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19869 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halld%C3%B3r%20%C3%81sgr%C3%ADmsson | Halldór Ásgrímsson | Halldór Ásgrímsson (8 September 1947 – 18 May 2015) was the Prime Minister of Iceland. The leader of the Progressive Party since 1994, he took over as Prime Minister on September 15, 2004, from the Independence Party leader, Davíð Oddsson. He resigned in 2009.
He died from a heart attack at a Reykjavik hospital, aged 67.
References
1947 births
2015 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Prime Ministers of Iceland |
19870 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliland | Somaliland | Somaliland (; , ), officially the Republic of Somaliland (, is a territory that covers the former protectorate British Somaliland. De facto, .Somaliland It borders Djibouti to the west, the Federal Republic of Ethiopia to the south and Somalia to the east.
The area used to be the Somaliland area which was part of the British empire along with Jubaland, which was called Trans-juba. It was called the British Somaliland Coast Protectorate before 26 June 1960. called the "Somaliland Republic". In May of 1991, after a war, Somaliland regained independence.
Currently, Somaliland international organization views Somaliland as an independent country. Instead, they see Somaliland as a part of Somalia.
Somaliland has a republican government with free elections. The capital is Hargeisa. Berbera is a beautiful city on the coast. About 55% of the people of Somalilands are nomads. Most Somalis are Sunni Muslims. Some people are part of Sufi orders.
A territory in the west, called Khatumo State has been disputed between Somaliland and Puntland.
Demographics
Language
Most people in Somaliland speak Somali and Arabic. Article 6 of the Constitution of 2001 says the official language of Somaliland is Somali, but Arabic is a mandatory subject in school. English is also spoken and taught in schools.
The main Somali dialect is Standard Somali. Standard Somali is spoken in most of Somalia and in countries that border it. Standard Somali is used by almost all of the media in the Somaliland region.
Religion
Almost all Somalilanders are Muslims. This is because Islam is the state religion, and practicing a religion other than Islam is against the law. Small amounts of non-Islamic traditions exist in Somaliland, but Islam is very important to the Somali sense of national identity.
References
Other websites
Somaliland's official website
States of Somalia |
19873 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSDAP%2025%20points%20manifesto | NSDAP 25 points manifesto | The NSDAP 25 points manifesto is a 25-point plan written by Anton Drexler and edited and supported by Adolf Hitler for the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), Nazi Party, when it was founded in 1920.
The purpose of the 25 points was explained in the fifth chapter of the second volume of Mein Kampf
The manifesto in detail
(This is a simple English translation of the original NSDAP manifesto of 1920; unnecessary or explanatory text has been left out)
We want all Germans to live in a " Germany"
We want Germany to be treated the same as other nations, and we want the peace treaties of Versailles to be cancelled.
We want land and territory (colonies) to feed our people and to settle our surplus population.
Only Germans may be citizens of the Germany. Only those of the German races may be members of the nation, their religion does not matter. No Jew may be a citizen.
Non-citizens may live in Germany, but there will be special laws for foreigners living in Germany.
Only citizens can vote for parliament and councils, or vote on laws. Everyone who works for the German government, a state government or even a small village must be a citizen of Germany. We will stop giving people jobs because of the political party they are in, only the best people should get a job.
We think that the government's first job is to make sure every citizen has a job and enough to eat. If the government cannot do this, people who are not citizens should be made to leave Germany.
No-one who is not of a German-race should be allowed to live in Germany. We want anyone who is not of a German-race who started living in Germany after 2 August 1914 to leave the country.
All citizens shall have equal rights and duties.
Every citizen should have a job. Their work should not be selfish, but help everyone. Therefore we demand
The abolition of incomes unearned by work. The breaking of the slavery of interest
So many people die or lose their property in a war, it is wrong for other people to make money from the war. Anyone who made money from the war should have all that money taken away.
We want all very big corporations to be owned by the government.
Big industrial companies should share their profits with the workers.
We want old age pensions to be increased.
We want
to create a healthy middle class
to split up big department stores, and let small traders rent space inside them
to make State and town governments try to buy from small traders.
We want to change the way land is owned. We also want
a law to take over land if the country needs it, without the government having to pay for it;
to abolish ground rent; and
to prohibit land speculation (buying land just to sell to someone else for more money).
Crimes against the common interest must be punished with death.
We want the Roman law system changed for the German common law system.
We want to change the system of schools and education, so that every hard-working German can have the chance of higher education.
What is taught should concentrate on practical things
Schools should teach civic affairs, so that children can become good citizens
If a poor parent cannot afford to pay the government should pay for education.
The State must protect health standards by
protecting mothers and infants
stopping children from working
making a law for compulsory gymnastics and sports, and
supporting sports clubs for young men.
We want to get rid of the old army and replace it with a people's army that would look after the ordinary people, not just the rich officer-class
We want the law to stop politicians from being anti-German, and newspapers from writing about them. To make a German national press we demand:
that all editors of, and writers in the German language newspapers are members of the nation (of a German race);
Foreign newspapers need permission from the government. They must not be printed in the German language;
Non-Germans cannot own or control German newspapers.
any non German who does own or control a newspaper will be made to leave Germany, and the newspaper closed down,
Newspapers which criticise the country or the government are not allowed.
Art and books which support foreign ideas, should be banned.
We want to allow all religions in the State, unless they offend the moral feelings of the German race. The NSDAP is Christian, but does not belong to any denomination. The NSDAP will fight the Jewish self-interest spirit, and believes that our nation will be strongest only if everyone puts the common interest before self-interest.
We will
create a strong central government for the Reich;
give Parliament control over the entire government and its organizations;
form groups based on class and job to carry out the laws in the various German states.
The leaders of the Party promise to work—if need be to sacrifice their very lives—to put this programme into action.
Notes
History of Germany
Nazism |
19875 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penny | Penny | A penny (plural pence in the United Kingdom, plural pennies in Canada and the United States) is a coin used by several countries where people speak English. This includes United Kingdom, the United States, where a penny is worth one cent, and Canada, where "penny" is an informal term for one cent coins. Canada stopped minting the penny in 2012.
Popular Culture
In British and American culture, finding a penny is often thought to be lucky. A popular expression is "Find a penny, pick it up, and all the day you'll have good luck." If someone asks you "A penny for your thoughts" They're wanting to know what you think. The phrase was first written in John Heywood's 1547 Dialogue Conteinying the Nomber in Effect of All the Proverbes in the Englishe Tongue, written when the penny was still a sterling silver coin. The possibly related American expression "my two cents" (meaning "my humble opinion") uses the low value of the penny to make fun of one's own thoughts in a funny way. In British English, to "spend a penny" means to urinate. The phrase does actually imply spending an actual penny: coin-operated public toilets commonly charged a predecimal penny, starting with the Great Exhibition of 1851. Around Decimal Day, British Rail introduced the "Superloo", better public toilets that charged 2p (roughly the equivalent of 6d.).
References
Citations
Related pages
Penny sterling
Currency |
19883 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt%20Groening | Matt Groening | Matthew Abram "Matt" Groening (born February 15, 1954) is an American cartoonist, screenwriter, producer, animator, author, musician, comedian, and voice actor. He is the creator of the comic strip Life in Hell, as well as two successful television series, The Simpsons and Futurama.
Groening has won 12 Primetime Emmy Awards, ten for The Simpsons and two for Futurama as well as a British Comedy Award for "outstanding contribution to comedy" in 2004. In 2002, he won the National Cartoonist Society Reuben Award for his work on Life in Hell. He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on February 14, 2012.
Early life
He was born on February 15, 1954 in Portland, Oregon, the middle of five children. His mother Margaret Ruth was once a teacher. His father Homer Philip Groening was a filmmaker, advertiser, writer and cartoonist. Groening has Norwegian and German ancestry.
Groening grew up in Portland, and attended Ainsworth Elementary School, Lincoln High School and also The Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington.
Personal life
Groening identifies himself as agnostic and liberal. He has often made campaign contributions to Democratic Party candidates. His first cousin, Laurie Monnes Anderson, is a member of the Oregon State Senate representing eastern Multnomah County.
He has been married twice. Groening and Deborah Caplan married in 1986. They had 2 sons - Homer (who is called Will) and Abe. Couple split up in 1999. In 2011, Groening married Argentinian artist Agustina Picasso and became stepfather to her daughter Camille. In May 2013, Picasso gave birth to Nathaniel Philip Picasso Groening who was named after American writer Nathanael West.
References
Other websites
Incomplete list of Matt Groening appearances on The Simpsons at The Simpsons Archive
The Story (1969) – Matt Groening tells a story to his sisters Lisa & Maggie in this film by father, Homer
The Simpsons – a Norwegian/German success (in Norwegian)
Forvo: Matt Groening Pronunciation
Actors from Portland, Oregon
Writers from Oregon
American agnostics
American cartoonists
Democrats (United States)
American voice actors
1954 births
Living people
Comedians from Oregon |
19892 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai%20Ivanovich%20Lobachevsky | Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky | Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (Никола́й Ива́нович Лобаче́вский, 1792–1856) was a Russian mathematician. He became known for his achievements in non-Euclidean geometry.
Biography
Lobachevsky was born in Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. His parents were Ivan Maksimovich Lobachevsky, a clerk in a landsurveying office, and Praskovia Alexandrovna Lobachevskaya. In 1800, his father died and his mother moved to Kazan. In Kazan, Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky attended Kazan Gymnasium. He graduated in 1807 and then went to Kazan University which was founded just three years earlier, in 1804.
At Kazan University, Lobachevsky was influenced by professor Johann Christian Martin Bartels (1769–1833). Bartels was a former teacher and friend of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Lobachevsky received a Master's degree in physics and mathematics in 1811. In 1814, he became a lecturer at Kazan University, and in 1822 he became a full professor. He served in many administrative positions and was the rector of Kazan University from 1827 to 1846. He retired (or was dismissed) in 1846. After this event his health rapidly deteriorated. In addition to teaching mathematics and physics at Kazan University Lobachevsky also was an astronomy teacher there.
In 1832, he married Varvara Alexivna Moisieva. They had seven children.
1792 births
1856 deaths
Russian geometers |
19897 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildebeest | Wildebeest | A wildebeest (or gnu) is an animal. It is a large hoofed mammal in the Bovidae family. There are two species of wildebeest. Both live in Africa.
Taxonomy
Genus Connochaetes
Blue wildebeest or brindled gnu (Connochaetes taurinus)
Black wildebeest or white-tailed gnu (Connochaetes gnou)
Size
Wildebeest grow to 1.15 to 1.40 metres (at the shoulder) and they weigh between 150 and 250 kilograms when they are fully grown. They live in the plains and open woodlands in southern Africa. The biggest herds can be found in the Serengeti. Wildebeest can live for more than 20 years.
What they eat
Like other members of the same family (antelopes, deer and goats, amongst others), they mainly eat grass. But since in the African grasslands, there is not always grass, wildebeest are forced to migrate to find food all year round. In May, about 1.5 million animals move from the grasslands to the woods. In November they move back; there is grass in the plains in summer.
Breeding and mating season
The cows (female Gnus) will calve (give birth to the young) in summer in the plains. After the females have given birth, the breeding season begins. The dominant males mark off (and defend) some territory. They do this with feces, and with scent.
Wildebeest are an important part of the ecosystem. With their feces, they fertilize the ground, and their trampling is good for new growth. They also provide food for predators, like lions and hyenas.
References
The Columbia Encyclopedia
Other websites
The Great Migration , on migration patterns of the wildebeest
Wildebeest images
Bovids |
19898 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnu | Gnu | Gnu or GNU may mean:
Gnu, an animal
GNU, a computer operating system |
19902 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serengeti | Serengeti | The Serengeti (also Seremgeti) is a region of savannah (woodlands and grasslands) in East Africa. The south of it (80%) belongs to Tanzania. The north of it is in Kenya. It is about 30,000 square kilometers, and one of the greatest areas for wildlife.
It has more than 1.6 million herbivores and thousands of predators. Wildebeests, gazelles, zebras and buffalos are the most common animals in the region.
This area is most famous for the migration that takes place every year.
Every year around October nearly 1.5 million herbivores travel towards the southern plains, crossing the Mara River, from the northern hills for the rains. And then back to the north through the west, once again crossing the Mara river, after the rains in around April. This phenomenon is sometimes also called the Circular Migration.
Also in this area is the archeologically significant Olduvai Gorge where some of the oldest hominid fossils are found.
The Serengeti region contains the Serengeti National Park, the Ngorongoro Conservation Area and Maswa Game Reserve in Tanzania and the Maasai Mara National Reserve in Kenya.
Serengeti National Park
Geography
The park covers 14,763 km² (5,700 square miles) of grassland plains and savanna as well as riverine forest and woodlands. The park is in the north of the country, bordered to the north by the national Tanzania and Kenyan border, where it is continuous with the Masai Mara National Reserve. To the southeast of the park is Ngorongoro Conservation Area, to the southwest is Maswa Game Reserve, and to the western borders are Ikorongo and Grumeti Game Reserves, to the northeast is Loliondo Game Control Area.
Few people are allowed to live in the National Park. Exceptions the staff of the Park, researchers and staff of Frankfurt Zoological Society, and staff of the various lodges and hotels. The main settlement is at Seronera.
The park has three regions:
Serengeti plains: the endless, almost treeless grassland of the south. This is where the wildebeest breed, as they stay in the plains from December to May. Other hoofed animals–zebra, gazelle, impala, hartebeest, topi, buffalo, waterbuck–also occur in huge numbers during the wet season. Kopjes are granite mounds which are very common in the region, and they are great observation posts for predators, and a refuge for hyrax and pythons.
Western corridor: the "black cotton" (actually black clay) soil covers the swampy savannah of this region. Grumeti river is home to enormous Nile crocodiles, colobus monkey, and the martial eagle. The migration passes through from May to July.
Northern Serengeti: the landscape is dominated by open woodlands and hills, from Seronera in the South, to the Mara river into Kenya. Apart from the migratory wildebeest and zebra (which occur from July to August, and in November), the bushy savannah is the best place to find elephant, giraffe and dik dik.
Wildlife
As well as the migration of ungulates, the park has a healthy stock of other resident wildlife, especially the "Big Five":
Lion: the Serengeti is believed to hold the largest population of lions in Africa due in part to the abundance of prey species. Currently there are more than 3000 lions living in this ecosystem.
African Leopard: these reclusive predators are commonly seen in the Seronera region but are present throughout the national park with the current population at around 1000.
African elephant: the herds are recovering from population lows in the 1980s caused by poaching, and are mostly in the northern regions of the park
Black Rhinoceros: mainly around the kopjes in the centre of the park, very few individuals remain due to rampant poaching. Individuals from the Masai Mara Reserve cross the park border and enter Serengeti from the northern section at times.
African Buffalo: still abundant and present in healthy numbers, but numbers have been somewhat reduced due to disease
The park also supports many further species, including cheetah, Thomson's and Grant's gazelle, topi, eland, water buck, hyena, baboon, impala, African wild dog and giraffe. The park also boasts about 500 bird species, including ostrich, secretary bird, Kori bustard, crowned crane, marabou stork, martial eagle, lovebirds and many species of vultures.
Ngorongoro Conservation Area
Ngorongoro is the caldera of a huge extinct volcano, which is part of the Serengeti area.
The Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site 180 km (112 miles) west of Arusha in the Crater Highlands area of Tanzania.
Ngorongoro Crater
The main feature of the NCA is the Ngorongoro Crater, a large volcanic caldera. The crater, which formed when a giant volcano exploded and collapsed on itself some two to three million years ago, is deep and its floor covers .
