing his famous theory which, published in 1835, made his name known over the whole theological world; this was his “Leben Jesu,” the first volume of which appeared that year, in which he maintained that, while the life of Christ had a historical basis, all the supernatural element in it and the accounts of it were simply and purely mythical, and the fruit of the idea of His person as Divine which at the foundation of the Christian religion took possession of the mind of the Church; the book proved epoch-making, and the influence of it, whether as accepted or as rejected, affected, as it still does, the whole theology of the Church; the effect of it was a shock to the whole Christian world, for it seemed as if with the denial of the supernatural the whole Christian system fell to pieces; and its author found the entire Christian world opposed to him, and he was cast out of the service of the Church; this, however, did not daunt his ardour, for he never abandoned the ground he had taken up; his last work was entitled “Der Alte und der Neue Glaube,” in which he openly repudiates the Christian religion, and assigns the sovereign authority in spiritual matters to science and its handmaid art. In a spiritual reference the whole contention of Strauss against Christianity is a tissue of irrelevancies, for the spirit of it, which is its life and essence, is true whatever conclusion critics in their seraphic wisdom may come to regarding the facts (1808-1874).
Strauss, Johann, musical composer, born at Vienna; was a musical conductor and composer, chiefly of waltz music.
Streatham (48), a Surrey suburb of London, 6½ m. SW. of St. Paul's.
Street, George Edmund, architect, born in Essex; was the architect of the New Law Courts in London; had been trained under Gilbert Scott (1824-1881).
Strelitzes, the name given to the life-guards of the czar, which at one time numbered 40,000; became so unruly and dangerous to the State that they were dissolved by Peter the Great, and dispersed in 1705.
Stretton, Hesba, the nom de plume of Sarah Smith, daughter of a Shropshire bookseller, whose semi-religious stories, chiefly for the young, have won wide acceptance in English homes since the publication of “Jessica's First Prayer” in 1867; was a regular contributor to Household Words and All the Year Round during Dickens's editorship; has written upwards of 40 volumes.
Strickland, Agnes, biographer of the queens of England, born at Roydon Hall, near Southwold, Suffolk; had already published poems and some minor works before she conceived the plan of writing a series of biographies of the queens of England; these appeared in 12 vols. during 1840-1848, and such was their popularity that a similar work dealing with the queens of Scotland was immediately undertaken; was aided in these by her sister Elizabeth (1794-1875); was the author of various other works, “Lives of the Seven Bishops,” “Bachelor Kings of England,” &c.; her writings are of no value as history, but are full of entertaining details (1806-1874).
Strindberg, August, the most noted of modern Swedish writers, born at Stockholm; accumulated stores of valuable experience during various early employments, which he utilised in his first successful work, “The Red Room” (1879), a satire on social life in Sweden, “The New Kingdom” (1882), equally bitter in its attack on social conventions, got him into trouble, and since then his life has been spent abroad; “Married Life,” a collection of short stories, brought upon him a charge of “outraging Christianity,” but after trial at Stockholm, in which he eloquently defended himself, he was acquitted; a prolific writer in all kinds of literature, and imbued with modern scientific and socialistic ideas, his writings lack the repose necessary to the highest literary achievement; b. 1849.
Stromboli, one of the Lipari Islands; has an active volcano, the cone 3022 ft., which erupts every five minutes what happens to be little else than steam; it is 12 m. in circuit, and contains about 1000 inhabitants.
Stromkarl, a Norwegian spirit who has 11 different music strains, to 10 of which people may dance, the 11th being his night strain, to the tune of which every one and everything begins to dance.
Stromness, a seaport on the Orkney island of Pomona.
Stroud (10), a busy manufacturing town of Gloucestershire; stands on rising ground overlooking the confluence of the Frome and Slade, which unite to form the Frome or Stroud Water, 10 m. SE. of Gloucester; numerous cloth and dye works are built along the banks of the river; in the town are several woollen factories.
Struck Jury, a jury of men who possess special qualifications to judge of the facts of a case.
Struensee, Danish statesman, bred to medicine; became minister of Charles VII., took advantage of his imbecility and directed the affairs of government, roused the jealousy of the nobles, and he was arrested, tried on false charges, and was beheaded (1737-1776).
Strutt, Joseph, antiquary, born in Essex; wrote the “Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England,” followed by other works on the manners and customs of the English people, that on their “Sports and Pastimes” the chief (1742-1802).
Strype, John, historian and biographer, born in London; was a voluminous writer, wrote Lives of eminent English Churchmen and upon the English Reformation (1643-1737).
Stuart, Arabella, daughter of the Earl of Lennox, and, as descended from Margaret Tudor, heiress to the English throne in default of James VI. of Scotland and his family, and towards whom James all along cherished a jealous feeling, and who was subjected to persecution at his hands; when she chose to marry contrary to his wish he confined her in the Tower, where she went mad and died.
Stuart Dynasty, a dynasty of Scotch and finally English kings as well, commenced with Robert II., who was the son of Marjory, Robert the Bruce's daughter, who married Walter, the Lord High Steward of Scotland, hence the name, his successors being Robert III., James I., James II., James III., James IV., and James V., Mary Queen of Scots, and James VI. in Scotland, and ended with James II. of England, who was expelled from the throne for an obstinacy of temper which characterised all the members of his house, “an unfortunate dynasty,” too, being appointed at length to rule at a time and over a people that thought kings were born for the country and not the country for kings, a dictum which they stubbornly refused to concede, thinking that the nation existed for them instead of them for the nation. The line became extinct by the death of Cardinal York in 1807, who survived his brother Charles Edward 19 years.
Stuart, Gilbert Charles, American portrait-painter, born at Narragansett, Rhode Island; was taken up by a Scotch painter named Alexander, whom he accompanied to Edinburgh, but was set adrift by the death of his patron, and for some years led a wandering life in America and London till his great gift of portrait-painting was recognised; in 1792 returned to America, and there painted portraits of Washington, Jefferson, and other noted Americans (1756-1828).
Stuart, John, Scottish antiquary; author of “The Sculptured Stones of Scotland,” “The Book of Deer,” and frequent contributor to the Proceedings of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries; held a post in the Register House for 24 years (1813-1877).
Stubbs, C. W., English clergyman, born in Liverpool; has held several incumbencies; is rector at Wavertree, near Liverpool, and takes a great interest in the working-classes and in social subjects; is liberal both in his political and in his theological opinions; has written on questions of the day in a Christian reference; b. 1845.
Stubbs, William, historian, born at Knaresborough; studied at Oxford; became a Fellow of Trinity and of Oriel, professor of Modern History at Oxford, and finally bishop; was author of “Constitutional History of England,” an epoch-making book in three volumes, and editor of a collection of mediæval Chronicles, with valuable prefaces accompanying; his writings are distinguished by their learning and accuracy; b. 1825.
Stuhlweissenburg (25), an old historic Hungarian town, 42 m. SW. of Pesth; was for long the residence of the Hungarian kings, in the cathedral of which they were crowned and buried.
Stukeley, William, antiquary, born at Holbeach, Lincolnshire; graduated in medicine at Cambridge, and practised in London and elsewhere till 1729, when he took holy orders, and, after holding livings at Stamford and Somerby, was presented in 1747 to the rectory of St George the Martyr in London; maintained a lifelong interest in antiquarian research, and published many volumes on British and Roman antiquities, in which he displays unflagging industry and an exuberant fancifulness; “I have used his materials,” says Gibbon, “and rejected most of his fanciful conjectures”; his credulous works on the supposed Druidical remains at Stonehenge and elsewhere gained him the title of the “Arch-Druid” (1687-1765).
Stump Orator, one who is ready to take up any question of the day, usually a political one, and harangue upon it from any platform offhand; the class, the whole merely a talking one, form the subject, in a pretty wide reference, of one of Carlyle's scathing “Latter-Day Pamphlets.”
Sturm, Johann, educational reformer, born In Luxemburg; settled in Paris; established a school there for dialectics and rhetoric for a time, but left it on account of his Protestantism for Strasburg at the invitation of the civic authorities, and became rector of the gymnasium there, which under him acquired such repute that the Emperor Maximilian constituted it a university with him at the head; his adoption of the theological views of Zwingli in opposition to those of Luther made him many enemies, and he was dismissed from office, but was allowed a pension; he was a great student of Cicero; he wrote many works in Latin in a style so pure and elegant that he was named the German Cicero (1507-1589).
Sturm-und-Drang. See Storm-and-Stress.
Sturt, Charles, a noted Australian explorer, and a captain in the army; during 1828-45 was the determined leader of three important exploratory expeditions into Central Australia, the results of which he embodied in two works; became colonial secretary of South Australia, but failing health and eyesight led to his retirement, and he was pensioned by the first Parliament of South Australia; he returned to England totally blind (1795-1869).
Stuttgart (140), capital of Würtemberg, stands amid beautiful vine-clad hills in a district called the “Swabian Paradise,” on an affluent of the Neckar, 127 m. SE. of Frankfort; is a handsome city with several royal palaces, a 16th-century castle, interesting old churches, a royal library (450,000 vols.), a splendid royal park, conservatory of music, picture gallery, and various educational establishments; ranks next to Leipzig as a book mart, and has flourishing manufactures of textiles, beer, pianofortes, chemicals, &c.
Stylites. See Pillar-Saints.
Stymphalian Birds, fabulous birds with brazen claws, wings, and beaks, that used their feathers as arrows, ate human flesh, and infested Arcadia; Hercules startled them with a rattle, and with his arrows either shot them or drove them off.
Styria (1,281), a central duchy of Austria, stretching in a semicircle from Upper Austria and Salzburg on the NW. to Croatia and Slavonia on the SE., and flanked by Hungary on the E.; a mountainous region crossed by various eastern ranges of the Alpine system, and drained by the Drave, Save, Inn, and other rivers; more than half lies under forest; agriculture flourishes, but mineral products, iron, salt, coal, &c., constitute the chief wealth. The principal manufactures are connected therewith; was joined to the Austrian crown in 1192.
Styx, name (from the Greek verb signifying “to abhor”) of the principal river of the nether world, which it flows sluggishly round seven times; is properly the river of death, which all must cross to enter the unseen world, and of which, in the Greek mythology, Charon was the ferryman. In their solemn engagements it was by this river the gods took oath to signify that they would forego their godhood if they swore falsely. The Styx was a branch of the Great Ocean which girds the universe. See Oceanus.
Suakin or Sawakin (11), a seaport under Egyptian control, and since the Mahdi's revolt garrisoned by the English, on the Nubian coast of the Red Sea; stands on a rocky islet, and is connected with El Keff on the mainland by a causeway; is the starting-point of caravans to Berber and Khartoum, and as such has a large transit trade, exporting silver ornaments, ivory, gums, hides, gold, &c.; here African pilgrims to Mecca embark to the number of 6000 or 7000 annually.
Suarez, Francisco, scholastic philosopher, born at Grenada; after joining the Jesuit body became professor of Theology at Coimbra, attempted to reconcile realism with nominalism, and adopted in theology a system called “Congruism,” being a modification of Molinism; wrote a “Defence of the Catholic Faith against the Errors of the Anglican Sect” at the instance of the Pope against the claims of James I. in his oath of allegiance (1548-1617).
Subahdar, a title given to governors of provinces in the times of the Mogul dynasty, now bestowed upon native officers in the Indian army holding rank equivalent to an English captaincy.
Subiaco (7), an ancient and interesting town of Central Italy; occupies a pleasant site amid encircling hills on the Teverone, 32 m. E. by N. of Rome; has a quaint, mediæval appearance, and is overlooked by an old castle, a former residence of the Popes; there are two Benedictine monasteries dating from the 6th century, and in a grotto near St. Benedictine lived, in his youth, a hermit life for three years.
Subjective, The, that, in contrast to objective, which rests on the sole authority of consciousness, and has no higher warrant.
Subjectivism, the doctrine of the pure relativity of knowledge, or that it is purely subjective.
Sublapsarianism, same as infralapsarianism (q. v.).
Sublimation, the vaporisation of a solid body and its resumption thereafter of the solid form.
Sublime Porte, a name given to the Ottoman Government, so called from a lofty gateway leading into the residence of the Vizier.
Substitution, in theology the doctrine that Christ in His obedience and death stood in the place of the sinner, so that His merits on their faith in Him are imputed to them.
Subtle Doctor, name given to Duns Scotus (q. v.) for his hairsplitting acuteness and extreme subtlety of distinction.
Succession Wars, the general title of several European wars which arose in the 18th century consequent on a failure of issue in certain royal lines, most important of which are (1) War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713). The death (1700) of Charles II. of Spain without direct issue caused Louis XIV. of France and the Emperor Leopold I. (the former married to the elder sister of Charles, the latter to the younger sister, and both grandsons of Philip III. of Spain) to put forth claims to the crown, the one on behalf of his grandson, Philip of Anjou, the other for his second son, the Archduke Charles. War broke out on the entry of Philip into Madrid and his assumption of the crown, England and the United Netherlands uniting with the emperor to curb the ambition of Louis. During the long struggle the transcendent military genius of Marlborough asserted itself in the great victories of Blenheim, Ramillies, and Oudenarde, but the lukewarmness of England in the struggle, the political fall of Marlborough, and the Tory vote for peace prevented the allies reaping the full benefit of their successes. The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) left Philip in possession of his Spanish kingdom, but the condition was exacted that the crowns of Spain and France should not be united. The emperor (the Archduke Charles since 1711) attempted to carry on the struggle, but was forced to sign the Treaty of Rastadt (1714), acknowledging Philip king of Spain. Spain, however, ceded her Netherlands Sardinia, &c., to the emperor, while Gibraltar, Minorca, and parts of North America fell to England. (2) War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) followed on the death (1740) of the Emperor Charles VI. without male issue. His daughter, Maria Theresa, entered into possession of Bohemia, Hungary, and the Archduchy of Austria, but was immediately attacked by the Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria and Augustus of Saxony and Poland, both rival claimants for the imperial crown, while Frederick II. of Prussia seized the opportunity of Maria's embarrassment to annex Silesia. France, Spain, and England were drawn into the struggle, the last in support of Maria. Success oscillated from side to side, but the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which brought the war to a close, left Maria pretty well in possession of her inheritance save the loss of Silesia to Frederick.
Suchet, Louis Gabriel, Duc d'Albufera, marshal of France, born in Lyons; distinguished himself in Italy, Egypt, Austria, and Prussia, and became general in command in Aragon, by his success in ruling which last he gained the marshal's baton and a dukedom; he rejoined Napoleon during the Hundred Days; after Waterloo he lost his peerage, but recovered it in 1819 (1770-1826).
Suckling, Sir John, poet, born, of good parentage, at Whitton, Middlesex; quitted Cambridge in 1628 to travel on the Continent, and for a time served in the army of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany; returning to England about 1632 he became a favourite at Court, where he was noted for his wit, prodigality, and verses; supported Charles in the Bishops' Wars against the Scots; sat in the Long Parliament; was involved in a plot to rescue Strafford, and to bring foreign troops to the aid of the king, but discovered, had to flee the country; died, probably by his own hand, in Paris; wrote several forgotten plays, a prose treatise on “Religion by Reason,” and miscellaneous poems, amongst which are his charming songs and ballads, his title to fame (1609-1642).
Sudarium, the handkerchief given by St. Veronica (q. v.) to Christ as He was passing to crucifixion, and on which His face was miraculously impressed as He wiped the sweat off it.
Sudbury (7), a borough of Suffolk, on the Stour, where it crosses the Essex border, 58 m. NE. of London; has three old churches (Perpendicular style), a grammar-school founded in the 15th century, a corn-exchange, &c.; manufactures embrace cocoa-nut matting, silk, &c.
Sudetic Mountains stretch in irregular broken masses and subsidiary chains for 120 m. across South-East Germany, separating Bohemia and Moravia from Saxony and Prussian Silesia, and forming a link between the Carpathians and mountains of Franconia; highest and central position is known as the Riesengebirge (q. v.); Schneekoppe is the culminating point of the range.
Sudras, the fourth and lowest of the Hindu castes (q. v.); are by some alleged to be of the aboriginal race of India who to retain their freedom adopted Brahmanism.
Sue, Marie-Joseph-Eugène, a writer of sensational novels, born at Paris; was for some years an army surgeon, and served in the Spanish campaign of 1823; his father's death (1829) bringing him a handsome fortune, he retired from the army to devote himself to literature; his reputation as a writer rests mainly on his well-known works “The Mysteries of Paris” (1842) and “The Wandering Jew” (1845), which, displaying little skill on the artistic side, yet rivet their readers' attention by a wealth of exciting incident and plot; was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1850, but the coup d'état of 1852 drove him an exile to Annecy, in Savoy, where he died (1804-1859).
Suetonius, Tranquillus, Roman historian; practised as an advocate in Rome in the reign of Trajan; was a friend of the Younger Pliny, became private secretary to Hadrian, but was deprived of this post through an indiscretion; wrote several works, and of those extant the chief is the “Lives of the Twelve Cæsars,” beginning with Julius Cæsar and ending with Domitian, a work which relates a great number of anecdotes illustrating the characters of the emperors; b. A.D. 70.
Suez (13), a town of Egypt, stands at the edge of the desert at the head of a gulf of the same name and at the S. end of the Suez Canal, 75 m. E. of Cairo, with which it is connected by railway; as a trading place, dating back to the times of the Ptolemies, has had a fluctuating prosperity, but since the completion of the canal is growing steadily in importance; is still for the most part an ill-built and ill-kept town; has a large English hospital and ship-stores.
Suez Canal, a great artificial channel cutting the isthmus of Suez, and thus forming a waterway between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea; was planned and undertaken by the French engineer Lesseps, through whose untiring efforts a company was formed and the necessary capital raised; occupied 10 years in the construction (1859-69), and cost some 20 million pounds; from Port Said on the Mediterranean to Suez at the head of the Red Sea the length is about 100 m., a portion of which lies through Lakes Menzaleh, Ballah, Timsah, and the Bitter Lakes; as widened and deepened in 1886 it has a minimum depth of 28 ft., and varies from 150 to 300 ft. in width; traffic is facilitated by electric light during the night, and the passage occupies little more than 24 hours; has been neutralised and exempted from blockade, vessels of all nations in peace or war being free to pass through; now the highway to India and the East, shortening the voyage to India by 7600 m.; three-fourths of the ships passing through are English; an annual toll is drawn of close on three million pounds, the net profit of which falls to be divided amongst the shareholders, of whom since 1875 the British Government has been one of the largest.
Suffolk (371), eastmost county of England, fronts the North Sea between Norfolk (N.) and Essex (S.); is a pleasant undulating county with pretty woods and eastward-flowing streams (Waveney, Aide, Orwell, Stour, &c.); long tracts of heathland skirt the coast; agriculture is still the staple industry, wheat the principal crop; is famed for its antiquities, architecture, historic associations, and long list of worthies. Ipswich is the county town.
Suffren, Bailli de, a celebrated French admiral, who entered the navy a boy of 14 during the wars with England, and rose to be one of his country's greatest naval heroes, especially distinguishing himself as commander of a squadron in the West Indies, proving himself a master of naval tactics in more or less successful engagements with the English; is regarded by Professor Laughton as “the most illustrious officer that has ever held command in the French navy”; sprang from good Provence stock (1729-1788).
Sufism, the doctrine of the Sufis, a sect of Mohammedan mystics; imported into Mohammedanism the idea that the soul is the subject of ecstasies of Divine inspiration in virtue of its direct emanation from the Deity, and this in the teeth of the fundamental article of the Mohammedan creed, which exalts God as a being passing all comprehension and ruling it by a law which is equally mysterious, which we have only to obey; this doctrine is associated with the idea that the body is the soul's prison, and death the return of it to its original home, a doctrine of the dervish fraternity, of which the Madhi is high-priest.
Suger, Abbé, abbot of St. Denis, minister of Louis VI. and Louis VII.; reformed the discipline in his abbey, emancipated the serfs connected with it, maintained the authority of the king against the great vassals; he was regent of the kingdom during the second Crusade, and earned the title of Father of his Country; he wrote a Life of Louis VI. (1082-1152).
Suidas, name of a grammarian and lexicographer of the 10th or 11th century; his “Lexicon” is a kind of encyclopædic work, and is valuable chiefly for the extracts it contains from ancient writers.
Suir, a river of Ireland which rises in Tipperary and joins the Barrow after a course of 100 m.
Sukkur (29), a town on the Indus (here spanned by a fine bridge), 28 m. SE. of Shikarpur; has rail communication with Kurrachee and Afghanistan, and considerable trade in various textiles, opium, saltpetre, sugar, &c.; 1 m. distant is Old Sukkur; the island of Bukkur, in the river-channel and affording support to the bridge, is occupied and fortified by the British.
Suleiman Pasha, a distinguished Turkish general, born in Roumelia; entered the army in 1854, fought in various wars, became director of the Military Academy at Constantinople; distinguished himself in the Servian War of 1876, and was elected governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina; during the Russian-Turkish War made a gallant attempt to clear the enemy from the Shipka Pass, but as commander of the Danube army was defeated near Philippopolis (1878), and subsequently court-martialled and sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment, but was pardoned by the sultan (1838-1883).
Suliman or Suleiman Mountains, a bare and rugged range, stretching N. and S. for upwards of 350 m. from the Kyber Pass almost to the Arabian Sea, and forming the boundary between Afghanistan and the Punjab, India.
Suliotes, a Græco-Albanian race who in the 17th century, to escape their Turkish oppressors, fled from their old settlement in Epirus to the mountains of Suli, in South Albania, where they prospered in the following century in independence; driven out by the Turks in 1803, they emigrated to the Ionian Islands; came to the aid of Ali Pasha against the sultan in 1820, but, defeated and scattered, found refuge in Cephalonia, and later gave valuable assistance to the Greeks in their struggle for independence. The treaty of 1829 left their district of Suli in the hands of the Turks, and since then they have dwelt among the Greeks, many of them holding high government rank.
Sulla, Lucius Cornelius, a Roman of patrician birth; leader of the aristocratic party in Rome, and the rival of Marius (q. v.), under whom he got his first lessons in war; rose to distinction in arms afterwards, and during his absence the popular party gained the ascendency, and Marius, who had been banished, was recalled; the blood of his friends had been shed in torrents, and himself proscribed; on the death of Marius he returned with his army, glutted his vengeance by the sacrifice of thousands of the opposite faction, celebrated his victory by a triumph of unprecedented splendour, and caused himself to be proclaimed Dictator 81 B.C.; he ruled with absolute power two years after, and then resigning his dictatorship retired into private life; d. 76 B.C. at the age of 60.
Sullan Proscriptions, sentences of proscription issued by Sulla against Roman citizens in 81 B.C. under his dictatorship.
Sullivan, Sir Arthur Seymour, English composer, born in London; won the Mendelssohn scholarship at the Royal Academy of Music, and by means of it completed his musical education at Leipzig; in 1862 composed incidental music for “The Tempest,” well received at the Crystal Palace; since then has been a prolific writer of all kinds of music, ranging from hymns and oratorios to popular songs and comic operas; his oratorios include “The Prodigal Son” (1868), “The Light of the World,” “The Golden Legend,” &c., but it is as a writer of light and tuneful operas (librettos by W. S. Gilbert, q. v.) that he is best known; these began with “Cox and Box” (1866), and include “Trial by Jury,” “The Sorcerer” (1877), “Pinafore,” “Patience” (1881), “Mikado” (1885), &c., in all of which he displays great gifts as a melodist, and wonderful resource in clever piquant orchestration; received the Legion of Honour in 1878, and was knighted in 1883; b. 1842.
Sullivan's Island, a long and narrow island, a favourite sea-bathing resort, on the N. of the entrance to Charleston Harbour, South Carolina, U.S.
Sully, Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of, celebrated minister of Henry IV. of France, born at the Château of Rosny, near Mantes, whence he was known at first as the Baron de Rosny; at first a ward of Henry IV. of Navarre, he joined the Huguenot ranks along with him, and distinguished himself at Coutras and Ivry, and approved of Henry's policy in changing his colours on his accession to the throne, remaining ever after by his side as most trusted adviser, directing the finances of the country with economy, and encouraging the peasantry in the cultivation of the soil; used to say, “Labourage et pasteurage, voilà les deux mamelles dont La France est alimentée, les vraies mines et trésors de Pérou,” “Tillage and cattle-tending are the two paps whence France sucks nourishment; these are the true mines and treasures of Peru;” on the death of the king he retired from court, and occupied his leisure in writing his celebrated “Memoirs,” which, while they show the author to be a great statesman, give no very pleasant idea of his character (1560-1611).
Sully-Prudhomme, French poet, born in Paris; published a volume of poems in 1865 entitled “Stances and Poèmes,” which commanded instant regard, and have been succeeded by others which have deepened the impression, and entitled him to the highest rank as a poet; they give evidence of a serious mind occupied with serious problems; was elected to the Academy in 1881; b. 1839.
Sulpicius Severus, an ecclesiastical historian, born in Aquitaine; wrote a “Historia Sacra,” and a Life of St. Martin (363-406).
Sultan, the title of a Mohammedan sovereign, Sultana being the feminine form.
Sulu Islands (75), an archipelago of 162 islands in Asiatic waters, lying to the NE. of Borneo, and extending to the Philippines; belongs to the Spaniards who, in 1876, subdued the piratical Malay inhabitants; the trade in pearls and edible nests is mainly carried on by Chinese.
Sumatra (3,572, including adjacent islands), after Borneo the largest of the East Indian islands, stretches SE. across the Equator between the Malay Peninsula (from whose SW. coast it is separated by the Strait of Malacca) to Java (Strait of Sunda separating them); has an extreme length of 1115 m., and an area more than three times that of England; is mountainous, volcanic, covered in central parts by virgin forest, abounds in rivers and lakes, and possesses an exceptionally rich flora and peculiar fauna; rainfall is abundant; some gold and coal are worked, but the chief products are rice, sugar, coffee, tobacco, petroleum, pepper, &c.; the island is mainly under Dutch control, but much of the unexplored centre is still in the hands of savage tribes who have waged continual warfare with their European invaders. Padang (150) is the official Dutch capital.
Sumbawa (150), one of the Sunda Islands, lying between Lombok (W.) and Flores (E.); mountainous and dangerously volcanic; yields rice, tobacco, cotton, &c.; is divided among four native rulers under Dutch authority.
Sumner, Charles, American statesman and abolitionist, born in Boston; graduated at Harvard (1830), and was called to the bar in 1834, but found a more congenial sphere in writing and lecturing; during 1837-40 pursued his favourite study of jurisprudence in France, Germany, and England; was brought into public notice by his 4th of July oration (1845) on “The True Grandeur of Nations,” an eloquent condemnation of war; became an uncompromising opponent of the slave-trade; was one of the founders of the Free Soil Party, and in 1851 was elected to the National Senate, a position he held until the close of his life, and where he did much by his eloquent speeches to prepare the way for emancipation, and afterwards to win for the blacks the rights of citizenship (1811-1874).
Sumner, John Bird, archbishop of Canterbury; rose by a succession of preferments to the Primacy, an office which he discharged with discretion and moderation (1780-1862).
Sumptuary Laws, passed in various lands and ages to restrict excess in dress, food, and luxuries generally; are to be found in the codes of Solon, Julius Cæsar, and other ancient rulers; Charles VI. of France restricted dinners to one soup and two other dishes; appear at various times in English statutes down to the 16th century against the use of “costly meats,” furs, silks, &c., by those unable to afford them; were issued by the Scottish Parliament against the extravagance of ladies in the matter of dress to relieve “the puir gentlemen their husbands and fathers”; were repealed in England in the reign of James I.; at no time were they carefully observed.
