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Vascular tissue consists of xylem and phloem. Sexual reproduction is independent of water. Male gametophyte (pollen grain) germinates and grows to reach female gametophyte. They are divided into two sub-divisions:
Gymnosperms
Angiosperms. Gymnosperms
These are cone-bearing plants. Naked seeds. They are trees and shrubs... | {
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Phylum Arthropoda divided into five classes;
Crustacea,
Arachnida,
Chilopoda,
Diplopoda
Insecta
This division is based on:
The number of limbs. Presence and number of antennae. Number of body parts. Class Crustacea
Most of them are aquatic, a few are terrestrial found in moist places e.g., woodlouse. Distinguishing Cha... | {
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Millipede
Distinguishing Characteristics
Has two parts: head, short thorax and a trunk . Body elongate with 9-100 segments. Has two pairs of legs on each segment. They have a cylindrical body. Gaseous exchange is by tracheal system. Other characteristics:
Head has a pair of antennae. Are herbivorous. Class Insecta
Dist... | {
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Most are wingless,
Those with wings they are membranous and of the same size. They are important in nutrient cycling as they feed on cellulose. Order Coleoptera - Beetles
Have biting mouthparts,
Two pairs of wings,
Fore wing hardened enclosing membranous wings. Destruction of stored grains and legumes (pulses)
Phylum C... | {
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frogs, toads, newts, salamanders. Distinguishing Characteristics
Skin is soft and without scales. They have four well developed limbs. The hind limbs are longer and more muscular than forelimbs. The limb can be used for walking, jumping and swimming
Gaseous exchange is through the skin, gills and lungs. Middle ear is p... | {
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Their teeth are differentiated into four types (heterodont dentition). They have external ear-pinna. Most have sweat glands. They have a diaphragm that separates the body cavity into thoracic and abdominal. Other Characteristics
Internal fertilisation - most give birth. They have a double circulatory system with a four... | {
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Construction and Use of Dichotomous Keys
Biological keys are sets of statements that act as clues leading to the identification of an organism. By following the keys we can be able to place an organism in its group. The most common key is the dichotomous key. This is a biological tool for identification of unknown orga... | {
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Locomotory structures: legs, wings and fins. Presence or absence of vertebral column. Presence and type of eves. Practical Activities
To examine Bryophyta
A mature moss plant is obtained. The specimen is observed using a hand -lens. A labelled drawing showing structures is made: rhizoids, set a capsule, gametophyte, sp... | {
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END
ECOLOGY
Introduction
Ecology is the study of organisms and their environment. All organisms show interdependence on one another. Organisms are affected by their environment, and they in turn affect the environment. Green plants manufacture food by photosynthesis which other organisms obtain directly or indirectly. ... | {
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Succession is primary when it starts with bare ground, and secondary when it starts in a previously inhabited area e.g. after clearing a forest. The Ecosystem:
The community and the abiotic or non-living environment together make up an ecosystem or ecological system. In this system energy flow is clearly defined from p... | {
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Wind:
Is moving air currents and it influences the dispersion of certain plants by effecting the dispersal of spores, seeds and fruits. Air currents also modify the temperature and humidity of the surroundings. Topography:
These are surface features of a place. The topographical factors considered include altitudes, gr... | {
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Such organisms feed on dead organic material and release nutrients through the process of decomposition or decay. Saprophytes produce enzymes, which digest the substrates externally. The simpler substances are then absorbed. Saprophytes help in reducing the accumulation of dead bodies of plants and animals. Harmful sap... | {
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The amount of energy passed on as food from one trophic level to another decreases progressively. The energy in the organisms is recycled back to plants through the various nutrient or material cycles. Food Chains
A food chain is a linear relationship between producers and consumers. It represents the transfer of food ... | {
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Pyramid of Biomass
This is the mass of the producers and consumers at each trophic level drawn graphically. Population Estimation Methods
It is important to find or estimate the sizes of the different populations in a habitat. Direct counting or head count which involves the counting of every individual, is not always ... | {