Estimates of the height of the original volcano range from fifteen to nineteen thousand feet (4500 to 5800 metres) high.
Although thought of as "a natural enclosure" for a very wide variety of wildlife, up to 20% or more of the wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and half the zebra (Equus burchelli) populations leave the Crater in the wet season. The Ngorongoro lions are significantly inbred, with many genetic problems passed from generation to generation. This is due to the very few new bloodlines that enter the local gene pool, because few migrating male lions enter the crater from the outside. Those who do enter the crater often cannot contribute to the gene pool. The crater's male lions, because of their large size (the result of an abundant food source), easily expel outside competitors.
Animal populations in the crater include most of the species in East Africa, but there are no impalas (Aepyceros melampus), giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis), or crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus).
The crater highlands on the side facing the easterly trade winds receives 800–1200 mm of rain a year and is covered largely in montane forest, while the less-steep west wall receives only 400–600 mm; this side is grassland and bushland dotted with Euphorbia bussei trees. The crater floor is mostly open grassland with two small wooded areas dominated by Acacia xanthophloea.
The Munge Stream drains Olmoti Crater to the north, and is the main water source draining into the seasonal salt lake in the center of the crater. This lake is known by two names: Makat as the Maasai called it, meaning salt; and Magadi. The Lerai Stream drains the humid forests to the south of the Crater, and it feeds the Lerai Forest on the crater floor - when there is enough rain, the Lerai drains into Lake Magadi as well. Extraction of water by lodges and NCA headquarters reduces the amount of water entering Lerai by around 25%.
The other major water source in the crater is the Ngoitokitok Spring, near the eastern crater wall. There is a picnic site here open to tourists and a huge swamp fed by the spring, and the area is inhabited by hippopotamus, elephants, lions, and many others. Many other small springs are around the crater's floor, and these are important water supplies for the animals and local Masaai, especially during times of drought.
Aside from herds of zebra, gazelle, and wildebeest, the crater is home to the "Big Five Game" of rhinoceros, lion, leopard, elephant, and buffalo. The crater plays host to almost every individual species of wildlife in East Africa, with an estimated 25 000 animals within the crater.
Following the recommendations of a committee of scientists after the 2000 drought, an ecological burning program was implemented in the crater, which entails annual or biannual controlled burns of up to 20% of the grasslands. Maasai are now permitted to graze their cattle within the crater, but must enter and exit daily.
Olduvai Gorge
The conservation area also protects Olduvai Gorge, in the plains area. It is considered the seat of humanity after the discovery of the earliest known specimens of the human genus, Homo habilis as well as early hominidae, such as Paranthropus boisei.
The Olduvai Gorge or Oldupai Gorge is a steep-sided ravine in the Great Rift Valley, which stretches along eastern Africa. Olduvai is in the eastern Serengeti Plains in northern Tanzania and is about thirty miles long. It is in the rain shadow of the Ngorongoro highlands and is the driest part of the region.
It is one of the most important prehistoric sites in the world. Research there has greatly developed our understanding of early human evolution. Excavation work there was pioneered by Mary and Louis Leakey in the 1950s. It is still continued today by their family. During the Pleistocene, the site was that of a large lake, the shores of which were covered with successive deposits of volcanic ash. Around 500,000 years ago seismic activity diverted a nearby stream which began to cut down into the sediments, revealing seven main layers in the walls of the gorge.
References
Other websites
World Heritage Site
Flickr photos tagged serengeti
Biosphere reserves
Calderas
IUCN Category II
National parks in Africa
Volcanoes of Africa
World Heritage Sites in Africa
Geography of Kenya
Geography of Tanzania |
19903 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider | Spider | Spiders (class Arachnida, order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods. They have eight legs, and mouthparts (chelicerae) with fangs that inject venom. Most make silk. The arachnids are seventh in number of species of all animal orders. About 48,000 spider species, and 120 families have been recorded by taxonomists. Over twenty different classifications have been proposed since 1900.p3 Spiders live on every continent except for Antarctica, and in nearly every habitat with the exceptions of air and sea.
Almost all spiders are predators, and most eat insects. They catch their prey in several ways. Some build a spider web, and some use a thread of silk that they throw at the insect. Some kinds of spiders hide in holes in the ground, then run out and grab an insect that walks by. Others will make web 'nets' to throw at passing insects. Or they go out and simply attack their prey. Some can jump quite well and hunt by sneaking close to an insect and then jumping on it.
Anatomy
Spiders have a two-part body, the front part (cephalothorax) and the abdomen. Unlike insects, spiders do not have antennae. The more advanced spiders have a centralized nervous system, with their ganglia fused into one mass in the cephalothorax. Unlike most arthropods, spiders have no extensor muscles in their limbs, and extend them by hydraulic pressure.
Size range
The smallest of full-grown spiders can be less than 4 mm. (0.1 inch). The largest of spiders can have a body length of 10 cm. (4 inches) or more. The largest can weigh 150 grams (5.3 oz). The largest of spiders are the tarantulas and the huntsman spiders. Some huntsman spiders in South East Asia can have a leg span of around 250–300 mm (9.8–11.8 in).
Spider eyes and other senses
Most spiders have four pairs of eyes on the top-front area of the body, arranged in patterns that vary from one family to another. The main eyes at the front are capable of forming images. Jumping spiders have visual acuity which is ten times better than that of dragonflies, which have by far the best vision among insects. The spiders do this by a telephoto-like series of lenses, a four-layered retina. They can swivel their eyes and put together images from different stages in the scan. The downside is that the scanning and integrating processes are relatively slow.
Spiders and other arthropods have modified their cuticles into elaborate arrays of sensors. Various sensors, mostly bristles, respond to touch, from strong contact to very weak air currents. Chemical sensors provide equivalents of taste and smell. Spiders also have in the joints of their limbs sensors that detect forces and vibrations. In web-building spiders all these mechanical and chemical sensors are more important than the eyes. The eyes are more important to spiders that hunt actively. Like most arthropods, spiders lack balance sensors, and rely on their eyes to tell them which way is up.
Fangs
The fangs are hollow, like the needles used to give injections. Spiders use their fangs to inject toxins that kill the insects they will eat. Some kinds of spider venom attack the nervous systems of their prey, and other kinds of venom attack body tissues.
Behavior
What most spiders eat
Spiders are predators, and eat insects and other arthropods (including other spiders). Most use venom from their fangs to kill their prey. It is rare for spiders to capture prey that are much larger than they are. It is also difficult for most spiders to capture prey that are very much smaller than they are. There are some spiders that form colonies. Spiders eat not only spiders of other species, but spiders of their own species.
The black widow spider got its name because the females sometimes eat the males that mate with them. This may also happen in other species. Each species of spider has its own way of communicating with other spiders they meet. Because of the danger of being eaten, in some species the males have special hooks on their front legs with which they hold the female while they mate. Others bring the female something to eat. There are a few species in which the male spiders construct their own little webs that are connected to the webs of the females. In these species, the male is so much smaller than the female that it would be difficult for her to actually capture the male.
Most spiders have such poor vision that they will not even notice a dead insect. Jumping spiders are one exception to this rule. They have such good vision that they can find recently dead flies or other insects to eat.
Some spiders are not predators
Most spiders are predators, but the jumping spider Bagheera kiplingi gets over 90% of its food from fairly solid plant material produced by acacias as part of a beneficial relationship with a species of ant.
Young spiders of several families feed on plant nectar. Studies have shown that they do this for long periods. They also clean themselves regularly while feeding. These spiders also prefer sugar solutions to plain water, which shows that they are looking for nutrients. Many spiders are nocturnal, they are most active during the night. The extent of nectar consumption by spiders may therefore have been under-estimated. Nectar contains amino acids, lipids, vitamins and minerals in addition to sugars. Studies have shown that other spider species live longer when nectar is available. Feeding on nectar also avoids the risks of struggles with prey, and the costs of producing venom and digestive enzymes.
Various species are known to feed on dead arthropods (scavenging), web silk, and their own shed exoskeletons. Pollen caught in webs may also be eaten, and studies have shown that young spiders have a better chance of survival if they have the opportunity to eat pollen. In captivity, several spider species are also known to feed on bananas, marmalade, milk, egg yolk and sausages.
Methods of catching prey
Webs
The best-known method spiders use to capture prey is a sticky web. The placing of the web allows different spiders to trap different insects in the same area. Flat, horizontal webs allow them to trap insects that fly up from vegetation underneath, for example. Flat vertical nets allow them to trap insects in flight. The spiders that build webs usually do not see very well, but they are very sensitive to vibrations.
Underwater
Females of the water spider Argyroneta aquatica build underwater "diving bell" webs which they fill with air and use eating their prey, molting, mating, and raising offspring. They live almost entirely within the bells, darting out to catch prey animals that touch the bell or the threads that anchor it. A few spiders use the surfaces of lakes and ponds as "webs", detecting trapped insects by the vibrations that these cause while struggling.
Bola casting
Net-casting spiders weave only small webs but then manipulate them to trap prey. They stretch their webs and then release them when prey strike them. Those of the family Deinopidae weave even smaller webs, hold them outstretched between their first two pairs of legs, and lunge and push the webs as much as twice their own body length to trap prey, and this move may increase the webs' area by a factor of up to ten. Experiments have shown that Deinopis spinosus has two different techniques for trapping prey: backwards strikes to catch flying insects, whose vibrations it detects; and forward strikes to catch ground-walking prey that it sees. These two techniques have also been observed in other deinopids. Walking insects form most of the prey of most deinopids, but one population of Deinopis subrufus appears to live mainly on tipulid flies that they catch with the backwards strike.
Mature female bolas spiders of the genus Mastophora build "webs" that consist of only a single "trapeze line", which they patrol. They also construct a bolas made of a single thread, tipped with a large ball of very wet sticky silk. They emit chemicals that resemble the pheromones of moths, and then swing the bolas at the moths. They catch about the same weight of insects per night as web-weaving spiders of similar size. The spiders eat the bolas if they have not made a kill in about 30 minutes, rest for a while, and then make new bolas. Juveniles and adult males are much smaller and do not make bolas. Instead they release different pheromones that attract moth flies, and catch them with their front pairs of legs.
Using trapdoors
The primitive Liphistiidae, the "trapdoor spiders" (family Ctenizidae) and many tarantulas are ambush predators. They lurk in burrows, often closed by trapdoors and surrounded by networks of silk threads that alert these spiders to the presence of prey. Other ambush predators do without such aids, including many crab spiders. A few species that prey on bees, which see ultraviolet, can adjust their ultraviolet reflectance to match the flowers in which they are lurking. Wolf spiders, jumping spiders, fishing spiders and some crab spiders capture prey by chasing it, and rely mainly on vision to get their prey.
Capturing insects without using webs
Not all spiders use silk to net their prey. Instead, these spiders may capture insects by grabbing them and then biting them. Among these kinds of spiders the two best known are the wolf spiders and the jumping spiders.
Wolf spiders
A wolf spider will usually wait until an insect comes near to it, and then rush at the insect, grab it using its front legs, and then bite the insect so that its venom can do its work.
Female wolf spiders lay their eggs on a pad of silk and then draw the edges together to create a round ball that they carry along with them wherever they go. They hold their egg balls to their tail ends by using their silk. When the eggs hatch, the little spiders will crawl onto the mother's back, and she will carry them along with her for days or weeks.
Wolf spiders are very good mothers and will strongly protect both their egg balls and their infants. When the time comes, the little spiders will leave the mother and each will go its own way.
Jumping spiders
Jumping spiders have very good eyes and can see well. They sneak as close to an insect as they can, and then they jump onto the insect and immediately bite it. Since they often hunt in trees, bushes, and on the sides of walls, if the jumping spider misses it may fall off. But they have a way to save themselves from harm. Before they jump they fasten their silk to the place where they have been standing, and as they jump they let out a silk safety line. So if they fall they will catch themselves when they reach the end of their silk safety line. Sometimes a jumping spider will catch an insect and then fall while still holding onto the insect. But the spider is still safe.
Jumping spiders make little silken "tents" for themselves to sleep in. When they lay eggs they keep them inside such a shelter. They do not take their eggs with them when they go out to hunt.
For all male spiders it is dangerous to seek a mate. The female spider may not realize that the male is a spider of her kind, so she may try to eat it. The jumping spiders not only have visual patterns that identify them to each other, but the male jumping spider will do a special dance when it approaches a female of the same species. That way, the female can recognize that it is a male of her species. She will generally forget about eating for long enough to mate with the visiting male spider.
Jumping spiders have such good eyes that they will usually watch any human who tries to watch them. Some species are very shy and will run away if the human gets too close. But some species, such as Phidippus audax (the audacious or brave jumping spider) and Platycryptus undatus, can become calm if the human comes close to them slowly. Sometimes they will jump onto one of your fingers and then jump from finger to finger and from hand to hand. They seem to want to explore.
Hunting other spiders
Some jumping spiders of the genus Portia hunt other spiders in ways that seem intelligent, outflanking their victims or luring them from their webs. Laboratory studies show that Portias instinctive tactics are only starting points for a trial-and-error approach from which these spiders learn very quickly how to overcome new prey species. However, they seem to be relatively slow thinkers, which is not surprising as their brains are vastly smaller than those of mammalian predators.
Disguising as ants
Ant-mimicking spiders face several challenges: they generally develop slimmer abdomens and false "waists" to mimic the three distinct regions (tagmata) of an ant's body; they wave the first pair of legs in form to their heads to mimic antennae, which spiders lack, and to conceal the fact that they have eight legs rather than six. They have large color patches round one pair of eyes to disguise the fact that they generally have eight simple eyes, while ants have two compound eyes; they cover their bodies with reflective hairs to resemble the shiny bodies of ants. In some spider species males and females mimic different ant species, as female spiders are usually much larger than males.
Ant-mimicking spiders also modify their behavior to resemble that of the target species of ant, for example many adopt a zig-zag pattern of movement, ant-mimicking jumping spiders avoid jumping, and spiders of the genus Synemosyna walk on the outer edges of leaves in the same way as Pseudomyrmex. Ant-mimicry in many spiders and other arthropods may be for protection from predators that hunt by sight, including birds, lizards and spiders. However several ant-mimicking spiders prey either on ants or on the ants "livestock" such as aphids. When at rest the ant-mimicking crab spider Amyciaea does not closely resemble Oecophylla, but while hunting it imitates the behavior of a dying ant to attract worker ants. After a kill some ant-mimicking spiders hold their victims between themselves and large groups of ants to avoid being attacked.
Reproduction and life cycle
Spiders reproduce sexually and fertilization is internal but indirect. In other words, the sperm is not inserted into the female's body by the male's genitals but by an intermediate stage. Unlike many land-living arthropods, male spiders do not produce ready-made spermatophores (packages of sperm). Instead, they spin small sperm webs on to which they ejaculate and then transfer the sperm to structures on the tips of their pedipalps. When a male detects signs of a female nearby he checks whether she is of the same species and whether she is ready to mate; for example in species that produce webs or 'safety ropes', the male can identify the species and sex of these objects by smell.
Spiders generally use elaborate courtship rituals to prevent the large females from eating the small males before fertilization, except where the male is so much smaller that he is not worth eating. In some species males mate with newly molted females, which are too weak to be dangerous to the males.
In web-weaving species precise patterns of vibrations in the web are a major part of the rituals, while patterns of touches on the female's body are important in many spiders that hunt actively, and may 'hypnotize' the female. Gestures and dances by the male are important for jumping spiders, which have excellent eyesight. If courtship is successful, the male injects his sperm from the pedipalps into the female's genital opening on the underside of her abdomen. Female reproductive tracts vary. Some are simple tubes, but others have chambers where females store sperm, and release it when they are ready.