Sumter, Fort, a fort on a shoal in Charleston harbour, 3½ m. from the town; occupied by Major Anderson with 80 men and 62 guns in the interest of the secession of South Carolina from the Union, and the attack on which by General Beauregard on 12th April 1861 was the commencement of the Civil War; it held out against attack and bombardment till the month of July following.
Sun, The, is a star; is the centre of the solar system, as it is in consequence called, is a globe consisting of a mass of vapour at white heat, and of such enormous size that it is 500 times larger than all the planets of the system put together, or of a bulk one million and a half times greater than the earth, from which it is ninety-two and a half million miles distant; the bright surface of it is called the photosphere, and this brightness is diversified with brighter spots called faculæ, and dark ones called sun-spots, and by watching which latter as they move over the sun's disk we find it takes 25 days to revolve on its axis, and by means of spectrum analysis (q. v.) find it is composed of hydrogen and a number of vaporised metals.
Sunda Islands, a name sometimes applied to the long chain of islands stretching SE. from the Malay Peninsula to North Australia, including Sumatra, Timor, &c., but more correctly designates the islands Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sandalwood Island, &c., which lie between Java and Timor, are under Dutch suzerainty, and produce the usual East Indian products. See various islands named.
Sunderbunds or Sundarbans, a great tract of jungle, swamp, and alluvial plain, forming the lower portion of the Ganges delta; extends from the Hooghly on the W. to the Meghna on the E., a distance of 165 m.; rice is cultivated on the upper part by a sparse population; the lower part forms a dense belt of wild jungle reaching to the sea, and is infested by numerous tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses, pythons, cobras, &c.
Sunderland (142), a flourishing seaport of Durham, situated at the mouth of the Wear, 12 m. SE. of Newcastle-upon-Tyne; embraces some very old parishes, but as a commercial town has entirely developed within the present century, and is of quite modern appearance, with the usual public buildings; owes its prosperity mainly to neighbouring coal-fields, the product of which it exports in great quantities; has four large docks covering 50 acres; also famous iron shipbuilding yards, large iron-works, glass and bottle works, roperies, &c.
Sunderland, Charles Spencer, third Earl, son of succeeding, and son in law of the Duke of Marlborough; was a Secretary of State in Queen Anne's reign during 1706-1710, and in the following reign, as leader of the Whigs, exercised unbounded influence over George I.; narrowly escaped, chiefly through Walpole's help, being found guilty of accepting heavy bribes from the South Sea Company; lost office, and was displaying his father's propensity to underhand scheming by intriguing with the Tories and the Pretender's party when death cut short his career (1675-1722).
Sunderland, Robert Spencer, second Earl of, an English statesman prominent in the reign of Charles II., James II., and William III.; was for some years engaged in embassies abroad before being appointed Secretary of State in 1679; adroit and insinuating, and with great capacity for business, he soon became a leading minister; attached himself to the Duchess of Portsmouth, and in the corrupt politics of the two Stuart kings played his own hand with consummate if unscrupulous skill, standing high in King James's favour as Prime Minister, although he had formerly intrigued in favour of Monmouth; supported the Exclusion Bill, and even then was in secret communication with the Prince of Orange; after the Revolution rose to high office under William; was instrumental in bringing the Whigs into power, and during 1695-1697 was acknowledged head of his Government (1640-1702).
Sunnites, the orthodox Mohammedans, a name given to them because they accept the Sunna, i. e. traditional teaching of the Prophet, as of the same authority as the Korân, in the matter of both faith and morals, agreeably to a fundamental article of Mohammedanism, that not only the rule of life, but the interpretation of it, is of divine dictation.
Sun-Worship, the worship of the sun is conceived of as an impersonation of the deity, that originated among races so far advanced in civilisation as to recognise what they owed to its benignant influence, in particular as tillers of the soil, and, is associated with advance as the worship of Bacchus was, which could not originate prior to cultivation of the vine.
Suonada, the Inland Sea of Japan, separating Kyushu and Shikoku from the Main Island, Honshiu, a fine sheet of water (250 m. by 50), picturesquely studded with islands which, however, render navigation difficult.
Supererogation, Works of, name given in the Roman Catholic theology to works or good deeds performed by saints over and above what is required for their own salvation, and the merit of which is held to be transferable to others in need of indulgence.
Super-Grammaticam (above grammar), name given to Sigismund, emperor of Germany, from his rejoinder to a cardinal who one day on a high occasion mildly corrected a grammatical mistake he had made in a grand oration, “I am King of the Romans, and above grammar.”
Superior, Lake, largest fresh-water lake on the globe, lies between the United States and Canada, the boundary line passing through the centre; area, 31,200 sq. m., almost the size of Ireland; maximum depth, 1008 ft.; St. Mary's River, the only outlet, a short rapid stream, carries the overflow to Lake Huron; receives upwards of 200 rivers, but none of first-class importance, largest is the St. Louis; is dotted with numerous islands; water is singularly clear and pure, and abounds with fish; navigation is hindered in winter by shore-ice, but the lake never freezes over.
Superstition, the fear of that which is not God, as if it were God, or the fear of that which is not the devil, as if it were the devil; or, as it has in more detail been defined by Ruskin, “the fear of a spirit whose passions and acts are those of a man present in some places and not others; kind to one person and unkind to another, pleased or angry, according to the degree of attention you pay him, or the praise you refuse him; hostile generally to human pleasure, but may be bribed by sacrificing part of that pleasure into permitting the rest.”
Supralapsarianism, the doctrine of the extreme Calvinists, that the decree of God as regards the eternal salvation of some and the eternal reprobation of others is unconditional.
Supremacy, Royal, the supremacy of the sovereign in matters ecclesiastical and matters of civil right to the exclusion of matters spiritual and the jurisdiction in the former claimed by the Pope.
Surabaya (127), a seaport on the NE. coast or Java, is the head-quarters of the Dutch military, and exports tropical products; of the population 6000 are European, and 7000 or so Chinese.
Surat (109), a city of India, Bombay Presidency, on the Tapti, 14 m. from its entrance into the Gulf of Bombay; stretches along the S. bank of the river, presenting no architectural features of interest save some Mohammedan, Parsee, and Hindu temples, and an old castle or fortress; chief exports are cotton and grain; the English erected here their first factory on the Indian continent in 1612, and with Portuguese and Dutch traders added, it became one of the principal commercial centres of India; in the 18th century the removal of the English East India Company to Bombay drew off a considerable portion of the trade of Surat, which it has never recovered.
Surinam. See Guiana, Dutch.
Surplice, a linen robe with wide sleeves worn by officiating clergymen and choristers, originating in the rochet or alb of early times.
Surrey (1,731), an inland county, and one of the fairest of England, in the SE. between Kent (E.) and Hampshire (W.), with Sussex on the S., separated from Middlesex on the N. by the Thames; the North Downs traverse the county E. and W., slope gently to the Thames, and precipitously in the S. to the level Weald; generally presents a beautiful prospect of hill and heatherland adorned with splendid woods; the Wey and the Mole are the principal streams; hops are extensively grown round Farnham; largest town is Croydon; the county town, Guildford.
Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of, poet, son of the Duke of Norfolk; early attached to the court of Henry VIII., he attended his royal master at the “Field of the Cloth of Gold,” and took part in the coronation ceremony of Anne Boleyn (1533); was created a Knight of the Garter in 1542, and two years later led the English army in France with varying success; imprisoned along with his father on a charge of high treason, for which there was no adequate evidence, he was condemned and executed; as one of the early leaders of the poetic renaissance, and introducer of the sonnet and originator of blank verse, he deservedly holds a high place in the history of English literature (1516-1547).
Surya, in the Hindu mythology the sun conceived of as a female deity.
Susa (the Shushan of Daniel, Esther, &c.), an ancient city of Persia, now in ruins, that spread over an area of 3 sq. m., on the Kerkha, 250 m. SE. of Bagdad; was for long the favourite residence of the Persian kings, the ruins of whose famous palace, described in Esther, are still extant.
Susan, St., the patron saint and guardian of innocence and saviour from infamy and reproach. See Susanna.
Susanna, The History of, a story in the Apocrypha, evidently conceived to glorify Daniel as a judge, and which appears to have been originally written by a Jew in Greek. She had been accused of adultery by two of the elders and condemned to death, but was acquitted on Daniel's examination of her accusers to their confusion and condemnation to death in her stead. The story has been allegorised by the Church, and Susanna made to represent the Church, and the two elders her persecutors.
Susquehanna, a river of America, formed by the junction at Northumberland, Pennsylvania, of the North Branch (350 m.) flowing out of Schuyler Lake, central New York, and the West Branch (250 m.) rising in the Alleghany Mountains; flows in a shallow, rapid, unnavigable course S. and SE. through beautiful scenery to Port Deposit, at the N. end of Chesapeake Bay; length, 150 m.
Sussex (550), a S. maritime county of England, fronts the English Channel between Hampshire (W.) and Kent (E.), with Surrey on its northern border; is traversed E. and W. by the South Downs, which afford splendid pasturage for half a million sheep, and terminates in Beachy Head; in the N. lies the wide, fertile, and richly-wooded plain of the Weald; chief rivers are the Arun, Adur, Ouse, and Rother, of no great size; is a fine agricultural county, more than two-thirds of its area being under cultivation; was the scene of Cæsar's landing (55 B.C.), of Ælla's, the leader of the South Saxons (whence the name Sussex), and of William the Conqueror's (1066); throughout the country are interesting antiquities; largest town, Brighton; county town, Lewes.
Sutherland (22), a maritime county of N. Scotland; presents a N. and a W. shore to the Atlantic, between Ross and Cromarty (S.) and Caithness (E.), and faces the North Sea on the SE., whence the land slopes upwards to the great mountain region and wild, precipitous loch-indented coasts of the W. and N.; scarcely 3 per cent, of the area is cultivated, but large numbers of sheep and cattle are raised; the Oykell is the longest (35 m.) of many streams, and Loch Shin the largest of 300 lochs; there are extensive deer forests and grouse moors, while valuable salmon and herring fisheries exist round the coasts; is the most sparsely populated county in Scotland. Dornoch is the county town.
Sutlej, the eastmost of the five rivers of the Punjab; its head-waters flow from two Thibetan lakes at an elevation of 15,200 ft., whence it turns NW. and W. to break through a wild gorge of the Himalayas, thence bends to the SW., forms the eastern boundary of the Punjab, and joins the Indus at Mithankot after a course of 900 m.
Sutras, name given to a collection of aphorisms, summaries of the teachings of the Brahmans, and of rules regulative of ritual or religious observances, and also given to these aphorisms and rules themselves.
Suttee, a Hindu widow who immolates herself on the funeral pile of her husband, a term applied to the practice itself. The practice was of very ancient date, but the custom was proclaimed illegal in 1829 under Lord William Bentinck's administration, and it is now very seldom that a widow seeks to violate the law. In 1823, in Bengal alone, 575 widows gave themselves to be so burned, of whom 109 were above sixty, 226 above forty, 209 above twenty, and 32 under twenty.
Suwarrow or Suvoroff, Russian field-marshal, born at Moscow; entered the army as a private soldier, distinguished himself in the Seven Years' War, and after 20 years' service rose to command; in command of a division he in 1773 routed an army of the Turks beyond the Danube, and in 1783 he reduced a tribe of Tartars under the Russian yoke; his greatest exploit perhaps was his storming of Ismail, which had resisted all attempts to reduce it for seven months, and which he, but with revolting barbarities however, in three days succeeded by an indiscriminate massacre of 40,000 of the inhabitants; his despatch thereafter to Queen Catharine was “Glory to God and the Empress, Ismail is ours!” he after this conducted a cruel campaign in Poland, which ended in its partition, and a campaign in Italy to the disaster of the French and his elevation to the peerage as a prince, with the title of Italinski; he was all along the agent of the ruthless purposes of Potemkin (q. v.) (1730-1800).
Sveaborg, a strong fortress in Finland, protecting Helsingfors, in the Baltic, 3 m. distant from that town, and called the “Gibraltar of the North.”
Svir, a Russian river that flows into Lake Ladoga.
Swabia, an ancient duchy in the SW. of Germany, and most fertile part, so called from the Suevi, who in the 1st century displaced the aboriginal Celts, and which, along with Bavaria, formed the nucleus of the Fatherland; was separated by the Rhine from France and Switzerland, having for capital Augsburg, and being divided now into Würtemberg, Bavaria, Baden, and Lichtenstein.
Swahili (i. e. coast people), a people of mixed Bantu and Arab stock occupying Zanzibar and the adjoining territory from nearly Mombasa to Mozambique; they are an enterprising race, and are dispersed as traders, hunters, carriers, &c., far and wide over Central Africa.
Swale, a river in the North Riding of Yorkshire, uniting, after a course of 60 miles, with the Ure to form the Ouse.
Swammerdam, Jan, a Dutch entomologist, born at Amsterdam, where he settled as a doctor, but turning with enthusiasm to the study of insect life, made important contributions to, and practically laid the foundations of, entomological science (1637-1680).
Swan of Avon, sweet name given by Ben Jonson to Shakespeare.
Swan of Mantua, name given to Virgil, as born at Mantua.
Swansea (90), a flourishing and progressive seaport of Glamorganshire, at the entrance of the Tawe, 45 m. into Swansea Bay; has a splendid harbour, 60 acres of docks, a castle, old grammar-school, &c.; is the chief seat of the copper-smelting and of the tin-plate manufacture of England, and exports the products of these works, as well as coal, zinc, and other minerals, in large quantities.
Swatow (30), a seaport of China, at the mouth of the Han, 225 m. E. of Canton; has large sugar-refineries, factories for bean-cake and grass-cloth; since the policy of “the open door” was adopted in 1867 has had a growing export trade.
Swaziland (64), a small South African native State to the E. of the Transvaal, of which in 1893 it became a dependency, retaining, however, its own laws and native chief; is mountainous, fertile, and rich in minerals; the Swazis are of Zulu stock, jealous of the Boers, and friendly to Britain.
Sweating Sickness, an epidemic of extraordinary malignity which swept over Europe, and especially England, in the 15th and 16th centuries, attacking with equal virulence all classes and all ages, and carrying off enormous numbers of people; was characterised by a sharp sudden seizure, high fever, followed by a foetid perspiration; first appeared in England in 1485, and for the last time in 1551.
Sweating System, a term which began to be used about 1848 to describe an iniquitous system of sub-contracting in the tailoring trade. Orders from master-tailors were undertaken by sub-contractors, who themselves farmed the work out to needy workers, who made the articles in their own crowded and foetid homes, receiving “starvation wages.” The term is now used in reference to all trades in cases where the conditions imposed by masters tend to grind the rate of payment down to a bare living wage and to subject the workers to insanitary surroundings by overcrowding, &c., and to unduly long hours. Kingsley's pamphlet, “Cheap Clothes and Nasty,” and novel, “Alton Locke,” did much to draw public attention to the evil. In 1890 an elaborate report by a committee of the House of Lords was published, and led in the following year to the passing of the Factory and Workshops Act and the Public Health Act, which have greatly mitigated the evil.
Sweden (4,785), a kingdom of Northern Europe, occupying the eastern portion of the great Scandinavian Peninsula, bounded W. by Norway, E. by Russian Finland, Gulf of Bothnia, and the Baltic, and on the N. stretches across the Arctic circle between Norway (NW.) and Russia (NE.), while its southern serrated shores are washed by the Skager-Rack, Cattegat, and Baltic. From the mountain-barrier of Norway the country slopes down in broad terrace-like plains to the sea, intersected by many useful rivers and diversified by numerous lakes, of which Lakes Wenner, Wetter, and Mälar (properly an arm of the sea) are the largest, and lying under forest to the extent of nearly one-half its area; is divided into three great divisions: 1, Norrland in the N., a wide and wild tract of mountainous country, thickly forested, infested by the wolf, bear, and lynx, in summer the home of the wood-cutter, and sparsely inhabited by Lapps. 2, Svealand or Sweden proper occupies the centre, and is the region of the great lakes and of the principal mineral wealth (iron, copper, &c.) of the country. 3, Gothland, the southern portion, embraces the fertile plains sloping to the Cattegat, and is the chief agricultural district, besides possessing iron and coal. Climate is fairly dry, with a warm summer and long cold winter. Agriculture (potatoes, grain, rye, beet), although scarcely 8 per cent. of the land is under cultivation, is the principal industry, and with dairy-farming, stock-raising, &c., gives employment to more than one-half of the people; mining and timber-felling are only less important; chief industries are iron-works, sugar-refineries, cotton-mills, &c.; principal exports timber (much the largest), iron, steel, butter, &c., while textiles and dry-goods are the chiefly needed imports. Transit is greatly facilitated by the numerous canals and by the rivers and lakes. Railways and telegraphs are well developed in proportion to the population. As in Norway, the national religion is Lutheranism; education is free and compulsory. Government is vested in the king, who with the advice of a council controls the executive, and two legislative chambers which have equal powers, but the members of the one are elected for nine years by provincial councils, while those of the other are elected by the suffrages of the people, receive salaries, and sit only for three years. The national debt amounts to 14½ million pounds. In the 14th century the country became an appanage of the Danish crown, and continued as such until freedom was again won in the 16th century by the patriot king, Gustavus Vasa. By the 17th century had extended her rule across the seas into certain portions of the empire, but selling these in the beginning of the 18th century, fell from her rank as a first-rate power. In 1814 Norway was annexed, and the two countries, each enjoying complete autonomy, are now united under one crown.
Swedenborg, Emmanuel, a mystic of the mystics, founder of the “New Church,” born at Stockholm, son of a bishop, a boy of extraordinary gifts and natural seriousness of mind; carefully educated under his father, attended the university of Upsala and took his degree in philosophy in 1709; in eager quest of knowledge visited England, Holland, France, and Germany; on his return, after four years, was at 28 appointed by Charles XII. assessor of the Royal College of Mines; in 1721 went to examine the mines and smelting-works of Europe; from 1716 spent 30 years in the composition and publication of scientific works, when of a sudden he threw himself into theology; in 1743 his period of illumination began, and the publication of voluminous theological treatises; the Swedish clergy interfered a little with the publication of his works, but he kept the friendship of people in power. He was never married, his habits were simple, lived on bread, milk, and vegetables, occupied a house situated in a large garden; visited England several times, but attracted no special attention; died in London of apoplexy in his eighty-fifth year. “He is described, in London, as a man of quiet, clerical habit, not averse to tea and coffee, and kind to children. He wore a sword when in full velvet dress, and whenever he walked out carried a gold-headed cane.” This is Emerson's account in brief of his outer man, but for a glimpse or two of his ways of thinking and his views the reader is referred to Emerson's “Representative Men.” The man was a seer; what he saw only himself could tell, and only those could see, he would say, who had the power of transporting themselves into the same spiritual centre; to him the only real world was the spirit-world and the world of sense only in so far as it reflected to the soul the great invisible (1688-1772).
Swedenborgians, the members of the “New Jerusalem Church,” founded on the teaching of Emmanuel Swedenborg (q. v.) on a belief in direct communion with the world of spirits, and in God as properly incarnate in the divine humanity of Christ.
Swedish Nightingale, name popularly given to Jenny Lind (q. v.).
Swerga or Svarga, the summit of Mount Meru, the Hindu Olympus, the heaven or abode of Indra (q. v.) and of the gods in general.
Swetchine, Madame, a Russian lady, Sophie Soymanof, born at Moscow, who married General Swetchine, and, after turning Catholic, became celebrated in Paris during 1817-51 as the gracious hostess of a salon where much religious and ethical discussion went on; plain and unimposing in appearance, she yet exercised a remarkable fascination over her “coterie” by the elevation of her character and eager spiritual nature (1782-1857).
Swift, Jonathan, born at Dublin, a posthumous son, of well-connected parents; educated at Kilkenny, where he had Congreve for companion, and at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was a somewhat riotous and a by no means studious undergraduate, only receiving his B.A. by “special grace” in 1686; two years later the Revolution drove him to England; became amanuensis to his mother's distinguished relative Sir William Temple, whose service, however, was uncongenial to his proud independent nature, and after taking a Master's degree at Oxford he returned to Dublin, took orders, and was presented to the canonry of Kilroot, near Belfast; the quiet of country life palling upon him, he was glad to resume secretarial service in Temple's household (1696), where during the next three years he remained, mastering the craft of politics, reading enormously, and falling in love with Stella (q. v.); was set adrift by Temple's death in 1699, but shortly afterwards became secretary to Lord Berkeley, one of the Lord-Deputies to Ireland, and was soon settled in the vicarage of Laracor, West Meath; in 1704 appeared anonymously his famous satires, the “Battle of the Books” and the “Tale of a Tub,” masterpieces of English prose; various squibs and pamphlets followed, “On the Inconvenience of Abolishing Christianity,” &c.; but politics more and more engaged his attention; and neglected by the Whigs and hating their war policy, he turned Tory, attacked with deadly effect, during his editorship of the Examiner (1710-11), the war party and its leader Marlborough; crushed Steele's defence in his “Public Spirit of the Whigs,” and after the publication of “The Conduct of the Allies” stood easily the foremost political writer of his time; disappointed of an English bishopric, in 1713 reluctantly accepted the deanery of St. Patrick's, Dublin, a position he held until the close of his life; became loved in the country he despised by eloquently voicing the wrongs of Ireland in a series of tracts, “Drapier's Letters,” &c., fruitful of good results; crowned his great reputation by the publication (1726) of his masterpiece “Gulliver's Travels,” the most daring, savage, and amusing satire contained in the world's literature; “Stella's” death and the slow progress of a brain disease, ending in insanity, cast an ever-deepening gloom over his later years (1667-1745).
Swilly, Lough, a narrow inlet of the Atlantic, on the coast of Donegal, North Ireland, running in between Dunaff Head (E.) and Fanad Point (W.), a distance of 25 m.; is from 3 to 4 m. broad; the entrance is fortified.
Swinburne, Algernon Charles, poet and prose writer, born in London, son of Admiral Swinburne; educated at Balliol College, Oxford, went to Florence and spent some time there; his first productions were plays, two of them tragedies, and “Poems and Ballads,” his later “A Song of Italy,” essay on “William Blake,” and “Songs before Sunrise,” instinct with pantheistic and republican ideas, besides “Studies in Song,” “Studies in Prose and Poetry,” &c.; he ranks as the successor of Landor, of whom he is a great admirer, stands high both as a poet and a critic, and is a man of broad and generous sympathies; his admirers regard it as a reproach to his generation that due honour is not paid by it to his genius; b. 1837.
Swindon (32), a town in Wiltshire, 77 m. W. of London; contains the Great Western Company's engineering works, which cover 200 acres, and employ 10,000 hands.
Swinemünde (9), a fortified seaport on the island of Usedom, in the Baltic, near the mouth of the Swine, one of the outlets of the Oder.
Swiss Confederation, a league of the several Swiss cantons to resist an attempt on the part of the Emperor Albrecht to incorporate certain of the free towns into his family possessions.
Swiss Guards. See Gardes Suisses.
Swithin, St., bishop of Winchester from 852 to 862; was buried by his own request in Winchester Churchyard, “where passers-by might tread above his head, and the dews of heaven fall on his grave.” On his canonisation, a century after, the chapter resolved to remove his body to a shrine in the cathedral, but their purpose was hindered on account of a rain which lasted 40 days from the 15th July; hence the popular notion that if it rained that day it would be followed by rain for 40 days after.
Switzerland (2,918), a republic of Central Europe, bounded by Germany (N.), France (W.), Italy (S.), and Austria and Germany (E.); in size is slightly more than one-half of Scotland, of semicircular shape, having the Jura Alps on its French border, and divided from Italy by the great central ranges of the Alpine system, whence radiate the Swiss Alps—Pennine, Lepontine, Bernese, &c.—covering the E. and S., and occupying with intervening valleys two-thirds of the country; the remaining third is occupied by an elevated fertile plain, extending between Lakes of Constance and Geneva (largest of numerous lakes), and studded with picturesque hills; principal rivers are the Upper Rhône, the Aar, Ticino, and Inn; climate varies with the elevation, from the high regions of perpetual snow to warm valleys where ripen the vine, fig, almond, and olive; about one-third of the land surface is under forest, and one quarter arable, the grain grown forming only one-half of what is required; flourishing dairy farms exist, prospered by the fine meadows and mountain pastures which, together with the forests, comprise the country's greatest wealth; minerals are exceedingly scarce, coal being entirely absent. Despite its restricted arable area and lack of minerals the country has attained a high pitch of prosperity through the thrift and energy of its people, who have skilfully utilised the inexhaustible motive-power of innumerable waterfalls and mountain streams to drive great factories of silks, cottons, watches, and jewellery. The beauty of its mountain, lake, and river scenery has long made Switzerland the sanatorium and recreation ground of Europe; more than 500 health resorts exist, and the country has been described as one vast hotel. The Alpine barriers are crossed by splendid roads and railways, the great tunnels through St. Gothard and the Simplon being triumphs of engineering skill and enterprise. In 1848, after the suppression of the Sonderbund (q. v.), the existing league of 22 semi-independent States (constituting since 1798 the Helvetic Republic) formed a closer federal union, and a constitution (amended in 1874) was drawn up conserving as far as possible the distinctive laws of the cantons and local institutions of their communes. The President is elected annually by the Federal Assembly (which consists of two chambers constituting the legislative power), and is assisted in the executive government by a Federal Council of seven members. By an institution known as the “Referendum” all legislative acts passed in the Cantonal or Federal Assemblies may under certain conditions be referred to the mass of the electors, and this is frequently done. The public debt amounts to over two million pounds. The national army is maintained by conscription; 71 per cent. of the people speak German, 22 per cent. French, and 5 per cent. Italian; 59 per cent. are Protestants, and 41 per cent. Catholics. Education is splendidly organised, free, and compulsory; there are five universities, and many fine technical schools.
Sybaris, an ancient city of Magna Græcia, on the Gulf of Tarentum, flourished in the 17th century B.C., but in 510 B.C. was captured and totally obliterated by the rival colonists of Crotona; at the height of its prosperity the luxury and voluptuousness of the inhabitants was such as to become a byword throughout the ancient world, and henceforth a Sybaris city is a city of luxurious indulgence, and Sybarite a devotee of pleasure.
Sybel, Heinrich von, German historian, born at Düsseldorf; was a pupil of Ranke's (q. v.), and became professor of History at Münich and Bonn; he was a Liberal in politics; his great works are a “History of the Period of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1795, and then to 1800,” in five volumes, and the “History of the Founding of the German Empire under William I.,” in five volumes; he has also written a “History of the First Crusade” (1817-1895).
Sycorax, a hag in the “Tempest,” the dam of Caliban.
Sydenham, a district of Kent and suburb of London, to the SE. of which it lies 7 m., includes the Surrey parish of Lambeth, where in 1852-54 the Crystal Palace was erected and still stands, a far-famed sight of London, containing valuable collections illustrative of the arts and sciences, and surrounded by a magnificent park and gardens.
Sydenham, Floyer, Greek scholar; translated some of the Dialogues of Plato into English, and wrote a dissertation on Heraclitus, which failed of being appreciated, and involved in embarrassment, he was thrown into prison because he could not pay a small bill for provisions, and there died; his sad fate led to the foundation of the Literary Fund (1710-1787).
Sydenham, Thomas, the “English Hippocrates,” born in Dorsetshire, educated at Oxford, and a Fellow of All Souls'; practised medicine in London, where, though regarded with disfavour by the faculty, he stood in high regard, and had an extensive practice, from his study of the symptoms of disease, and the respect he paid to the constitution of the patient; he used his own sense and judgment in each case, and his treatment was uniformly successful; he commanded the regard of his contemporaries Locke and Boyle, and his memory was revered by such experts as Boerhaave, Stahl, Pinel, and Haller; he ranks as a great reformer in the healing art (1624-1689).