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The number of organisms within the belt is counted and recorded. Capture-recapture method
This is used for animals such as fish, rodents, arthropods and birds. The animals are caught, marked, counted and released. For example, grasshoppers can be caught with a net and marked using permanent ink. After sometime, the sam... | {
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They have adaptations to reduce the rate of transpiration in order to save on water consumption. Others have water storage structures. Adaptations include:
Reduction of leaf surface area by having needle-like leaves, rolling up of leaves and shedding of leaves during drought to reduce water loss or transpiration. Thick... | {
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e.g. Ceratophyllum and Elodea sp. Floating Plants
Their structure is similar to that of mesophytes. The leaves are broad to increase the surface area for water loss. They have more stomata on the upper surface than on the lower surface to increase rate of water loss. Examples are Pistia sp. (water lettuce), Salvinia an... | {
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Oil spills from accidents in the seas and leakage of oil tankers as well as from offshore drilling and storage and processing. Water Pollution. In most cases, chex,pical wastes from industries are discharged into water. Toxic chemicals such as mercury compounds may be ingested by organisms. Insecticides like DDT, and w... | {
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Oil spills disrupt normal functioning of coastal ecosystems. Birds that eat fish die due to inability to fly as feathers get covered by oil. Molluscs and crustaceans on rocky shores also die. Control of Air Pollution
Use of lead-free petrol and low sulphur diesel in vehicles. Use of smokeless fuels e.g electricity or s... | {
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Transmission - It is spread through water and food contaminated by human faeces containing the bacteria. The bacteria produce a powerful toxin, enterotoxin, that causes inflammation of the wall of the intestine leading to:
Severe diarrhoea that leads to excessive water loss from body. Abdominal pain
Vomiting
Dehydratio... | {
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Take preventive drugs. Treatment
Use appropriate anti-malarial drugs. Amoebic dysentry (Amoebiasis)
Cause
This disease is caused by Entamoeba histolytica. The parasites live in the intestinal tract but may occasionally spread to the liver. Transmission - They are transmitted through contaminated water and food especial... | {
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Have mouth parts for sucking food and other fluids in the intestines. Has a thick cuticle or pellicle to protect it from digestive enzymes produced by the host. Control and Prevention
Personal hygiene e.g. washing hands before eating. Proper disposal of faeces. Washing of fruits and vegetables. Treatment
Deworm using a... | {
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Adaptive Characteristics
The female has a thin body and fits into small blood vessels to lay eggs. Eggs are able to burrow out of blood vessel into intestine lumen. Many eggs are laid to ensure the survival of the parasite. Large numbers of cercariae are released by snail. The miracidia and cercariae larvae have glands... | {
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Size of leaves is noted and stomata distribution studied. Xerophytes
Specimen include Euphorbia, cactus and sisal which are easily available. The root system e.g in sisal is noted as shallow but extensive. It will be noted that sisal has fleshy leaves and stem while cactus and Euphorbia have fleshy stem but leaves are ... | {
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The direction of wind will affect growth of plants. The level of humidity determines the type, number and distribution of organisms in an area. REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Introduction
The process by which mature individuals produce offspring is called reproduction. Reproduction is a characteristic of all living... | {
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Each chromosome is seen to consist of a pair of chromatids joined at a point called centromere. Centrioles (in animal cells) separate and move to opposite poles of the cell. The centre of the nucleus is referred to as the equator. Spindle fibres begin to form, and connect the centriole pairs to the opposite poles. The ... | {
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First Meiotic division
Prophase I
Homologous chromosomes lie side by side in the process of synapsis forming pairs called bivalents. Chromosomes shorten and thicken hence become more visible. Chromosomes may become coiled around each other and the chromatids may remain in contact at points called chiasmata (singular ch... | {
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Spore formation in Rhizopus. Budding in yeast. Binary fission
This involves the division of the parent organism into two daughter cells. The nucleus first divides into two and then the cytoplasm separates into two portions
Binary fission also occurs in bacteria, Paramecium, Trypanosoma and Euglena. Spore formation in R... | {
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Androecium –