Males do get eaten in some species. Males of the genus Tidarren cut off one of their palps, and enter adult life with one palp only. The palps are 20% of male's body mass in this species, and detaching one of the two improves mobility. In the Yemeni species Tidarren argo, the remaining palp is then torn off by the female. The separated palp remains attached to the female's opening for about four hours. In the meantime, the female feeds on the palpless male. In over 60% of cases the female of the Australian redback spider kills and eats the male after it inserts its second palp into the female's genital opening; in fact the males co-operate by trying to impale themselves on the females' fangs. Observation shows that most male redbacks never get an opportunity to mate, and the 'lucky' ones increase the likely number of offspring by ensuring that the females are well-fed. However males of most species survive a few matings, limited mainly by their short life spans. Some even live for a while in their mates' webs.p176/212
Females lay up to 3,000 eggs in one or more silk egg sacs, which maintain a fairly constant humidity level. In some species the females die afterwards, but females of other species protect the sacs by attaching them to their webs, hiding them in nests, carrying them in the chelicerae or attaching them to the spinnerets and dragging them along.
Development of young
Baby spiders pass all their larval stages inside the egg and hatch as spiderlings, very small and sexually immature but similar in shape to adults. Some spiders care for their young, for example a wolf spider's brood cling to rough bristles on the mother's back, and females of some species respond to the "begging" behaviour of their young by giving them their prey, provided it is no longer struggling, or even regurgitate food.
Like other arthropods, spiders have to moult to grow as their cuticle ("skin") cannot stretch. Most spiders live for only one to two years, although some tarantulas can live in captivity for over 20 years.p232
Spiders and humans
Of the 40,000 spiders, less than 12 are known to be dangerous to humans. Most of the time, being bitten by a spider is painful. Most spiders use venom to paralyse their prey; they kill it through eating, or through a bite. A few spiders have venoms that can be dangerous to weakened people and those allergic to it. Since 1927, 13 people have died, after a bite from a Atrax robustus spider from Australia.
The spider that kills the most people, the black widow and other spiders in the genus Latrodectus are around 1 cm. in body length. The Atrax and Phoneutria spiders, which are also capable of killing people, both average around 2.5 cm. or one inch, and even the Widow spiders are large enough to be easily noticed.
Even relatively small spiders like Phidippus audax can give a painful bite if you hurt them, but spiders are very helpful to human beings because they control insects that eat our crops.
Being afraid of spiders is a very common phobia (fear). The widow spiders (black widows and other members of their genus) never willingly leave their webs, so usually people get bitten when they touch the spider by mistake.
Gallery Click on a picture to see it larger:'''
References
Other websites
Platnick N.I. 20013. The world spider catalog''. Hosted by the American Museum of Natural History, and edited by Peter Merrett and H. Don Cameron. |
19904 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1760s | 1760s |
Events and trends
Events
King George III takes the British throne in 1760. The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) comes to an end. France gives Canada to Britain, but criticism of the government still grows, led by the controversial figure of John Wilkes. Meanwhile, there is increasing unrest in Britain's American colonies. King George III died later in 1820.
Science and technology – development of the steam engine continues.
World leaders
Emperor Qianlong (Ch'ien Lung) (China)
King Frederick V (Denmark and Norway)
King Christian VII (Denmark and Norway)
King Louis XV (France)
King Augustus III (Poland)
King José I (Portugal)
Czar Peter III (Russia)
Czarina Catherine II (the Great) (Russia)
King Carlos III (Spain)
King Adolf Fredrik (Sweden)
Sultan Mustafa III (Ottoman Empire)
King George III (United Kingdom)
Births
Josephine de Beauharnais, Empress of France
Michail Leontievich Bulatov, Russian military
Deaths
Pierre de Marivaux, French writer |
19907 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grass | Grass | Grass is a plant with narrow leaves growing from the base. A common kind of grass is used to cover the ground in a lawn and other places. Grass gets water from the roots in the ground. Grasses are monocotyledon, herbaceous plants.
The grasses include the "grass", of the family Poaceae (also called Gramineae). Also sometimes it is used to include the sedges (Cyperaceae) and the rushes (Juncaceae). These three families are not closely related but belong to different clades in the order Poales. They are similar adaptations to a common life-style.
The true grasses include cereals, bamboo and the grasses of lawns (turf) and grassland. Uses for graminoids include food (as grain, sprouted grain, shoots or rhizomes), drink (beer, whisky), pasture for livestock, thatching thatch, paper, fuel, clothing, insulation, construction, sports turf, basket weaving and many others.
Many grasses are short, but some grasses, like bamboo can grow very tall. Plants from the grass family can grow in many places, even if they are very cold or very dry. Several other plants that look similar but are not members of the grass family are also sometimes called grass; these include rushes, reeds, papyrus, and water chestnut.
Grasses are an important food for many animals, like deer, buffalo, cattle, mice, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and many other grazers. Unlike other plants, grasses grow from the bottom, so when animals eat grass they usually do not destroy the part that grows. Without grass, dirt can wash away into rivers (erosion).
Evolution of grass
Graminoids include some of the most versatile plant life-forms. They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous. Fossilized dinosaur dung (coprolites) have been found containing grass phytoliths (silica stones inside grass leaves). Grasses have adapted to conditions in lush rain forests, dry deserts, cold mountains and even intertidal habitats, and are now the most widespread plant type. Grass is a valuable source of food and energy for many animals.
Grass and people
Lawn grass is often planted on sports fields and in the area around a building. Sometimes chemicals and water is used to help lawns to grow.
People have used grasses for a long time. People eat parts of grasses. Corn, wheat, barley, oats, rice and millet are cereals, common grains whose seeds are used for food and to make alcohol such as beer.
Sugar comes from sugar cane, which is also a plant in the grass family. People have grown grasses as food for farm animals for about 4,000 years. People use bamboo to build houses, fences, furniture and other things. Grass plants can also be used as fuel, to cover roofs, and to weave baskets.
Language
In English, the word "grass" appears in several phrases. For example:
"The grass is always greener on the other side" means "people are never happy with what they have and want something else."
"Don't let the grass grow under your feet" means "Do something".
"A snake in the grass" is about a person that will not be honest and will trick others.
Grass is sometimes used as a slang term for cannabis (also called pot, weed, or marijuana)
References
Basic English 850 words
Poales |
19913 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cacao%20tree | Cacao tree | The cacao tree is a small tree originally grown in tropical South America. It only grows to 4 to 8 meters in height. Its seeds are called cocoa and are used to produce cocoa butter, chocolate drinks, and chocolate. Now the trees are grown in plantations in many tropical countries.
Cultivation
Cacao is planted on over 70000 square kilometres worldwide with 40% of production coming from Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Indonesia. Each country produces about 15%, with smaller amounts coming from Brazil, Nigeria, and Cameroon.
A tree begins to bear fruit when it is 4 or 5 years old. In one year, when mature, it may have 6,000 flowers, but only about 20 pods. About 300-600 seeds (10 pods) are required to produce around 1 kg of cocoa paste.
There are three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo Group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from the Criollo, which is less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero Group. Forastero trees are significantly hardier than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Trinitario, a hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, is used in about 10% of chocolate. For details of processing, see cocoa.
Cacao beans were commonly used as currency in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. In some areas, such as Yucatán, they were still used in place of small coins as late as the 1840s.
Other websites
The food of the Gods - the nature, growth, cultivation, manufacture and history of Cocoa, by Brandon Head, from Project Gutenberg
Sterculiaceae |
19916 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabad%20and%20Piranshahr | Mahabad and Piranshahr | Mahabad and Piranshahr (, ); (Old name: سابلاخ: Sablakh, which may be of Mongolian origin) is a city in Iran. It is in the north-west of the country, in the region of Iranian Kurdistan and the province of West Azarbaijan. The city is south of Lake Urmia in a narrow valley 1,300 metres above sea level. There are about 162.434 people who live in the city. Mahabad is connected by road with Tabriz 300 km north, Urmia 150 km north and Arbil, in Iraqi Kurdistan.
The city is one center and symbol of the Kurdish nationalism. The reason is because in 1945 it was the capital of the newly founded people's Republic of Mahabad. The republic was conquered by Iranian forces in 16 December 1946. The president was Qazi Muhammad. The majority of the population is Kurdish. During the revolution in Iran, on 3 September 1979 the city was bombed and occupied by Iranian forces. After the death of Shivan Qaderi, a student and opposition activist in July 9 2005, the Kurdish population protested against the Iranian government.
Mahabad has also a branch of Islamic Azad University.
The region of Mukrian consists of Piranshahr and Mahabad.
Cities in Iran
Kurdistan |
19924 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivan%20Qaderi | Shivan Qaderi | Shivan Qaderi (or Sivan Ghaderi or Schuaneh Ghaderi; died 9 July 2005 in Mahabad) was a student and opposition activist in Iran. After his death in 2005, the Kurds protested and the Iranian government had to send more than 100,000 soldiers to this region. The Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran reported, that about 50,000 people had protested after his death on the Chuwarchira Square. Humans Rights First say that, after he was shot, Iranian soldiers tied Ghaderi's body "to a military vehicle and dragged it through the city, obviously trying to frighten the population so that they would not organize any more protests."
Related pages
Anti-Kurdism
References
Other websites
Amnesty International
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor with the Bureau of Public Affairs Washington, DC: Iran: Voices Struggling To Be Heard 3.11.2005
Qaderi, Shivan
20th-century births
2005 deaths
History of Iran |
19928 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauce | Sauce | In cooking, a sauce is a liquid mixture added to another food for flavour. Sauces are not normally eaten by themselves; they add flavour, moisture, and visual appeal to another dish. Sauces are an essential element in cuisines all over the world.
The main sauces of French cuisine are built on a basis of roux, which is just flour and the liquid part of butter. Examples from Italian cuisine are the egg, cheese and ham sauce called Carbonara; the ground meat sauce called bolognese, and the herbs and garlic sauce called pesto.
Bottled sauces can be poured over food when it is served. An example would be the tomato-based sauce that is usually poured over spaghetti. Gravy is a brown sauce served with meat.
Sauce is a French word taken from the Latin salsus, meaning salted. Possibly the oldest sauce recorded is garum, the fish sauce used by the Romans.
Sauces need a liquid component, but some sauces (for example, pico de gallo salsa or chutney) may contain more solid elements than liquid.
Sauces may be used for savoury dishes or for desserts. They can be prepared and served cold, like mayonnaise, prepared cold but served lukewarm like pesto, or can be cooked like bechamel and served warm or again cooked and served cold like apple sauce.
Some sauces are commercial products like Worcestershire sauce, HP sauce, soy sauce or ketchup. In French cuisine they are freshly prepared by the chef. Sauces for salads are called salad dressing. A cook who specializes in making sauces is a saucier.
French cuisine
Sauces in French cuisine date back to the Middle Ages. There were hundreds of sauces in the culinary repertoire, and were a major defining characteristic of French cooking of the 19th and 20th centuries, until nouvelle cuisine.
In the 19th century, the chef Antonin Carême classified sauces into four families, each of which was based on a mother sauce (Also called grandes sauces). Carême's four mother sauces were:
Béchamel, based on milk, thickened with a white roux.
Espagnole, based on brown stock (usually veal), thickened with a brown roux.
Velouté, based on a white stock, thickened with a blonde roux.
Allemande, based on velouté sauce, is thickened with egg yolks and heavy cream.
In the early 20th century, the chef Auguste Escoffier updated this classification to five mother sauces. They are:
Sauce Béchamel, Milk based sauce, thickened with a white roux.
Sauce Velouté, White stock based sauce, thickened with a roux or a liaison.
Sauce Tomate, Tomato based sauce, thickened with a roux.
Sauce Espagnole, Roasted veal stock based sauce, thickened with a brown roux.
Sauce Hollandaise, an emulsion of egg yolk, butter and lemon juice or vinegar. Béarnaise sauce (sauce béarnaise) is a "child" of hollandaise, meaning it is a variation on the theme.
A sauce which is based on one of the mother sauces is sometimes called a small sauce, minor sauce, or secondary sauce. Most sauces commonly used in classical cuisine are small sauces, or derivatives of one of the above-mentioned mother sauces.
Mother sauces are not commonly served as they are; instead they are augmented with additional ingredients to make small (derivative) sauces. For example, Bechamel can be made into Mornay by the addition of Gruyère or any cheese one may like, and Espagnole becomes Bordelaise with the addition and reduction of red wine, shallots, and poached beef marrow.
References |
19931 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaghetti | Spaghetti | Spaghetti, also known as pasta, is a long, string-shaped bolognese.
The word spaghetti was first used in 1849 as sparghetti in Eliza Acton's Modern Cookery. It comes from Italian spaghetto, which means "string".
Spaghetti is made from wheat noodles, which are boiled in water for a short time. Spaghetti can either be served as a side dish, or as a main dish. As a main dish, a sauce is added. There are many different kinds of sauces. Simpler ones are made of butter, more complicated ones include tomatos, garlic, olive oil and various other herbs. Different varieties with mussels, fish or meat also exist. Ground Parmesan cheese is often added.
In Italy the sauce is usually mixed with the spaghetti while they are being prepared. Usually, spaghetti are eaten only with a fork, or with a fork and a spoon. Sometimes, they are cut with a knife for small children. Many Italians see using a knife to eat spaghetti as bad manners, except to prepare them for small children.
In the United States, there is a kind of spaghetti called "Alvaro's spaghetti" which is served with alfredo sauce. In some countries,like United States or Canada, meatballs are often in the spaghetti sauce.
In China, spaghetti is often made by hand. In Italy, spaghetti is made with a machine so that large amounts can be made quickly. Italy is the biggest producer and consumer of spaghetti in the world.
It is also a popular dish in Libya.
Spaghetti is called by other words when it has a different thickness: "spaghettini (n. 3)", "spaghetti (n. 5)", and "spaghettoni (n. 8)".
Usually, spaghetti leftovers last in a fridge for around 3 to 5 days, while spaghetti in a freezer will last more than one month.
References
Other websites
Pasta
Italian food |
19933 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20penguin | Emperor penguin | The Emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) is a penguin that lives in Antarctica. It is the tallest and heaviest penguin. They are the only birds that can lay their eggs on ice.
Emperors are the biggest of the 18 species of penguin found today, and one of the largest of all birds. They are approximately 120cm tall (about the height of a six year old child) and weigh in at around 40 kg, though their weight does fluctuate dramatically throughout the year.Emperor penguins are about tall, weigh up to , and have a wingspan of . Emperor Penguins are black and white like all penguins, and the sides of their neck and chest are golden. They can dive deeper than any other bird, including other penguins. Emperor penguins are also the largest penguins in the world.Emperors are the biggest of the 18 species of penguin found today, and one of the largest of all birds. There are approximately 595,000 adult Emperor penguins in Antarctica. But due to a lack of research, there is still so much we don't know about these magnificent polar creatures. That's why we're funding research in the Antarctic, because the more we know, the better we can protect them. This will encourage the formation of Marine Protected Areas and will help in protecting the species in the face of climate change. Emperor penguins do not build nests they lay their eggs on the ice through their legs. Like other penguins, emperors leap into the air while swimming, which is called porpoising.
Life
They eat mostly crustaceans, such as krill, and fish but also eat cephalopods, such as squid, cuttlefish, and octopuses.