Sydney (488), the capital of New South Wales, the oldest city in Australia, and one of the first in the world, on the S. shore of the basin of Port Jackson; and the entrance of a magnificent, almost land-locked, harbour for shipping of the largest tonnage; the situation of the city is superb, and it is surrounded by the richest scenery; the shores of the basin are covered with luxuriant vegetation, studded with islands and indented with pretty bays; it is well paved, has broad streets, and some fine buildings, the principal being the university, the two cathedrals, the post-office, and the town hall. It is a commercial rather than a manufacturing city, though its resources for manufacture are considerable, for it is in the centre of a large coal-field, in connection with which manufacturing industries may yet develop.
Sydney, Algernon. See Sidney, Algernon.
Syllogism, an argument consisting of three propositions, of which two are called premises, major and minor, and the one that necessarily follows from them the conclusion.
Sylphs, elemental spirits of the air, as salamanders, are of fire, of light figure with gliding movements and procreative power.
Sylvester, St., the name of three Popes: S. I., Pope from 314 to 335; S. II., Pope from 999 to 1003, alleged, from his recondite knowledge as an alchemist, to have been in league with the devil; and S. III., Anti-Pope from 1041 to 1046.
Sylvester, St., the first Pope of the name, said to have converted Constantine and his mother by restoring a dead ox to life which a magician for a trial of skill killed, but could not restore to life; is usually represented by an ox lying beside him, and sometimes in baptizing Constantine.
Symbolism has been divided into two kinds, symbolism of colour and symbolism of form. Of colours, black typifies grief and death; blue, hope, love of divine works, divine contemplation, piety, sincerity; pale blue, power, Christian prudence, love of good works, serene conscience; gold, glory and power; green, faith, immortality, resurrection, gladness; pale green, baptism; grey, tribulation; purple, justice, royalty; red, martyrdom for faith, charity, divine love; rose-colour, martyrdom; saffron, confessors; scarlet, fervour and glory; silver, chastity and purity; violet, penitence; white, purity, temperance, innocence, chastity, and faith in God. Instances of form: Anchor typifies hope; palm, victory; sword, death or martyrdom; the lamb, Christ; unicorn, purity. Of stones, moreover, the amethyst typifies humility; diamond, invulnerable faith; sardonyx, sincerity; sapphire, hope, &c.
Syme, James, a great surgeon, born in Edinburgh; was demonstrator under Liston; was elected to the chair of Clinical Surgery in 1833; gave up the chair to succeed Liston in London in 1848, but returned a few months after; was re-elected to the chair he had vacated; he was much honoured by his pupils, and by none more than Dr. John Brown, who characterised him as “the best, ablest, and most beneficent of men”; he wrote treatises and papers on surgery (1799-1870).
Symonds, John Addington, English man of letters, born at Bristol; educated at Harrow and Oxford; author of “The Renaissance in Italy,” a work which shows an extensive knowledge of the subject, and is written in a finished but rather flowery style, and a number of other works of a kindred nature showing equal ability and literary skill; his translation of Benvenuto Cellini's autobiography is particularly noteworthy; was consumptive, and spent his later years at Davos, in the Engadine (1840-1893).
Symphlagades, two fabulous floating rocks at the entrance of the Euxine, which, when driven by the winds, crushed every vessel that attempted to pass between them; the ship Argo (q. v.) managed to pass between them, but with the loss of part of her stern, after which they became fixed.
Symphony, an elaborate orchestral composition consisting usually of four contrasted and related movements; began to take distinctive shape in the 17th century, and was for long merely a form of overture to operas, &c., but as its possibilities were perceived was elevated into an independent concert-piece, and as such exercised the genius of Mozart and Haydn, reaching its perfection of form in the symphonies of Beethoven.
Synagogue, a Jewish institution for worship and religious instruction which dates from the period of the Babylonian Captivity, specially to keep alive in the minds of the people a knowledge of the law. The decree ordaining it required the families of a district to meet twice every Sabbath for this purpose, and so religiously did the Jewish people observe it that it continues a characteristic ordinance of Judaism to this day. The study of the law became henceforth their one vocation, and the synagogue was instituted both to instruct them in it and to remind them of the purpose of their separate existence among the nations of the earth. High as the Temple and its service still stood in the esteem of every Jew, from the period of the Captivity it began to be felt of secondary importance to the synagogue and its service. With the erection and extension of the latter the people were being slowly trained into a truer sense of the nature of religious worship, and gradually made to feel that to know the will of God and do it was a more genuine act of homage to Him than the offering of sacrifices upon an altar or the observance of any religious rite. Under such training the issue between the Jew and the Samaritan became of less and less consequence, and he and not the Samaritan was on the pathway which led direct to the final worship of God in spirit and in truth (John iv. 22).
Synagogue, the Great, the name given to a council at Jerusalem, consisting of 120 members, there assembled about the year 410 B.C. to give final form to the service and worship of the Jewish Church. A Jewish tradition says Moses received the law from Sinai; he transmitted it to Joshua, Joshua to the elders, the elders to the prophets, to the men of the Great Assembly, who added thereto these words: “Be circumspect in judgment, make many disciples, and set a hedge about the law.” To them belong the final settlement and arrangement of the Jewish Scriptures, the introduction of a new alphabet, the regulation of the synagogue worship, and the adoption of sundry liturgical forms, as well as the establishment of the Feast of Purim (q. v.), and probably the “schools” of the Scribes.
Syncretism, name given to an attempted blending of different, more or less antagonist, speculative or religious systems into one, such as Catholic and Protestant or Lutheran and Reformed.
Syndicate, in commercial parlance is a name given to a number of capitalists associated together for the purpose of carrying through some important business scheme, usually having in view the controlling and raising of prices by means of a monopoly or “corner.”
Synergism, the theological doctrine that divine grace requires a correspondent action of the human will to render it effective, a doctrine defended by Melanchthon when he ascribes to the will the “power of seeking grace,” the term “synergy” meaning co-operation.
Synesius, Bishop Ptolemais, born at Cyrene; became a pupil of Hypatia (q. v.) and was to the last a disciple, “a father of the Church without having been her son,” and is styled by Kingsley “the squire bishop,” from his love of the chase; “books and the chase,” on one occasion he writes, “make up my life”; wrote one or two curious books, and several hymns expressive of a longing after divine things (375-414).
Synod, name given to any assembly of bishops in council, and in the Presbyterian Church to an assembly of a district or a general assembly.
Synoptic Gospels, the first three Gospels, so called because they are summaries of the chief events in the story, and all go over the same ground, while the author of the fourth follows lines of his own.
Syra (31), an island of the Cyclades group, in the Ægean Sea, 10 m, by 5 m., with a capital called also Hermoupolis; on the E. coast is the seat of the government of the islands, and the chief port.
Syracuse, 1, one of the great cities of antiquity (19), occupied a wide triangular tableland on the SE. coast of Sicily, 80 m. SW. of Messina, and also the small island Ortygia, lying close to the shore; founded by Corinthian settlers about 733 B.C.; amongst its rulers were the tyrants Dionysius the Elder and Dionysius the Younger (q. v.) and Hiero, the patron of Æschylus, Pindar, &c.; successfully resisted the long siege of the Athenians in 414 B.C., and rose to a great pitch of renown after its struggle with the Carthaginians in 397 B.C., but siding with Hannibal in the Punic Wars, was taken after a two years' siege by the Romans (212 B.C.), in whose hands it slowly declined, and finally was sacked and destroyed by the Saracens in 878 A.D. Only the portion on Ortygia was rebuilt, and this constitutes the modern city, which has interesting relics of its former greatness, but is otherwise a crowded and dirty place, surrounded by walls, and fortified; exports fruit, olive-oil, and wine. 2, A city (108) of New York State, United States, 148 m. W. of Albany, in the beautiful valley of Onondaga; is a spacious and handsomely laid-out city, with university, &c.; has flourishing steel-works, foundries, rolling-mills, &c., and enormous salt manufactures.
Syria (2,000), one of three divisions of Asiatic Turkey, slightly larger than Italy, forms a long strip of mountains and tableland intersected by fertile valleys, lying along the eastern end of the Mediterranean from the Taurus range in the N. to the Egyptian border on the 8., and extending to the Euphrates and Arabian desert The coastal strip and waters fall within the Levant (q. v.). In the S. lies Palestine, embracing Jordan, Dead Sea, Lake of Tiberias (Sea of Galilee), Jerusalem, Gaza, &c.; in the N., between the parallel ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, lies the valley of Coele-Syria, through which flows the Orontes. Important towns are Aleppo, Damascus, Beyrout (chief port), &c.; principal exports are silk, wool, olive-oil, and fruits. Four-fifths of the people are Mohammedans of Aramæan (ancient Syrian) and Arabic stock. Once a portion of the Assyrian empire (q. v.), it became a possession successively of the Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Egyptians, and finally fell into the hands of the Ottoman Turks in 1516, under whose rule it now languishes. For further particulars see various names and places mentioned.
Syrianus, a Greek Neoplatonic philosopher of the 5th century; had Proclus (q. v.) for a disciple; left a valuable commentary on the metaphysics of Aristotle.
Syrinx, an Arcadian nymph, who, being pursued by Pan, fled into a river, was metamorphosed into a reed, of which Pan made his flute.
Syrtis, Major and Minor, the ancient names of the Gulfs of Sidra and Cabes on the N. coast of Africa, the former between Tripoli and Barca, the latter between Tunis and Tripoli.
Syrus, Publius, a slave brought to Rome, and on account of his wit manumitted by his master; made his mark by composing memoirs and a collection of pithy sayings that appear to have been used as a school-book; flourished in 45 B.C.
Système de la Nature, a book, the authorship of which is ascribed to Baron Holbach (q. v.), which appeared in 1770, advocating a philosophical materialism and maintaining that nothing exists but matter, and that mind is either naught or only a finer kind of matter; there is nowhere anything, it insists, except matter and motion; it is the farthest step yet taken in the direction of speculative as opposed to political nihilism.
Syzygy, the point on the orbit of a planet, or the moon when it is in conjunction with, or in opposition to, the sun.
Szechuan (71,000), the largest province of China, lies in the W. between Thibet (NW.) and Yunnan (SW.); more than twice the size of Great Britain; a hilly country, rich in coal, iron, &c., and traversed by the Yangtse-kiang and large tributaries; Chingtu is the capital; two towns have been opened to foreign trade, opium, silk, tobacco, musk, white wax, &c., being chief exports.
Szegedin (89), a royal free city of Hungary, situated at the confluence of the Maros and Theiss, 118 m. SE. of Budapest, to which it ranks next in importance as a commercial and manufacturing centre; has been largely rebuilt since the terribly destructive flood of 1879, and presents a handsome modern appearance. | <urn:uuid:e72ae846-cd22-43fb-af59-390dd027bb12> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Nuttall_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/S | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281331.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00225-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.97 | 119,021 | 2.53125 | 3 |
: 10 Mistakes that Most People Make
October 5, 2020
Tips for Choosing Lawyer for Entrepreneurs
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On June 27-29, the State Department welcomed the other members of the P5 -- China, France, Russia, and the United Kingdom -- to discuss the implementation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
Senior policy and defense officials and technical staff from these four countries and the United States continued the dialogue that the permanent members of the UN Security Council -- the P5 -- are having to advance their nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament commitments under the 2010 NPT Review Conference's Action Plan.
The Action Plan reflects the understanding that efforts to strengthen the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty must be balanced among the three pillars of the NPT: countries with nuclear weapons will move toward nuclear disarmament, countries without nuclear weapons will not acquire them, and all members in compliance with their nonproliferation obligations can have access to peaceful nuclear energy. All NPT Parties, nuclear-weapon and non-nuclear-weapon states alike, have rights and responsibilities under the Treaty.
Under the Obama Administration, the United States has worked with our P5 partners to advance a regular dialogue on nuclear disarmament and nonproliferation, confidence-building measures, and verification and monitoring. The Washington meeting was the third conference held by the P5 and follows similar meetings in London in 2009 and in Paris in 2011.
The unique dynamic that is being developed among the five nuclear-weapon states under the NPT is important for establishing a firm foundation to build a broader multilateral approach. It complements the long-standing U.S.-Russia nuclear disarmament interaction and may one day pave the way for further disarmament efforts.
At the Washington Conference, the P5 reaffirmed their unconditional support for the NPT and the NPT Review Conference's Action Plan, reaffirmed the commitments to promote and ensure the swift entry into force of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) and its universalization, discouraged abuse of the NPT withdrawal provision (Article X), stressed the need to strengthen International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards and promote universalization of the Additional Protocol, and worked to pursue their shared goal of nuclear disarmament under Article VI of the NPT. The P5 continued their discussion of how to report on their relevant activities, and considered proposals for a standard reporting form. The P5 also discussed ways to kick start negotiations on a verified treaty banning the production of fissile material for use in nuclear weapons that has stalled in the Conference on Disarmament.
China will lead a P5 working group to develop a glossary of definitions for key nuclear terms, which will increase P5 mutual understanding and facilitate further P5 discussions on nuclear matters. Developing more mutual cooperation of this kind is a positive step that can lead to deeper engagement on nuclear weapons issues and greater mutual confidence.
The United States has an excellent record in transparency across-the-board -- publicly declaring our nuclear stockpile numbers; participating in voluntary and treaty-based inspections measures; working with other nations on military-to-military, scientific, and lab exchanges, sponsoring site visits; and frequently briefing others on our nuclear programs and disarmament efforts.
In this spirit, the United States briefed participants at the P5 conference on U.S. activities at the Nevada National Security Site to encourage discussion on additional approaches to transparency. And in a tour of the U.S. Nuclear Risk Reduction Center, which is located at the State Department, P5 representatives observed how the United States maintains a communications center capable of simultaneously implementing notification regimes under a number of arms control treaties and agreements.
As a further measure of U.S. leadership on transparency the Department of Energy's National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) announced at the conference that it had released an updated report, titled The United States Plutonium Balance, which details the U.S. plutonium inventory through September 2009.
This year's conference was a success, as were its predecessors. China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States agreed to continue to meet at all appropriate levels on nuclear issues to further promote dialogue, predictability, and mutual confidence. We plan to hold a fourth P5 conference in the context of the next NPT Preparatory Committee in 2013.
You can read the entire P5 Joint Statement, as agreed in Washington, D.C., here.
For photos, go here.
Editor's Note: This entry also appears on The Huffington Post. | <urn:uuid:0cf4dcce-92d6-487e-98bd-2c6715e3919c> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | https://blogs.state.gov/stories/2012/07/09/washington-p5-conference-implementing-npt?page=0%2C1637 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280310.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00185-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.933181 | 901 | 1.726563 | 2 |
Nation's "School Grade"
The nation got it's "school grade" on Wednesday. Test results show how students here compare to those overseas.
According to scores from the "Programme for International Student Assessment," out of 34 countries, the U.S. ranked 14th in reading, 17th in science, and 25th in math.
The highest scoring countries being China, Finland, and Singapore.
Jean Crockett, director at the University of Florida's College of Education says the U.S. has a commitment to educating all students...which can drive overall test scores down.
"Whether a child is very bright or whether a child has intellectual disabilities, our laws say we offer an equal educational opportunity" said Crockett.
Crockett says the country's mediocre performance compared to other nations shows, there's an investment to be made in how the students are being taught.
- 'Tiny House Nation' filming in Gainesville
- School Officials Blame Dip in Grades on State's Changes to F-CAT
- School Grades May Not Reflect Grades Actually Earned
- State Officials Head to Nation's Capitol with Obamacare Concerns
- Shands Among Nation's Best
- Gainesville Honored As One Of The Nation's Best In Biking
- Gainesville One of Nation's Most Well-Read Cities
- Annual School Grades Fall Sharply Thanks to New Standards
- Alachua County Public Schools Release Grades
- Local Schools Respond to Drop in Letter Grade | <urn:uuid:3db5f54a-3954-4735-a08b-b354770d729e> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://wcjb.com/local-news/2010/12/nations-school-grade | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280872.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00316-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.931572 | 312 | 2.21875 | 2 |
|Posted by laura forbes on August 25, 1998 at 15:57:43:|
The kitchen fawcett in our basement apartment is acting up. It will not allow any hot water, although all other fawcetts in the house have hot water. Also, the fawcett is spurting and gurgling and the cold water looks like it is going to give up on us as well. Should we replace the fawcett, or could there be some valve that is not functioning? The small amount of cold water that comes through tastes terrible. This is the only fawcett in the house that is acting this way.
|Replies to this post|
|There are none.| | <urn:uuid:5908c99e-c61b-4f84-8899-e3cb49221bdd> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://terrylove.com/wwwboard/messages/1024.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281746.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00292-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960915 | 152 | 1.53125 | 2 |
Hayling Island U3A has been awarded a National Lottery grant for a project to recall the social history of the Island from 1919 through to 1946.
The project will review the 1920’s, the life of people living on the Island during that time, their work and play and how the depression affected their lives and local employment prospects.
During the following decade there were hopes of better things to come and development of the Island to meet the needs of the holiday maker and day tripper. This period of expansion was dashed by the threat of war, which was declared in 1939. The early 1940’s changed the complexion of the Island, and sadly once again Hayling families experienced the loss of loved ones and lived in fear of aerial attack.
If your family or relatives lived on Hayling Island during any part of this period of history, we would be pleased to hear your stories, and are particularly keen to make contact with families who lost loved ones during WW2, as we hope to include montages of each man or woman who gave their lives in the service of their Country, and of the many civilians whose lives were lost through air attacks.
Many readers may recall that in the book ‘Hayling Island Life and Times 1914-1919’ which was written by members of U3A, we included montages of all the Hayling men who lost their lives.
At the end of the project in 2019 we hope to be able to again produce a book which will encompass the lives of all those who made Hayling their home. If you are able to offer any information please contact Hayling U3A at Changing Years @ Hayling U3A.org.uk or phone 023 9246 9394. | <urn:uuid:969b9f1e-50c2-4f7c-898a-7a8603249329> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.postcodepublications.com/local/u3a | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573197.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20220818124424-20220818154424-00670.warc.gz | en | 0.980502 | 354 | 1.882813 | 2 |
In June - July 2011, a flotilla will set sail to take much-needed humanitarian supplies to the people of Gaza. Twenty national groups and international coalitions have united to form the Freedom Flotilla II (FF2) which will consist of at least 10 vessels carrying humanitarian aid and approximately 1000 passengers, including journalists, politicians, humanitarian aid workers, dignitaries, doctors, professors, artists and human rights activists. FF2 aims to raise public awareness about the Israeli military occupation of Palestine by challenging Israel’s naval blockade of Gaza by non-violent means.
Two New Zealanders will be on board the Canadian boat Tahrir - Harmeet Sooden and Vivienne Porzsolt (as part of the Australian delegation). The name ‘Tahrir’, meaning ‘Liberation’ in Arabic, was chosen to honour those who gathered in Tahrir Square in Cairo seeking democratic change and spreading hope across the Middle East. The Tahrir will also host delegations from Belgium and Denmark.
Media releases and interviews are available on this page, updates will be posted there as soon as the Tahir sails. Details of how you can support the fundraising appeal to help with Harmeet's costs and to buy supplies for the people of Gaza are available here. | <urn:uuid:6207313c-e38a-4f59-b3a0-442b6dfb5427> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.converge.org.nz/pma/cb2g.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280292.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00342-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943961 | 261 | 1.8125 | 2 |
Top Gun: Maverick’s immersive, shot-from-the-cockpit dogfights and low-altitude, close-formation flying scenes are made possible by rare and unfettered military access. Witnessing the spectacle recalls a letter Francis Ford Coppola once wrote to the Pentagon: “I can only assume that the military uses its control of these aircraft as a means of dictating which films can be made and which films cannot be made.” The US air force had refused Coppola support and access to the helicopters that were integral to *Apocalypse Now–*eventually, he struck a deal with Philippine dictator Ferdinand Marcos for access to Huey helicopters, fighter jets, and military trucks.
Seven years later, the original Top Gun (1986) helped boost Navy recruitment by around 8% (not quite the 500% statistic that’s been floating around social media). In Alissa Wilkinson’s Vox Article, “The long, long twisty affair between the US Military and Hollywood,” film historian Mark Harris says the dynamic changed after Vietnam “from the military saying to Hollywood, ‘We need you to help us,’ to the military saying to Hollywood, ‘We’ll help you. We’ll give you access.’”
The military also happily backed the sequel to Top Gun: Lockheed Martin’s Skunk Works partnered with Paramount Pictures to produce a physical mock-up/likely adaptation of their unfinished Hypersonic SR-72 stealth plane for the “Mach 10” sequence, complete with a Lockheed logo on the pilot stick. The Maverick cast talks in real “ready rooms” and takes off from the USS Theodore Roosevelt aircraft carrier in Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet fighter jets, outfitted with 6K Sony Venice cinema cameras.
The Pentagon had some input into Maverick’s script, too. After initial clearances, Captain JJ “Yank” Cummings and Commander Tim “Sparky” Charlebois worked with the film’s screenwriter Eric Singer and director Joseph Kosinski for several months to ensure the film depicted the Navy “accurately, positively, and professionally.”
Cummings hopes Top Gun: Maverick does for the current generation what the original did for his—push civilians to enlist. He talked to GQ about his time advising Singer and Kosinski on what to add, change, and remove from their depiction of the Navy and elaborate showcase of US military superiority.
GQ: I’ve read about how you worked with the director Joseph Kosinski overnight at the USS Theodore Roosevelt air carrier, but what did the rest of your time on Top Gun: Maverick look like?
Captain Cummings: I got a call in June of 2017 from the commander of the Naval Airforce Pacific Public Affairs Office asking if I would escort the director and producer to the USS Theodore Roosevelt to spend a night on the aircraft carrier. I was not “hired” for my moviemaking experience, I was “hired” for my F-14, F-18, and aircraft carrier background.
The night before we went to the ship, I showed Joe [Kosinski] a bunch of motivational flying videos that were exclusively Tomcat footage. He loved them and told me at the San Diego Premiere in May, “Yank. Top Gun: Maverick started the night I sat down on your living room couch.” I took Joe out to the carrier, and we sorted out some plot themes based on the discussions we had and what he was seeing on the ship. Eric Singer, who wrote American Hustle, was the writer but could not make the trip out to the ship. CDR Tim “Sparky” Charlebois came on board right after the carrier visit, and we both decided a trip to Naval Air Station (NAS) Fallon, Nevada which is where TOPGUN [The real-life United States Navy Strike Fighter Tactics Instructor program] is located, would be valuable. We thought Eric and Joe needed to meet a bunch of naval aviators, observe an air wing going through training, hit the NAS Fallon Officers’ Club—which is legendary by the way—and meet the TOPGUN staff in their building. | <urn:uuid:35967fc5-12e4-4449-bbd7-6bc23b5f764a> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://event.gq.com/story/top-gun-maverick-military-advisor-interview | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573744.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20220819161440-20220819191440-00466.warc.gz | en | 0.955598 | 897 | 1.515625 | 2 |
Pizza Is A Healthier Breakfast Choice Than Cereal
"Pizza in the morning, pizza in the evening, pizza at supper time. When pizza's on a bagel you can eat pizza anytime." I guess the Pizza Bagel Bite people were onto something with that whole "pizza in the morning" thing, but according to Health.com, pizza doesn't even have to be on a bagel to be an excellent breakfast choice.
New York nutritionist Chelsey Amer says that pizza has more protein than a typical bowl of cereal and much less sugar, which is ideal for longterm energy, aka no sugar crash.
All those times you ate leftover pizza for breakfast you weren't just being lazy, you were actually making a pretty good choice!
Let's not all go crazy with this pizza for breakfast thing though. Even though it is a more balanced breakfast option than cereal it still isn't the best breakfast option. If you are looking for an ideal way to start your day, Chelsey Amer suggests Greek yogurt with fruit or a bowl of oatmeal.
But, hey, if you do have leftover pizza chilling in the fridge it's definitely ok to say good morning with a slice. | <urn:uuid:2d9d99f4-741f-4cdb-8df4-a0d020d1dde7> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://gator995.com/pizza-is-a-healthier-breakfast-choice-than-cereal/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570879.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20220808213349-20220809003349-00468.warc.gz | en | 0.96621 | 244 | 1.640625 | 2 |
As always, remember that John’s book The Influence of Teachers is for sale at Amazon.
“In Classroom of the Future, Stagnant Scores” blared the headline in New York Times on September 4th. The paper’s editors decided that the top-of-the-fold story on Page 1 also warranted two full pages inside, plus four color photos and a graph. That’s a huge part of the news hole on any day, but particularly on Sunday, when circulation is at its highest.
The long piece is worth reading, but at the end of the day what stood out for me was what the article failed to take note of: the unimaginative uses of the technology, essentially digital versions of routine stuff: One teacher gave a true-false quiz but handed out wireless clickers for students to record their answers. In other classes, kids were playing a math game (“Alien Addition”) and an interactive spelling game, while other students were videotaping a skit that they could as easily have simply performed for the class.
In none of the examples presented were teachers using the technology to burst the boundaries of their classroom to connect with students in other cities, or even elsewhere in their district. None were using the Internet to do original research. I’ve written about this before, and Learning Matters producer John Tulenko helped craft a great piece related to the topic:
It seemed to be all about entertainment or delivering more efficiently what the adults had decided the kids need to know, rather than allowing and encouraging students to follow their own interests — at least occasionally. I fault the reporter for not drawing that distinction and for not pressing the adults who are spending all this money on the paucity of imagination.
But my real point is that the Times reporter could — and should — have written a very different story:
“Schools spend billions on technology but use it to do the same old stuff in more entertaining ways!”
Why is this happening, the reporter could have asked? Is it because teachers don’t understand the technology’s power, or because they want to make sure the kids learn what the adults have decided they must learn — or because they are ruled by fear of low test scores?
Running throughout the article is a constant refrain about the limitations of test scores. Adult after adult complained that “Test scores were not an adequate measure of the value of technology” but then went on to say, in effect, “Well, that’s what we have to live by.”
That really gets my dander up. They are endorsing spending billions on technology — it’s not their money — and they complain about the tyranny of bubble tests, even while their pedagogy is focused on test scores.
If they understood what today’s technology can do, and if they were enabling their teachers to go there, and if scores were still stagnant, that would be a story. (But the story might now be about how inappropriate bubble tests are to measure this new learning.)
Something must be done. The Times reports that school systems spent $1.89 billion on software in 2010 and perhaps five times that amount on hardware. That’s real money, especially at a time when school districts are going to four-day weeks, cutting art and music, eliminating Advanced Placement classes, and making other draconian cuts.
And then this expensive technology is used in woefully unimaginative ways!
Establishing a ratio of dollars for training to dollars for software and hardware is not the answer, because there aren’t sufficient incentives for teachers to try new approaches — at least not as long as their main job is to get those test scores up.
To find the solution, go back to the whining mentioned above, the constant complaints about the lack of adequate measures.
That brings me to a conversation I had last week with a leader in the reform movement. I asked his thoughts about the erasure scandals in Atlanta, Washington D.C., Philadelphia and elsewhere. He said it was a wake-up call and a clear message that we need better security. “Since those scores count for so much,” he said, “systems have to do a better job of protecting the tests.”
He’s not alone. A few days ago a panel of experts in New York recommended tighter security, including giving all tests on the same day and requiring proctors to certify that they have been trained in ‘security procedures.’
Wrong, guys! That barn door is off the hinges and the the horse is long gone. As long as adults’ jobs and students’ promotions and graduations are determined by test scores, there will be cheating. Students can use wireless devices to share answers, for example, while ‘fully certified’ proctors can still nudge nudge wink wink their way around the room, helping students pass.