Is the male part of the flower. It consists of stamens. Each stamen consists of a filament whose end has an anther. Inside the anther are pollen sacs which contain pollen grains. Gynoecium (pistil) –
Is the female part of the flower. It consists of one or more carpels. Each carpel consists of an ovary, a s... | {
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When the pollen grain lands on the stigma, it absorbs nutrient and germinates forming a pollen tube. This pollen tube grows through the style pushing its way between the cells. It gets nourishment from these cells. The tube nucleus occupies the position at the tip of the growing pollen tube. The generative nucleus foll... | {
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Ovules are in them e.g. pawpaw. Axile placentation:
The placenta is in the centre. Ovary is divided into a number of loculi. e.g. orange. Basal placentation. The placenta is formed at the base of the ovary e.g. sunflower. Free Central placentation. Placenta is in the centre of the ovary. There are no loculi e.g. in pri... | {
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Reproduction in Animals
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of gametes. In animals two individuals are involved, a male and a female. Special organs known as gonads produce gametes. In males testes produce sperms while in females ovaries produce ova. The fusion of male gamete and female gamete to form a zygote is c... | {
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Each is enclosed within a scrotal sac that suspends them between the thighs. This ensures that sperms are maintained at a temperature lower than that of the main body. Seminiferous tubules
The lining of seminiferous tubules consists of actively dividing cells which give rise to sperms. Between the seminiferous tubules ... | {
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In the uterus the embryo develops villi which project into uterus for nourishment later the villi and endometrium develop into placenta. Embryonic membranes
Embryonic membranes develop around the embryo. The outermost membrane is the chorion which forms the finger-like projections (chorionic villi) which supply nutrien... | {
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Week 8 to 24:
All organs well developed including sex organs. Hair, finger and toe nails grow. Foetus move and eyelids open. Week 25- 30:
The fully developed foetus responds to touch and noises and moves vigorously. The head turns and faces downwards ready for birth. Week 31-40:
Foetus increases in size. Birth occurs. ... | {
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Oestrogen brings about the repair and healing of the inner lining of the uterus (endometrium) which had been destroyed during menstruation. Oestrogen level stimulates the pituitary gland to produce (Luteinising Hormone (L.H). This hormone makes the mature Graafian follicle to release the ovum into the funnel of oviduct... | {
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aceto-orcein is added and the root tip macerated using a scapel. A cover slip is added and observations made. Different stages of mitosis can be observed. Examining the stages of meiosis
An unopened bud of Tradescantia is obtained
The anther is removed and placed on a microscope slide. A few drops of hydrochloric acid ... | {
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Open up the pod and observe the exposed surface. Draw and label the parts. Note that the fruit wall is not differentiated. Dispersal of fruits and seeds
Obtain animal dispersal fruits, like oranges, tomatoes, black jack, sodom apple. Identify the way by which each is adapted to dispersal by animals. Obtain wind dispers... | {
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The morula develops a hollow part, resulting into a structure known as a blastula (blastocyst). Later, blastocyst cells differentiate into an inner layer (endoderm) and the outer layer (ectoderm). The two-layered embryo implants into the uterine wall and, by obtaining nutrients from the maternal blood, starts to grow a... | {
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Table
Plot a graph of dry mass of embryo against time after sowing. Describe the shape of the graph. For most organisms when the measurements are plotted they give an S-shaped graph called a sigmoid curve such as in figure . Time
Fig. 4.2: TSie sigmoid growth curve
This pattern is due to the fact that growth tends to b... | {
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This is due to the fact that:
The rate of cell division equals the rate of cell death. Nearly all cells and tissues are fully differentiated, therefore there is no further increase in the number of cells. The nature of the curve during this phase may vary depending on the nature of the parameter, the species and the in... | {
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Record the results in a table form. On the same seedlings measure the length of one leaf from each of the fiveseedlings (from leaf apex to itsattachment on the stem). Calculate the average length of the leaves and record in the table. Plot a graph of the height of the shoot against time. On the same axes plotlength of ... | {