Emperors live in the coldest climate on earth. Temperatures can drop as low as -140 degrees Fahrenheit (-95.6 °C) on the Antarctic ice. They breed at the beginning of the Antarctic winter (March and April), on the ice all around the Antarctic continent. They live in large groups, called colonies, that can have up to 20,000 birds. They huddle close together to keep warm. Emperor penguins live for about 20 years, although some have been known to live for 40 years. They dive at their food and they stay in small groups
The shape of their body helps them to survive. They have short wings that help them swim and to dive up to to catch larger fish. The deepest dive recorded is . They can swim up to for a short time, which lets them escape their main enemy, the leopard seal. They can stay warm because they have a thick layer of blubber. The layer of downy feathers trap air that keeps the body heat in and cold air and water out. They also have large amounts of body oil that help in keeping them dry in the water.
While they are very fast in the water, on land the birds can only walk very slowly. On ice they can lie on their stomachs and use their wings to slide along, like a sled.
Breeding
Emperor penguins spend most of their time in the water, coming to the shore to breed. There is nothing on the ice to make a nest, so after the female lays her one egg in winter, the male puts the egg on his feet to keep it warm until spring. This can be from 65 to 75 days. He has a special fold of skin on his stomach which can fold over and cover the egg to keep it warm. This is a difficult action to swap the egg from the female to the male; if it sits for too long on the ice it will freeze. He does not eat during this time, and can lose up to half his weight. To keep warm, all the male penguins huddle together. Those on the outside of the group will slowly shuffle their way into the middle; the group is always moving and can move as much as in 24 hours. The female comes back in spring when the egg hatches, while the male will go back to sea to eat, but comes back to help look after the chick. The chick lives on its parents feet for about 50 days until it becomes strong enough to survive the cold.
Movies
The Australian movie Happy Feet was based on the story of an emperor penguin who is unable to sing and get a mate because he was left for too long on the ice when still an egg.
The documentary March of the Penguins is about emperor penguins moving across the ice to lay eggs.
Other websites
Emperor Penguin photos
References
Penguins
Animals of Antarctica |
19934 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snares%20penguin | Snares penguin | The Snares penguin (Eudyptes robustus), is a crested penguin. It is probably a subspecies of the Fiordland penguin. It is a penguin from New Zealand. It is between 50 and 70 centimetres in height and weighs between 2.5 and 4 kilograms.
It breeds on The Snares, a small island group south of New Zealand's South Island.
Penguins |
19942 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuar-chira%20Square | Chuar-chira Square | Chuar-chira Square (, ) (meaning Square of the four candles), is a known square in center of city of Mahabad where after Iranian invasion in 1947, Qazi Muhammad the president of Republic of Mahabad was hanged in public as well as other leaders of the republic in Mahabad and Bukan. In 2005 the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran reported that about 50.000 persons had demonstrated against the Iranian gouverment. The reason was the death of Shivan Qaderi.
It is now officially called Shardari Square. This square is one of the oldest places of Mahabad city.
Other websites
Photo of the Chuwar Chira Square
Buildings and structures in Iran
History of Iran |
19943 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex%20number | Complex number | A complex number is a number, but is different from common numbers in many ways. A complex number is made up using two numbers combined together. The first part is a real number, and the second part is an imaginary number. The most important imaginary number is called , defined as a number that will be -1 when squared ("squared" means "multiplied by itself"): . All the other imaginary numbers are multiplied by a real number, in the same way that all real numbers can be thought of as 1 multiplied by another number. Arithmetic functions such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can be used with complex numbers. They also follow commutative, associative and distributive properties, just like real numbers. The set of complex numbers is often represented using the symbol .
Complex numbers were discovered while attempting to solve special equations that have exponents in them. These began to pose real problems for mathematicians. As a comparison, using negative numbers, it is possible to find the x in the equation for all real values of a and b, but if only positive numbers are allowed for x, it is sometimes impossible to find a positive x, as in the equation .
With exponentiation, there is a difficulty to be overcome. There is no real number that gives −1 when it is squared. In other words, −1 (or any other negative number) has no real square root. For example, there is no real number that solves the equation . To solve this problem, mathematicians introduced a symbol i and called it the imaginary unit. This is the imaginary number that will give −1 when it is squared.
The first mathematicians to have thought of this were probably Gerolamo Cardano and Raffaele Bombelli. They lived in the 16th century. It was probably Leonhard Euler who introduced writing for that number.
All complex numbers can be written as (or ), where a is called the real part of the number, and b is called the imaginary part. We write or for the real part of a complex number . So, if , we write . Similarly, we write or for the imaginary part of a complex number ; , for the same . Every real number is also a complex number; it is a complex number with .
A complex number can also be written as an ordered pair , where both a and b are real numbers. Any real number can simply be written as , or as the pair .
Sometimes, is written instead of . In electrical engineering for instance, means electric current, so writing can cause a lot of problems because some numbers in electrical engineering are complex numbers.
The set of all complex numbers is usually written as .
Operations over complex numbers
Addition, subtraction, multiplication and exponentiation (raising numbers to exponents) are all possible with complex numbers. Division is also possible with complex numbers—as long as the divisor is not zero, Some other calculations are also possible with complex numbers.
The rule for addition and subtraction of complex numbers is pretty simple:
Let , then , and .
Multiplication is a bit different:
Another notable operation for complex numbers is conjugation. A complex conjugate to is .
It is pretty simple, but is important for calculations, because is actually a real number for all complex :
.
Because of that, we can use it to do division:
Other forms of describing complex numbers
Complex numbers can be shown on a so-called complex plane. If you have a number , you can go to point a on the real axis and point b on the imaginary axis, and draw a vector from to . The length of this vector can be calculated using the Pythagorean theorem, and the angle of this vector is simply the angle between the positive real axis and this vector—going counterclockwise. The length of a vector for a number is called its modulus or absolute value (written as ), and the angle is called its argument ().
This leads to the trigonometrical form of describing complex numbers: by the definitions of sine and cosine, it follows that for all :
This is closely connected to De Moivre's formula.
There exists even another form, called exponential form.
Conclusion
With the introduction of complex numbers to math, every polynomial with complex coefficients has roots in complex numbers. This introduction also helped to open a path to the creation of another kind of numbers, which could help resolve and explain many different problems. These include the hypercomplex numbers, sedenion, hyperreal numbers, surreal numbers and many others. For more, see types of numbers.
Related pages
Complex plane
Mandelbrot set
Riemann sphere
References
Other websites
A search for complex number at Wikibooks
Number theory |
19946 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20I%20of%20Prussia | Frederick I of Prussia | Frederick I of Prussia (), (11 July 1657–25 February 1713) of the Hohenzollern dynasty was the first King in Prussia (1701–1713).
1657 births
1713 deaths
Kings and Queens of Prussia
House of Hohenzollern |
19948 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20Jerusalem%20%281187%29 | Siege of Jerusalem (1187) | The Siege of Jerusalem took place from September 20 to October 2, 1187. It was part of the war called the Third Crusade.
Balian of Ibelin defended Jerusalem against the armies of Saladin. When he surrendered, the Muslims enslaved thousands of Christians but let many leave after they bought their freedom.
A fictionalized version of the siege (attack) is seen in the movie Kingdom of Heaven, directed by Ridley Scott.
Jerusalem (1187), Siege of
Crusades
1187 |
19949 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer%20Hall%20Putsch | Beer Hall Putsch | The Beer Hall Putsch was a failed coup d'état in Munich, Germany between the evening of 8 November and the morning of 9 November 1923. The Nazi Party under Adolf Hitler tried to take over the government of Bavaria, a state in Germany. They began trying to do this by taking several hundred people hostage in a beer hall (a large building where people got together to drink beer and sometimes listen to political speeches). Several Nazis died when they got into a gun fight with police officers in another part of Munich, and Hitler then went to prison for eight months.
Reasoning
Hitler chose to do this for many reasons. The Weimar Republic of Germany was weak because of fighting between right and left-wing parties. Inflation had also left the Weimar Republic with very little support from the people, or money to keep working (paying bills, or even paying pensions and wages). This happened because when Germany lost World War I, other countries made Germany pay for the entire war, and Germany had to make taxes very high so it could pay for the war. This hurt the economy of Germany.
The Nazi Party was getting very strong. Hitler was a strong leader. In 1923, the year when the Weimar Republic was least popular, the Nazi Party grew from 6,000 members to 55,000 members.
Hitler also wanted to copy Mussolini, who had taken power in Italy by marching into Rome.
Attempted coup
8 November 1923 - Hitler and his men charged into the Beer Hall and forced the people there to support him. Hitler's men, the SA took over the Army Headquarters, but forgot to take over the telegraph office. This meant that anybody could call in the police.
9 November 1923 - 16 Nazis and 4 Bavarian State Police officers were killed in a gunfight between the Nazis and the police in Residenzstraße. Hitler was arrested two days later.
Results
Hitler and several of his friends were taken to court for treason, because they took up arms against the government. In the end, Hitler was sent to prison for about eight months, and the Nazi Party broke up (however, it would later get back together).
More people learned about Hitler. Before this happened, he was unknown. But after this, he was a hero to many. Many Germans at that time wanted a strong leadership after the governments of the Weimar Republic.
Hitler also took the time he had to spend in prison to write a book, called Mein Kampf or "My Struggle". It sold millions and told people about his ideas. Mein Kampf also made Hitler popular. (Hitler did not actually write the words down himself. Instead, he told another Nazi, Rudolf Hess, what to write down, and Hess wrote the words down.)
Hitler also had to re-think his strategy. He realised he could not take power the same way that Mussolini had done. Instead, he had to get power through being elected.
Causalities
The people who died during the Putsch are seen as the first to die for the Nazi Party and are mentioned in Mein Kampf as Martyrs.
Felix Alfarth
Andreas Bauriedl
Theodor Casella
William Ehrlich
Martin Faust
Anton Hechenberger
Oskar Körner
Karl Kuhn
Karl Laforce
Kurt Neubauer
Klaus von Pape
Theodor von der Pfordten
Johann Rickmers
Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter
Lorenz Ritter von Stransky
Wilhelm Wolf
Other websites
A revision site for IGSCE students
Events of the Putsch in detail
Events of the Beer Hall Putsch before and after
1923 in Europe
1920s in Germany
20th century rebellions
Coups d'état
20th century in Munich
Nazi Party
Rebellions in Europe
November events |
19950 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verona | Verona | Verona is a city in the Veneto region of Italy with 260,000 inhabitants. It is famous for being the setting for the Shakespeare play Romeo and Juliet and because of the Roman Arena. This city is built on the Adige river. It has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa in the Köppen climate classification).
Capital cities in Italy |
19951 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyiv | Kyiv | Kyiv or Kiev () is the capital and largest city of Ukraine. It is in north-central Ukraine on the Dnieper River. Almost three million people live there.
The city hosted the UEFA Euro 2012 final. Kyiv also hosted the Eurovision Song Contest in 2017.
Kyiv has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification).
Climate
Notable people
Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian writer and playwright
Victor Skumin, Russian professor, philosopher, writer, psychologist, psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and medical doctor
References
Notes
5th-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in Ukraine
482 establishments |
19952 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harare | Harare | Harare is the capital of Zimbabwe. It is home to over 1.6 million people. It was known as Salisbury from its foundation on September 12, 1890 until April 18, 1982.
Harare is Zimbabwe's biggest and most important financial, commercial, and communications centre, and a trade centre for tobacco, maize, cotton, and citrus fruits. Manufactured goods include textiles, steel and chemicals, and gold is mined in the area. The city's suburbs include Borrowdale, Mount Pleasant and Avondale. The richest neighbourhoods are to the north. The University of Zimbabwe, the country's oldest university (founded in 1952), is in Mount Pleasant, about 6 km (3.7 mi) north of the city centre. The country's main Test cricket ground, Harare Sports Club is in the city. The Dynamos F.C. in Harare is Zimbabwe's most successful association football team.
References
Capital cities in Africa
Cities in Zimbabwe |
19955 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh-day%20Adventist%20Church | Seventh-day Adventist Church | The Seventh-day Adventist Church is a Protestant Christian group. It is different from most other Protestant groups because the followers believe that the seventh day of the week, Saturday, is the day to rest from working and worship God. The Bible calls this day the "Sabbath". The Sabbath is the seventh day of the week (Gen 2:1-3) in Judaism and in the Seventh-Day Adventist Church. This is why they are called "Seventh-day Adventists". Although the abbreviation "SDA" is commonly used, "Adventist" is the church's preferred shortening of "Seventh-day Adventist".
The Seventh-day Adventist Church came from the Millerite movement in the United States. This included people from many denominations. The Millerites started in the middle part of the 19th century. The Millerites were people who followed the teachings of William Miller. Miller preached that Jesus is coming very soon, in the Second Coming or Second Advent. The church name "Adventist" came from the word "Advent." The Seventh-day Adventist Church started in 1863.
In many ways, the religious teachings of the Seventh-day Adventist church are like evangelical teachings such as the Trinity and Biblical inerrancy. Teachings that are different include the doctrine of an investigative judgment, the unconscious state of the dead (which means that when people die, they will not wake up until Christ resurrects them), and that the wicked will be destroyed forever by fire (rather than forever burn in Hell).
The church is also known for its message on health. It teaches that being healthy helps us to make good decisions, understand God’s Word, be productive in God’s service, and otherwise glorify God with our bodies as temples. Adventists who eat meat typically do not eat meat from pigs, certain fish, and other animals that the Bible names as unclean. Many Adventists are vegetarian (no meat) or vegan (no animal products, such as milk or eggs). They tend to stay away from smoking, drinking and other things known to be harmful or mind-altering. Exercise, being outdoors, resting, and drinking lots of water are other parts to healthy living usually taught by Adventists. In 2005, a National Geographic cover story identified the Adventists living in Loma Linda, California, as one of five Blue Zones of people living longer than the rest of the world.
The church also promotes religious liberty. When it comes to culture, it is more conservative.
Among the founders of the Church was Ellen G. White. She wrote many texts that are still thought to be very important in the church today. She was a dedicated Christian who believed she got visions from God about the end of the world and what heaven will be like.
At a world level, the Seventh-day Adventist Church is run by a General Conference. Smaller regions are administered by divisions, union conferences and local conferences. It is present in over 200 countries and territories and is ethnically and culturally diverse. The church runs many schools, hospitals and publishing houses worldwide, as well as a famous organization that helps people in trouble, known as the Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA). There are about 18.5 million people in the Seventh-day adventist church worldwide.
Organization
The Seventh-day Adventist Church is organized with a representative form of church government and the world-wide Church has 13 Divisions.
The Seventh-day Adventist World Church Statistics shows a growing church with 15,660,347 members as of December 31, 2007.
The Adventist News Network reported in June 2010 (during the 59th quinquennial General Conference Session of the Seventh-day Adventist Church held in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.A.) that Seventh-day Adventists reached a membership of 16,300,000, according to the church's Office of Archives and Statistics. The world church Secretary stated that when counting unbaptized children and family members who attend services, the church numbers between 25 and 30 million.
Mainstream doctrine
Seventh-day Adventists believe in Protestantism.
Seventh-day Adventist believe in the 28 Fundamental Beliefs. This statement of beliefs was adopted by the General Conference in 1980, with an extra belief (number 11) being added in 2005.
References
Protestant denominations |
19958 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lye | Lye | Lye is the name of different things:
Lye is a caustic solution used for glass and soap making. It may have in it:
sodium hydroxide (soda lye) or
less commonly, potassium hydroxide (potash lye).