We ought to be searching for multiple measures of academic progress, measures that are valid, reliable and reasonably affordable.
Who should be doing the searching? Wonderful as the U. S. Department of Education’s i3 ‘innovation’ grant program sounded, it was never set up to support risky investments of the sort I think will be required. It bet on such ‘innovations’ as Teach for America and KIPP, and that’s fine, but what’s needed here is some real risk-taking.
I have three candidates:
1. The companies now making megabucks on testing, Pearson and McGraw-Hill, ought to be protecting their revenue stream by finding better ways.
2. Apple, Microsoft, Dell and others hawking their products have a strong interest in public evidence of the power of technology.
But the best candidate might be the New Schools Venture Fund, who I think are the brightest folks on the block. That organization has never been shy about taking chances, probably because it exemplifies the spirit of its founder, John Doerr. In the Venture Capitalist world, only a small percentage of investments hit a home run, and the NSVF gets that. It’s putting dollars behind a number of new approaches to teacher training, for example, in the expectation that some of them will be a distinct improvement on the current approach — while others will fall short.
(I don’t know how NSVF finances work, but maybe Apple, McGraw-Hill, et alia should be making large donations to that organization?)
We need that venture capitalist mentality and approach to the world of measurement. So what if most of the schemes don’t pan out, as long as we emerge with a few that actually work?
This matters because right now school systems have almost no incentive to trust technology — because they don’t know how it will affect those test scores.
Look, educators are excessively literal and overly reactive. They haven’t gotten where they are by taking chances, so don’t expect them to take the lead now. Society has been telling them that we want good reading scores (we haven’t said, “we want kids who love to read,” just good reading scores). So why are we surprised when they drill kids on reading tests?
Bottom line: schools will never realize the power of technology until they get out from under our current way of holding them accountable. We need accountability, but what we are now doing is stifling learning and teaching. It’s making public education worse, not better. | <urn:uuid:2906674b-7965-4b0a-a2f1-3aaeba03592c> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://takingnote.learningmatters.tv/?p=5314 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281151.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00109-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963565 | 1,568 | 2.203125 | 2 |
The investment of your choice
Investing in one financial product or another depends on many factors. It depends, for example, on the expected return, the need for the investment to be available, the risk level tolerated, the term of the investment or the tax treatment.
The investments are subject to market fluctuations and other risks inherent to the investment in securities and in other financial instruments, and therefore the acquisition value and the rates of return obtained may undergo variations both upward and downward and it is possible the investor will not recover the amount invested.
Advantages of investment funds
- By return: a greater return on your money can be obtained compared to other investment products.
- By liquidity: The cast majority offer total, immediate liquidity without any penalty. There is however the possibility of suffering investment losses due to market fluctuations.
- By variety: the wide variety of funds allows the best option to be chosen depending on the risk of the fund and the estimated term for maturity of the investment.
- By transparency: the participant has at their disposal a broad range of public reports to monitor the evolution: prospectus, annual, half-yearly, quarterly report, etc.
- For its flexibility, you can subscribe or redeem fund participations using periodic orders.
- By security: there is strong diversification and quality in the issuances used.
- By their Tax treatment | <urn:uuid:3784e167-0abb-4412-abe8-626d5a0566a1> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | https://www.bancsabadell.com/cs/Satellite/SabAtl/Fund-Offering/1191332204275/en/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280730.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00244-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.927891 | 279 | 1.835938 | 2 |
Brian EnoView in iTunes
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Ambient pioneer, glam rocker, hit producer, multimedia artist, technological innovator, worldbeat proponent, and self-described non-musician -- over the course of his long, prolific, and immensely influential career, Brian Eno was all of these things and much, much more. Determining his creative pathways with the aid of a deck of instructional, tarot-like cards called Oblique Strategies, Eno championed theory over practice, serendipity over forethought, and texture over craft; in the process, he forever altered the ways in which music is approached, composed, performed, and perceived, and everything from punk to techno to new age bears his unmistakable influence. Brian Peter George St. John le Baptiste de la Salle Eno was born in Woodbridge, England, on May 15, 1948. Raised in rural Suffolk, an area neighboring a U.S. Air Force base, as a child he grew enamored of the "Martian music" of doo wop and early rock & roll broadcast on American Armed Forces radio; a subsequent tenure at art school introduced him to the work of contemporary composers John Tilbury and Cornelius Cardew, as well as minimalists John Cage, LaMonte Young, and Terry Riley. Instructed in the principles of conceptual painting and sound sculpture, Eno began experimenting with tape recorders, which he dubbed his first musical instrument, finding great inspiration in Steve Reich's tape orchestration "It's Gonna Rain." After joining the avant-garde performance art troupe Merchant Taylor's Simultaneous Cabinet, as well as assuming vocal and "signals generator" duties with the improvisational rock unit Maxwell Demon, Eno joined Cardew's Scratch Orchestra in 1969, later enlisting as a clarinetist with the Portsmouth Sinfonia. In 1971 he rose to prominence as a member of the seminal glam band Roxy Music, playing the synthesizer and electronically treating the band's sound. A flamboyant enigma decked out in garish makeup, pastel feather boas, and velvet corsets, his presence threatened the focal dominance of frontman Bryan Ferry, and relations between the two men became strained; finally, after just two LPs -- 1972's self-titled debut and 1973's brilliant For Your Pleasure -- Eno exited Roxy's ranks to embark on a series of ambitious side projects. The first, 1973's No Pussyfooting, was recorded with Robert Fripp; for the sessions Eno began developing a tape-delay system, dubbed "Frippertronics," which treated Fripp's guitar with looped delays in order to ultimately employ studio technology as a means of musical composition, thereby setting the stage for the later dominance of sampling in hip-hop and electronica. Eno soon turned to his first solo project, the frenzied and wildly experimental Here Come the Warm Jets, which reached the U.K. Top 30. During a brief tenure fronting the Winkies, he mounted a series of British live performances despite ill health; less than a week into the tour, Eno's lung collapsed, and he spent the early part of 1974 hospitalized. Upon recovering, he traveled to San Francisco, where he stumbled upon a set of postcards depicting a Chinese revolutionary opera that inspired 1974's Taking Tiger Mountain (By Strategy), another sprawling, free-form collection of abstract pop. A 1975 car accident which left Eno bedridden for several months resulted in perhaps his most significant innovation, the creation of ambient music: unable to move to turn up his stereo to hear above the din of a rainstorm, he realized that music could assume the same properties as light or color, and blend thoroughly into its given atmosphere without upsetting the environmental balance. Heralded by the release of 1975's minimalist Another Green World, Eno plunged completely into ambient with his next instrumental effort, Discreet Music, the first chapter in a ten-volume series of experimental works issued on his own Obscure label. After returning to pop structures for 1977's Before and After Science, Eno continued his ambient experimentation with Music for Films, a collection of fragmentary pieces created as soundtracks for imaginary motion pictures. Concurrently, he became a much sought-after collaborator and producer, teaming with the German group Cluster as well as David Bowie, with whom he worked on the landmark trilogy Low, Heroes, and Lodger. Additionally, Eno produced the seminal no wave compilation No New York and in 1978 began a long, fruitful union with Talking Heads, his involvement expanding over the course of the albums More Songs About Buildings and Food and 1979's Fear of Music to the point that by the time of 1980's world music-inspired Remain in Light, Eno and frontman David Byrne shared co-writing credits on all but one track. Friction with Byrne's bandmates hastened Eno's departure from the group's sphere, but in 1981 he and Byrne reunited for My Life in the Bush of Ghosts, a landmark effort that fused electronic music with a pioneering use of Third World percussion. In the interim, Eno continued to perfect the concept of ambient sound with 1978's Music for Airports, a record designed to calm air passengers against fears of flying and the threat of crashes. In 1980, he embarked on collaborations with minimalist composer Harold Budd (The Plateaux of Mirror) and avant trumpeter Jon Hassell (Possible Musics), as well as Acadian producer Daniel Lanois, with whom Eno would emerge as one of the most commercially successful production teams of the '80s, helming a series of records for the Irish band U2 (most notably The Joshua Tree and Achtung Baby) that positioned the group as one of the world's most respected and popular acts. Amidst this flurry of activity, Eno remained dedicated to his solo work, moving from the earthbound ambience of 1982's On Land to other worlds for 1983's Apollo: Atmospheres & Soundtracks, a collection of space-themed work created in tandem with Lanois and Eno's brother Roger. In 1985, Eno resurfaced with Thursday Afternoon, the soundtrack to a VHS cassette of "video paintings" by artist Christine Alicino. After Eno produced John Cale's 1989 solo effort Words for the Dying, the duo collaborated on 1990's Wrong Way Up, the first record in many years to feature Eno's vocals. Two years later he returned with the solo projects The Shutov Assembly and Nerve Net, followed in 1993 by Neroli; Glitterbug, a 1994 soundtrack to a posthumously released film by Derek Jarman, was subsequently reworked by Jah Wobble and issued in 1995 as Spinner. In addition to his musical endeavors, Eno also frequently ventured into other realms of media, beginning in 1980 with the vertical-format video Mistaken Memories of Medieval Manhattan; along with designing a 1989 art installation to help inaugurate a Shinto shrine in Japan and 1995's Self-Storage, a multimedia work created with Laurie Anderson, he also published a diary, 1996's A Year with Swollen Appendices, and formulated Generative Music I, a series of audio screen savers for home computer software. In August of 1999, Sonora Portraits, a collection of Eno's previous ambient tracks and a 93-page companion booklet, was published. Around 1998, Eno was working heavily in the world of art installations and a series of his installation soundtracks started to appear, most in extremely limited editions (making them instant collector's items). In 2000, he teamed with German DJ Jan Peter Schwalm for the Japanese-only release Music for Onmyo-Ji. The duo's work got world-wide distribution the next year with Drawn from Life, an album that kicked off Eno's relationship with the Astralwerks label. The Equatorial Stars, released in 2004, was Eno's first work with Robert Fripp since Evening Star, the 1975 follow-up to No Pussyfooting. His first solo vocal album in 15 years, Another Day on Earth, was issued in 2005, followed by 2008's Everything That Happens Will Happen Today, another collaboration with David Byrne. In 2010, Eno signed to the Warp label, where he released Small Craft on a Milk Sea, a collaboration with Leo Abrahams and Jon Hopkins. The following year's Drums Between the Bells featured poet Rick Holland, as well as several vocalists. Eno returned to his ambient style of recording with Lux in late 2012. His next project, was a collaboration with with Underworld's Karl Hyde. Bonding over a shared love of Afrobeat, the pair worked on a bunch of intros Eno had lying around but had never been able to finish, resulting in a surprising collection of unusual pop songs. The finished album, entitled Someday World, was issued in May of 2014, followed by the pair's second album, High Life, a scant two months later. Eno went back to working solo for 2016's The Ship. Clocking in at 47 minutes, it was comprised of two long tracks. The second is a four-part suite that contains a reimagined cover of the Velvet Underground's "Set Free" written by Lou Reed. ~ Jason Ankeny
Brian Peter George St. Baptiste de la Salle Eno
15 May 1948 in Woodbridge, Suffolk, England
'70s, '80s, '90s, '00s, '10s | <urn:uuid:3bbfb30f-9971-414f-a194-a3185a9d2226> | CC-MAIN-2016-44 | https://itunes.apple.com/lu/artist/brian-eno/id38124?trackPage=4 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-44/segments/1476988718309.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20161020183838-00404-ip-10-171-6-4.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.959625 | 1,972 | 1.507813 | 2 |
Tappahannock, Va – Area community partners have collaborated on a comprehensive community health needs assessment on behalf of the residents of the Tappahannock and Northern Neck region.
Riverside Health System, as a not-for-profit hospital organization, is required by the IRS as part of the Affordable Health Care Act to lead a Community Health Needs Assessment every three years at each of its hospital locations. The assessment is designed to evaluate the current healthcare conditions as well as identify health needs that are not being met.
"The Community Health Needs Assessment gives us a process to identify issues and create a healthcare delivery system that is specific to the needs of the community we serve. Through our local board of directors, Riverside is continually evaluating the health of the community. This provides us the opportunity to work with local groups, on a more regional scale, to improve the health of our neighbors" said Liz Martin, VP and Riverside Tappahannock Hospital administrator.
In the first of two phases, Riverside Tappahannock Hospital (RTH) surveyed various community partners, which ranged from government agencies like law enforcement, local health departments, and county schools to health related businesses and local chambers of commerce. They were asked to identify important health problems facing residents and health services they felt needed strengthening. The survey data, along with Virginia Department of Health data, was compiled by Community Health Solutions to give RTH a health profile of the region.
The study focuses on the RTH service area which falls within Essex, King and Queen, King William, Richmond, Westmoreland, Northumberland, and Lancaster counties. Among the issues mentioned:
- health concerns such as obesity, chronic disease, mental health conditions, substance use, and Alzheimer's Disease.
- community services in need of strengthening: aging services, behavioral health services, transportation, health care coverage, and long term care services.
The report also compiled key health statistics about the region from the Virginia Department of Health:
Demographic Profile. Compared to the Commonwealth of Virginia as a whole, the region is more rural, older, and proportionally more Black/African American. The region also has lower income levels and proportionally more adults without a high school education.
Mortality Profile. The leading causes of death were cancer, heart disease, and stroke. The age-group death rate was higher than the statewide rate for adults age 45-64, and lower than the statewide rate for seniors age 65+.
Maternal and Infant Health Profile. The region had a higher rate of non-marital births. Infant mortality rates were higher than the state's in five of the seven counties: Essex, King William, Lancaster, Richmond and Westmoreland. The teen pregnancy rate was higher than the statewide rate in all counties.
Adult and Child Health Risk Profiles. A significant number of adults may have health risks related to nutrition, physical activity, weight, tobacco, and alcohol. It is also estimated that large numbers of children are not meeting recommendations for healthy eating, physical activity and healthy weight.
Uninsured Profile. An estimated 16% of nonelderly residents were uninsured at any point in time in 2011. Among both children and adults, the large majority of uninsured residents were estimated to have income at or below 200% of the federal poverty level.
Medically Underserved Profile. Medically Underserved Areas (MUAs) and Medically Underserved Populations (MUPs) are designated by the U.S. Health Resources and Services Administration as being at risk for health care access problems. All counties in the region have been fully designated as MUAs.
"Now that we have this important data, RTH and other community partners can collaborate on a plan to begin addressing these issues and improve the health and well-being of our community," Liz Martin said.
To view the complete Community Health Needs Assessment report, visit riversideonline.com/rth.
Published: October 14, 2013 | <urn:uuid:05798c4b-ef7e-4e79-bc12-f5998edec6a3> | CC-MAIN-2016-44 | http://riversideonline.com/about_riverside/news/pr10142013.cfm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-44/segments/1476988721141.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20161020183841-00416-ip-10-171-6-4.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.961646 | 811 | 1.78125 | 2 |
Tagged as “Audition”
It's true that applying to college can be a lot of work, but don't freak out. The sooner you begin putting together your college application materials (think now!), the easier the process will be. Simply create a calendar and follow these steps to get started.
Got the college interview jitters? That's normal, but, in truth, your college interview probably won't make or break your chance of admission. It will, however, give you an opportunity to be your own best advocate, demonstrate your skills, and spotlight your application. | <urn:uuid:49d7b5d6-7b6d-40bb-9a78-a29324394fb0> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | https://www.ithaca.edu/admission/guide/tags/audition/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281450.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00177-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.930501 | 119 | 1.617188 | 2 |
Bird flu prompts DNR request for wild turkey testing
The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources is requesting that wild turkey hunters who bag birds within five counties — including Stearns — where the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) has been detected in domestic turkeys bring their birds in for testing starting Monday.
HPAI has also been found in Kandiyohi, Pope, Meeker and Swift counties.
Starting Monday, successful hunters can call to schedule an appointment at a DNR area wildlife office. Sampling involves swabbing the trachea and, if the bird has been field dressed, the cloaca.
Sampling takes a few minutes, the DNR news release stated. Hunters can retain the bird, and are asked to keep the bird in their vehicle. DNR staff will come out to take the samples.
The DNR will ask for hunters' contact information, harvest information and location. Hunters will be notified of results only if a bird tests positive.
While the DNR recommends hunters clean and sanitize equipment used to field dress birds, the virus has not yet been detected in wild birds. Waterfowl are natural reservoirs for the virus.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention considers the risk to people from HPAI infection to be low. No human infections have been detected.
Find more about safe handling of wild turkeys at www.mndnr.gov/ai.
The spring wild turkey season runs through May 28.
Area DNR wildlife offices
Sauk Rapids: 320-223-7840
New London: 320-354-2154
Carlos Avery: 651-296-5290 | <urn:uuid:4384534d-e5d3-4716-9cc3-7fd7b4ccef22> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.sctimes.com/story/sports/outdoors/2015/04/17/bird-flu-prompts-dnr-request-wild-turkey-testing/25965191/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573876.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20220820012448-20220820042448-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.921841 | 356 | 2.046875 | 2 |
Home equity is the actual value you have in your home. It is the difference between the market value of your home, and any debt, such as a mortgage, that you owe on your home. For example, if your home is worth $500,000, and you have a mortgage of $100,000, your equity is $400,000. This is the amount that you actually are entitled to when all is said in done and lenders are considered.
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With a reverse mortgage, you can choose to take a lump sum of money or to receive funds over time. As long as the property is well maintained, and property taxes and property insurance is paid, the homeowners will continue to own their home and HomEquity Bank will never take possession.
No regular payments are required; the loan does not become due until the home is sold or both homeowners move out. Interest is added on to the original amount borrowed. When the amount is repaid, all remaining equity in the home belongs to the homeowners (or their estate).
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Original Article: https://www.reversemortgagepros.ca/home-equity/ | <urn:uuid:6fc05acd-fc87-4c4d-a572-745853b8f6e6> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://reversemortgagetips.ca/put-your-home-equity-to-work-with-a-reverse-mortgage/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572198.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20220815175725-20220815205725-00268.warc.gz | en | 0.962847 | 446 | 1.8125 | 2 |
Recent research shows that lifelong musical training may have a positive effect on the aging process. Speech sounds were delivered to 87 normal-hearing, English-speaking adults while they watched a captioned video. Those who had started musical training before age 9 and continued throughout their lives had significantly better brain responses to speech sounds than those who had 3 years or less of musical training. These results suggest that age-related delays in neural timing may not be inevitable, but can be avoided or offset by lifelong musical training.
PositiveTip: It may never be too late to improve your hearing through musical training! | <urn:uuid:a4d8563c-2528-4978-8b79-e317cb0d2910> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.positivechoices.com/positivetip/musical-training-offsets-aging-effects/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573029.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817153027-20220817183027-00266.warc.gz | en | 0.982854 | 120 | 2.390625 | 2 |
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We know that the pipeline project itself will introduce far less carbon than trucks driving all over the country. The environmentalists are demanding that the tar sands be left in the ground. The pipeline itself is not an environmental problem, people want Canada to ignore the tar sands.
Obama said in June the project would serve U.S. interests only if it did not "significantly exacerbate" carbon pollution. The Times quoted him as saying that Canada could potentially be doing more to "mitigate carbon release."
A 2009 study by CERA estimated that production from Canada's oil sands emits "about 5 percent to 15 percent more carbon dioxide, over the "well-to-wheels" lifetime analysis of the fuel, than average crude oil."
But there's a huge snag. Obama hasn't said what he wants, or needs, to assuage environmentalists that Keystone XL is in America's national interest, or to convince congressional Democrats facing re-election next year that it can be approved without sabotaging their campaigns.
And the White House has yet to respond to the letter.
Other Canadian officials were quick to note that this country has done as much, or more, to curb emissions than the U.S. They say coal-fired electricity plants south of the border produce something like 32 times the amount of greenhouse gases as the oilsands, and argue the massive Keystone project will not significantly add to emissions.
And the president's own position on the project remains ambiguous, to say the least
"Give us a hard target," one source told CBC. "Don't make us guess."
Canada won't shut the operation down. So what do we do with the oilsands that are being produced?
My fiance lives in Alberta and the economy there is bustling according to him. The Albertan economy is not suffering because of the lack of approval for the Keystone XL pipeline. The job market in Alberta is quite healthy and actually draws people from all over Canada because of its opportunity, a fact which is fairly consistent with any oil laden area (see North Dakota's economy v. the rest of the US).
The Athabasca oil sands are often a topic in international trade talks, with energy rivals China and the United States negotiating with Canada for a bigger share of the rapidly increasing output. Production is expected to quadruple between 2005 and 2015, reaching 4 million barrels (640,000 m3) a day, with increasing political and economic importance. Currently, most of the oil sands production is exported to the United States.
And here, I will display my cynicism. Many studies have said it's fine, the risks are acceptable. Consider what Obama has done with other agencies, IRS, NSA, DOJ, etc. On this issue, the EPA will say whatever Obama wants them to say.
If the EPA says that there is not enough, it's reasonably safe to assume that there isn't enough information. Just because you may think that there has been enough "science done" does not make it so.
And he's quite right.
Stop sucking up Harper...It's our oil .. they don't want it .. no problem , there are other countries with money
“The REMI model forecasts that the XL expansion of the Keystone pipeline would create about 16,000 jobs over a two-year period,” said Nystrom. “After that two years, about 800 jobs would be sustainable moving forward.” “The pipeline will increase competition between Canadian and Middle East crude producers for position in Gulf Coast and Midwest refineries, but will not affect refined product prices,” according to Dr. Wade.
“The benefits of the Keystone XL pipeline would be concentrated largely in the pipeline states themselves,” said Wade. “These areas could see an increase in gross domestic product by as much as $3.1 billion as well as an increase in business sales by as much as $6 billion.”
His preference notwithstanding, Alberta will continue to drill for oil sands until the world says it will not buy it. The oils sands will be refined and used somewhere, whatever Obama wants. The world will have a fossil fuel and nuclear energy supply for the foreseeable future. In 2008, those sources provided a little over 87% of the world's energy usage.
To the best of my knowledge, he has not requested any concessions but has expressed concerns about the carbon emissions. My sense of it is that the reason why he is concerned about carbon emissions relating to Keystone XL is most likely due to him preferring that we do not continue to build an oil/gas based infrastructure.
Again, from whom? What does he want? The PM's wife? He hasn't told Canada even what area he wants concessions in. Even if he was playing a non-zero sum game, even a moderately competent negotiator could have brought it to conclusion in five years. As the clock ticks, Canada knows they are getting close to a time when they won't have to deal with Obama. When he leaves, it all starts over again. This isn't a negotiation, it's a stall.
So no, this does not mean that Obama is not interested in the environment. His approval for the pipeline will be only if the concessions offered most likely exceed his bar of expectation (see how much he can get).
And here, I'm afraid, I must strongly disagree. Currently the particulate matter (2.5) reading in Salt Lake City is 13.3.
Have you ever looked at the issues in Salt Lake City? It's as nasty as Beijing.
Because refined oil is valuable. If it wasn't, the industry would have said, "Don't build the pipeline." Besides, refineries have been running at less than 90% utilization since 2006, there's certainly room to refine more.
Tell me why we would chose to transport foreign oil from one end to the other of our country when we have ample oil in the US (and it's set to increase) that also needs refining.
Let me see, if Obama wants it, and the Canadian government wants it. Who has the power to stop it? I suppose somebody can try law suits, but anybody else? And law suits aren't a guaranteed win.
Just know that Keystone is not solely dependent on Obama's decision to approve or veto. There are other parties in play that can prevent it from ever being built.
The worst day in Salt Lake City is a good day in Beijing which often goes above 500.
The greater Salt Lake region had up to 130 micrograms of soot per cubic meter on Wednesday, or more than three times the federal clean-air limit, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
A new study released Sunday concludes that Koch Industries and its subsidiaries stand to make as much as $100 billion in profits if the controversial Keystone XL pipeline is given the go-ahead by President Obama.
IFG also finds that more than 1,000 reports and statements in support of the Keystone XL pipeline project have been made by policy groups and think tanks that receive funding from the Koch brothers and their philanthropic foundations.
“The Kochs have repeatedly claimed that they have no interest in the Keystone XL Pipeline, this report shows that is false.” Said Nathalie Lowenthal-Savy, a researcher with IFG. “We noticed Koch Funded Tea Party members and think tanks pushing for the pipeline. We dug deeper and found $100 billion in potential profit, $50 million sent to organizations supporting the pipeline, and perhaps 2 million acres of land. That sounds like an interest to me.” Nathalie continued, “We all know they will use that money to fund and expand their influence network, subvert democracy, crush unions like in Wisconsin, and get more extremists elected to congress.”
I am really having trouble with patience and tolerance these days. I don't know what kind of 'evil' - yes 'evil' can justify profit over life.
Everywhere I turn, it's profit over Life.
My rationale as to why is that once they are allowed to sue, these cases could very well end up before the Supreme Court and if the current judicial train of thought is that the right to profit is greater than the right to life, we're truly screwed.
Slush fund accounts of major US politicians identified and seized at Vatican Bank (Rome). Connection established with Daniel Dal Bosco RICO indictment, which cites Giancarlo Bruno, Silvio Berlusconi & Ban Ki Moon. On Wednesday 5th January 2011, it emerged that US establishment-related slush fund accounts had been located in, and seized from, the Vatican Bank in Rome. The source of funds for these accounts in almost every instance was found to be the US Treasury.
Beneficiaries of the covert Vatican accounts include Barack Obama, Michelle Obama and each of the Obama children, Michelle Obama’s mother, all the Bushes and the Clintons, including Chelsea Clinton, Joe Biden, Timothy Geithner, Janet Napolitano, several US Senators, including Mitch McConnell, several US Congressmen including John Boehner, several US Military Chiefs of Staff, the US Provost Marshal, the US Judge Advocate General, the US Supreme Court Chief Justice, John Roberts, several US Judges, the Pope, and several cardinals. Big money was found in each of the accounts.
I truly cannot understand it. Maybe I am crazy but I'd give up plenty to heal the planet and humanity.
reply to post by Drunkenparrot
Billions would die? That is just bs alarmism.
We would simply have to return to our roots of focusing our labor on food and shelter. If it wasn't possible then we would have never reached this stage in the first place. | <urn:uuid:61173d9e-0933-4a34-b784-64d306fe6928> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread976606/pg3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560279368.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095119-00329-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.967928 | 2,050 | 2.625 | 3 |
Active Shooter Policy
- Run – Run whenever there is an active threat, when you are safe call 911
- Hide – If you escape is possible, hide. Block the door. Avoid Windows. Silence your Cell.
- Fight – only as an absolute last result and if your life is in danger.
RUN: Evacuate If Possible
- If there is considerable distance between you and the gunfire/armed person, quickly move away from the sound of the gunfire/armed person. If the gunfire/armed person is in your building and it is safe to do so, run out of the building and move far away until you are in a secure place to hide.
- Leave your belongings behind.
- Keep your hands visible to law enforcement.
- Take others with you, but do not stay behind because others will not go.
- Call 911 when it is safe to do so. Do not assume that someone else has reported the incident. The information that you are able to provide law enforcement may be critical, e.g. number of shooters, physical description and identification, number and type(s) of weapons, and location of the shooter.
HIDE: Hide silently in as safe a place as possible
- If the shooter is in close proximity and you cannot evacuate safely, hide in an area out of the armed person’s view.
- Choose a hiding place with thicker walls and fewer windows, if possible.
- Lock doors and barricade with furniture, if possible.
- Turn off lights
- Silence phones and turn off other electronics.
- Close windows, shades and blinds, and avoid being seen from outside the room, if possible.
- If you are outdoors and cannot RUN safely, find a place to hide that will provide protection from gunfire such as a brick wall, large trees or buildings.