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Account for the difference in distribution of the colouration with iodine in the two specimens. Structure of the Seed
A typical seed consists of a seed coat enclosing an embryo. The seed coat is the outer covering which, in most seeds, is made
-Remains of style
Position of plumule
Position of radicle Scutellum
Attachme... | {
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Scutellum
Cotyledon
Coieoptile
Plumule
Radicle
Coleorhiza
Internal
Plumule
Radicle
Cotyledon
Internal
Fused pericaT and testa
Dormancy in Seeds
The embiyo of a dry, fully developed seed usually passes through a period of rest after ripening period. During this time the seed performs all its life (physiological) process... | {
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Scarification i.e. weakening of the testa is needed before seeds with hard impermeable seed coats can germinate. This is achieved naturally by saprophytic bacteria and fungi or by passing through the gut of animals. In agriculture the seeds of some plants are weakened by boiling, roasting and cracking e.g. wattle. Seed... | {
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Temperature
Most seeds require suitable temperature before they can germinate. Seeds will not germinate below 0°C or above 47° C. The optimum temperature for seeds to germinate is 30°C. At higher temperature the protoplasm is killed and the enzymes in the seed are denatured. At very low temperatures the enzymes become ... | {
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Use horizontal axis for time and the verticalaxis for the seeds that germinated. Explain why the ability of pea seeds to germinate declined with time of exposure to heat. Explain why the ability of the wattle seeds to germinate improved with time of exposure to heat. Practical Activity 3
To investigate conditions neces... | {
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They start manufacturing food for the growing seedling. The plumule which is lying between two cotyledons, begins to grow into first foliage leaves which start manufacturing food. Hyopgeal Germination
In maize, the endosperm provides food to the embryo which begins to grow. The radicle along with a protective covering(... | {
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Cotyledon Plumule
Radicle
Root
Cotyledon Hypocotyf
Fig. 4.6 (a): Epigeal germination for castor seeds
Plumule
Coleoptile
Scutellum
Coleorhiza
Primary and Secondary Growth
The region of growth in plants is found in localised areas called meristems as shown . A meristem is a group of undifferentiated cells in plants whic... | {
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Vacuoles start forming and enlarging. In the region of ceH differentiation the cells attain their permanent size, have large vacuoles and thickened watt cells. The cells also differentiate into tissues specialised for specific functions. Primary growth results into an increase in the length of shoots and roots. Study Q... | {
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Leave it overnight. Take out the seedling and examine the ink marks. 6. 7. Measure the distances between the successive ink marks and record. Make a well labelled drawing of the seedling at the end of the experiment and compare with the drawing of the. seedling at the start of the experiment. Study Question 7
What part... | {
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Their walls become coated with a waterproof substance called suberin. The cork cells increase in number and become the bark of the stem. This prevents loss of water, infection from fungi and damage from insects. The corky bark is also resistant to fire and thus acts as an insulatory layer. The bark is normally impermea... | {
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There are many different types of plant hormones and one well-known group is the auxins. Indoie acetic acid (IAA) is one best known auxin. Auxins are produced at the shoot and root tips. Maximum influence on growth in plants occurs when auxins are produced simultaneously with other plant hormones e.g. gibberellins. Max... | {
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Gibbereilins are distinguished from auxins by their stimulation of rapid cell division and cell elongation in dwarf varieties of certain plants. Dwarf conditions are thought to be caused by a shortage of gibberellins due to a genetic deficiency. Gibberellins are important in fruit formation. They induce the growth of o... | {
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In high concentration, abscisic acid causes closing of the stomata. This effect is important in that it enables plants to reduce water loss. It also promotes leaf and fruit fall. Another hormone, florigen is produced in plants where it promotes flowering. Apical Dominance
Although auxins, particularly IAA are important... | {
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Insects exhibit two types of reproducti processes. In some insects, the ova in t female are fertilised by the spermatozoa frc the male. This is a typical example of sexi reproduction, common in butterflies ai moths. In other insects like the black and t green aphids, the eggs are usually product without being fertilise... | {
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the males can mate and the females are able to lay eggs.