Lye, West Midlands is the name of a small town in England, between Dudley and Stourbridge in the Black Country, Dudley Metropolitan Borough, West Midlands (it was in Worcestershire).
Lye is a commune of the Indre département, in France. |
19960 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luck | Luck | Luck can mean:
Something that happens to someone by chance
A superstitious feeling that brings good fortune or success |
19961 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony%20and%20Cleopatra | Antony and Cleopatra | Antony and Cleopatra is a play by Shakespeare. It is a tragedy. Shakespeare's source was Plutarch's Lives. The play was first performed between 1606 and 1607. It was probably first printed in the First Folio of 1623. The play describes the romantic love and suicides of Antony and Cleopatra.
References
Antony and Cleopatra
Plays by William Shakespeare |
19964 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Het%20Wilhelmus | Het Wilhelmus | "Het Wilhelmus", fully known as "Wilhelmus van Nassouwe", is the national anthem of the Netherlands and the former national anthem of the Netherlands Antilles until 1964. Known since at least the 16th century – around the time of the Dutch Revolt – this song contains the oldest melody among all national anthems of the world. Its lyrics also date back to the 1500s, though the lyrics of "Kimigayo"—Japan's national anthem—are much older. Because "Het Wilhelmus" is so old, the origins of the composer(s) and author(s) are uncertain, but the melody has been arranged by Dutch composer Adrianus Valerius in the 1600s. It wasn't officially adopted as national anthem of the Netherlands until the 20th century.
Lyrics
References
Netherlands
National anthems |
19968 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1803 | 1803 |
Events
January 4 – William Symington demonstrates his Charlotte Dundas, the "first practical steamboat".
January 30 – Monroe and Livingston sail for Paris to discuss, and possibly buy, New Orleans. They end completing the Louisiana Purchase.
February 21 – Edward Despard and six others are hanged, drawn and quartered for plotting to assassinate king George III and to destroy the Bank of England
February 24 – The Supreme Court of the United States, in Marbury v. Madison, establishes the principle of judicial review.
March 1 – Ohio is admitted as the 17th U.S. state, retroactive from August 7, 1953.
April 30 – Louisiana Purchase made by the United States from France.
March 12 – Port Gibson, MS is chartered
May 18 – The United Kingdom redeclares war on France after France refused to withdraw from Dutch territory.
July 4 – The Louisiana Purchase is announced to the American people.
July 5 – The convention of Artlenburg leads to the French occupation of Hanover (which had been ruled by the British king).
July 23 – Robert Emmet's uprising in Ireland begins
July 26 – The wagonway between Wandsworth and Croydon is opened, being the first public railway line of the world.
August 3 – British begin Second Anglo-Maratha War against Sindhia of Gwalior
September 20 – Irish rebel Robert Emmet is executed
September 23 – The Battle of Assaye in India – British-lead troops defeat Maratha forces
October 20 – Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase Treaty, doubling the size of the United States.
November 30 – At the Cabildo building in New Orleans, Spanish representatives Governor Manuel de Salcedo and the Marqués de Casa Calvo, officially transfer Louisiana Territory to French representative Prefect Pierre Clément de Laussat (just 20 days later, France had transferred the same land to the United States as the Louisiana Purchase).
Aargau, Graubünden, St. Gallen, Thurgau, the Ticino, Vaud become Swiss cantons.
France – the Livre Tournois (Tours Pound) is replaced by the Franc.
William Osgoode, Chief Justice of Lower Canada, rules that slavery is inconsistent with British Law.
Ongoing events
Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815) |
19969 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1661 | 1661 | 1661 was a common year starting on a Saturday in the Gregorian calendar, and a common year starting on a Tuesday in the Julian calendar.
Events
January 6 – The fifth monarchy men unsuccessfully attempt to seize control of London. George Monck's regiment defeats them.
January 30 – The body of Oliver Cromwell is subjected to a posthumous execution.
February 5 – The Shunzhi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty of China dies and is succeeded by his son the Kangxi Emperor.
February 14 – George Monck’s regiment becomes The Lord General's Regiment of Foot Guards (which later becomes Coldstream Guards)
April 23 – King Charles II of England, Scotland, Ireland crowned in Westminster Abbey. This is his second crowning.
April 28 – The University of Santo Tomas in Manila opens. It is Asia's first University.
June 30 – The first Earl of Argyle is executed at the Mercat Cross in Edinburgh for treason.
August 6 – Portugal and the Dutch Republic sign the treaty of The Hague, whereby New Holland in present-day Brazil is ceded to Portugal.
December 30 – Drottningholm Castle in Stockholm is destroyed by fire.
Dutch rule ends in Taiwan.
First modern bank notes issued in Stockholm, Sweden
Births
January 30 – Charles Rollin, French historian (d. 1741)
March 25 – Paul de Rapin, French historian (d. 1725)
April 16 – Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, English poet and statesman (d. 1715)
May 25 – Claude de Buffier, French philosopher and historian (d. 1737)
June 6 – Giacomo Antonio Perti, Italian composer (d. 1756)
June 9 – Tsar Feodor III of Russia (d. 1682)
July 20 – Pierre Le Moyne, French founder of the Louisiana colony (d. 1706)
September 2 – Georg Boehm, German organist (d. 1733)
October 11 – Melchior de Polignac, French diplomat (d. 1742)
November 1 – Florent Carton Dancourt, French dramatist and actor (d. 1725)
November 4 – Karl Philip, Elector Palatine (d. 1742)
November 6 – King Charles II of Spain (d. 1700)
November 15 – Christoph Graffenried, Swiss settler in America (d. 1743)
November 28 – Edward Hyde, 3rd Earl of Clarendon, Governor of New York and New Jersey (d. 1723)
December 5 – Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, English statesman (d. 1724)
December 18 – Christopher Polhem, Swedish scientist and inventor (d. 1751)
Deaths
January 19 – Thomas Venner, Fifth Monarchist
February 2 – Lucas Holstenius, German humanist (b. 1596)
February 5 – Shunzhi Emperor of China (b. 1638)
March 1 – Richard Zouch, English jurist (b. 1590)
March 9 – Cardinal Mazarin, French cardinal and statesman (b. 1602)
April 4 – Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven, Scottish soldier (b. 1580)
April 7 – William Brereton, English soldier and politician (b. 1604)
May 27 – Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, Scottish dissenter (b. 1607)
August 7 – Jin Shengtan, Chinese editor, writer and critic (b. 1608)
August 16 – Thomas Fuller, English churchman and historian (b. 1608)
August 29 – Louis Couperin, French composer and organist (b. 1626)
September 11 – Jan Fyt, Flemish painter (b. 1611)
October 4 – Jacqueline Pascal, French child prodigy and sister of Blaise Pascal (b. 1625)
October 28 – Agustin Moreto y Cavana, Spanish playwright (b. 1618)
November 19 – Brian Walton, English clergyman and scholar (b. 1600)
December 29 – Antoine Gerard de Saint-Amant, French poet (b. 1594) |
19970 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1579 | 1579 |
Events
January 6 – The Union of Atrecht united the southern Netherlands under the Duke of Parma, governor in the name of king Philip II of Spain.
January 23 – The Union of Utrecht united the northern Netherlands in a confederation called the United Provinces. William I of Orange becomes Stadtholder, and the Duc d'Anjou, younger brother of Henry III of France is invited to become hereditary sovereign.
March – Capture of Maastricht by the Spanish under Parma.
June 17 – Sir Francis Drake, during his circumnavigation of the world, lands in what is now California, which he claims for Queen Elizabeth I. With an English claim here and in Newfoundland, it becomes the basis for English colonial charters which will claim all land from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from "sea to sea." Drake's claim is called "Nova Albion" (meaning, New England), and subsequent maps will show all lands north of New Spain and New Mexico under this name. |
19971 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/752 | 752 |
Events
Pope Stephen II, pope for 3 days in March.
Pope Stephen III, succeeded Stephen II.
Retired Emperor Shōmu takes part in the dedication ceremony of the great statue of Vairocana Buddha at the Todaiji temple and declares himself a Buddhist. |
19972 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1005 | 1005 | 1005 (MV) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used. It was the fifth year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.
Events
Malcolm II succeeds Kenneth III as king of Scotland.
Pomerania revolts against the church.
Schaffhausen starts minting its own coins.
Spring – The Republic of Pisa conducts a military offensive against the Saracen strongholds in Southern Italy. The Pisan fleet sacks the city of Reggio Calabria. Pisa becomes one of the four commercial Maritime Republics (the other three are Genoa, Venice and Amalfi), which fight each other for control of the Mediterranean Sea.
Births
King Macbeth of Scotland, Scottish royal (died 1057)
Deaths
King Kenneth III of Scotland
References |
19973 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1233 | 1233 |
Events
Fortress of Kalan built.
Establishment of the Inquisition.
Mustansiriya University founded in Baghdad. |
19974 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1736 | 1736 |
Events
January 26 – Stanislaus I of Poland abdicates his throne
February 12 – Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor weds Maria Theresa, mother of Marie Antoinette
April 14 – Porteous Riots erupt in Edinburgh after execution of a smuggler Andrew Wilson when town guard captain John Porteous orders his men to fire at the crowd. Porteous is arrested later
May 8 – Marriage of Frederick, Prince of Wales and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha.
May 26 – Battle of Ackia: British and Chickasaw Native Americans defeat French troops.
September 7 – Edinburgh crowd drags John Porteous out of his cell in Tolbooth prison and lynches him
A French expedition led by Pierre Louis Maupertuis is sent by King Louis XV to Lapland to measure the length of a degree of the meridian, and proves that the Earth is flattened at the poles
Real Arissona, namesake of the U.S. state Arizona is founded in what is now that state.
Isaac Newton Publishes his Method of Fluxions
Thomas Bayes publishes a defense of Isaac Newton's calculus
Leonhard Euler solves the mathematical problem known as the seven bridges of Königsberg |
19975 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1340 | 1340 |
Events
Europe has about 74 million inhabitants.
January 26 – King Edward III of England is declared King of France
June 24 – The Battle of Sluys is fought between the naval fleets of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France. The former was under the command of Edward III of England and the latter under those of admiral Hue Quiéret and treasurer Nicholas Béhuchet assisted by Genoese mercenary galleys serving under Egidio Bocanegra. The battle ends with the almost complete destruction of the French. Both their commanders were among the casualties. However the mercenaries manage to escape.
A son of deceased King Christopher II of Denmark is elected to the throne following eight years of Interregnum. He will reign as Valdemar IV of Denmark. |
19976 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1128 | 1128 |
Events
Pope Honorius II recognizes and confirms the Order of the Knights Templar.
King Afonso I of Portugal, then Count of Portugal defeats his mother, Teresa of Leon, in battle and gains control of the county.
Geoffrey of Anjou marries Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England.
Holyrood Abbey founded in Edinburgh by David I, King of Scotland. |
19977 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/984 | 984 |
Events
End of the reign of Emperor En'yū, emperor of Japan
Emperor Kazan ascends to the throne of Japan
Henry II, Duke of Bavaria abducts the child king Otto III
Antipope Boniface VII murders Pope John XIV
Births
Bethoc, eldest daughter of Malcolm II of Scotland
Ch'oe Ch'ung, Korean scholar
Deaths
Pope John XIV |
19978 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1639 | 1639 |
Events
January 14 – Connecticut's first constitution, the "Fundamental Orders," is adopted.
January 23 – Francisco Maldonado de Silva, Peruvian Jewish poet, executed by burning at the stake
March 13 – Harvard University is named for a clergyman named John Harvard.
November 24 – Jeremiah Horrocks observes the transit of Venus.
Charles I starts the first of the Bishops Wars against Scotland.
The Casiquiare canal, a river forming a natural canal between the Amazon River and Orinoco River basins, is first encountered by Europeans.
The Barbados House of Assembly meets for the first time.
The first printing press in North America is started in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Russian Cossacks advance over Urals to Pacific, to Okhotsk.
Montreal first settled. |
19979 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1003 | 1003 | 1003 (MIII) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used. It was the third year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.
Events
Sweyn I of Denmark begins his first invasion of England.
Humbert I becomes the first count of Savoy.
King Robert II of France invades Burgundy, but fails.
Pope John XVII succeeds Pope Silvester II.
Pope John XVIII succeeds Pope John XVII.
Boleslaus I of Poland becomes duke of Bohemia and Moravia.
Battle of Albesa: Muslim forces of the Caliphate of Cordoba defeat the northern Christian armies of León, Pamplona and Castile.
Births
c.December 25 – Edward the Confessor, King of England and founder of Westminster Abbey in London (died 1066)
date unknown
Prince Louis of France, French royal (died 1028)
References |
19980 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzzy%20logic | Fuzzy logic | Fuzzy logic is a sort of computer logic that is different from boolean algebra founded by Lotfi A. Zadeh. It is different in the way that it allows values to be more accurate than on or off. While boolean logic only allows true or false, fuzzy logic allows all things in between. An example of this could be a computer game: A person is standing in a doorway while a thing explodes. The character is hit or not hit if boolean logic is used, but the doorway protects him from the explosion. Therefore, he might only be hit 20%, and takes less damage.
To put it in more precise mathematical terms, classical logic has two values. These values are usually called false (0) or true (1). With fuzzy logic, a (calculated) value of 0.8 or 0.971 is possible. It is important to know the difference between fuzzy logic and chance. A coin that is thrown has a chance of 0.5 for landing heads up. If it is thrown 1000 times, it is expected that it will land with heads side up 500 times. With fuzzy logic, a thing with a "truth value" of 0.5 will have a value of 0.5 no matter how many times it is done. It is not a 50% chance of true or untrue, it is 50% true and 50% untrue at the same time.
Fuzzy logic is used a lot in expert systems and neural networks.
Humans tend to use a combination of predicate logic and fuzzy logic. If you are an outfielder catching a baseball hit into the air, then your precise logic will calculate trajectory and start you running to the point of intercept (catching). However, once close to the ball the eyes and brain of the outfielder lacks the ability to accurately estimate distance and speed because the ball is coming straight at the outfielder. The human brain switches to fuzzy logic that says "get me closer", "get me closer", and so on. That is why you see outfielders in baseball run to a spot and then move around as the ball gets closer.
Predicate logic says calculate the point to be at to catch the ball. Fuzzy logic says because of wind or other things you might not be in the correct place so just keep getting closer until you catch the ball.
In predicate logic it is the mathematics of calculating the path of the ball that determines your action. In fuzzy logic it is the error of your calculations that determines your action.
In effect, it's like your brain trying to steady a drink in your hand while traveling down a bumpy road.
Artificial intelligence |
19981 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douala | Douala | Douala is the largest city in the African country of Cameroon. It is the capital city of Littoral Province.
The city is placed near the Wouri River. Its population is about 2,000,000 people. The first European people who came to Douala were from Portugal. They found Duala in about 1472. Before 1884 it was named Cameroons Town. In 1884 German people came to Duala and changed its name to Kamarunstadt ("Camaroon City") and made it the capital of German Kamerun. In 1907 its name was changed to Duala. It became the capital of French Cameroons in 1919. From 1940 to 1946, it was the capital of Cameroon.
Duala is an expensive city. It ranked 24th most expensive city of the world in 2007.
Transport
Douala is linked by rail to Yaoundé, Ngaoundéré, Kumba and Nkongsamba. The largest port and the most important airport in Cameron are both in Douala.
References
Other websites
Image of Douala from Google Earth
Settlements in Cameroon
Cities in Africa
1472 establishments
Establishments in Portugal
Establishments in Africa |
19982 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1843 | 1843 |
Events
February 6 – The Virginia Minstrels perform the first minstrel show (Bowery Amphitheatre, New York City).