- Remain in place until you receive an “all clear” signal from Blackboard Connect.
FIGHT: Take action to disrupt or incapacitate the shooter
- As a last resort, fight. If you cannot evacuate or hide safely and only when your life is in imminent danger, take action.
- Attempt to incapacitate or disrupt the actions of the shooter.
- Act with physical aggression toward the shooter.
- Use items in your area such as fire extinguishers or chairs.
- Throw items at the shooter if possible.
- Call 911 when it is safe to do so.
Immediately after an incident:
- Wait for Local Law Enforcement officers to assist you out of the building, if inside.
- When law enforcement arrives, students and employees must display empty hands with open palms.
- Understand that gunfire may sound artificial. Assume that any popping sound is gunfire.
- If there are two or more persons in the same place when a violent incident begins, you should spread out in the room to avoid offering the aggressor an easy target.
- Be mindful that violent attacks can involve any type of weapon, not just a gun. Knives, blunt objects, physical force or explosives can be just as deadly as a gun. The suggested actions provided here are applicable in any violent encounter.
- Plan ahead: Visualize possible escape routes, including physically accessible routes for students and staff with disabilities and others with limited mobility. | <urn:uuid:194bed81-e26b-4d36-9f19-d20119cf6a70> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.freespiritgatheringmd.org/active-shooter-policy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570871.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20220808183040-20220808213040-00276.warc.gz | en | 0.905309 | 680 | 2.78125 | 3 |
The U.S. religious landscape is shifting, and no one may be more thankful than GOP presidential contender Mitt Romney.
The 2010 U.S. Religion Census, released today on the Association of Religion Data Archives, found that The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints gained the most regular members in the last 10 years, growing by nearly 2 million to a total of 6.14 million adherents in 13,600 congregations.
Some of the church’s largest percentage gains were in places such as Tazewell County, Virginia; Bath County, Kentucky, and Big Horn County, Montana. As Romney makes his historic run to be the first Mormon president, there are few places on the 2012 campaign trail he will go where people are not close to a Latter-day Saint congregation or neighbors who share his faith.
But the denomination is not the only one spreading its wings nationally in a time of increasing religious diversity, the census shows.
Consider these findings:
Still, not everyone was a winner in the religious marketplace.
Mainline Protestant churches lost an average of 12.8 percent of adherents in the first decade of the 21st century; 5 percent fewer active members were found in Catholic churches.
A vital marketplace
The U.S. Religion Census, also known as the Religious Congregations & Membership Study 2010, is a once-in-a-decade project to collect county-by-county data from hundreds of religious groups. It is considered the most complete census data for local, state and national information on congregations and their members.
The 2010 study, sponsored by The Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies, obtained reports from 236 religious bodies. The 236 groups reported 344,894 congregations with 150,686,156 adherents, comprising 48.8 percent of the total U.S. population of 308,745,538 in 2010.
The study data and the accompanying maps, which provide easy visual analysis of religion demographics, are widely used by scholars, researchers, teachers, the media and the general public.
“Each year the ARDA disseminates thousands of copies of the data files and each week thousands of visitors use ARDA’s online maps and reports to explore America’s religious landscape,” said sociologist Roger Finke of Pennsylvania State University, ARDA director. “Whether it is county profiles conducted by local churches or national research conducted by religion scholars, the data offer a trove of new information on American religion.”
One limitation of the study is that information on attendance and membership is self-reported by the religious bodies. Some figures are estimates, such as the 2.6 million Muslims in the U.S. Further information on study sources is available on ARDA.
Still, Clifford Grammich, a study leader, said the 2010 study “is the most comprehensive local-level analysis of U.S. religious adherents and attendance in more than 60 years.”
What emerges from the new census is a portrait of an increasingly diverse, vital religious marketplace.
It is difficult today for any one group to claim a monopoly on a particular state or region of the country.
For example, if you consider, as the group itself does, that the Mormon Church is a Christian body, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints reported the largest increase among Christian groups from 2000 to 2010 in 30 states, including places like North Dakota, New Mexico and West Virginia.
Meanwhile, the census found nondenominational and independent churches in 2,663 counties, or 88 percent of U.S. counties. Added together, they would be among the top five religious groups in 48 states.
In secular terms, Hartford Seminary sociologist Scott Thumma compares the nationwide growth of groups such as the Mormon Church and nondenominational congregations to successful fast-food franchises starting out locally, finding they meet a need and then expanding regionally and nationally until you can find one at almost every rest stop.
Nondenominational churches, in particular, have become “an alternative to denominational religiosity in every market,” Thumma said.
The diversity extends beyond Christianity.
The number of non-Christian congregations – synagogues, mosques, temples and other religious centers – increased by nearly a third, from 8,795 in the 2000 study to 11,572 in the 2010 census. Houses of worship of other faiths were found in 985 counties in 2010, almost a third of the total.
Even some groups that had a drop in adherents found themselves expanding in newer markets.
For example, the Catholic Church, which had 62 million adherents in 2000 and 59 million in 2010 according to the census, reported the largest gains among Christian groups in 11 states, including Georgia, Nevada and Oregon.
Even places such as Salt Lake County in Utah, the home of the Latter-day Saints, have become more diverse, cosmopolitan communities, census researchers noted. The number of Catholic adherents there jumped from 53,500 to 84,000 from 2000 to 2010.
There has been a shift to “a true marketplace,” Thumma said. When new players “in the religious marketplace come along, it’s harder to maintain this is our market, you can’t come in here.”
So, too, is it possible for a Mormon to run for president.
It is “absolutely the case,” Thumma said, that the spread of Latter-day Saints across the nation, and the degree of familiarity that provided many Americans with their faith, paved the way for a Romney run.
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Explore congregational membership in every county, state, and urban area in the United States. Based on the Religious Congregations and Membership Study collected by the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies this is the most complete census available on religious congregations and their members.
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Use QuickStats to browse dozens of topics and see reponses from major national surveys, demographic patterns, and changes over time! Available topics:
Use QuickLists to see rank-ordered data on religion in the U.S. and around the world. See our most popular topics: | <urn:uuid:30557e8c-e972-44cb-8da6-86b983f6bcae> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://blogs.thearda.com/trend/featured/diversity-rising-census-shows-mormons-nondenominational-churches-muslims-spreading-out-across-u-s/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560281226.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095121-00382-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.926699 | 1,483 | 2.15625 | 2 |
Since 9/11, the Department of Justice has prosecuted more than 500 terrorism cases, yet there remains scant public understanding of what these federal cases have actually looked like and the impact they have had on communities and families. Published by The Nation in collaboration with Educators for Civil Liberties, the America After 9/11 series features contributions from scholars, researchers and advocates to provide a systematic look at the patterns of civil rights abuses in the United States’ domestic “war on terror.”
* * *
In December 2001, my 20-year-old son John was discovered, wounded and nearly dead, among a ragged band of Taliban prisoners of war in northern Afghanistan. John had survived a massacre of prisoners at an ancient fortress called Qala-i-Jangi—the “House of War.”The blood-letting at Qala-i-Jangi was overseen by General Rashid Dostum, a notorious warlord who had opportunistically aligned himself with US Special Forces during the invasion by Coalition forces; The New Yorker’s Jon Lee Anderson called him “among the worst war criminals in the country.”
From the moment the story broke,“John Walker Lindh, the American Taliban,” was denounced by public officials and the news media as a “traitor” and a “terrorist.” Wounded and desperate after being rescued at Qala-i-Jangi, John was brutally mistreated by US soldiers, photographed naked, bound and blindfolded in the freezing Afghan desert. He was falsely called an “Al Qaeda fighter” by President George W.Bush and declared a “terrorist” by members of the Bush cabinet and other prominent government officials.
The outlandish accusations against my son by the most powerful politicians in our nation were completely outside the normal protections afforded a citizen under the Constitution.These statements were not only prejudicial but deliberately falsified.They were made despite an internal assessment by the Department of Justice, just days after John’s capture, that “we have no knowledge that he did anything other than join the Taliban.” He was never a member of Al Qaeda or any terrorist group, and he never fought against Americans.
In normal times, the free press protected by the First Amendment might have rallied against such sensational and unfounded charges against a 20-year old citizen. But, in the wake of the 9/11 attacks,the protections we think are secured by the Constitution did not protect John. Ultimately, John was forced to accept a harsh and unjust twenty-year prison term. | <urn:uuid:1092cf15-c93f-4200-9bc3-45fd02ded40f> | CC-MAIN-2016-44 | https://www.thenation.com/article/how-john-walker-lindh-became-detainee-001/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-44/segments/1476988722951.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20161020183842-00211-ip-10-171-6-4.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.976322 | 534 | 2.296875 | 2 |
Everybody thought that the IRS would be incapable of collecting as much tax revenue as years past with a reduced work force. The loudest voices crying for a bigger tax collection budget came from within the IRS and from the Taxpayer Advocate. The prevailing thought was that the IRS was just going to have to do more with less. And apparently that’s just what they did.
According to a report released today by the Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA), in 2013 the IRS increased total gross collections by 13 percent compared to 2012. The IRS collected an unfathomable $2.9 trillion in fiscal year 2013, including $50.2 billion from enforced collections such as wage garnishments, bank levies, and seizures. Interestingly these numbers were achieved with fewer examinations, fewer tax liens, and fewer levies & seizures. It is difficult to tell what all this means. Maybe the IRS is less likely to nail people for making mistakes on their taxes, filing late, and paying late. But I think it is also safe to say that when they do catch you, they really sink their teeth in. Maybe you think you’re safe because the IRS has bigger fish to fry, but if this report is any indication, I think the IRS is casting smaller nets and throwing fewer back. | <urn:uuid:63165210-2ba0-4f46-8bfb-b1df4fabf2a4> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.mwattorneys.com/blog/tag/revenue/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570879.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20220809003642-20220809033642-00669.warc.gz | en | 0.982984 | 265 | 1.742188 | 2 |
You(th) be the Change
A Special Workshop for Undergraduates in Conjunction with the
“Youth in a Changing World” Research Project of the Committee on Global Thought
Tuesday, April 10, 2018 • 6-8PM
Columbia University, Kent Hall, Room 403
What issues in the world today are of the greatest concern to youth? Can youth “be the change”?
This workshop, hosted by the “Youth in a Changing World” research project of the Committee on Global Thought and co-sponsored by new student group Student Association for Global Engagement (SAGE), aimed to address these questions with the Columbia student community.
Click here to see the full album. | <urn:uuid:3f87ac6e-dc3d-46fd-ad3b-60ed34254657> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://cgt.columbia.edu/cgt-events/change/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573760.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20220819191655-20220819221655-00669.warc.gz | en | 0.889311 | 152 | 1.554688 | 2 |
The Australian Space Agency’s arrival in Adelaide signals an important reconnection for South Australia with its significant space history, as outlined in a new book by SA’s internationally renowned Dr Space Junk – Flinders University space archaeologist Dr Alice Gorman.
The release this week of her book Dr Space Junk vs The Universe: Archaeology and The Future (published by NewSouth Books) serves as a timely handbook for everyone in the community to best understand the relevance and importance of Australia’s longstanding interaction with space projects.
It traces the deeper history of human interaction with space, and especially a rich South Australian engagement that Dr Gorman is worried most people have largely forgotten.
“In South Australia, we have forgotten our own Space Age,” says Dr Gorman.
“Australia was the third country in the world to launch satellites into space – and that since the Woomera rocket launches in the 1960s, SA has never stopped its association with space.
“If we are really going to be successful in space with our new Australian Space Agency, understanding our space heritage is critical. We need to make people comfortable with the idea that we are a space-faring nation, and that we should be doing this.
“For people to support getting back into the space game, it has to be about more than just the technology. There has to be more diverse stories, and that’s what I’m exploring in the book.”
The book includes a chapter on the moon and lunar missions, including the Apollo 11 mission which celebrates its 50th anniversary in July, and highlights several Australian inputs that influenced the success of this mission.
Through raising space issues and space history that are rarely discussed, Dr Gorman believes her book will help more people engage with broader aspects of space – which is especially timely on the advent of the Australian Space Agency Mission Control and Space Discovery Centre being introduced to Adelaide.
“My aim for the book is to give people stories they can relate to that makes them feel a part of space,” says Dr Gorman. “This is what heritage and archaeology does; it makes the connection from the past to the present to the future. To talk about space from a whole range of perspectives gives you a voice and an opinion about what is happening in space right now.
“It will enable more people to get involved with the decision making around space issues – beyond the engineering community.
“Because I’m an archaeologist – not the conventional type of space scientist – I want to tell a diverse range of stories to allow different types of people to make a stronger connection with space.
“In the book, I talk about how space missions became converted into everyday food, such as hamburgers and cocktails, and the rocket parks that everyone loved to play in when they were kids”.
She also introduces the interesting argument that the shadows on the moon from discarded lunar mission objects are also significant archaeological items – that the shadows mean the sites are not still. They’ve altered the temperature and light environment that existed in the landscape prior to the landings.
- Dr Gorman will be interviewed by Richard Fidler on Conversations, the popular ABC Podcast and radio program, on April 10.
- An edited extract of Dr Gorman’s lunar shadow analysis concerns has been published in The Conversation.
- The first review of Dr Gorman’s book has been published at Readings.com
- Dr Gorman will celebrate the launch of her new book with an event on April 23 at MOD, the future-focused museum of discovery on North Terrace, Adelaide, where Dr Gorman currently has an installation featured. | <urn:uuid:76207319-8324-4c50-91cc-66e1a9b2a0cc> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://news.flinders.edu.au/blog/2019/04/02/dr-space-junk-takes-on-the-universe/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573876.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20220820012448-20220820042448-00075.warc.gz | en | 0.95193 | 767 | 2.640625 | 3 |
8vo, XII, 212pp. Hardcover with no d/w in fair condition, t.e.g with olive green boards decorated by black clover motifs with a gilt harp and titles and an unfaded spine with additional darker olive decoration though there is significant shelf wear with areas of fine insect scouring to the green pigmentation of the boards. In addition there is minor waterstaining to both boards together with an absent rear endpaper and insect damage to the top corner of the last page of the index, however the spine remains overall sound though some minor hinge damage is evident, text is in good condition with all 79 colour plates and the annotated tissue guards present and undamaged and the ffep has a dedication to Irish relatives for Christmas in 1919 as well as a prior collector’s signature from 1935. One of the famous A & C Black’s 20/- Colour Books, this copy is probably one of the rarest of them all because although the title page with a red clover imprint does not have the usual publication date in Roman Numerals, the verso clearly has “Published May 1905” printed mid page. All other copies elsewhere can only nominate 50 colour plates in a 1916 “First Edition thus” format also stating its rarity with seemingly no 1905 editions evident worldwide. This edition is probably no. 42 in Inman’s Bibliography. The magnificent artwork is by Francis Sylvester Walker (1848-1916) who was one of Ireland’s greatest ever artists currently exhibited in the National Gallery of Ireland, the British Miseum and the V and A in London. It is, as always, a delightful book and made all the more so for the collector by its rarity. | <urn:uuid:5a9a5a77-fce9-4880-99ef-ee4200322a10> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://lovevintagebooks.com.au/product/ireland/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573029.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817153027-20220817183027-00270.warc.gz | en | 0.958149 | 360 | 1.789063 | 2 |
– The World Bank has released a report of projected growth of global economies for the year 2017
– The global financial institution names Nigeria, South Africa and Angola as countries expected to experience economic growth in the Sub-Saharan African region
The current recession in Nigerian has been described as the worst in over two decades in the history of the country.
Nigeria will get out of recession, and grow its gross domestic product (GDP) by one percent in 2017, according to a global economic report by the World Bank.
The World Bank said in a report released on Tuesday, December 10, that the global economy will accelerate moderately to 2.7 percent in 2017.
According to the report: “Sub-Saharan African growth is expected to pick up modestly to 2.9 percent in 2017 as the region continues to adjust to lower commodity prices.
“Growth in South Africa and oil exporters is expected to be weaker, while growth in economies that are not natural-resource intensive should remain robust. Growth in South Africa is expected to edge up to a 1.1 percent pace this year.
“Nigeria is forecast to rebound from recession and grow at a 1 percent pace. Angola is projected to expand at a 1.2 percent pace.”
The global financial institution also forecasted economic growth for countries in South Asia, Europe, Central Asia, Latin America, Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa among others.
Meanwhile, the projected growth on the Nigerian economy by the world bank comes shortly after the International Monetary Fund (IMF) projected that Nigeria’s economy will be out of recession in 2017, growing by 0.6 per cent.
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From Finally: Nigeria to rebound from recession (See Details) by Naij.com (News) | <urn:uuid:6781eeae-44f0-4ad7-a2ff-eed457774709> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | https://www.nigerianow.news/finally-nigeria-to-rebound-from-recession-see-details/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280364.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00034-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945187 | 375 | 2.34375 | 2 |
An artist is a human person who, like all persons, is marked by his Creator with an ultimate purpose. He pursues his unique vocation by power of certain characteristics shared by all humans, and in addition, if the artist is to fulfill this vocation well, enjoys special gifts of the intellect and the body that dispose him for his work. An accurate portrayal of the artist’s identity must develop out of the context of his human purpose; there can be no setting aside of his fundamental being without a drastic warping of his secondary calling. As critic Amanda Coomaraswamy writes, “the artist can be separated from the man in logic and for purposes of understanding; but actually, the artist can only be divorced from his humanity by what is called a disintegration of personality.”
According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, man “alone is called to share, by knowledge and love, in God’s own life. It was for this end that he was created, and this is the fundamental reason for his dignity. “There should be no underestimation of the significance of this reality. Man’s sublime end determines that his soul be shaped specifically to encounter and receive the living God. There is no human perfection nor fulfillment of human longing without a participation in God’s own life. In the words of Coomaraswamy, “The desire for God is written in the human heart, because man is created by God and for God; and God never ceases to draw man to himself. Only in God will he find the truth and happiness he never stops searching for.” The rejection of God automatically handicaps the person in his quest to become fully human. As St. Thomas writes in the Summa Theologiae, “It is impossible for any created good to constitute man’s happiness….God alone can satisfy the will of man.” Jacques Maritain, the twentieth-century Thomist, expands in his The Responsibility of the Artist: “Man cannot live a genuine human life except by participating to some extent in the supra-human life of the spirit, or of what is eternal in him.”
The indelibility of the person’s end does not preclude his freedom; indeed, freedom is requisite to the fulfillment of that end. “The person, including the body, is completely entrusted to himself, and it is in the unity of body and soul that the person is the subject of his own moral acts.” 1 Man’s freedom gives him the dignity suited to his divine purpose; without it his relationship with God would not be one of intelligent, loving participation but of unthinking, automatic reaction. The openness of freedom allows for growth and transformation, as the Catechism reminds us: “By free will one shapes one’s own life. Human freedom is a force for growth and maturity in truth and goodness; it attains its perfection when directed toward God, our beatitude.” Any use of his freedom that separates him from God causes also a narrowing of a man’s freedom, a lessening of its power, for freedom itself is oriented toward God. No one, Pope John Paul II says, can rightly claim that obedience to God curtails freedom: “God’s plan poses no threat to man’s genuine freedom; on the contrary, the acceptance of God’s plan is the only way to affirm that freedom.”
The fulfillment of human destiny in freedom is made possible by the person and saving work of Jesus Christ. “In reality it is only in the mystery of the Word made flesh that the mystery of man truly becomes clear.” 2 St. Paul, in his letter to the Ephesians, tells us that
[God] destined us in love to be his sons through Jesus Christ, according to the purpose of his will…For he has made known to us in all wisdom and insight the mystery of his will, according to his purpose which he set forth in Christ as a plan for the fullness of time, to unite all things in him, things in heaven and things on earth.3
The Catholic vision finds its focal point in Christ. The Incarnation is the road by which all men will reach their final fullness of being, their complete self-understanding, their unity as a race and place in creation.
An understanding of these fundamentals of human nature is necessary to the proper ordering of man’s work within his world. Without it, work and the world threaten to take a controlling position in man’s life, separating him from his own truth. John Paul II tells us that “[man’s] nature is itself the measure of culture and the condition ensuring that man does not become the prisoner of any of his cultures, but asserts his personal dignity by living in accordance with the profound truth of his being.” The artist, to maintain his human freedom, must not become a “prisoner of any of his cultures;” he must remember his divine destiny and order his life toward its source, the Triune God.
Within this human nature, from which springs human culture, lies an inherent desire to make things, an operation so singular and fundamental that it is classed by some along with knowing and acting. The philosopher Etienne Gilson makes this point:
There is art only when the operation, essentially and in its very substance, does not consist in knowing or acting, but in making. Man as capable of making (homo faber) is first a making being (ens faber) because his activity as a craftsman is like an outer manifestation of his act of existing….Prehistory is sure of the presence of man only when it can establish the existence of objects which cannot be considered works of nature.
The things made by man identify him among all other creatures; as Gilson says, they manifest his existence because making is intrinsic to him. It is one way in which man is made in the image of God, Whose first revealed act in the Bible is to have “created the heavens and the earth.” God, who is Being himself, was pleased to multiply beings in plenitude: “even He Who Is seems to have been unable eternally to subsist in Himself without giving in to the desire of ‘making something’. In his own finite condition man too feels an urge to make other beings….Because it is good that things should be, every being entails the will to cause other beings.” 4 The urge to bring into being is expressed most universally in procreation, but it may have just as prolific an output in the making of things; and, though not all people today are makers, makers are yet representative of their race. The Son of God, who lived a fully human life, was Himself a maker. As Jacques Maritain writes, “If Christ willed to be an artisan in a little village, it is because He wanted to assume the common condition of humanity.”
The artist is a person in whom this desire is particularly strong; so much so, that his peace of mind depends upon doing this work. The work may be done for any number of outward reasons—to earn a living, to express an idea, to please a loved one—but there lies within a deeper compulsion which led the artist to his vocation in the first place. He does not need any other reason to pursue his work, as Gilson writes in The Arts of the Beautiful: “Indeed, the origin of art is not a desire to know, but a desire to make; not a sight, but a project.” Though making is a part of human nature, and countless persons have left behind them immeasurable numbers of things made, the artist is set apart in that he proceeds out of a simple love for his work and his works of art. All of the processes—those of the intellect and of the body—that create these works are set into motion by the artist’s desire, writes Gilson: “Whatever the intellect contributes to the making of a work of art is initiated and brought about by the artist’s love for the being of the work to be born.”
Moving the artist to create, in addition to this first impetus, is a second: the love of beauty. Here is another trait shared by all men by virtue of their very nature. Eric Gill affirms that “there is in my mind an image called man, and this creature…is one for whom beauty is the first need, not the last.” If man’s first purpose is unity with God, how can beauty be the first need? This can be so when beauty is defined as a thing that manifests God and brings about an encounter with Him. Gilson writes that “the beautiful is the good of an intelligent sensibility . . . an object of desire and love.” The “intelligent sensibility” seeks a revelation of the inner meaning of things that the Scholastics described as “clarity:” “the ontological secret that they bear within them, their spiritual being, their operating mystery.” 5
Beauty was described by Eric Gill as “radiance,” as the object’s “principle of intelligibility,” that which can be expressed in no other way than by the revelation of the thing itself in its own unique order, proportion, and wholeness, seen the way that God intended it to be seen. The pleasure that is experienced in beauty “is the delight of the mind in seeing the thing itself….It is the result of the mind’s recognition of what is after its own kind. In things of beauty the mind comes into its own.” The mind rejoices in its apprehension of a thing’s form, defined by Aquinas in the Summa as “that by which a thing is,” “what is conceived and preordained . . . the principle of action.” Form, toward which the intellect is drawn, differentiates matter into the multitudes of things and creatures that populate the universe; it is the truth of each thing, its key and its secret. “To define the beautiful by the radiance of form is in reality to define it by the radiance of a mystery,” asserts Maritain in Art and Scholasticism. When confronted with the mystery of the “ontological secret,” that mystery which is beauty, the person (if he has the eyes to see it) is witness to God’s creative power perpetually holding all in being. The great hunger for fellowship with God, the impetus for man’s existence, is appended by a hunger for beauty which dramatically shapes his nature. In Gill’s words: “Man’s avidity for beauty is more significant than any of his other appetites. He apprehends beauty immediately, and therefore apprehends Being.” 6 In beauty man confronts the forms of things: their truth, that for which the intellect longs.
Man cannot see the God whom he desires; beauty brings irreplaceable comfort and nourishment through his time of waiting. The artist is blessed, with all men, with the longing for beauty. Gill cites beauty as the motivation for all artists: “The fact is, however, that we are artists because we believe in Beauty, and not that we believe in Beauty because we are artists.” However, if beauty is a revelation of the “ontological secret” of a subject, it is clear that not all minds may be disposed to receive such a revelation. If true beauty is, as Catholic author John Saward writes, “confirmation of the spiritual dignity of [the viewer’s] intellect”, certainly there will be viewers who reject their own spirituality (even their own intellect!) and will be impervious to beauty; this holds true for artists as well. Though the desire for God is common to all men, not all men acknowledge that desire. So with the desire for beauty. As there are those who are deaf to God’s word, there will be those, artists or not, who see only ugliness and the surfaces of things, who find pleasure in fallacies rather than in the “radiance of a mystery.” But John Paul II in his Letter to Artists is clear as to the dependence of the creation of art upon the pursuit of this mystery: “Every genuine art form in its own way is a path to the inmost reality of man and of the world.” Perhaps the genuine artist may be recognized by his acceptance of his own “ontological secret”, which includes that inborn desire for the beauty that reveals the inner and original forms of things. Jacques Maritain sees the artist as someone who seeks and finds the knowledge of these forms within their Creator:
The human artist or poet, whose intellect is not the cause of things . . . cannot draw this form entirely from his creative spirit: he goes and imbibes it first. . . . From this point of view he is first and foremost a man who sees more deeply than other men, and who discloses in the real spiritual radiances which others cannot discern. 7
These qualities—the desire to make and the love of beauty—are intrinsic to human nature, and they result in the making of art. What are the special gifts that set the artist apart from other people? Individuals who are naturally able to draw well, who have perfect pitch, natural rhythm, or a fine singing voice, who enjoy writing and are good with words, receive recognition and are labeled as “artistic,” often at an early age. What all these abilities have in common is a certain sensitivity and attention to the world, often combined with a physical dexterity enabling use of tools for making. Drawing well demands that one sees well; musicians must listen well, as must writers. The development of any of these gifts requires strengthening of these senses through self-discipline. But clearly, this is not what Maritain means in saying that an artist “sees more deeply than other men”. There exists a gift of spiritual “sight” that perceives “the real spiritual radiances” of things; this gift is not given to everyone who can draw well or use words, and sometimes belongs to those whose fluency with words or colors is poor. John Paul II writes, again in the Letter to Artists, that artists “…by their very nature are alert to every ‘epiphany’ of the inner beauty of things”, 8 echoing Gerald Bednar’s concept of an increased sensitivity to reality, a “well-tuned sensibility to the human dimensions that are reflected in everyone’s lives.” The artists who stand out as remarkable creators—Michelangelo, Rembrandt, Bach, Dante—have possessed both the physical and the spiritual gifts in abundance. Jacques Barzun says well that “creation requires an uncommon mind and strong will serving an original view of life and the world.” 9
Spiritual vision emerges in the mind. Though all that is apprehended passes through the senses, it is in the mind that knowledge resides and form is recognized; this is why Maritain claims that “art stands entirely on the side of the mind.” 10 As seen earlier, St. Thomas taught that art is an intellectual virtue, proceeding first from an idea that the artist wishes to make manifest. Although the body and its emotions become intimately involved in the work of art—Gilson asserts, with reference to Hegel, the necessity of both body and mind to art—the physical and emotional are secondary to art’s creation. Coomaraswamy writes: “We forget that sensation is an animal property, and knowledge distinctly human; and that art, if thought of as distinctly human and particularly if we think of art as a department of the ‘higher things in life,’ must likewise have to do much more with knowledge than with feeling.” The “uncommon mind” with which the artist is gifted will not necessarily shine academically, retaining massive information or performing analytical feats; his mind is unique more in its capacity for imagination and contemplation.
Eric Gill defines imagination as “the faculty by which what the eye sees and what the mind thinks about is re-created into what the man loves.” Imagination makes use of all of the senses, mining the memory for their imprints there to use in constructing new concepts. When the artist “sees more than other men,” his imagination is working to draw together whatever memories it can find to form an expression of the truth it is perceiving; he must see within his mind’s eye something not physically existent, and so must use his imagination. This process is not necessarily what is called “make believe”—it can lead to the truth, for it wrestles with reality in search of meaning. The imagining of Christ suffering on the Cross may lead to a deepened understanding of His love; imagining oneself in another’s shoes may increase mercy and compassion. As Bednar says, “the work of the imagination is thus critical in its ability to produce images that allow a person to contact reality successfully.” It is necessary because not all that is real can be perceived immediately by the senses, and because in the making of new things, there must be an end product imagined before the work can begin.
Imagination is also ubiquitous, a function continually in use by all persons. Gill writes: “Not to use the imagination is to be less than human.” This faculty must be particularly active and agile in an artist; in the Catholic, it must be open to the influence of the Holy Spirit, Who can feed and guide it. In the words of the bishops of the United States, “Like the gift of prophecy, religious imagination is a power through which the Holy Spirit can move and speak.” 11
Here it is important to note that the artist is free to open or close his perception and imagination to the influence of the Holy Spirit. The artist’s concern is with the thing to be made, and he may exercise prodigious gifts in making things of phenomenal beauty yet, as said before, close his eyes to the existence of the Source of all beauty. Sensitivity to the forms of creation, part of the intellectual virtue of art, does not guarantee the assent of the will to what God is saying through those forms. St. Thomas notes in the Summa that “the good of things made by art is not the good of man’s appetite, but the good of those things themselves; wherefore art does not presuppose rectitude of the appetite.” 12 Vices which corrupt the appetite of the artist (which resides in the will) may leave the gift of art (residing in the intellect) intact, and may cause the use of that great gift to serve vile purposes. Beautiful murals array temples where human sacrifice was performed; stunningly composed photographs display acts of sadism.
Because human history reveals so much misuse of the gift of art, the Christian might hold the use of imagination under suspicion; but this need not be, for all gifts may be opened to God for good use. For those whose desire is to work in concert with Christ, the gift of imagination may be incorporated into the act of contemplation.
Cardinal Schonborn writes, “Imagination is not something negative, it is a natural potential. On the way to contemplation there is no need to eliminate it…it only ought to be purified, just like all other powers of the soul.” Imagination alone does not bring the artist into epiphanies “of the inner beauty of things”. Those insights are the fruits of contemplation, and this is why the vocation of the artist, when pursued in submission to God’s will, overlaps with that of the contemplative. Philosopher Josef Pieper, considering the creation of a work of art in Only the Lover Sings, emphatically declares: “I still say: the beginning of it all is contemplation!” 13 He elaborates:
The true artist…is not someone who simply and in any way whatever “sees” things. So that he can create form and image…he must be endowed with the ability to see in an exceptionally intensive manner. The concept of contemplation also contains this special intensified way of seeing….Art flowing from contemplation does not so much attempt to copy reality as rather to capture the archetypes of all that is. Such art does not want to depict what everybody already sees but to make visible what not everybody sees. 14
Contemplation is essentially a receptive activity, one requiring a self-discipline that can resist distraction and maintain a physical repose. In the Catholic faith, “Contemplation is a gaze of faith, fixed on Jesus.” 15 It takes a posture of humility, poverty, and surrender. But “far from being passive, such attentiveness is the obedience of faith, the unconditional acceptance of a servant, and the loving commitment of a child.” 16 In the artist, this gazing upon the Lord can bring forth a new perception of beauty. Maritain notes: “At that moment the contemplative activity in contact with the transcendental, which constitutes the proper life of the fine arts and their rules, is clearly predominant.” 17 The “proper life” of the work of the artist is rooted in contemplation, the exchange with the Creator that provides the artist with his vision. But the artist is not a contemplative in the vocational sense of the word; he is also committed to activity in the world to bring his vision to light. Maritain explains, “The poet is both a madman carried along by irrational inspiration and a craftsman exercising for his work the shrewdest operative reason.” 18
As the Catholic artist seeks to understand himself, he will be helped first by remembering that he shares the fundamental force of human existence with all other men: the desire for God. Consequently, artists must, as John Paul II says, learn “to see themselves and the whole of creation with eyes able to contemplate and give thanks, and to raise to God a hymn of praise.” 19 No man can comprehend his purpose outside of this perspective. For the artist, denial of God closes off the elemental source of Being and so of the Life that perpetuates the making of new beings, the stream that is always original and true. The heightened ability to “see,” to receive the messages of creation’s secrets, that sets the artist apart from other men, will not reach its full potential without divine illumination. With “eyes able to contemplate and give thanks,” he perceives new glimmers of the mystery of being and, using his gifts of the hands or voice, body and mind, manifests these insights to others. Separated from God, the artist will continue to make things, for this is what he above all desires to do; he may produce beautiful work, technically excellent work, or stirring work, for his gift provides an avenue for greatness even if he is unconscious of its source. But apart from God he will not understand himself or the meaning of his gift or ever attain the fullness for which that gift has been given.
Here, having seen some of what sets the artist apart from other men, and what drives him to his formidable task, we come to the consideration of what precisely that task entails, and the responsibilities incumbent upon it.
The Vocation of the Artist
Beauty calls man to the feet of God; she also calls the artist to bring forth his gifts. John Paul II writes that “the artist has a special relationship to beauty. In a very true sense it can be said that beauty is the vocation bestowed on him by the Creator in the gift of ‘artistic talent.’” 20 Beauty, being a quality and not an operation, becomes a calling in terms of how it speaks to the artist and how it is spoken by him. Its presence can be the object of the artist’s contemplation, and can direct his contemplation to the objects possessing it. It may also be a quality of the works made by the artist. The artistic calling, drawing definition from John Paul’s statement, would be first to contemplate beauty, to apprehend it, and then to bring it forth in works of art. Etienne Gilson speaks to this second step of the vocation to beauty: “The true artist is he whose works, whatever their subject, pursue as their proximate end the creation of beauty.” 21 Such a definition of the end of art appears narrow until one remembers how beauty is a “transcendental of being, and being approached as such is always to reach the threshold of the sacred.” 22 Beauty leads to Being—beauty is its banner, its song; the vocation to beauty explores the secrets of Being itself. Beauty is a language understood by all persons, and the artist, who is set apart by a special aptitude for beauty, is drawn irresistibly to her. Paul Klee, a twentieth-century painter, writes movingly of his devotion to beauty in a diary entry from 1901:
Often I said that I served Beauty by drawing her enemies (caricature, satire). But that is not enough. I must shape her directly with the full strength of my conviction. A distant, noble aim. Half asleep, I already set out on that path. When I am awake, it will have to be accomplished. Perhaps the road is longer than my life.
Whatever shape Klee’s faith took, surely he perceived something of the eternal in the Beauty he served.
All beauty touches the spiritual in man, but there is a “supreme beauty,” a divine illumination, which John Paul II, in a 2004 address to representatives of the Cultural and Artistic Formation Center of Poland, distinguishes from the everyday:
If the artist can perceive a ray of the supreme beauty among the many manifestations of the beautiful, then art becomes a way to God and spurs the artist to continue his creative talent with his commitment to a life of ever greater conformity to the divine law.
There is a heightened level of perception in which the vision of beauty reveals its source in God, where the artist understands that Beauty is not just an end, but a way. At this point his calling deepens from the contemplation of beauty to that of God. Such a call and the gifts of spiritual sensitivity given with it are to be prized, as Pope Pius XII stated in his 1952 address to artists: “The artist is of himself a privileged person among men, but the Christian artist is, in a certain sense, a chosen one, because it is proper to those chosen to contemplate, to enjoy and to express God’s perfections.” This calling-within-a-calling is the very soul of the artist’s vocation, a depth plumbed not frequently enough, which demands great love, humility, and sacrifice. It is well expressed in the poetry of John Paul II, in his Roman Triptych, as he imagines God speaking to the great painter of the Sistine Chapel:
You, O man, you who also see, come— I am calling you, all “who see,” down the ages. I am calling you, Michelangelo! In the Vatican a chapel awaits the fruition of your vision! The vision was awaiting an image. From the time that the Word became flesh, the vision continued to wait.
The vision which Michelangelo received, as do all those who share his gift, was of that “supreme beauty,” the opening of the heavens in a moment of revelation. The artist’s call was then, and is now, to provide an image for that vision—to produce by his art a means for others to share the vision, by which others will be drawn to God and thus to their own conversion and transformation. The beauty created by the artist, according to his calling, is not geared toward any other end; if it serves only to arouse emotions it will have fallen short (or will have been misapprehended). The purpose of the artwork is made clear in the theology of the icon-painter, expressed in Ouspensky and Lossky’s The Meaning of Icons: the icon’s “task is not to provoke . . . one or another natural human emotion, but to guide every emotion as well as the reason and all the other faculties of human nature on the way towards transfiguration.” 23
Vocation begins with a call, or a task; it is fulfilled in time by concrete acts taken in response to the call. The artist, like any person called to a purpose, has certain responsibilities toward his vocation, an ethic intrinsic to the call, which should guide his actions in response to it. A discussion of the artist’s responsibility 24 may begin with a statement from Etienne Gilson: “The perfect artist is not he who puts the highest art at the service of the highest truth, but he who puts the highest truth at the service of the most perfect art.” 25
Gilson wishes to make clear that the artist is called first to develop his gift of art, his facility for making, to its utmost, and to use it most perfectly in creating his works. The “highest truth” is put to art’s service in that it becomes the intellectual matter with which this art creates. Nowhere does Gilson suggest that the artist can change the truth, or create the truth himself; but his responsibility toward his gift of art is so strong that it is never licit to compromise the pure functioning of art in attempts to serve truth.
Maritain gives background to this rule by describing art itself as an entity theoretically separable from the person engaged in using it.
Art . . . stands outside the human sphere; it has ends, rules, values, which are not those of men, but those of the work to be produced. This work is everything for Art; there is for Art but one law—the exigencies and the good of the work. 26
The “ends, rules, values” belonging to the work and comprising its good are, in part, the various standards of technical execution in each of the arts. Musicians seek a purity of tone, rhythm, and volume; poets a quality of sound and vividness of image, painters a mastery of color and space. Aristotle called for the drama to contain the unities of place, time, and action. St. Thomas in the Summa expresses this demand very simply: “When anyone endowed with an art produces bad workmanship, this is not the work of that art, in fact it is contrary to the art, even as when a man lies, while knowing the truth, his words are not in accord with his knowledge, but contrary thereto.” 27 Good craftsmanship is an issue of honesty regarding the gift of art. But more than technical excellence is demanded by “the good of the work.” The artist must also proceed in complete self-giving, opening all of his soul for the use of the work, and with full attention to the inner demands of the work itself. These demands will range widely, from decoration created to add pleasure to the use of a tool, to sacred art which takes part in the prayer of the Church. Whatever they are, they are to be fulfilled with beauty, the demand so primary that, as Herbert Read writes, “every intellectual virtue or emotional tone must be given an aesthetic justification….Sentimentality or decadence sets in once the balance of these values is lost.” Any feeling or meaning in a work must only be put there if it can be justified according to beauty; it must belong organically to the inner sense of the work. “The good of the work” is, like beauty, a goal not always reached but always beckoning; whether it is achieved depends in great part upon the artist’s abilities. Whatever their level, he is always called to use those abilities to the utmost, to highly value his work as an expression of self and of the world; in a word, to love his work.
Another way to understand the artist’s responsibility is offered by painter Wassily Kandinsky, who speaks of the “inner need” of the artist, the elemental drive that causes him to work, which he must faithfully obey. There are three “mystical elements” which make up this need:
(1) Every artist, as a creator, has something in him which calls for expression (this is the element of personality). (2) Every artist, as child of his age, is impelled to express the spirit of his age (this is the element of style)—dictated by the period and particular country to which the artist belongs. (3) Every artist, as a servant of art, has to help the cause of art (this is the element of pure artistry). 28
The fulfillment of these elements of the “inner need” is, in Kandinsky’s view, the test of a work’s integrity. The paramount concern of the good of the work, identified by these elements, makes the artist free to use any means available on its behalf. “All means are sacred which are called for by the inner need. All means are sinful which obscure that inner need.” 29 Any use of his gifts that denies the need for truthful self-expression, refuses humble recognition of his grounding in time and place, or neglects craftsmanship and attention to beauty, is sinful. Thus there is no purpose that excuses the artist from observing these demands, be it political or personal or religious. This is what Gilson meant by putting the highest truth at the service of art. Maritain expresses the gravity of a departure from this call:
The artist who, yielding to ill-advised moral exhortations, decides to betray his own singular truth as an artist, and his artistic conscience, breaks within himself one of the springs, the sacred springs, of human conscience, and to that extent wounds moral conscience itself. 30
Like St. Thomas, Maritain finds the central question to be one of honesty and fidelity to the gift of art which God has given. Betrayal of the gift is a sin.
Because of the immense demands of art upon the artist, Gilson suggests that “what is artistically good can be morally wrong.” 31 The honesty of the artist may reveal what is corrupted, and do so with great skill and attractiveness. Beautiful art is not created only by saints; the moral indifference of the gift of art allows the good, the bad, and the middling to produce wonderful things. Maritain warns, “Yet thus does art avail itself of anything; even of sin. It behaves like a god; it thinks only of its own glory. The painter may damn himself, painting does not care a straw.” 32
However, for the Catholic artist, nothing may take the place of God, and certainly for a God-given vocation to usurp the Giver’s glory is an absurdity. If the artist “took the end of his art, or the good of his artifact, for his own supreme good and ultimate end, he would be but an idolater.” 33 Instead the artist must find a way to order his responsibilities, toward art and toward God, so that each may be served authentically. Maritain begins to set out this way by clarifying the place art fills when integrated in the human person.
As used by man’s free will art enters a sphere which is not its own, but the sphere of moral standards and values, and in which there is no good against the good of human life….From the point of view of Art, the artist is responsible only to his work. From the point of view of Morality…the artist is responsible to the good of human life, in himself and in his fellow man. 34
Art only exists and functions within the person; though it can in theory be isolated and examined, in reality it manifests itself exclusively through the human soul, and its demands must not be allowed to override the good of that soul. Yet the good of the soul includes the faithful carrying out of its vocation. For the artist this must be done through the gift of art, which “does not care a straw” for anything but the good of the work of art.
The Catholic artist’s passion for Christ can, and must, outstrip his passion for art and be the impetus for his art. Art will retain its integrity if
the passion in question [has] been internalized in the creative source, integrated in the poetic intuition, and therefore transmuted; for then, once it has been thus integrated in poetic intuition, what had been an idea or a passion has become poetic knowledge. 35
When the love of Jesus Christ has become an inseparable part of the artist’s being, it will be infused to his artistic gifts also, and shape his artistic vision. “No wall of separation isolates the virtue of art from the inner universe of man’s desire and love.” 36 The Catholic artist fulfills the demands of his calling by internalizing his faith to such an extent that what springs from his depths and demands expression is love. When the stuff of Christianity is used in the work of art, it must belong to the nature of that work, being authentically at its source, and be deployed in all honesty. If the artist is formed by love of God and of man, that love will animate his artistic vision. Thus, “if the artist loves truth and loves his fellowmen, anything in the work which might distort the truth or deteriorate the human soul will displease him, and lose for him that delight which beauty affords.” 37
Thus it is seen that the artistic calling comes with great responsibilities: for integrity in art’s execution, toward the gift itself, and toward the world which receives its works. The Catholic artist must seek to integrate his faith so thoroughly into his person that the fulfillment of these responsibilities is carried out in love of God and of neighbor. John Paul II identifies purity of motivation as one way that this love must be manifested. He reminds artists that they “must labor without allowing themselves to be driven by the search for empty glory or the craving for cheap popularity, and still less by the calculation of some possible profit for themselves.” He goes on then to suggest that “there is therefore an ethic, even a ‘spirituality’ of artistic service, which contributes in its way to the life and renewal of a people.” 38 Understanding his special gifts and calling, it is possible to identify aspects of the unique spirituality of the Catholic artist, one rooted in the grace that gives him a share in the life of the Triune God.
An artist’s first impulse may be to make things, but close upon that follows the desire that those things be shared. Artists “do not develop [their talent] for their own satisfaction, but in order to serve with this talent their neighbour and the society in which they live.” 39 An ethic of service, then, is part of the artist’s ethic. He must keep in consideration his duty to his fellow-man. Kandinsky explains that because of this duty, the artist
must search deeply into his own soul, develop and tend it, so that his art has something to clothe, and does not remain a glove without a hand….He must realize that his every deed, feeling, and thought are raw but sure material from which his work is to arise, that he is free in art but not in life. 40
As Christ exhorts us, “either make the tree good, and its fruit good; or make the tree bad, and its fruit bad; for the tree is known by its fruit.” 41 One who, like the artist, opens his soul for the witness of his brothers, is obligated to do all he can to give his brothers “good fruit,” that which will nourish and delight. Pope John Paul II, in a 2004 address, instructed artists that they are responsible morally as well as aesthetically: “If creativity is not guided by good, or worse still, it is directed toward evil, it is not worthy of the title of ‘artist.’” The gift of art is a power; in itself neither good nor evil, but ready to be used in whatever way the artist wills. Works of art, especially those of excellence, exert a strong influence upon the receivers, giving the artist a responsibility; his power, writes Wassily Kandinsky, “must be directed to the improvement and refinement of the human soul….If art refrains from doing this work, a chasm remains unbridged, for no other power can take the place of art in this activity.”
When the artist disregards morality in his personal life, the degradation of his soul will surely seep into the works he produces, but it also corrupts his gift itself and prevents its full development. In The Responsibility of the Artist, Maritain maintains that immoral desires and conduct impair the artist’s receptivity: “are not the inner inclinations of the artist the very channel through which things are revealed to him?” Darkness in the soul of the artist must be his greatest enemy, for it chokes the very power of perception that is the core of his gift. “A moral poison which warps in the long run the power of vision will finally, through an indirect repercussion, warp artistic creativity—though perhaps this poison will have stimulated or sensitized it for a time.” The purity of heart that is demanded by the artist’s duty to his fellow man is also necessary if he is to fulfill his duty to the gift which sets him apart. The artist must recognize “the obligation not to waste this talent but to develop it”, 42 and doing so requires commitment to personal holiness—in other words, to a life of love.
It has been shown that the gift and vocation of art are set apart by a heightened sensibility, an ability to “see” the hidden realities of creation, and to communicate those revelations to the world. The exercise of art flows, in Cardinal Schönborn’s words, “from an encounter between heaven and earth, between divine and human realities, and living out this encounter ever anew.” The Catholic recognizes that Jesus Christ is the locus of divine and human encounter; more than a teacher or guide on the quest for vision, Christ Himself contains all vision, all realities, all mysteries.
By participation in Christ, Schönborn writes, the artist’s human vision is transformed: “If Christ appeared on earth to renew man in his total being, to form man after his own image, then we must also say that the artist’s eyes, his sensitivity, and his creative powers, are included in this re-creation as well.” A spirituality of artistic service, like all Christian spiritualities, is (in the words of Jordan Aumann) “participation in the mystery of Christ through the interior life of grace,” and most especially a participation which clears away the obstacles to creative activity and informs that activity with supernatural significance.
Although it is a commonplace that the artist’s purpose is to “express himself,” self-expression is only a by-product of the artist’s individuality and not an end in itself. “The free man is not trying to express himself,” writes Coomaraswamy, “but that which was to be expressed.” The Christian artist who seeks true self-knowledge becomes fully aware of his need for repentance, forgiveness, and transfiguration. He knows that when his creative work is invaded by his ego, he “no longer manifests himself and the world in his work—he unloads himself in it, pours his own complexes and poisons into it” 43 and into the receiver. Because this is a constant, and not always conscious, temptation, the artist’s spirituality must put special emphasis upon the Sacrament of Reconciliation.
Without the sacrament of confession, which purifies through repentance, the whole creative work of the painter becomes as it were a public confession. Without repentance, this public confession does not purify or liberate the artist, but infects the spectator with all he has in him. Here the ‘freedom’ of the artist is manifested at the expense of the freedom of the spectator. 44
Purification of the soul frees the artistic nature to absorb what revelation God has in store for it. In order to skillfully and accurately portray that revelation, the artist must have the openness and docility to become, in a way, “possessed” of the vision. “It is true that if the artist has not conformed himself to the pattern of the thing to be made has not really known it and cannot work originally. But if he has thus conformed himself he will be in fact expressing himself in bringing it forth.” (45) When it comes to creating sacred art intended for devotional or, particularly, liturgical use, the need for self-abandonment is most acute—for in that case the artist’s central obligation is to serve as a conduit for grace. “The degree to which the gift of expression is subordinated to the revelation it has to express, determines the spiritual level and purity of the image.” (46) The artist must desire to see within himself a glimmer of the divine light, beauty in his own humanness, portents of the transfiguration that is promised. The theology of the icon teaches that an icon “cannot be invented.” Neither can any authentic sacred art. It must come from personal encounter with the Other, for “no artistic gift can replace actual knowledge, drawn from ‘seeing and contemplating.’” (47) In being conformed to the image of Christ the artist not only is able to produce works more and more consonant with divine truth; his process of work itself takes on the image of the Creator. “He does not imitate God’s works, for that would be to make copies of copies, but imitates God’s manner of working as it is inherent in his nature so to do.” The distinction made here by Eric Gill is elusive, but real. Many artists have spent years (and lifetimes!) practicing their craftsmanship by making imitations of God’s works. But at that moment when an artist is able to perceive the inner reality, the “ontological secret” of his subject, and can focus unwavering attention upon it and submit his work to that light—allowing his inner vision to form the work, rather than a superficial impression—then he has worked in a way analogous to the Creator, becoming at that one moment a true artist. If his inner vision has been refined in the crucible of God’s love, his work will have all the better possibility of bearing beauty into the world.
Of course, beautiful work depends upon technical skills and physical attributes, in addition to the contemplative habit, all to be developed by persevering effort. Maritain reminds us that “art, like love, proceeds from a spontaneous instinct, and it must be cultivated like friendship; for it is a virtue like friendship.” (48) He adds that “the virtue of art involves an improvement of the mind”, the natural object of which is truth. The gift of art is worthy of time spent in practicing, learning, and meditation. Artist and chronicler Giorgio Vasari, in his biography of Michelangelo, defended his subject’s choice of the celibate life by explaining that “he who wishes to work well must withdraw himself from all cares and vexations, since art demands contemplation, solitude, and ease of life, and will not suffer the mind to wander.” And Eric Gill states that “the man incapable of contemplation cannot be an artist, but only a skillful workman; it is demanded of the artist to be both a contemplative and a good workman.” The skillful workman has contributed a multitude of wonderful things to human experience; but it is the true artist who lifts human awareness above ordinary existence. Josef Pieper provides an illuminating conclusion:
Wherever the arts are nourished through the festive contemplation of universal realities and their sustaining reasons, there in truth something like a liberation occurs: the stepping-out into the open under an endless sky, not only for the creative artist himself but for the beholder as well, even the most humble. Such liberation, such foreshadowing of the ultimate and perfect fulfillment, is necessary for man, almost more necessary than his daily bread, which is indeed indispensable and yet insufficient.
As the artist brings his whole self with his unique gifts and calling to the feet of Christ, allowing Him to permeate it all, he has the great hope of being empowered to bring such nourishment to his fellow man. A spirituality characterized by contemplation and confession, together with prayerful labor aimed to the edification, comfort, and joy of his fellow man, will bring the artist forward toward his goal.
Eileen Cunis paints, writes, and illustrates in her home in central New Hampshire where she lives with her husband David, with appearances at various intervals by their grown children and diminutive granddaughters. An adult convert to Catholicism, she creates artwork for use in her parish’s liturgies, and she serves with the local pregnancy care center. This series of essays was originally written as a thesis paper to complete her master’s degree in theology at Holy Apostles College and Seminary in Cromwell, CT.
1. John Paul II, The Splendor of Truth.↩
2. Gaudium et Spes, no. 22.↩
3. Eph 1:5, 9–10.↩
4. Veritatis Splendor, no. 53.↩
5. Maritain, Art and Scholasticism, p. 24.↩
6. In addition, the reader may wish to consult John Saward’s The Beauty of Holiness and the Holiness of Beauty: Art, Sanctity, and the Truth of Catholicism for an extensive and perceptive exploration of beauty and holiness.↩
7. Art and Scholasticism, p. 59.↩
8. no. 6.↩
9. From Dawn to Decadence, 788.↩
10. Art and Scholasticism, 14.↩
11. Built of Living Stones, no. 150.↩
12. I–II, 57, 4.↩
15. CCC, no. 2715.↩
16. CCC, no. 2716.↩
17. Art and Scholasticism, no. 45.↩
18. The Responsibility of the Artist, 105.↩
19. Letter to Artists, no. 1.↩
20. Letter to Artists, no. 3.↩
21. Arts of the Beautiful, 44.↩
22. Arts of the Beautiful, 182.↩
24. The following discussion relies heavily upon Maritain’s The Responsibility of the Artist, which is highly recommended for the reader wishing to pursue the topic.↩
25. Arts of the Beautiful, 15.↩
26. Art and Scholasticism, 9.↩
27. I–II, 57, 3.↩
28. Concerning the Spiritual in Art, 33.↩
29. Concerning the Spiritual in Art, 35.↩
30. The Responsibility of the Artist, 37.↩
31. Arts of the Beautiful, 44.↩
32. The Responsibility of the Artist, 29.↩
33. The Responsibility of the Artist, 39.↩
34. The Responsibility of the Artist, 39–40.↩
35. The Responsibility of the Artist, 71.↩
36. The Responsibility of the Artist, 50.↩
37. The Responsibility of the Artist, 60.↩
38. Letter to Artists, no. 4.↩
39. John Paul II, Address, January 28, 2004.↩
40. 54, italics added.↩
41. Mt 12:33.↩
42. Letter to Artists, no. 3.↩
43. The Responsibility of the Artist, 54.↩
44. Ouspensky and Lossky, 42.↩
45. Coomaraswamy, 36.↩
46. Ouspensky and Lossky, 45.↩
47. Ouspensky and Lossky, 41–42.↩
48. Art and Scholasticism, 41. Note that friendship is a moral virtue, and to be such it must be used rightly; art is an intellectual virtue which operates apart from moral considerations.↩
Aumann, Jordan. Spiritual Theology. London: Sheed and Ward, 1980.
Barzun, Jacques. From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life, 1500 to the Present. New York: Harper Perennial, 2001.
Bednar, Gerald J. Faith as Imagination: The Contribution of William F. Lynch, S.J. Kansas City: Sheed and Ward, 1996.
Catechism of the Catholic Church. New York: Doubleday, 1997.
Coomaraswamy, Amanda K. Christian and Oriental Philosophy of Art. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
Gilson, Etienne. Arts of the Beautiful. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976.
Gilson, Etienne. Forms and Substances in the Arts. Trans. Salvator Attanasio. Normal, IL: Dalkey Archive Press, 2001.