February 8 – Earthquakes in Guadeloupe magnitude 8.5, 5000 people report killed.
February 11 – Giuseppe Verdi's opera I Lombardi premieres in Milan.
May 18 – The Disruption of the Church of Scotland took place in Edinburgh.
May 22 – The first major wagon train headed for the northwest sets out with one thousand pioneers from Elm Grove, Missouri, on the Oregon Trail.
July 19 – The SS Great Britain is launched from Bristol.
August 15 – Tivoli Gardens, one of the oldest still intact amusement parks in the world, opened in Copenhagen, Denmark.
October 13 – In New York City, Henry Jones and 11 others found B'nai B'rith (the oldest Jewish service organization in the world).
November 28 – Ka La Ku'oko'a: Hawaiian Independence Day. The Kingdom of Hawai`i was officially recognized by the United Kingdom and France as an independent nation.
The world's first commercial Christmas cards are printed by Sir Henry Cole in London.
December 17 – First publication of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol.
James Joule quantifies the conversion of work into heat.
In Barbados, the first black man, Samuel Jackson Prescod, is elected to the House of Assembly.
The Danish government re-establishes the althing in Iceland as an advisory body.
The first tunnel under the Thames is finished.
Argentina supports Rosas of Uruguay and begins a siege of Montevideo.
Quaternions are discovered by William Rowan Hamilton.
The Economist is first published.
Bishop's University is founded.
Abbeville is founded by descendants of Acadians from Nova Scotia.
January 1 – Francis Scott Key, American lawyer and lyricist (b. 1779) |
19983 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1225 | 1225 |
Births
Thomas Aquinas, Italian theologian (died 1274)
Saint Isabel of France, daughter of Louis VIII of France
David VI Narin, King of Georgia (died 1293)
Michael VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor (died 1282) |
19987 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/841 | 841 |
Events
June 25: Battle of Fontenay – Louis the German and Charles the Bald defeat Lothar.
Battle at Magh-Ochtar in Kildare, Ireland, at which Feidlimid mac Cremthanin is defeated by the Southern Uí Neill. |
19988 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1164 | 1164 |
Events
Count Henry I of Champagne marries Marie de Champagne.
Uppsala is recognized as the seat of the Swedish metropolitan.
Antipope Paschal III elected by cardinals supporting Frederick Barbarossa.
Olaf II of Norway is canonized as Saint Olaf.
Archbishop Rainald of Dassel brings relics of the Magi from Milan to Cologne.
Thomas Becket contends with Henry II, leaves England to solicit support from the Pope and the King of France.
The first written record of Tver
1164 |
19989 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/578 | 578 |
Events
Tiberius II Constantine succeeds Justin II as Byzantine Emperor
Kongo Gumi, world's oldest (construction) company founded in Osaka, Japan |
19992 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1707 | 1707 |
Events
January 1 – John V is crowned King of Portugal
May 1 – The Acts of Union 1707 become law, making the separate kingdoms of England and Scotland into one country, the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
April 25 – Allied army is defeated by Bourbonic army at Almansa (Spain) in the War of the Spanish Succession.
September 29 – Four British Royal Navy ships run aground near Scilly Isles because of faulty navigation – Admiral Sir Cloddisley Shovel and thousands of sailors drown
October 23 – First Parliament of Great Britain.
A fortress is founded on the future site of Ust-Abakanskoye (modern Abakan).
Mount Fuji in Japan erupts.
The Lao empire of Lan Xang officially ends and splits into the kingdoms of Vientiane, Luang Prabang, and Champasak.
Births
February 1 - Frederick, Prince of Wales (d. 1751)
April 15 - Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician and physicist (d. 1783)
April 22 - Henry Fielding, British writer (d. 1754)
May 23 - Carolus Linnaeus, Swedish botanist (d. 1778)
September 7 - Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, French scientist (d. 1788)
Deaths
May 9 - Dieterich Buxtehude, German composer (b. c. 1637) |
19994 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1031 | 1031 |
Events
Collapse of the Moorish Caliphate of Córdoba.
Byzantine general George Maniaces captures Edessa.
Henry I becomes King of France
Bezprym seizes the throne of Poland from Mieszko II Lambert
France suffers from a famine (until 1033).
Births
King Malcolm III of Scotland, Scottish royal (died 1093)
Matilda of Flanders, Queen consort of the Kingdom of England (died 1083)
Roger I of Sicily, Count of Sicily (died 1101)
Deaths
July 20 – King Robert II of France (b. 972)
September 2 – Saint Emeric of Hungary
References |
19995 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1083 | 1083 |
Events
Sancho I of Aragon conquers Graus.
Alfonso VI of Castile conquers Talavera de la Reina.
Bosnia is conquered by Duklja.
June – Pope Gregory VII is besieged in Castel Sant'Angelo by Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor. |
19996 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1027 | 1027 | 1027 (MXXVII) was a common year when the Julian calendar was used. It was the twenty-seventh year of the 2nd millennium and the 11th century.
Events
March 26 – Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor.
May 14 – Henry I of France is crowned king of France at Reims Cathedral.
Aldred becomes abbot of Tavistock.
Start of the Tibetan calendar.
Births
October 14 – William the Conqueror, King of England and Duke of Normandy (died 1087)
Deaths
Richard, Duke of Normandy, French nobleman (born 960)
References |
19997 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1316 | 1316 |
Events
Pope John XXII elected to the papacy.
The Great Famine of 1315-1317.
Deaths
Ala-ud-din-Khilji |
19999 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1778 | 1778 |
Events
The term thoroughbred was first used in the United States in an advertisement in a Kentucky gazette to describe a New Jersey stallion called Pilgarlick.
January 18 – Third Pacific expedition of Capt. James Cook, with ships HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery, first see O'ahu then Kaua'i in the Hawaiian Islands, which he names the "Sandwich Islands".
February 5 – South Carolina becomes the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation.
February 6 – American Revolutionary War: In Paris the Treaty of Alliance and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce are signed by the United States and France beginning official recognition of the new republic.
February 23 – American Revolutionary War: Baron von Steuben arrives at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania and begins to train the Continental Army.
July 10 – American Revolutionary War: Louis XVI of France declares war on the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
July 27 – American Revolution: First Battle of Ushant – British and French fleets fight to a standoff.
August 26 – Triglav, at 2,864 metres above sea level the highest peak of Slovenia, was ascended for the first time by four brave men: Luka Korošec, Matevž Kos, Štefan Rožič and Lovrenc Willomitzer on Sigismund Zois's initiative.
September – The Massachusetts Banishment Act, providing punishment for Loyalists, is passed.
November 26 – In the Hawaiian Islands, Captain James Cook becomes the first European to discover Maui.
France introduced the first state-controlled brothel.
The first settlement was made in the area of what is now Louisville, Kentucky by 13 families under Col. George Rogers Clark.
Phillips Academy, the most prestigious secondary boarding school in the United States, was founded by Samuel Phillips Jr. |
20000 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/885 | 885 |
Events
Vikings besiege Paris
Births
Emperor Daigo of Japan
November 26 – Emperor Zhuangzong of Later Tang
Deaths
April 6 – Saint Methodius, bishop and Bible translator
June – Godfrith, the Sea King
July – Pope Adrian III
July/August – Sulayman ibn Wahb, Abbasid vizier |
20002 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1751 | 1751 |
Events
Adam Smith is appointed professor of logic at the University of Glasgow
March 25 – For the last time, New Year's Day is legally on March 25 in England and Wales.
March 31 – The future King George III of the United Kingdom succeeds his father as Prince of Wales. His mother Augusta of Saxe-Gotha becomes Dowager Princess of Wales.
First publication of Encyclopédie
The Academy and College of Philadelphia, the predecessor to the private University of Pennsylvania, is founded.
Pennsylvania Hospital, the first hospital in the British colonies, is founded.
Births
March 16 – James Madison, American politician, 4th President of the United States (d. 1836)
Deaths
March 31 – Frederick, Prince of Wales, member of the British Royal Family (b. 1707) |
20003 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/250 | 250 | 250 (CCL) was .
Events
Diophantus writes Arithmetica the first systematic treatise on algebra.
A group of Franks penetrate as far as Tarragona in Spain (approximate date).
Goths invade Moesia.
The Alamanni drive the Romans from the modern area of Donau-Ries.
Decius begins a period of persecution of the Christians in the Roman Empire.
Teotihuacán is rebuilt as a four-quartered cosmogram by Zapotec architects brought from Monte Albán in Oaxaca.
Kofun Period begins in Japan.
Births
Helena of Constantinople
Licinius |
20004 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1802 | 1802 |
Events
March 16 – West Point is established.
March 25/27 – Treaty of Amiens between France and United Kingdom ends the War of the Second Coalition.
March 28 – H. W. Olbers discovers the asteroid Pallas.
May 19 – Napoleon Bonaparte establishes the French légion d'honneur (Legion of Honour).
June 8 – Haitian revolutionary Toussaint Louverture is seized by French troops and sent to Fort de Joux for prison.
July 4 – At West Point, New York the United States Military Academy opens.
August 2 – In a plebiscite Napoleon Bonaparte is confirmed as consul for life.
September 11 – The Italian region of Piedmont becomes a part of Napoleonic France.
October 2 – War ends between Sweden and Tripoli. The United States also negotiates peace, but war continues over the size of compensation.
July – Eleuthère Irénée du Pont founds E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, the modern DuPont Company.
October – French army enters Switzerland.
Marie Tussaud opens her famous wax museum in London, having been commissioned during the Reign of Terror to make death masks of the victims.
Treviranus uses the term biology for the first time.
Thomas Wedgwood produces the world's first photograph, but has no means of fixing the image, which quickly fades.
William Symington builds the first successful steamship, the Charlotte Dundas.
Ludwig van Beethoven performs the Moonlight Sonata for the first time.
William Wordsworth publishes the poem "Westminster Bridge."
The estimated world population reaches 1 billion people.
Ongoing events
French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)
Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815) |
20005 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/37 | 37 | 37 is a year in the 1st century. It was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Proculus and Pontius.
Events
March 18 – Roman Senate ends Tiberius' will. They proclaim Caligula Roman Emperor.
Caligula tries declare himself a god. This creates tension between himself and the Senate.
An earthquake destroys Antioch
Abilene is granted to Agrippa I.
Saint Peter founds the Syrian Orthodox Church. (traditional date)
Probable year of the conversion of the Pharisee Saul of Tarsus to Christianity. After 39 he is recognised as Saint Paul.
Births
December 15 – Nero, Roman Emperor
Josephus, Jewish historian
Deaths
March 16 – Tiberius, Roman Emperor
May 1 – Antonia Minor, daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor
Marbod king of the Marcomanni
37 |
20006 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1584 | 1584 |
Events
June 1 – With the death of the Duc d'Anjou, the Huguenot Henry of Navarre becomes heir-presumptive to the throne of France.
July 5 – Maronite College established in Rome
July 10 – William I of Orange assassinated
Change to the new Gregorian Calendar in many countries. Dates between October 5 – 14 ignored.
The first translation of the complete Bible into Slovenian language: Bibilija, tu je vse svetu pismu stariga inu noviga testamenta, slovenski tolmačena skuzi Jurija Dalmatina (Wittenberg), i.e. The Bible, it is a Complete Holy Scripture of the Old and of the New Testament, Translated into Slovenian by Jurij Dalmatin.
Archangelsk is founded in northern Russia.
Feodor I succeeds his father Ivan IV as Tsar of Russia
Latin Book of Concord published in Germany
Ghent falls to the Spanish. |
20007 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/193 | 193 |
Events
January 1 – Pertinax is proclaimed Roman Emperor.
June 1 – Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is assassinated in his palace.
Pertinax is killed after 87 days as Roman emperor. Septimius Severus finally gains control of the Roman Empire, after eliminating Pescennius Niger and Didius Julianus. Clodius Albinus also claims the Empire.
Last (4th) year of Chuping era of the Chinese Han Dynasty |
20008 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1243 | 1243 | 1243 was a year in the 13th century
Events
Innocent IV was elected pope.
Castile captures the city of Murcia from the Moors.
City of Brno founded
Battle of Köse Dag |
20010 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1541 | 1541 |
Events
The first official translation of the entire Bible in Swedish
February 12 – Pedro de Valdivia founds Santiago de Chile.
May 8 – Hernando de Soto reaches the Mississippi River naming it Rio de Espiritu Santo.
May 23 – Jacques Cartier departs Saint-Malo France on his third voyage.
July 9 – Estevão da Gama departs Massawa, leaving behind 400 matchlockmen and 150 slaves under his brother Christovão da Gama, with orders to assist the Emperor of Ethiopia defeat Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi who has invaded his Empire.
August 29 – The Janissaries of Suleiman the Magnificent take Buda by ruse, hiding themselves as tourists.
Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent seals off The Golden Gate in Jerusalem.
The Parliament of Ireland declares Henry VIII of England King of Ireland replacing the Lordship of Ireland with the Kingdom of Ireland.
October – The unsuccessful Algerian campaign of Charles V of Spain Gabsurg |
20011 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1354 | 1354 |
Events
October 8 – Cola di Rienzo, self-proclaimed "tribune" of Rome, is killed by an angry mob
End of reign of John VI Cantacuzenus, as Byzantine emperor.
The Lao kingdom of Lan Xang is established. |
20012 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1286 | 1286 |
Births
March 8 – John III, Duke of Brittany (died 1341)
June 30 – John de Warenne, 8th Earl of Surrey, English politician (died 1347)
James Douglas the Black, Scottish patriot (died 1330)
Hugh the younger Despenser (died 1326)
Frederick I of Austria (died 1330)
William III, Count of Holland (died 1337) |
20013 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1129 | 1129 |
Deaths
March 8 – Queen Urraca of Castile (born 1082)
July 24 – Emperor Shirakawa of Japan (born 1053)
Prince Álmos, of Hungary
Constantine II of Armenia
Thoros I of Armenia
Ranulph le Meschin, 1st Earl of Chester
Symeon of Durham, English chronicler
Margrave Leopold of Styria |
20014 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1082 | 1082 |
Births
November 2 - Emperor Huizong of China (d. 1135)
Queen Urraca of Castile (d. 1129) |
20015 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1135 | 1135 |
Deaths
June 4 – Emperor Huizong of China (b. 1082)
December 1 – King Henry I of England
Al-Mustarshid, Caliph of Baghdad
Milarepa, Tibetan yogi and poet (born 1052) |
20016 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1052 | 1052 | The year 1052 was a leap year which started on Wednesday.
Events
Godwin, Earl of Wessex returns to England from exile.
Births
May 23 – King Philip I of France (d. 1108) |
20017 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1761 | 1761 |
Events
January 14 – Third Battle of Panipat was fought between Marathas and Afghans
January 16 – British capture Pondicherry, India from the French.
February 8 – Earthquake in London breaks chimneys in Limehouse and Poplar
March 8 – Second earthquake in North London, Hampstead and Highgate
In Dutch Guayana a “state” formed by escaped slaves signs a treaty with the local governor
Opening of Matthew Boulton's Soho Manufactory.
Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star is published, in France.
June 6 – Transit of Venus occurred, and was observed from 120 locations around the globe.
The vizier Muhammad Abu al Kaylak, who had led the Funj army in wars, carries out a Sennar palace coup, relegating the sultan to a figurehead role. (History of Sudan (Coming of Islam to the Turkiyah)) |
20018 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1470s | 1470s | The 1470s was the decade that started on January 1, 1470 and ended on December 31, 1479.