Kandinsky, Wassily. Concerning the Spiritual in Art. Trans. M. T. H. Sadler. New York: Dover Publications, 1977.
Keeble, Brian, ed. A Holy Tradition of Working: Passages from the Writings of Eric Gill. West Stockbridge, MA: The Lindisfarne Press, 1983.
Klee, Paul. The Diaries of Paul Klee. html.gloklee/net.constable
Maritain, Jacques. The Responsibility of the Artist. New York: Gordian Press, 1972.
Maritain, Jacques. Art and Scholasticism.
Ouspensky, Leonid, and Lossky, Vladimir. The Meaning of Icons. Trans. G. E. H. Palmer and E. Kadloubovsky. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1999.
Pieper, Josef. Only the Lover Sings: Art and Contemplation. Trans. Lothar Krauth. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1990.
Pope John Paul II. Address to representatives of the Cultural and Artistic Formation Center of Poland, January 2004. www.vatican.va
Pope John Paul II. Letter to Artists, 1998. www.vatican.va
Pope John Paul II. The Poetry of John Paul II: Roman Triptych—Meditations. Trans. Jerzy Peterkiewicz. Washington, DC: United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, 2003.
Pope John Paul II. The Splendor of Truth (Veritatis Splendor). www.vatican.va
Pope Pius XII. Address to Italian artists, April 8, 1952. www.papalencyclicals.net/Pius12/p12art.htm
Read, Herbert. The Philosophy of Modern Art. London: Faber and Faber, 1964.
Saward, John. The Beauty of Holiness and the Holiness of Beauty: Art, Sanctity, and the Truth of Catholicism. San Francisco, CA: Ignatius Press, 1997.
Schönborn, Cardinal Christoph, OP. God’s Human Face: The Christ-Icon. Trans. Lothar Krauth. San Francisco, CA: Ignatius Press, 1994. St. Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologica. Trans. Fathers of the English Dominican Province. New York: Benzinger Brothers, Inc., 1948.
United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Built of Living Stones: Art, Architecture, and Worship. Washington, D.C.: United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, 2000.
Vasari, Giorgio. Life of Michelangelo. Trans. Gaston du C. de Vere. New York: Society of St. Paul, 2003. | <urn:uuid:afab061a-1538-437b-8b14-e5fad359c486> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://dappledthings.org/4668/who-is-the-artist/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280761.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00092-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966349 | 11,932 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Colombo [Sri Lanka], Dec. 26 : Sri Lanka is observing the 12th anniversary of the devastating tsunami which struck the island nation in 2004 killing more than 35,000 people and leaving many people homeless.
Several programs and functions were organised to commemorate the tragic disaster. Around 1500 passengers of the southbound Queen of the Sea (Samudra Devi) train got washed away by the killer waves near Peraliya area in Hikkaduwa about 75 miles south of Colombo.
Most of the passengers of the train were killed in the incident. The train, which was restored after the tsunami, ran from Maradana Railway Station to Peraliya today amidst prayers to remember the passengers who were killed in the disaster.
The Colombo Page quoted the Disaster Management Center Deputy Director Pradeep Kodippili, as saying that they have organised religious observances and awareness programs to commemorate the day.
Sri Lanka has declared December 26 as the National Safety Day following the 2004 Tunami to commemorate the people who lost their lives due to all natural disasters and to create awareness about the disasters among the people and to promote a culture of preparedness among the communities for disasters. | <urn:uuid:0a224b3a-635d-4c5b-ac0f-3298ca8f4e4d> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.india4u.com/sri-lanka-observes-12th-anniversary-of-2004-tsunami/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573667.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20220819100644-20220819130644-00074.warc.gz | en | 0.975559 | 245 | 2.296875 | 2 |
Federal Reserve governor Jerome Powell indicated Tuesday the central bank is likely to raise short-term interest rates at its policy meeting next month.
"Conditions are supportive" of another quarter-percentage-point increase in the Fed's benchmark federal-funds rate at its meeting Dec. 12-13, he told a Senate panel Tuesday at a hearing on his nomination to be the Fed's next chairman.
"I think the case for raising rates at our next meeting is coming together," he told the Senate Banking Committee, but cautioned that no final decision will be made until the meeting.
A rate increase next month would be its fifth such move in two years and would lift the rate to a range between 1.25% and 1.50%.
Mr. Powell also said he expects the central bank's portfolio of holdings to shrink to a range between $2.5 trillion and $3 trillion over the next few years. "Again, there's no certainty in that," Mr. Powell added, noting that the estimate was his own and not the view of the Fed's policy-setting committee.
He said that at the end of the process of reducing the Fed's balance sheet, it would be "much smaller" than its current $4.5 trillion size but larger than it was before the 2008 financial crisis. He said its ultimate size would depend primarily on the demand for cash, or the money banks hold at the Fed, called reserves.
The Fed accumulated much of those holdings during several rounds of bond purchases aimed at stabilizing markets and supporting the economy during and after the financial crisis. The programs were designed to lower long-term interest rates to encourage hiring, investment and spending.
Now, with the economy growing at a healthy pace and unemployment low, the Fed is allowing the balance sheet to shrink gradually by allowing some of its Treasury and mortgage-backed securities to mature without reinvesting the proceeds.
That process of reducing the balance sheet to its new "equilibrium size" will take three or four years, he said, addressing an issue of acute interest to financial markets.
"It will be no larger than it needs to be for us to conduct monetary policy," he said.
Write to Kate Davidson at firstname.lastname@example.org
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November 28, 2017 11:48 ET (16:48 GMT) | <urn:uuid:e880304f-bc11-47d1-9932-9297f2435492> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.foxbusiness.com/features/powell-suggests-fed-is-likely-to-raise-rates-in-december | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572198.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20220815175725-20220815205725-00266.warc.gz | en | 0.973719 | 485 | 1.523438 | 2 |
Kerstin Sjoden reports.
Activist Christian Engström looks more like a engineer than a buccaneer. But in June he’ll be one of 20 candidates running for seats in the European Parliament under the skull-and-crossbones flag of the Swedish Pirate Party.
"If politicians want to prevent ordinary citizens from sharing files, they will constantly have to expand their ability to monitor," Engström said in a telephone interview. "It’s necessary to reform the copyright legislation to ensure that citizens’ right to privacy is respected."
Founded by copyright activists in early 2006, the Pirate Party believes people should be able to freely copy books or music for private use. The party is dedicated to radical reform of copyright law, abolition of the patent system and guaranteed online privacy rights. But despite an agenda near and dear to much of Sweden’s youth, the party put in a dismal showing in the Swedish national election in 2006, winning only 0.63 percent of the votes.
But times have changed, says Engström. There’s growing outrage in Sweden over draconian new anti-privacy legislation, and the recent trial of The Pirate Bay in Stockholm earned saturation-level media coverage. The party’s rank-and-file has swelled over the last year, and with 12 ,000 members, the Pirate Party is now larger than the small but well-established Swedish Left Party and the Swedish Green Party. The party’s youth section, "Young Pirates," is currently the second biggest political youth group in Sweden.
Engström, a 48-year-old father living in Nacka, a wealthy suburb of Stockholm, believes that support gives him and his fellow candidates a real shot at the European Parliament. Elections in EU’s 27 member states will be held between June 4 and June 7, 2009. The European Parliament is the only directly elected body of the European Union and plays an active role in drafting legislation from its headquarters in Brussels.
"Most legislation about information policy comes from Brussels," says Engström."That’s where decisions are made and that’s why we want to be there."
Engström has worked as an unpaid, full-time activist for five years. He joined the Pirate Party in 2006, after lobbying against software patents in Brussels for two years. Before becoming an activist, he worked as a programmer and vice president of a small company.
"I’ve saved enough to be able to work without getting paid, and these issues are of such importance to me," says Engström. "But I can’t work like this forever. Eventually, some money would be nice."
The timing of the EU election is almost perfect for the party. Last summer, a controversial law that allows the state to wiretap internet traffic that crosses Sweden’s borders was passed by the Swedish parliament, provoking widespread and intense opposition, and putting one of the Pirate Party’s core issues in the map.
Shortly afterward, there was an outcry about the new "Ipred-law", which gives copyright holders the right to seek a court order identifying people linked to illegal downloading. Based on the European
Union’s Intellectual Property Rights Enforcement Directive, the measure will come into force on April 1.
In the middle of it all The Pirate Bay trial, which ended March
3, had everyone voicing an opinion. The judge is expected to issue a verdict on April 17, an event likely to raise much media interest again.
To succeed in June’s election, The Pirate Party must keep the online privacy discussion alive and convince voters of a conflict between Sweden’s established parties and the public interest.
Ulf Bjereld, professor of Political Science at the University of Gothenburg in Sweden, thinks that the Pirate Party’s chances to reach the EU Parliament are pretty small. "They shouldn’t be disregarded though," he says.
"Small parties can pop up during EU elections, and the Pirate
Party’s campaign issues have been rousing interest all year long," says
Bjereld. "But they need to reach outside their own group to mobilize more voters."
The pirates will still need an estimated 100,000 votes to get a member elected. In the Swedish national election in 2006, the Pirate
Party won only 35,000 votes.
According to Engström, this summer’s election is make or break for Sweden’s pirates, because of the party’s shaky financial situation. The
Pirate Party has no paid employees — operating costs are covered by member donations. If the party makes it to the EU parliament, it will be able to have a paid employee, and hire two or three assistants.
"If we fail to reach the European parliament, the future of the Pirate
Party looks quite dark," he says. "All our planning is based on us going to Brussels."
Photo courtesy Rickard Olsson.Go Back to Top. Skip To: Start of Article. | <urn:uuid:05b5d6c0-e032-4348-b948-c78535eccd5f> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | https://www.wired.com/2009/03/the-pirate-part | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280587.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00565-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.963935 | 1,053 | 1.90625 | 2 |
Porous collagen/chitosan scaffolds with different Collagen:Chitosan (Coll:Ch) ratios were prepared by freeze-drying followed by self-crosslinking via dehydrothermal treatment (DHT) and characterized as biomaterials for tissue engineering. Cy7 and Cy5.5 fluorochromes were covalently grafted to collagen and chitosan, respectively. Thus, it was possible, using optical fluorescence imaging of the two fluorochromes, to simultaneously track their in vivo biodegradation, in a blend scaffold form. The fluorescence signal evolution, due to the bioresorption, corroborated with histological analysis. In vitro cytocompatibility of Coll:Ch blend scaffolds were evaluated with standardized tests. In addition, the scaffolds showed a highly interconnected porous structure. Extent of crosslinking was analyzed by convergent analysis using thermogravimetry, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and PBS uptake. The variations observed with these techniques indicate strong interactions between collagen and chitosan (covalent and hydrogen bonds) promoted by the DHT. The mechanical properties were characterized to elucidate the impact of the different processing steps in the sample preparation (DHT, neutralization and sterilization by β-irradiation) and showed a robust processing scheme with low impact of Coll:Ch composition ratio.
Keywords: Bi-fluorescence imaging; Collagen:chitosan scaffolds; Dehydrothermal treatment.
Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:18515384-cbfa-4104-b25f-36087f8d2dff> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30817967/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570977.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20220809124724-20220809154724-00466.warc.gz | en | 0.931087 | 328 | 1.5625 | 2 |
Federal Financial Aid
Financial Aid Eligibility
In general, to be eligible for federal financial aid you must:
- Demonstrate financial need (for most programs)
- Be a U.S. citizen or an eligible non-citizen
- Have a valid Social Security Number, if required
- Be registered for the Selective Service if you are a male between the ages of 18 and 25
- Be enrolled or accepted for enrollment as a regular student in a eligible degree or certificate program
- Have a high school diploma or its equivalent
- Maintain satisfactory academic progress
- Not be in default on a federal student loan or owe money on a federal student grant
Types of Federal Aid
Allen Community College participates in the following federal aid programs: Pell Grant program, FSEOG program, Federal Work-Study Program, and the Direct Loan program. A student must complete the Free Application for Federal Student Aid to apply for this aid.
The Pell Grant program requires a student meet the general eligibility requirements. This is a grant program so any money received does not need to be repaid. The maximum Pell Grant award for 2014-15 is $5730. Grant award depends on the student’s
- Financial need
- Cost of attendance
- Enrollment status
- Length of attendance
Students are ineligible for this program once they have received a bachelor’s degree. The Pell Grant may only be received for 12 semesters or the equivalent. Excess funds not needed to pay the student's account are disbursed after the fifth week of class.
Federal Direct Student Loans
The Federal Direct Student Loan program provides opportunities for students to obtain a loan to assist in educational costs. These are loans so any money received must be repaid. Direct Student Loans are either subsidized or unsubsidized:
- Subsidized Direct Student Loans are awarded based on financial need. A student receiving a subsidized loan will not be charged interest while in attendance with a minimum half time status.
- Unsubsidized Direct Student Loans are not awarded based on need. A student will be charged interest from the time the loan is disbursed until it is paid in full. The current interest rate is 6.4%.
A student must meet all general eligibility requirements. The amount the student may borrow depends on his or her grade level, college cost, EFC, current loan indebtedness, and other financial aid received. A dependent student's creditworthy parents may apply for a Direct PLUS loan for the amount of the student's college cost minus other aid received. A student may be denied a loan based upon his or her current student loan indebtedness.
Federal Supplemental Education Opportunity Grant
The FSEOG program provides grant funds to exceptionally needy students and any money received does not need to be repaid. Students must be Pell eligible to receive this grant.
Priority is given to students with the lowest EFCs (Expected Family Contribution). At Allen Community College awards generally are $200 per year. A student who has earned a bachelor's degree is not eligible. FSEOG funds not needed to pay the student's account are disbursed after the fifth week of class.
The Federal Work-Study program provides employment opportunities on campus to full-time students. Students are paid minimum wage and work an average of 10-20 hours per week. Students must meet the general financial aid eligibility requirements. The amount of the award is based on the student’s need. | <urn:uuid:a284fd8a-6696-4c5b-bbe5-b4ef8ef4e714> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.allencc.edu/index.php/current-students/financial-aid/2-uncategorised/1390-federal-financial-aid | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560279915.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095119-00283-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948848 | 706 | 1.96875 | 2 |
a condition of matter in which more electrons are in a high energy state than in a lower energy state, as is required for the operation of a laser.
The condition of having enough excited or high-energy states distributed in a material that a chain-reaction of stimulated emission can occur. Lasers, for example, need a constant power source that maintains population inversion in order to generate radiation continuously, since each stimulated emission reduces the population of high-energy states. See also stimulated emission.
noun, Statistics. 1. a quantity or statistical measure that, for a given population, is fixed and that is used as the value of a variable in some general distribution or frequency function to make it descriptive of that population: The mean and variance of a population are population parameters.
noun, Ecology. 1. the force exerted by a growing population upon its environment, resulting in dispersal or reduction of the population.
noun, Sociology. 1. a graph showing the distribution of a population by sex, age, etc. noun 1. a pyramid-shaped diagram illustrating the age distribution of a population: the youngest are represented by a rectangle at the base, the oldest by one at the apex
[sah-loo s paw-poo-lee soo-prey-mah leks es-toh; English sey-luh s pop-yuh-lahy-soo-pree-muh leks es-toh] /ˈsɑ lʊs ˈpɔ pʊˌli suˈpreɪ mɑ lɛks ˈɛs toʊ; English ˈseɪ ləs ˈpɒp yəˌlaɪ sʊˈpri mə lɛks ˈɛs toʊ/ Latin. 1. let the welfare of the people be the supreme law: a motto of Missouri. [wohks poh-poo-lee wohks de-ee; English voks pop-yuh-lahy voks […] | <urn:uuid:9274745f-5e09-4335-9589-11c8fd8dfdfb> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://definithing.com/define-dictionary/population-inversion/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280310.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00191-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.860525 | 440 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Dry skin is a problem that not only occurs during the cold winter months, but also during summer as well. The increased humidity indoors in the winter and outdoors in the summer add to the problem that affects many sufferers around the world.
Symptoms of dry skin include redness and a tight feeling when you attempt to bend your fingers or even in the slightest movement of your hand. In the case of extreme dry skin, cracking and bleeding may occur. This is the most unpleasant part of dry skin as it can be very embarrassing and, as expected, very painful. While it often seems that there is no way to end this discomfort, there are several tips to help individuals who suffer from dry skin.
Dry Skin Tip # 1
Use a soap that has moisturizing lotion. This will be gentler on your skin and will add moisture back where it has been otherwise removed. If possible, avoid harsh soaps that dry out the skin or strip it of it’s natural moisture.
Dry Skin Tip # 2
While it is important to maintain proper hygiene, overly washing your hands or showering multiple times each day may promote dry skin. After washing, it is equally important to dry your skin thoroughly to prevent it from chapping.
Dry Skin Tip # 3
One of the most effective dry skin treatment products is Pacquin Plus Dry Skin Cream, which is sold in 8oz. bottles. This thick white lotion provides instant relief for dry skin and can be applied to not only the hands, but the entire body as well.
Dry Skin Tip # 4
Use a quality exfoliation product to remove dry and/or dead skin cells. By removing the old cells, you will expose the healthy cells and may be better able to fight against nature’s harmful effects.
Dry Skin Tip # 5
If problem worsens or persists, consult a dermatologist. In some instances, over-the-counter products may not be able to treat severe cases of dry skin. A dermatologist has the ability to recommend stronger treatment products, which may be needed in some instances.
This article is to be used for informational purposes only and is not intended to be used as professional medical advice. The information contained herein should not be used in place of, or in conjunction with, a doctor’s recommendation . Any individual who develops severe dry skin or that which does not respond to over-the-counter treatment, should consult a licensed dermatologist for proper diagnosis and treatment. | <urn:uuid:39f9e3b2-9fbf-4ce7-8433-d5f510627e3b> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://hasenchat.org/tips-to-dealing-with-dry-skin/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571869.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20220813021048-20220813051048-00075.warc.gz | en | 0.939388 | 511 | 2.078125 | 2 |
“Yeah boy, yeah,” is Flava Flav’s oft-quoted catchphrase, but the one people should be repeating is, “You can’t see me.” This is the famous line of wrestler-turned-rapper John Cena. Hailing from Massachusetts, Cena became a wrestler in 2001 and has been at the top ever since. He is all that and a bag of potato chips in wrestling, but Cena is also da bomb at something else: rap.
I bought Cena’s CD because it had his entrance music on it. When I finished listening, I explored the rest and was surprised at what I heard. It was a pleasant surprise, as I wasn’t expecting his songs to be good. It felt like digging for treasure and finding tons of gold every time I listened to a new song.
I like that Cena writes his own lyrics since most rappers just use others’ lyrics. When you sing your own, it sounds a lot better because it is coming from your heart.
I also like that Cena brings in his rapper cousin, Tha Trademarc, to help. Together they make the songs flow nicely. These two are even better than 50 Cent and The Game because they have a bond and sound like one person when they sing.
Cena started his rap career in the WWE. On a bus ride, when everyone was into hip-hop, the wrestlers were free styling and having a good time. Cena started to free style, and the creative team heard him and thought this should be his storyline while wrestling.
A few years later, Cena wanted to get a CD out there to show that he could rap as well as anyone. I think he did a great job, but there is one problem: the stereotype that athletes are only good at sports. Most of the time that is true, as evidenced by Shaq and his CD, or when Hulk Hogan made a CD which became the stereotype for wrestlers. But you have to try Cena’s CD and forget the stereotype. See how amazing this dude can rap. If you like it, give him the respect he deserves and walk up to any opposing rapper and say, “You can’t see me.”
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By sending us your money, you buy the service we provide. Check out our terms and conditions if you prefer business talks to be laid out in official language.Read more | <urn:uuid:934f5ab9-be9e-472a-be80-eac109ad9474> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://essaytubi.com/2020/03/20/john-cena-you-cant-see-me/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572033.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20220814113403-20220814143403-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.980255 | 686 | 1.640625 | 2 |
Talking with Theresa M. Michele, M.D., who is the director of the Division of Nonprescription Drug Products, CDER.
Recently, FDA began taking steps to implement packaging limitations for the common anti-diarrhea medicine loperamide, which is sold over-the-counter (OTC) under the brand name Imodium, under store brands, and in generic form. The agency is working with manufacturers to use blister packs or other single dose packaging and to limit the number of doses in a package. This move is part of a collaborative effort with manufacturers to foster safe use of the medicine, and to reduce the likelihood of its misuse or abuse. In the last few years, the FDA has seen an increase in reports of unsafe use of the medicine, which can result in severe heart problems.
Theresa Michele discusses why the FDA is taking this action and what health care providers can do if they suspect a patient may be misusing or abusing the medicine.
What is loperamide and how does it work to treat diarrhea symptoms?
Loperamide is an opioid-receptor agonist that acts on opioid receptors in the gastrointestinal tract to slow intestinal movement, which leads to fewer bowel movements and less watery stool. When used at the recommended OTC dose of no more than 8 mg per day, it is safe and effective. Loperamide has been available over the counter since 1988.
Why has the misuse of loperamide become a concern?
From 1976 through 2015, FDA received reports of 48 cases of serious heart problems associated with loperamide. Of these, 31 cases resulted in hospitalization, and 10 patients died. More than half of the 48 cases were reported after 2010, and 22 of the 48 cases indicated that patients were abusing high doses of loperamide. A 2013 publication that looked at online forums where opioid users anonymously discussed loperamide use found an increase in talk about abusing the drug in recent years. Most commenters discussed using the medication to self-treat symptoms of opioid withdrawal, but a significant portion (around 25 percent) reported using it to achieve a euphoric statei. We continue to receive reports of loperamide misuse and abuse and associated serious adverse cardiac events.
What happens to the body when very large doses of the drug are taken?
When taken as directed, the drug does not cross the blood-brain barrier or produce the euphoric effects that other opioid products do. However, when extremely high doses are taken (some reports have noted people taking 100 to 200 mg per day), loperamide enters the central nervous system and can produce a sense of euphoria similar to that associated with centrally-acting opioids like hydrocodone, morphine, or heroin. This has prompted some people who are in the throes of opioid withdrawal to use loperamide to help ease their symptoms, or to get high.
At such high levels, the drug can be very dangerous. High doses of loperamide can cause serious heart problems, including arrhythmias, loss of consciousness or fainting, and even cardiac arrest. In addition, loperamide can interact with some medications such as certain antifungal drugs, the antibiotics erythromycin and clarithromycin, several acid reflux drugs, and others, worsening these effects.
What should a health care provider do if he or she encounters a patient who may have misused or abused loperamide?
FDA does not regulate the practice of medicine, but we can offer advice on what health care providers can do if they suspect loperamide abuse, misuse, or overdose. First, health care providers should consider loperamide as a possible cause of unexplained cardiac events including QT interval prolongation, Torsades de Pointes, or other ventricular arrhythmias, syncope, and cardiac arrest. For some cases of Torsades de Pointes in which drug treatment is ineffective, electrical pacing or cardioversion may be required.
A blood test that specifically measures loperamide levels should be done because a standard drug screening will not detect the medicine. Health care providers should counsel patients about the cardiac risks associated with high doses of loperamide, and urge them to stick with the recommended dose. Patients who may be experiencing an opioid use disorder should be treated with FDA-approved drugs to reduce opioid withdrawal symptoms. Health care providers should be cautious about prescribing loperamide for patients who are at risk for serious heart problems, or who are already on medications known to inhibit loperamide metabolism or prolong the QT interval.
We ask that health care providers also report any adverse events involving loperamide to the FDA MedWatch Program, or call 1-800-332-1088 to request a reporting form.
For more information:
iDaniulaityte R, Carlson R, Falck R, Cameron D, Perera S, Chen L, Sheth A. “I Just Wanted to Tell You That Loperamide WILL WORK”: A Web-based Study of Extra-Medical Use of Loperamide. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2013 June 1; 130(0): 241-244. | <urn:uuid:5c28fa37-8b82-456c-84db-6da82adb019a> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.fda.gov/drugs/news-events-human-drugs/cder-conversation-reducing-risk-loperamide-misuse-and-abuse | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571147.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20220810040253-20220810070253-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.925834 | 1,052 | 3.046875 | 3 |
On Friday, July 10th, United States Ambassador Daniel A. Clune joined Mr. Kou Chansina, Chairman of Lao National Commission for Drug Control (LCDC) and Mr. Jeremy Douglas, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Regional Representative, at a signing ceremony for a new Memorandum of Understanding between the LCDC and UNODC.
This agreement will provide Houaphanh province with $1,500,000 in U.S. support over two years to assist opium-growing farmers find alternative livelihoods. The U.S.-funded project will be implemented by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in two districts of Houaphanh province. This support will also contribute to the government’s poverty eradication efforts since the areas of opium poppy cultivation are generally the poorest and most remote in the Lao PDR.
The United States Government has provided over $47 million in counter-narcotics assistance to the Lao PDR since 1989. U.S. assistance has included training and equipment for law enforcement, treatment of drug users, and activities to warn the public against illicit narcotics. The United States also provides law enforcement assistance to the Ministry of Justice, the Office of Supreme People’s Prosecutor, the People’s Supreme Court, the Government Inspection and Anti-corruption Authority, and the Lao Customs Department. | <urn:uuid:ce6a32bc-685c-4af7-b12d-53adf490772b> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://la.usembassy.gov/united-states-supports-farmers-in-houaphanh-province-to-fight-drugs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882570871.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20220808183040-20220808213040-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.926255 | 284 | 1.546875 | 2 |
January 20, 2008
The Gulf States are looking round to spend their money and Ireland’s banks are looking good value right now.
A few years ago, one of Ireland’s best known bankers indicated to me just how important it was that the Irish banks remained Irish-run in a downturn. His nightmare scenario was an Irish property market slump, coincident with a change of management in Ireland’s major banks. He feared that, at a time of crisis, the head office of one or more of our major banks might be in London on somewhere outside Dublin, run by non-Irish executives for whom Ireland was only a region in their eurozone banking portfolio.
He believed that, in a downturn, Irish executives who might have children here, who understood the importance of the banking sector to the economy and the importance of the economy to the psyche of the nation would move mountains to maintain liquidity in the country.
In a crisis, he envisaged a response that was almost a type of a financial war-cabinet, where bankers would have a direct line to the governor of the central bank and the Minister of Finance.
Clearly, this was a man who, back in 2005, saw the potential for a serious property recession. Now that recession is upon us. Worse still, there is a very serious possibility that foreign investors will take over one of the major Irish banks. This is now becoming a distinct probability.
In the past few weeks we have seen Arab money bail out the major US banks that are now in post-property bubble problems. The Arabs buoyed up by oil-money are buying up banks all over the world.
For example, in the past three weeks, $30 billion from Arab countries’ sovereign funds (which are national funds set up by the Gulf States to invest their money) have been invested in some of the biggest banks on Wall Street including Citigroup and Merrill Lynch, while a Chinese state fund has pumped $5 billion into Morgan Stanley.
Obviously, the Arab funds are now in the banking business, so what would prevent them from picking up an Irish bank as part of their Euro portfolio? Look at the Irish banks, all of them are now trading at half the price they were 12 months ago. They will probably get cheaper, but not much. So why not take them over, particularly if you have the cash?
The Arabs have the cash because the higher the price of oil, the more cash they have and the more they need to spend. This is what globalisation means. It is a huge circular flow of taking advantage of financial opportunities where nations and national interest are not of any importance.
So, in the same way as Irish investors bought apartments abroad, particularly in eastern Europe, snapping up bargains which might have upset locals who could not afford to buy houses in their own countries, suddenly Ireland is now a target for Arab cash, much of it coming from the petrol we buy in the west.
When you fill up at the pump, do you ever think about where the cash goes? Obviously, much of it ends up in the hands of the oil producer after all the others take their cut, particularly the tax man.
Since the attack on the Twin Towers and particularly since the occupation of Afghanistan and Iraq, the price of oil has increased from $23,peaking above $100 a barrel. It is now somewhere around $90. Arab oil producers benefit from a huge windfall as millions of western drivers hand over cash to the Sheiks.
The best way to gauge just how much of your cash has ended up in the Gulf is to look at the foreign reserves of the region. The IMF calculates that the balance of payments of the Gulf went from a $30billion surplus on the eve of September 11 to $212 billion last year. The crucial oil trade balance has rocketed up from $159 billion to $451 billion. This is your cash – but it is now being used to buy your assets.
Because the Gulf States have pretty modest economies (Saudi Arabia is a smaller economy than Denmark), the bulk of the petro-cash, as happened in the 1970s, has gone back out into the world economy, looking for a profitable home.
All this recycled cash has had the effect of keeping world interest rates lower than they would otherwise be. As well as having old Germans to thank for our lower interest rates, Osama bin Laden has had a big role in the liquidity bonanza of the past few years. His attack on the Twin Towers, triggering the invasion of Iraq, has ensured that a Tsunami of oil money from the Gulf is currently washing over us.
Up to recently, this was a boom for Irish banks that have gone out in the past two years and borrowed Arab money to lend here to finance the last phase of the property boom, which has now peaked. Figures from the Central Bank reveal that our dependence on this foreign money is now verging on the addictive.
Over four euro in every ten lent to you and me is now borrowed directly by the Irish banks from foreigners. But now the worm has turned. The banks are in trouble and the Arabs still have a limitless well of cash based on oil money.
Why wouldn’t they buy Irish assets? Three years ago, Arab money tried to buy the port of Los Angeles and the US authorities said no way. The port was a national asset which should not be sold to foreigners, particularly Muslim foreigners. Today, the US is a fire sale, everything has a price and the bidder takes the prize.
Now consider the conversations going on in Arab sovereign funds headquarters inKuwait, Dubai or Jeddah. They have to diversify their portfolios. They need Euro assets to counterbalance their dollar exposure.
What country is the easiest to invest in? Why not Ireland? It’s a cheap version of America in Europe and its banks are dirt cheap.
In the next year, there is a good possibility that one of our banks will be bought by some foreign sovereign fund. The Irish banker’s worst nightmare might come to pass.
That’s globalisation for you. You’ve got to take the rough with the smooth. | <urn:uuid:aa8d227a-f2ad-4d0b-9595-42b4998c5f4b> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.davidmcwilliams.ie/2008/01/20/if-bank-hqs-leave-the-country-can-the-money-be-far-behind | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280835.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00464-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.972592 | 1,263 | 1.695313 | 2 |
Dentistry is divided into departments that have more than one area, and each area requires specialization. Patients who have problems because of their teeth naturally start to search for the best dentists in their fields. During this research, they encounter Kings Dental Clinic in and around Ohio. Dental treatments needed with specialist dentists are available at Kings Dental.
Except for general dentistry, dentistry includes 12 specialty dentistry. If patients encounter any dental problems despite their daily dental care, they can find a solution by applying to one of these areas.
How many Dental Specialties are there?
There are 12 different specialty dentistry.
If you do not know which specialty dentistry services department covers your dental problem, you can find out by visiting the Kings Dental Cincinnati or by calling right away!
Where is Mansfield, Ohio located?
Mansfield is a city in Richland County, Ohio, United States. It is located between the cities of Columbus and Cleveland and between the states of Northern Ohio.
What is the population of Mansfield, Ohio?
The population of the city is 47,821 on 29 November 2009 and this historical metropolitan’s population is 124,475.
What is the history of Mansfield, Ohio?
The year Mansfield was first established to the public was 1808. The name of the city is dedicated to a general surveyor named James Mansfield.
Mansfield has been a very slow developing city. In fact, in its early years, there were only twenty houses in the city. It was after 1846 that people settled in Mansfield and increased the population. This is due to the establishment of a rail link with Sandusky Ohio.
In the 19th century, Mansfield, the center of manufacturing and trade in the region, owes it all to four different railroads that connect with the city.
In the 2000s, Mansfield was Richland County’s most populated city. It has been voted among the best cities to raise a child in America in many surveys. Today, the city is nicknamed “The Fun Center of Ohio”. And many entertainment centers are testament to this nickname.
How to reach Kings Dental from Mansfield, Ohio?
There are multiple ways to reach Kings Dental clinic from the Mansfield Center. With a great road view, your visit will be turning into a little holiday! These roads are as follows:
I-71 S Road: From Mansfield to Kings Dental, it takes approximately 2 hours 17 minutes. It is 171 miles.
US-30 W and I-71 Road: It takes approximately 3 hours from Mansfield. It is 200 miles.
Kings Dental: Home of Specialty Dentistry
With the highest technology and specialty dentist, Kings Dental provides the best dental services not only in Mansfield but also all around Ohio. You can easily reach Kings Dental for further questions via phone or by filling the form on our website.
We will be pleased to hear from you!
"My new smile is absolutely wonderful! Dr. Gunacar suggested Porcelain Veneers for me and I couldn't be happier. He is a confident perfectionist who seriously enjoys his work. He was gentle, thorough, and does beautiful dentistry with a great sense of humor!"
- Jeanie H. Cincinnati, OH
"The reason I chose Kings Dental is because no one else in Cincinnati offers high quality dentistry with such care. I had a dental implant surgery on a Saturday and I didn't even have to take off work."
- Fatih O. West Chester, OH
"A year ago I found Dr. Gunacar & his amazing staff after being referred by a friend. I had previous horrible dental experiences and after I found kings dental, they not only took excellent care of me but now I am no longer terrified of the dentist!"
- Jenny M. Mason, OH
"I've never had a dentist so thorough and caring. Everyone from the reception area, to the hygienists, to Dr. Guy are personable and make you feel comfortable. Everyone explains what they doing and why, and can even show you using their advanced technology!"
- Lauren A. Mason, OH | <urn:uuid:4b259203-093b-439b-9158-71fd4499f596> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://kings.dental/mansfield/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572908.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817122626-20220817152626-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.96831 | 874 | 2.140625 | 2 |
Two more infamous figures in Iranian public life were named in the British parliament today as having aided and abetted in Tehran's criminal practice of hostage-taking.
Ameneh Sadat Zabihpour, a long-time “journalist” for Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting, and former IRGC Intelligence Organization chief Hossein Taeb, are among 10 individuals the UK Foreign Office is being asked to consider sanctioning for documented human rights violations.
In a debate in the House of Commons, the lower house of the British legislature, on Thursday, Labour MP Chris Bryant told the All-Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) on Magnitsky Sanctions: “This year Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe and Anousheh Ashouri were finally allowed to return to the UK following years of detention and human rights abuses. Those responsible for these abuses have yet to be held accountable and continue to persecute people, holding them hostage for political gain."
Last September the Free Nazanin Campaign and the charity REDRESS submitted evidence on 10 Iranians involved in hostage-taking to the UK Foreign Office. The government was asked to consider them for Magnitsky sanctions, which target individual perpetrators with measures such as asset freezes and travel bans.
Three of the others were named in the UK last year: Ali Ghanaatkar, a former Evin Prison Court official tasked with compiling cases against would-be hostages; Gholamreza Ziaei, a former head of Evin Prison already sanctioned by the EU; and Ali Rezvani, who like Zabihpour holds a dual role at the IRIB helping manufacture domestic consent for Tehran’s hostage diplomacy.
Ultra-conservative TV presenter Ameneh Sadat Zabihpour Ahmadi is a household name in Iran. Born in Tehran in 1984, she has been the IRIB’s “Reporter on Political and Security Affairs” for more than 15 years. In that time she has also fronted some of the state broadcaster’s most horrific propaganda content linked to arbitrary detentions and hostage-taking.
This has included extracting forced confessions from tortured activists in her capacity as an “interrogator-journalist”: a term now in regular currency in Iran for reporters who work hand in glove with the security agencies to frame detainees.
In 2018, young civil rights advocate Sepideh Gholian became one of them. The citizen journalist was held and tortured for 30 days in Dezful over her support for striking sugar factory workers in Khuzestan.
Ameneh Sadat Zabihpour visited Sepideh in the detention center, and pressed her to read out a pre-prepared script “confessing” to her part in a fictitious plot against the regime. In her prison diaries at that time, published by IranWire in 2020, Sepideh wrote of the center’s layout: “Room number three is the place they bring Ameneh Sadat Zabihpour to extract confessions from us.”
In an audio file received by IranWire earlier, in September 2019, Sepideh had described being left alone on the floor of an interrogation room for 16 hours, listening to a young man being beaten and screaming in an adjacent cell. Then, she said, “The interrogator returned. ‘Okay, so you don’t want to cooperate?’ he said. ‘If you so much as open your mouth, we will broadcast all your [forced] confessions on 20:30.’
“I told the truth and what the interrogator had promised came true. They aired their ‘documentary’. Security agencies have planted a nightmare in my head. In this nightmare, I cannot stop hearing the sounds of torture, and at every moment I am waiting for the IRIB and its affiliated news agencies to accuse me of another conspiracy.”
The footage taken from “interviews” with Sepideh and fellow activist Esmail Bakhshi was used in January 2019 to incriminate them in a “documentary” on the IRIB’s nightly 20:30 news program: the most-watched in the country, and one regularly used to mislead the Iranian public on political detainees. Sepideh lodged a complaint with the IRIB over Zabihpour’s involvement, which was dismissed hours later without an explanation. She was then hit with fresh charges of “spreading lies”.
In August 2020, Zabihpour also took a forced confession from Fatemeh Davand, a Kurdish-Iranian mother-of-three who had been arrested in August 2020 for taking part in Iran’s nationwide November 2019 protests. The text, according to the Abdorrahman Boroumand Center for Human Rights, was forcibly read out “in a closed room in the presence of male security officers”.
Zabihpour has also appeared in segments run on the IRIB to justify the detention of dual nationals used as hostages by the Islamic Republic to extort money or concessions. In another pseudo-documentary that aired in November 2017, she knowingly misrepresented the content of documents stolen from Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe to suggest she was in Iran for “nefarious purposes” instead of on holiday. Separately she narrated a defamatory “report” that smeared the Chinese-American history scholar Xiyue Wang, who was held hostage for three years from 2016 to 2019.
In February 2018, the Iranian-Canadian environmentalist Kavous Seyed-Emami died in prison just weeks after his arrest along with several other conservation workers. To this day his family and many others do not believe the judiciary’s claim that he died by suicide. Days after his death, Zabihpour claimed on air that Seyed-Emami had been a spy.
The IRGC-IO Chief
Until last month, when he was dismissed after 13 years in an apparently symbolic reshuffle, Hossein Taeb oversaw the IRGC’s Intelligence Organization (IRGC-IO): a deep-state rival to the Ministry of Intelligence. During his tenure, Human Rights Watch notes, “the IRGC Intelligence Organization as the leading security agency in repressing dissent and perceived threats to autocratic control… extending its reach to foreign and dual nationals.”
The IRGC-IO has instigated countless violent, targeted raids on the homes of Iranian civil rights activists, confiscating their belongings and routinely “disappearing” victims to mostly off-grid detention centers, without a warrant or judicial oversight, where torture and forcing confessions are commonplace. This was notably the case after the 2009, 2017, 2018 and November 2019 protests. The body also controls a section of Evin Prison, Ward 2A, where most political prisoners are held and interrogated in the early period of their detention.
The same body has also run politically-motivated arrest campaigns against foreign and dual nationals. Amongst others the IRGC-IO was responsible for the hostage-taking of dual nationals Jason Rezaian in 2014, Nizar Zakka in 2015, Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe, Karen Vafadari and Afarin Neyssari in 2016, Kylie Moore-Gilbert in 2018, and Fariba Adelkhah and Baquer Namazi in 2019. The IRGC-owned Fars News Agency and key IRGC media affiliate Tasnim News Agency are two of Iran’s most notorious media outlets that disseminated false information to justify these cases and others like them.
Taeb is already sanctioned in the UK, the US, the EU, Canada, Australia and Switzerland for his role as commander of both the IRGC-IO and the paramilitary Basij for “the torture, rape, arbitrary detention and killing of Iranian citizens” in the post-election crackdown on Iran’s 2009 pro-democracy protests. The well-known political prisoner Iraj Mesdaghi has described him as one of the regime’s most dangerous figures who, “thanks to his closeness to the Leadership and [the Supreme Leader’s son] Mojtaba Khamenei, holds the most sensitive security post in the country.” | <urn:uuid:bf557aa5-047d-4d97-8a0d-32029001b5e2> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://iranwire.com/en/politics/105913-british-mps-call-for-sanctions-on-irib-presenter-and-ex-irgc-boss | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571950.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20220813111851-20220813141851-00673.warc.gz | en | 0.966092 | 1,738 | 1.664063 | 2 |
08 December 2012–11 March 2013
Special Exhibition Gallery, Ground Floor
$7 children (5-16)
$30 family (2+2)
School groups please call 8207 7429
Get hands-on with working models of machines that changed history!
This summer, step back in time and discover how Roman technology worked.
Looking at city skyscrapers and the cranes that build them, it's hard to imagine that cranes were used in Ancient Rome. They didn't have engines – they used muscle to make it work! Built Tough can help you learn about life in Roman times, nearly 2000 years after the height of the Empire.
Explore Roman technology and inventions through working machines and models that have been built with the same materials and techniques that Romans used thousands of years ago. The technology of the Roman Empire gave them power and wealth and has influenced so many aspects of modern life.
Come and plot your strategy against the Roman army's tactics or put yourself in the potter's wheel. You'll see gladiator armour, frescoes and also find out more about fun in ancient Rome. Gladiators were not the only game of the time; Romans played with counters and dice as well.
Built Tough: the Awesome Roman Empire brings ancient and lost technology from the Roman Empire to life. | <urn:uuid:d4df9671-626c-44f4-be97-7038e1a87e6a> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://samuseum.sa.gov.au/explore/exhibitions/built-tough-the-awesome-roman-empire | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280128.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00390-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.962107 | 269 | 3.0625 | 3 |
When you’re within a relationship, you don’t have to be in take pleasure in with your partner to appreciate their value. A genuine love affair can be one onebeautifulbride.net website that is developed on shared respect and understanding. When you are in a committed romantic relationship, you should strive to grow being a person and develop a further connection with your spouse. This is true whether you’re in a long-term, romantic relationship or a platonic one.
The partnership itself is important and possesses different that means for different persons. A couple could share comparable values, yet a romantic romance may be much more meaningful. In such a case, it’s best to look for a meaning for your own relationship first. Here are some examples: interactions with friends and family, and relationships between businesses. If you’re looking for a relationship that means for yourself, take a look at these 3 common types. This will help to you decide which kind of relationship you’d like to have in your life.
Human relationships are all about connection and emotion. An intimate relationship is certainly between two people. A romance is definitely emotional. It’s really a family marriage, platonic marriage, or even a platonic relationship. Additionally, it can refer to dealings between groups, such as within a lease. If you’re not within a romantic relationship, the better word is “relationship. ” This is because it’s more formal.
A relationship can be defined as an association between two things. It can be among a couple, brother and sister, or a business working together. It might mean any sort of connection between two people or things. Regardless of what type of romantic relationship you’re in, you need to remember that this is of a romantic relationship will vary. For example , a romantic relationship means that your lover is controlling and that you will never make strategies or responsibilities with that person.
Whether you will absolutely in a relationship with somebody well or have just met, a marriage can have a varied meaning for each and every of you. If you’re within a platonic marriage, you and your spouse will probably talk about a lot of common valuations. For example , if your spouse is a good good friend of yours, your romantic relationship will be more very likely to last. In case your partner is a mother or father, they’re probably in a loving relationship.
A romantic relationship is a relationship between two people. It is a approach to express the love another person. It can possibly mean the text between a couple. For instance, you and your partner could possibly be married, or you along with your partner might have a platonic relationship. It is necessary to understand the meaning of a marriage. When it comes to a platonic marriage, the definition much more important than it means on your partner.
The meaning of a romantic relationship is important to you personally and your partner. A romantic relationship is a rapport between a couple. In a platonic relationship, you are in love with your spouse. You have feelings for your spouse. But when considering a romantic 1, you have emotions for your spouse. When you’re within a platonic relationship, you’re crazy about your partner. It implies that your partner is psychologically involved. You will be connected with one another. If you’re in a long-term marriage, you might be crazy about someone who has been in a relationship before.
Relationships can be quite different from platonic relationships to romantic kinds. Sometimes a relationship is mostly a platonic romance, while within a romantic one, the words are generally not interchangeable. But a platonic relationship possesses a special meaning to the people engaged. If your spouse is in a relationship with someone else, the both of you are emotionally connected. If you are in a platonic situation, your partner is very controlling and makes it extremely hard to make ideas or obligations.
The definition of an relationship is actually a complex one. It could possibly mean the same thing to two different people. If you are internet dating someone, most likely in a romantic relationship. It’s about the same as being married. But if it’s in a romantic relationship with someone who’s a complete stranger, a relationship is known as a platonic romantic relationship. If you’re along with your lover, you’re here in a platonic relationship. | <urn:uuid:9e144da5-0ab8-43d4-9ce8-2b734e3f27ed> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://app.hipnose.com.br/romantic-relationship-meaning-what-does-that-mean-to-get-in-a-marriage/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572215.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20220815235954-20220816025954-00667.warc.gz | en | 0.964299 | 913 | 1.796875 | 2 |
This section of the guide lists source for finding media - images, video & audio - that you can download to use in projects. Many are sources that are public domain (not in copyright) or have an open license that allow reuse (such as Creative Commons) so that you can use them freely in your project without needing to seek permission.
If you'd like to use media under copyright that doesn't have an open license, you should consider a four factor fair use analysis. See the box below for more information, or use this handy checklist from Columbia.
Fair Use is built into the copyright law to address the tensions between the rights given to the copyright holder and freedom of speech. If you want to use copyrighted material without requesting permission from the copyright holder, you must engage in a four factor Fair Use analysis.
Tufts' policy is that it is up to you to decide if the use may be fair or not based on the Four Factor analysis, however, help is available! Contact Andrea Schuler, Copyright & Open Scholarship Librarian, with any questions.
1) Purpose and character of the use
2) Nature of the copyrighted work
4) Market Impact
Aufderheide and Jaszi, in their book Reclaiming Fair Use, argue that while you need to ask yourself all four questions to conduct a Fair Use analysis, the courts have shown they are most interested in the answers to the following three questions (24). | <urn:uuid:90880f02-588c-4237-bbe2-f84e7c1026bf> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://researchguides.library.tufts.edu/dds/media | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572870.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817062258-20220817092258-00678.warc.gz | en | 0.918544 | 297 | 2.484375 | 2 |
With national and statewide home prices experiencing an increase, don’t hold off buying until spring. A national survey recently reported that the majority of Americans believe that home prices will increase over the next 12 months. The numbers are even higher for upper-middle class Americans, where only 6% believe prices will fall in the next year.
We’ve seen this trend on the rise over the past two years, and again in the last quarter. Nationally, home prices rose an average of 12% in the last three months, and in Wisconsin, the numbers are even higher at 15.8%. Experts predict that 2014 home prices will rise to their spring 2004 levels.
The S&P Case Shiller Home Price Index measures home prices across the United States in a variety of cities and compiles the data into a larger picture of home prices throughout America. The predictions for 2014 show the continued increases that the American public believes will occur in the next year. As homeowners, this means further appreciation of your assets and higher selling prices for future sellers.
Categories: Quarterly Newsletter | <urn:uuid:8380e9d6-4f51-4240-ac52-08f36d27efa5> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.shorewest.com/blog/home-prices-continue-to-increase/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573118.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817213446-20220818003446-00678.warc.gz | en | 0.924201 | 218 | 1.851563 | 2 |
Web Page Encryption
Encrypt web pages against unauthorized access and use
What is web page encryption?
Web page encryption is a technique for encrypting (making secret) information carried on a web page.
Of course, web page encryption, on its own, is not very interesting. That is because encryption, on its own, does not provide all the answers. You can encrypt a web page so that only the person or people you have determined can have access to it, but that does not allow the sender to impose any controls on the use of the content after it has been decrypted.
That is the interesting aspect of web page encryption that differentiates it from rights management. Classical cryptography is utterly brilliant at creating secrets. It is used by government and the banks to ensure that information remains secret from those who are not entitled to see it. The thing is that encryption does not control how information is used after it is decrypted. What it does do is protect it from being used at all by anyone who is not authorized.
So web page encryption may suit some purposes, but may not be suitable in all instances. Whilst banks may have staff who can be trusted (although if we read the security reviews the major threat is the people inside rather than the people outside) it is not always clear that all the recipients of web page encryption can be ‘trusted’ to obey the rules that the web page provider wishes to have followed.
Web page encryption allows a publisher to ensure that only the people who have been authorized are able to make use of the information that is protected. And that can be extremely important. Web page encryption is one of the most important security techniques available and least used today for the protection of information. Although it has the potential to be able to allow companies to make ‘publicly’ available information that only the approved people can see nobody actually uses that kind of service.
Web page encryption allows absolute control over who is able to receive and use information on a web page. It must NOT be confused with SSL, which does not control anything at all, except the transfer of information. It does not prove where information came from, or who it is for. It is no real security at all compared to real web page encryption, and is a most unfortunate service because it has been misrepresented by some sections of the IT security industry as providing security when it is delivering a mere illusion to both the sender and the recipient.
There are plenty of warnings delivered by security experts about ‘security by obscurity’. Well, SSL is the ultimate in delivering a con. You should not blame the people who developed the standard. They made it utterly clear what their standard did and did not do. But do feel free to blame industry PR hype that has claimed that SSL provides a security that it does not, and has glossed over what it does not do. If it was real security we would not have identity theft of credit card transactions. But the fact of the matter is that as soon as SSL protected information arrives at a web site it is available for anyone to see (especially the hacker) and is stored on the web server in the unprotected form in which it arrives. In fact, it is actually impossible for the web site owner to use the SSL protection to continue to protect the content they receive. So web page encryption requires significantly more than SSL.
And even if you are using web page encryption, you can be absolutely certain that your information is not being protected at all if you are not using digital rights management controls in addition to web page encryption because you have no way of ensuring, even if you are using web page encryption, that your rules for the use of the information you are protecting must actually be followed.
Download web page encryption software
Download web page encryption software to encrypt web pages and control who can view your web content. Stop copying, prevent or control printing, and expire content when it should no longer be viewed.
Protector Web Content Security encrypts web pages using US Government approved AES 256 bit encryption and digital rights management (DRM) controls to prevent unauthorized use and misuse of your web page content.
Further reading on encryption
To learn more about encryption and digital rights management (DRM), please take a look at the following white papers. | <urn:uuid:b4aebcff-2a5a-414d-a4f5-10de0acebab2> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.locklizard.com/web-page-encryption/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560284411.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095124-00464-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945494 | 870 | 3.109375 | 3 |
The team work was done by Nikos Panagiotou - PJL, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (GR), Diana Filimon, Erasmia Tsipou (GR), Ciprian Cucu - Forum Apulum, Alba Iulia (RO), Vlad Birău (RO), Alexandru Corpade (RO), Ana David (RO), Giannis Delimaris (GR), Ioanna Georgia Eskiadi (GR), Adrian Man (RO).
The aim of the report is to analyze narratives of the most "popular" disinformation stories, circulated in social media (Facebook), in both countries. The selection was made on the following criteria: number of reposts, likes and shares as well as comments. In addition, profiles of the accounts that circulate such stories have been analyzed. The results presented are part of a prototype effort, in order to track down and analyze disinformation in social media. The effort will be expanded to include other countries as well with the aim to analyze the structure of disinformation, the main narratives used, leading to an assessment of the overall phenomenon.
The final report | <urn:uuid:3fff7f34-79bb-40bb-9d94-91f291431217> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | http://dcn-see.org/tpost/uc00s0degb-fake-news-hunters-part-1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572581.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20220816211628-20220817001628-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.934116 | 228 | 1.867188 | 2 |
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These forest animals crafts for kids are perfect for your autumn lesson plans! You can also add them to your letter of the week and general animal themes.
On the list below, you’ll find preschool crafts to add to your upcoming animal themes. You’ll find paper plate crafts, paper bag crafts, toilet paper roll crafts, and more!
Forest Animals Crafts for Kids
The wooden board base of this cute autumnal woodland animal craft makes it perfect to put on display! Kids will love crafting the animals out of old cereal boxes. Blue Bear Wood
Preschoolers can practice their shapes with this fun preschool owl craft. There is Just One Mommy
Preschoolers will love creating this simple fork-painted bear craft. Using a fork instead of a paint brush creates a unique texture that kids will love. Homeschool Preschool
I absolutely love this squirrel in a tree craft, and I’d bet your preschoolers will, too! Buggy and Buddy
These acorn mice are absolutely adorable. Your kids will love making this nature craft. Kids Craft Room
Turn some empty cardboard tubes into a family of cardboard tube bears. You could even use them to act out The Three Bears story. Creative Family Fun
Little ones will strengthen fine motor skills with this cute hedgehog craft. Kids Craft Room
Making this paper plate fox is as easy as tearing colored tissue paper and glueing on some construction paper features. Crafts on Sea
This paper bag skunk craft is so cute! Kids can add it to their pretend play time to act out all sorts of forest scenes. I Heart Crafty Things
These burlap no-sew owls are easy to make, and your kids will love personalizing them with fun button eyes. Kids Craft Room
Little ones will love making this Fantastic Mr. Fox mask! Add it to your pretend play area so kids can wear it and act out their favorite stories. Red Ted Art
This easy owl mask craft will make the perfect addition to your pretend play area. Kids will love wearing it as they act out their favorite owl stories. Nurture Store
Here’s a cute wooden spoon mouse craft that kids can use as a storytelling puppet. I Heart Crafty Things
These bear and owl finger puppets are the perfect accessory for reading Bear’s New Friend aloud. I Heart Crafty Things
This pom pom hedgehog craft might require a bit of assistance from an adult, but it’s too cute to pass over. Red Ted Art
Here’s a cute cupcake liner fox craft that your kids will love! I Heart Crafty Things
These adorable cork owls are simple to make with some buttons and scraps of fabric. Happy Hooligans
Use these origami fox corner bookmarks to mark your child’s spot in his/her favorite story! Red Ted Art
BOOKS ABOUT FOREST ANIMALS
Fill your book basket with a great collection of preschool forest animals books. Most of these books can be found at your local library or used bookstore.
If you have a hard time finding them, you can order them through my Amazon affiliate links by clicking the images below.
A Walk Through the Woods – Listen: the forest is calling. Take a quiet walk through the woods, where shadows fall in the darkness, eyes peek out, and some animals sleep while others run and leap.
Night-Night, Forest Friends – As the sun sets, animals all over the forest get ready for bed. Papa rabbit tucks his babies in among the leaves, fuzzy bears settle in their den, and little foxes snuggle together under the moonlight. Up above, an owl hoots a lullaby.
Woodland Babies – There are lots of things to see, count, and explore in this wonderful book. Hedgehog, rabbit, owl and fox each live in the woods. Count how many babies each one has–and look for a funny mouse hidden on each page too!
Round Out Your Unit with These Activities
Do you know which animals live in the forest? Use this woodland animals flannel board story set to teach your toddler or preschooler all about woodland animals. A great travel toy to keep your child engaged. | <urn:uuid:b8626186-5743-46ff-813a-68ad95e23082> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://homeschoolpreschool.net/forest-animals-crafts-for-kids/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572833.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20220817032054-20220817062054-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.904299 | 875 | 2.484375 | 2 |
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