Events
1470 July 12 – The Ottomans capture Euboea.
1471 March – The Yorkist King Edward IV returns to England to reclaim his throne.
1472 – Foundation of the Kingdom of Fez.
1474 February – The Treaty of Utrecht ends the Anglo-Hanseatic War.
1476 – Battle of Avenches
1477 February 27 – Uppsala University is founded.
1478 November 1 – Start of the Spanish Inquisition.
1479 January 20 – Ferdinand II takes the throne of Aragon. He rules together with his wife Isabella I, Queen of Castile. |
20019 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1476 | 1476 |
Events
March 2 – Battle of Grandson. A Swiss army defeats the Burgundians under Charles the Bold
June 2 – Battle of Morat. The Swiss again defeat Charles.
December – Vlad III Dracula manages to become reigning Prince of Wallachia for the third and last time before being assassinated by decapitation. His head is sent to his old enemy Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire. |
20025 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gleiwitz%20incident | Gleiwitz incident | The Gleiwitz incident was a planned German attack against the radio station "Sender Gleiwitz" in the German town of Gliwice on the night of August 31, 1939. This attack along with other Nazi activities was used to make people think that Poland attacked Germany and that Poland, not Germany started World War II.
Nazism
World War II
August events
1939 in Europe
1930s in Germany |
20028 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free | Free | Free may mean:
For things that are not alive, it means that it is being given away by someone who does not want any money in return
For living creatures, including people, it means having freedom: being able to be what one wants to be, or to do what one wants to do, without being ordered around
Free County (), a former region of France
Free (band), an English rock band
Free software, software that anyone may run, share, and change, at any time, for any reason.
Basic English 850 words |
20029 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackinac%20Island | Mackinac Island | Mackinac Island is an island in Lake Huron. It is part of the U.S. state of Michigan and is 8 miles (13 kilometers) around.
Many people go to see Mackinac Island in the summer because the island passed a local law that says that no one can use a car on the island. Everybody has to ride a horse or a bicycle. In recent years, young people have been using roller skates or roller blades to get around the island. There is a narrow paved road that follows the 8 miles of shoreline. This road is for horses (and their buggies), bicycles, skaters and joggers or just people taking a long walk.
In order to get to Mackinac Island, visitors have to buy a ticket on a ferry boat. The boat ride has views of Lake Huron and the Mackinac Bridge. After they get to Mackinac Island, many visitors buy locally made fudge.
Islands of the United States
Geography of Michigan |
20031 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFI%27s%20100%20Years...%20100%20Stars | AFI's 100 Years... 100 Stars | AFI's 100 Years... 100 Stars is a list of the top actors in Hollywood history. It was announced by the American Film Institute on June 16, 1999.
The list promised one hundred people on it, but in the end there were only fifty.
As of 2020, of the fifty stars listed, only two are still alive: one man (Sidney Poitier), and one woman (Sophia Loren). At the time the list was unveiled Katharine Hepburn, Elizabeth Taylor, Shirley Temple, Lauren Bacall, Marlon Brando, Gregory Peck and Kirk Douglas were also still living.
The list
American Film Institute
Lists of entertainers |
20032 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havana | Havana | Havana () is the capital city of Cuba. Its population was 2.1 million in 2012. It is at 23°8′N 82°23′W and is a little more than 100 miles south-southwest of Key West, Florida in the United States.
Havana is a very old city. It was created in 1515 by Spanish explorers. Due to its important location it became a springboard for the Spanish conquest of the Americas. Also, it became a stopping point for Spanish ships returning to Spain filled with treasure. King Philip II of Spain granted Havana the title of City in 1592. Walls as well as forts were built to protect the old city. The sinking of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana's harbor in 1898 was the immediate cause of the Spanish–American War.
References
Other websites
Provinces of Cuba
1515 establishments
Establishments in Cuba |
20034 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismarck | Bismarck | Bismarck is a German family name. Bismark is an incorrect spelling.
Otto von Bismarck
The name Bismarck is usually associated with the famous Otto von Bismarck, a German statesman of the 19th century.
Ships
Battlecruiser class
Fürst Bismarck, a Mackensen class battlecruiser of the German navy, still under construction at the time of the 1918 Armistice and never completed.
Battleship
The Bismarck was a battleship of the German navy during WWII
The Bismarck Chase
Sink the Bismarck!, a 1960 movie about the sinking of the Bismarck
Sink the Bismarck, a 1960 Johnny Horton song inspired by the movie
Expedition: Bismarck, a 2002 documentary about the battleship Bismarck.
Ocean liners
The SS Bismarck of 1914 became the RMS Majestic as a part of World War I war reparations.
Places
Geography
the Bismarck Sea, north of the island of New Guinea
the Bismarck Archipelago, a part of Papua New Guinea
Bismarck, North Dakota, the capital of the U.S. state of North Dakota
Bismarck, Arkansas
Bismarck, Illinois
Bismarck, Missouri
Bismark, Ontario, a hamlet at the junction of Highway 20 and Highway 57
Buildings and Structures
"Bismarck towers"
Bismarck Tower Stettin
Other people named Bismarck
Herebord von Bismarck, the first verifiable holder of the name (from the 13th century)
Ludolf August von Bismarck (1683-1750), a Russian General
Levin Friedrich von Bismarck (1703-1774), a Prussian Attorney General
August Wilhelm von Bismarck (1750-1783), a Prussian Finance Minister
Friedrich Alexander Graf von Bismarck-Bohlen (1818-1894), a Prussian General
Herbert von Bismarck (1849-1904), Secretary of State, son of Otto von Bismarck
Gottfried von Bismarck (1881-1928)
Bernhard von Bismarck
Otto Fürst von Bismarck (1815-1898), a highly influential German politician of the 19th century. Prime Minister of Prussia, and Chancellor of the Second German Reich.
Gottfried Graf von Bismarck-Schönhausen (1901-1949), a Nazi parliamentary representative, grandson of Otto von Bismarck
Count Gottfried von Bismarck (1962-2007) son of Prince Ferdinand von Bismarck, great-great-grandson of the famous Otto von Bismarck
Philipp von Bismarck (b. 1913), a German politician of the CDU party
Prince Ferdinand von Bismarck
Klaus von Bismarck, 1961-1976, and administrator of a German radio station
Gunilla von Bismarck (b. 1949), great-granddaughter of Otto von Bismarck, a German philanthropist
Carl-Eduard von Bismarck (b. 1961), great-great-grandson of Otto von Bismarck, a German politician
Aurel von Bismarck, a musician and composer
Things
Bismarck, a beer mix also known as a Black Velvet
Bismarck herring, a variant of rollmops
Media
Sei Jūshi Bismarck, a Japanese anime series released by Studio Pierrot in 1984. |
20039 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusinallo | Crusinallo | Crusinallo, with 4000 people, is the most populated district of the town of Omegna (in the Province of Verbano-Cusio-Ossola, in Piedmont, Italy). It was an independent town until 1928. The town of Crusinallo is located in the north part of the town of Omegna, at the border with the towns of Casale Corte Cerro, Gravellona Toce, and Germagno. The natural borders are: at north, the Saint Martino river; at east and south, the Strona river; at west, the forest of Alpe Colla.
Settlements in Piedmont |
20040 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1752 | 1752 |
Events
February 11 – Pennsylvania Hospital, the first hospital in the US, is opened.
March 23 – The Halifax Gazette, the first Canadian newspaper
June 6 – Fire destroys part of Moscow
June 15 – Benjamin Franklin proves that lightning is electricity using a kite and a key.
September 14, Gregorian Calendar – The British Empire adopts the Gregorian calendar, making it necessary to skip eleven days (September 2 being followed directly by September 14 this year)
Adam Smith at the University of Glasgow transfers to professor of moral philosophy
English Scientist Lord John Davies first observes what is later recognised as respiratory collapse |
20042 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/660s%20BC | 660s BC |
Events
669 BC - Assurbanipal succeeds his father Esarhaddon as king of Assyria
668 BC - Shamash-shum-ukin, son of Esarhaddon, becomes King of Babylon
668 BC - Egypt revolts against Assyria
667 BC - Byzantium founded by Megaran colonists under Byzas. (traditional date)
664 BC - First naval battle in Greek recorded history, between Corinth and Corcyra
664 BC - Assurbanipal captures and sacks Thebes, Egypt
664 BC - Psammetichus I succeeds Necho I as king of Lower Egypt
664 BC - Taharqa appoints his nephew Tantamani as his successor of Upper Egypt
660 BC - Legendary Emperor Jimmu's reign starts; traditional date of 1st Japanese monarch of Yamato dynasty
660 BC - First known use of the demotic script
660 BC - Psammetichus I drives the Assyrians out of Egypt |
20043 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1496 | 1496 |
Events
January 3 – Leonardo da Vinci unsuccessfully tests a flying machine.
March 10 – Christopher Columbus leaves Hispaniola for Spain, ending his second visit to the Western Hemisphere.
July – Spanish forces under Gonzalo Hernandez de Cordoba capture Atella after a siege. Among the prisoners is the French viceroy of Naples, the Comte de Montpensier. Ferrante II is restored to the throne of Naples.
Jesus College (University of Cambridge) founded.
Births
March 28 – Mary Tudor, queen of Louis XII of France (died 1533)
May 12 – King Gustav I of Sweden (died 1560)
October 20 – Claude, Duke of Guise, French soldier (died 1550)
François Bonivard, Swiss historian (died 1570)
Edward Fox, English churchman (died 1538)
Richard Maitland, Scottish poet (died 1586)
Clément Marot, French poet (died 1544)
Anthony St Leger, Lord Deputy of Ireland (died 1559)
Menno Simons, Dutch religious leader (died 1561)
Henry Somerset, 2nd Earl of Worcester (died 1549)
Deaths
March 4 – Archduke Sigismund of Austria (born 1427)
September 7 – King Ferdinand II of Naples (born 1469)
September 25 – Piero Capponi, Italian soldier and statesman (born 1447)
Piero del Pollaiuolo, Italian painter (born 1443) |
20044 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1543 | 1543 |
Events
February 21 – Battle of Wayna Daga – A combined army of Ethiopian and Portuguese troops defeat the armies of Adal led by Ahmed Gragn.
May – Nicolaus Copernicus publishes De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium
July 12 – King Henry VIII of England marries Catherine Parr. It is the sixth of Henry's marriages and the third of Catherine's. Princess Elizabeth attends the wedding
August 5 – Turkish and French troops under Khair ed-Din Barbarossa occupy Nice
September-October – Landrecies in Picardy is besieged by forces under Emperor Charles V, but withdraw on the approach of the French army.
Japanese receive first firearms from shipwrecked Portuguese
Native Americans in Spanish colonies are announced free against the wish of local settlers
Martin Luther publishes On the Jews and Their Lies.
Births
January 18 – (baptized) – Alfonso Ferrabosco, Italian composer
January 31 – Tokugawa Ieyasu, Japanese shogun
February 15 – Charles III, Duke of Lorraine
February 16 – Kano Eitoku, Japanese painter
April 1 – François de Bonne, duc de Lesdiguières, Constable of France
September 14 – Claudio Aquaviva, Italian Jesuit
Deaths
January 2 – Francesco Canova da Milano, Italian composer
January 3 – Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, Portuguese explorer
January 9 – Guillaume du Bellay, French diplomat and general
February 21 – Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, Imam of Adal (killed in battle)
May 24 – Nicolaus Copernicus, mathematician and astronomer
July 19 – Lady Mary Boleyn, mistress of Kings Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England
September 20 – Thomas Manners, 1st Earl of Rutland
November 29 – Hans Holbein the Younger, German artist, active in England |
20046 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1071 | 1071 |
Events
April — The last Byzantine-controlled city in southern Italy, Bari, is captured by Robert Guiscard.
August 26 — Byzantine Empire loses Battle of Manzikert to Turkish army under Alp Arslan. Control of much of Asia Minor passes to the Turks.
Construction of Richmond Castle in North Yorkshire, England begins. |
20047 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1278 | 1278 |
Events
August 26 – Kings Rudolph I of Germany and Ladislaus IV of Hungary defeat King Otakar II of Bohemia in the Battle of Marchfield, a match of over 80,000 men and the largest battle of knights in the Middle Ages. The battle ends a power struggle between Rudolph and Otakar over the fate of central Europe, and Rudolph's Habsburg family will continue to rule Austria and other captured territories until the end of World War I in 1918.
The independence, boundaries, and political structure of Andorra are agreed to by the Spanish Bishop of Urgell and the French Count of Foix.
The earliest known written copy of the Avesta, a collection of ancient sacred Persian Zoroastrian texts previously passed down orally, is produced.
An edict by Pope Nicholas III requires all Jews to attend conversion sermons.
The Japanese era Kenji ends, and the Koan era begins. |
20053 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%20for%20the%20Ethical%20Treatment%20of%20Animals | People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals | People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA ) is one of the world's largest non-profit organisations about animal rights. The four main beliefs of PETA are that animals are not to be used for food, clothes, exploitation or testing. The headquarters of the organization is in Norfolk, Virginia in the United States. PETA was started by Ingrid Newkirk and Alex Pacheco in 1980.
PETA has protested fast food chain KFC for the way it kills chickens and also for jallikattu or sallikattu in Tamil Nadu (India). In the past, it has protested many corporations including Iams, which makes pet food.
PETA's main website is made for adults and vegans. They also have another website called PETA2 which is made for teenagers who are vegetarian, vegan or still deciding. PETA says it has over five million members.
References
Other websites
PETA (General)
PETA (UK)
YouTube profile
PETA UK on YouTube
Animal rights
Non-profit organizations of the United States
Ethics
Norfolk, Virginia |
20057 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20licence | Software licence | A software licence (or software license in United States English) is a kind of licence that is used to set rules about how a piece of software can or cannot be used. After getting the software by either downloading it or buying it, you need to agree with the licence in order to use it. The licence is chosen or created by the software developer/creator or software publisher. Many licences answer questions such as "can I use this software commercially/to make money?", or "can I give this software to other people?", or in general, "in what ways am I allowed/permitted to use this software?".
One kind of software licence, an end user licence agreement, or "EULA", is very specific/descriptive about the things that you can or cannot do with the software, and oftentimes establishes/defines the rights of the software developer over the user. Most EULAs are written by the specific software developer and are not shared like other software licences.
Another type of software licence is an open source distribution licence. These licences let software developers choose what people can and cannot do with the code of the software. There are many licences freely available which allow you to do this, such as the MIT Licence, which allows for the software to be used by any person for any reason/purpose. The GNU General Public Licence, often abbreviated/shortened as GPL is a licence which makes all copies of the software free and open source. Therefore, GPL cannot be included in any part of proprietary/closed software because it does not follow the rules of the licence. The Apache Licence is more definitive and specific, but is more common with larger companies, such as Google, but is still considered a free software licence. Creative Commons is a popular licence used by people who want to give something out for free without taking as much credit. Creative Commons is very open, and is even used by Wikipedia for its pages and other content.
List
Affero General Public License
Apache License
BSD licence
General Public License
Lesser General Public License
MIT License
Mozilla Public License
PHP License
Zlib License
Copyright |
20060 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD%20licence | BSD licence | The BSD licence is named after the group that first used the licence, the University of California, Berkeley, where the BSD operating system was first made. Since they are in the United States, BSD uses the U.S. spelling BSD license.
The licence
The words of the BSD licence are public domain and can be changed however people want. To be useful for people or groups, people need to change 'Regents of the University of California', 'University of California, Berkeley', and 'Regents' to their name. A basic BSD licence looks like this:
* Copyright (c) 1994, Regents of the University of California
* All rights reserved.
* Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
* modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
*
* * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
* notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
* * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
* notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
* documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
* * Neither the name of the University of California, Berkeley nor the
* names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products
* derived from this software without specific prior written permission.
*
* THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY
* EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
* WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
* DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
* DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
* (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES;
* LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND
* ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
* (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
* SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
This means that any person who uses the licensed software can do anything with it, but the person cannot say it is all their work or say that the first makers of the software support the person's new software in any way. It also stops people from suing the first makers if something goes wrong with it.
Related pages
Software licence
Software licences
BSD |
20074 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1786 | 1786 |
Events
May 21 – Trial of the Necklace affair ends in Paris
August 8 – Mont Blanc was climbed for the first time by Dr. Michael-Gabriel Paccard and Jacques Balmat.
August 29– Shays Rebellion begins
September 2 – Hurricane in England.
November 7 – The oldest musical organization in the United States was founded as the Stoughton Musical Society.
November 30 – Peter Leopold Joseph of Habsburg-Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany, promulgates a penal reform making his country the first state to abolish the death penalty. November 30 is therefore commemorated by 300 cities around the world as Cities for Life Day.
December 4 – The Mission Santa Barbara, was founded by Father Fermín Francisco de Lasuén, becoming the tenth mission in the California mission chain.
Choctaw Treaty
Chickasaw Treaty
Robert Burns publishes Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect
Francis Light acquires the island of Penang from the Sultan of Kedah on behalf of the British East India Company. It is the first British colony in South-East Asia.
Anglo-Spanish treaty gives Belize to Britain
First ship of convicts leaves Britain for Botany Bay, Australia – 820 out of 1138 aboard are convicts
The trade with Iceland is opened to all Danish and Norwegian traders.
The Mozart opera "The Marriage of Figaro" is premiered in Vienna
Goethe undertakes his 'Italian Journey' throughout September-December (published in 1817)
Births
January 8 – Nicholas Biddle, President of the Second Bank of the United States (d. 1844)
January 12 – Sir Robert Inglis, Bt, English politician (d. 1855)
January 23 – Auguste de Montferrand, French architect (d. 1858)
February 16 – Maria Pavlovna of Russia, Grand duchess of Saxe-Weimar Eisenach (d. 1859)
February 24 – Martin W. Bates, U.S. Senator from Delaware (d. 1869)
February 24 – Wilhelm Grimm, German philologist and folklorist (d. 1859)
March 22 – Joachim Lelewel, Polish historian (d. 1861)
June 13 – Winfield Scott, American general and Presidential candidate (d. 1866)
August 17 – David "Davy" Crockett, American frontiersman (d. 1836)
August 25 – King Ludwig I of Bavaria (d. 1868)
September 10 – William Mason, American politician (d. 1860)
September 11 – Friedrich Kuhlau, German composer (d. 1832)
September 18 – King Christian VIII of Denmark (d. 1848)
September 24 – Charles Bianconi, Italian-Irish entrepreneur
December 12 – William L. Marcy, American statesman (d. 1857)
Deaths
nv:1751 – 1800 |
20075 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1688 | 1688 | Year 1688 was a leap year that started on a Thursday when using the Gregorian calendar.
Events
March – William Dampier makes first recorded visit to Christmas Island.
April 18 (Julian calendar) – Germantown Quaker Protest Against Slavery drafted by four Germantown Quakers.
April 29 – Frederick I of Prussia becomes Kurfürst (Elector) of Brandenburg.
June 30 – A high-powered conspiracy of notables, the "Immortal Seven", invite William and Mary to depose James II of England.
July – Phetracha stages a coup d'état and becomes king of Ayutthaya.
October 27 – King James II of England fires his minister Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl of Sunderland.
November 5 – The Glorious Revolution begins: William of Orange lands at Brixham but James II of England is prevented from meeting him in battle because many of his officers and men desert to the other side.
November 9 – William of Orange captures Exeter after the magistrates flee the city.
November 23 – A group of 1500 Old Believers immolated themselves to avoid capture when troops of the tsar laid siege to their monastery on Lake Onega.
November 26 – Hearing that William of Orange has landed in England, Louis XIV declares war on the Netherlands. Perhaps revealingly, he does not attack the Netherlands but instead strikes at the heart of the Holy Roman Empire with about 100,000 soldiers. The Nine Years' War begins in Europe and America.
December 11 – After a series of defeats King James II of England flees England for France.
Undated
Austria occupies Belgrade.
Francesco Morosini becomes Doge of Venice.
Fire destroys Bungay in England.
Ottoman Turks besiege Vienna.
Neuruppin becomes a Prussian garrison town.
Antonio Verrio begins work on the Heaven Room at Burghley House.
Janez Vajkard Valvasor becomes a member of the Royal Society.
The Austrians incite a rebellion against the Ottomans in Bulgaria.
Births
January 18 – Lionel Cranfield Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (died 1765)
January 29 – Emanuel Swedenborg Swedish scientist, philosopher, and theologian (died 1772)
February 2 – Queen Ulrike Eleonora of Sweden (died 1741)
February 4 – Pierre de Marivaux, French playwright (died 1763)
March – William Burnet, British colonial administrator (died 1729)
April 4 – Joseph-Nicolas Delisle, French astronomer (died 1768)
April 15 – Johann Friedrich Fasch, German composer (died 1758)
May 22 – Alexander Pope, English poet (died 1744)
June 10 – James Francis Edward Stuart, "The Old Pretender" (died 1766)
July 19 – Giuseppe Castiglione, Italian missionary to China (died 1766)
August 14 – King Frederick William I of Prussia (died 1740)
September 12 – Ferdinand Brokoff, Czech sculptor (died 1731)
October 17 – Domenico Zipoli, Italian composer (died 1726)
October 22 – Nadir Shah of Persia (died 1747)
Date Unknown – Charles Rivington, English publisher (died 1742)
Deaths
January 7 – James Howard, 3rd Earl of Suffolk
February 2 – Abraham Duquesne, French naval officer (born 1610)
April 29 – Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg (born 1620)
May 14 – Antoine Furetière, French writer (born 1619)
June 5 – Constantine Phaulkon, Greek adventurer (born 1667)
June 26 – Ralph Cudworth, English philosopher (born 1617)
July 11 – Narai of Thailand (born 1639)
July 21 – James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde, Irish statesman (born 1610)
August 25 – Henry Morgan, Welsh privateer and Governor of Jamaica (born c. 1635)
August 31 – John Bunyan, English writer (born 1628)
September 2 – Robert Viner, Lord Mayor of London (born 1631)
October 6 – Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle, English statesman (born 1653)
October 23 – Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange, French philologist (born 1610)
November 26 – Philippe Quinault, French dramatist (born 1635)
December 15 – Gaspar Fagel, Dutch statesman (born 1634) |
20076 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1728 | 1728 |
Events
Astronomical aberration found by the astronomer James Bradley
Swedish academy of sciences made at Uppsala
The making of the University of Havana (Universidad de la Habana), Cuba's most set university.
Births
January 9 – Thomas Warton, English poet (d. 1790)
February 21 – Emperor Peter III of Russia, husband of Catherine the Great (d. 1762)
April 16 – Joseph Black, Scottish scientist (d. 1799)
August 26 – Johann Heinrich Lambert, Swiss mathematician, physicist and astronomer (d. 1777)
August 28 – John Stark, American general (d. 1822)
September 3 – Matthew Boulton, English metal-worker, inventor and partner of James Watt (d. 1809)
September 14 – Mercy Otis Warren, American writer (d. 1814)
October 7 – Caesar Rodney, American lawyer who signed the Declaration of Independence (d. 1784)
October 27 – James Cook, British captain and explorer (d. 1779)
November 10 – Oliver Goldsmith, Irish writer (d. 1774)
Deaths
February 12 – Agostino Steffani, Italian diplomat and composer (b. 1654)
February 13 – Cotton Mather, Puritan minister (b. 1663)
March 4 – Anna Petrovna of Russia, oldest daughter of Peter the Great (b. 1708)
April 3 – James Anderson, Scottish historian (b. 1662)
August 15 – Marin Marais, French musician (b. 1656)
September 23 – Christian Thomasius, German jurist (b. 1655)
November 19 – Leopold of Anhalt-Cöthen, German Prince (b. 1694)
date unknown – Serfoji I, Indian Ruler (b. 1675) |
20077 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1614 | 1614 |
Events
April 5 – In Virginia, Native American Pocahontas marries English colonist John Rolfe.
October 11 – Adriaen Block and a group of Amsterdam merchants petition the States General for exclusive trading rights in the area he explored and named "New Netherland".
The French Estates-General meets for the last time before the era of the French Revolution. In between, France will be governed as an absolute monarchy.
John Napier publishes a paper outlining his discovery of logarithms.
The University of Groningen is established.
Institution of the Rosicrucian Order in Germany according to Fraternitas Rosae Crucis.
Toyotomi Hideyori attempts to restore Osaka Castle. Tokugawa Ieyasu, father of the Shogun, is outraged at this act, and takes the castle by storm.
Births
January 1 – John Wilkins, English clergyman (d. 1672)
January 5 – Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria, Governor of the Spanish Netherlands (d. 1662)
July 10 – Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey, English royalist statesman (d. 1686)
December 16 – Eberhard III, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1674)
Franciscus Sylvius, German scientist (d. 1672)
Deaths |
20078 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1588 | 1588 |
Events
May 12 – Day of the Barricades in Paris. Duke Henry of Guise seizes the city, forcing King Henry III to flee.
May 28 – The Spanish Armada, with 130 ships and 30,000 men, begins to set sail from Lisbon heading for the English Channel (it will take until May 30 for all ships to leave port).
July – King Henry III of France capitulates to the Duke of Guise and returns to Paris.
July 31 – First engagement between the English and Spanish fleets off Plymouth. The English have the better of it.
August 2 – The English and Spanish fleets meet again off Dorset. (The English fleet is led by Lord Howard of Effingham and Sir Francis Drake.) The English again have the better of it.
August 6 – Battle of Gravelines: The Spanish Armada is defeated by an English naval force under command of Lord Charles Howard and Sir Francis Drake off the coast of Gravelines, now in France.
August 7 – The English and Spanish fleets again engage off the coast of Flanders. The English again are more successful.
August 8 – August 9 – The Spanish are unable to reach the coast of Flanders to meet up with the army of the Duke of Parma. Medina Sidonia decides to return to Spain.
August 12 – The Spanish fleet sails past the Firth of Forth, and the English cease their pursuit. Much of the Spanish fleet is destroyed as it sails around Scotland and Ireland.
December 23 – Henry III of France strikes his ultra-Catholic enemies, having the Duke of Guise and his brother, Cardinal Louis of Guise, killed, and holding the Cardinal de Bourbon a prisoner.
Ahmad al-Mansur, sultan of Morocco, demands that the king of Songhay give a heavy tribute in exchange of a Saharan salt, probably in an intentional provocation. When Songhay's answer is defiant, he declares war and marches his army through Sahara to Songhay
Russia, regency of Boris Godunov
William Morgan's Welsh translation of the Bible published. |
20079 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1012 | 1012 |
Events
Mael Morda starts a rebellion against Brian Boru in Ireland, which would eventually end in 1014 at the Battle of Clontarf.
Sulayman is restored as Umayyad caliph of Cordoba, succeeding Hisham II.
Benedict VIII becomes pope. Gregory is antipope.
Archbishop Alphege of Canterbury is murdered by his Danish captors.
King Aethelred of England pays Danegeld.
Oldrich succeeds Jaromir as duke of Bohemia.
Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim orders the destruction of all Jewish and Christian places of worship. |
20080 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1746 | 1746 |
Events
January 8 – Bonnie Prince Charlie occupies Stirling
April 16 – Battle of Culloden brings an end to the Jacobite Risings
August 18 – Two of the four rebellious Scottish lords, Earl of Kilmarnock and Lord Balmeniro beheaded in the Tower (Lord Lovat executed 1747)
October 22 – The College of New Jersey is founded (it becomes Princeton University in 1896)
October 28 – An earthquake demolishes Lima and Callao, in Peru
Catharine de Ricci (born 1522) canonized.
Town of Vilkovo (Odes'ka oblast', Ukraine) is founded.
Births
Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles-November 12, 1746 |
20081 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1734 | 1734 |
Events
January 8 – Premiere of George Frideric Handel's opera Ariodante at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden.
June 17 – French troops take Philippsburg, but the Duke of Berwick is killed
June 21 – In Montreal in New France, a black slave known by the French name of Marie-Joseph Angélique, was tortured then hanged by the French authorities in a public ceremony that involved her disgrace and the amputation of a hand.
June 30 – Russian troops take Gdańsk (German: Danzig) which had been besieged since October 1733. Gdańsk is captured after the failure of a French expedition to relieve the city |
20082 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1682 | 1682 | Year 1682 was a common year that started on a Thursday when using the Gregorian calendar.
Events
March 11 – Chelsea hospital for soldiers is founded in England.
April 7 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, exploring rivers in America, reaches the mouth of the Mississippi River.
April 9 – At the mouth of the Mississippi River, near modern Venice, Louisiana, Robert de La Salle buries an engraved plate and a cross, claiming the territory as "La Louisiane" for France.
May 6 – Louis XIV of France moves his court to Versailles.
May 7 – Official beginning of the reign of Peter the Great.
May 11 – Moscow Uprising of 1682: a mob takes over the Kremlin and lynches the leading boyars and military commanders.
July 19 – Iyasus succeeds his father Yohannes I as Emperor of Ethiopia.
August 12 – Vesuvius begins a period of volcanic activity lasting for ten days.
September – Halley's comet makes an appearance, and is observed by Edmond Halley himself.
September 14 – Bishop Gore School in Swansea, Wales is founded.
October 27 – The city of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania is founded by William Penn.
October 31 – The city of Bideford, England two men and one woman were some of the last to be executed for witchcraft in England. They were accused of speaking in unknown languages as well as practicing knowledge beyond their natural abilities, and acting in peculiar manners. The woman, Guenevere Damascus, as well as her lover (name unknown) and their spiritual mentor were burned at the stake.
Undated
The first black slaves arrive in Germany.
The Richard Wall House is built in Pennsylvania.
Births
February 25 – Giovanni Battista Morgagni, Italian anatomist (died 1771)
April 16 – John Hadley, inventor (died 1744)
June 27 – King Charles XII of Sweden (died 1718)
July 10 – Roger Cotes, English mathematician (died 1716)
August 16 – Louis, duc de Bourgogne, heir to the throne of France (died 1712)
October 29 – Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix, French historian (died 1761)
Deaths
February 25 – Alessandro Stradella, Italian composer (born 1644)
March 14 – Jacob Isaakszoon van Ruysdael, Dutch painter (born c.1628)
April 1 – Franz Egon of Fürstenberg, Bishop of Strassburg (born 1625)
April 3 – Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, Spanish painter (born 1618)
May 7 – Tsar Feodor III of Russia (born 1661)
July 12 – Jean Picard, French astronomer (born 1620)
September 8 – Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz, Spanish writer (born 1606)
October 19 – Sir Thomas Browne English writer, physician, and philosopher (born 1605)
November 19 – Prince Rupert of the Rhine, Royalist commander in the English Civil War (born 1619)
November 23 – Claude Lorrain French painter (born c.1600)
date unknown Yohannes I, Emperor of Ethiopia
date unknown Turhan Hatice, regent of the Ottoman Empire (born 1627) |
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