Figure 4.14 summarises the life cycle of a housefly.
Incomplete Metamorphosis
Development in some insects like the locust and cockroaches, involves the.egg hatching into a nymph which e!cie!y resembles the adult in every form, except for size and lack of sexual... | {
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Study the equation below. Hydrated copper (II) sulphate white Solid T + Colourless Liquid H a) Identify the; i).White solid T ............................................................... ii). C olourless liquid H .......................................................{1 m ark} b) If H ydrated C opper (II) Sulphate h... | {
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Introduction to chemistry 1. Wooden splints F and G were placed in different zones of a Bunsen burner flame. The diagram below gives the observations that were made (a) Explain the difference between F and G (b) Name the ty... | {
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(a) When the air-hole is fully opened, the bunsen burner produces a non-luminous flame. Explain (b) Draw a labelled diagram of anon-luminous flame 4. (a) What is a drug? (b) Give two drugs that are commonly abused by ... | {
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A mixture of hexane and water was shaken and left to separate as shown in the diagram below: State the identity of; (i) P ………………………………..…….. (ii) W ………………………………….…. 7. The diagrams below are some common laboratory apparatus. Name each apparatus... | {
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The diagram below shows the appearance of two pieces of paper placed in different parts of a non-luminous flame of a Bunsen burner and removed quickly before they caught fire. (a) What do the experiments show about the outer region of the fla... | {
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A crystal of copper (II) sulphate was placed in a beaker of water. The beaker was left standing for two days without shaking. State and explain the observations that were made. 11. Study the information in the table below and answer questions... | {
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(Letters given are not real symbols) Ions Electron arrangement Ionic radius (nm) A+ B+ C2+ 2.8 2.8.8 2.8 0.95 0.133 0.065 Explain why the ionic radius of :- (a) B+ is greater than that of A+ (b) C2+ is smaller than the of ... | {
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(b)Explain what happens to the melting point of sodium chloride added to this substance 2. (a) State two differences between luminous flame and non-luminous flame (b) It is advisable to set a Bunsen burner to luminous flame prior to an experiment... | {
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The paper chromatography of a plant extract gave the following results: Solvent Number of spots X 6 Y 2 Z 3 (a) Which is the most suitable solvent for purifying the extract? Explain (b) Ball pen cannot be used to mark solvent front in the above ... | {
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7. a) What is chromatography? b) Give two applications of chromatography 8. The two elements P and R were separately burned in air, the products gave the results recorded in the table below: ELEMENTS PHYSICAL STATE AT ROOM TEMPERATUR... | {
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b) Give two applications of chromatography 8. The two elements P and R were separately burned in air, the products gave the results recorded in the table below: ELEMENTS PHYSICAL STATE AT ROOM TEMPERATURE P SOLID R SOLID Physical sta... | {
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The two elements P and R were separately burned in air, the products gave the results recorded in the table below: ELEMENTS PHYSICAL STATE AT ROOM TEMPERATURE P SOLID R SOLID Physical states of products White solid powder only Colourle... | {
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(b) Describe how the nature of the solutions of the of the oxides were determined 9 The diagram below represents a paper chromatography for the three brands of soft drinks containing banned artificial food additives. 4 1 ... | {
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10. Without using any laboratory chemical, describe a simple laboratory experiment to distinguish between calcium hydrogen carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate 11. Substance Q has a melting point of 15oC and boiling point of 70oC. (a) On the same... | {
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Cooking oils comprise of a mixture of compounds which have a boiling point range of 23oC to 27oC. (i) What evidence is then to support the statement that cooking oil is a mixture? (ii)Name another experimental technique t... | {
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(ii) Give one of its disadvantages (iii) Name a mixture which can be separated by the set-up above 14. What is meant by melting point and boiling point of a substance? 15. The apparatus below were used by a stude... | {
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Displacement reaction ………………………………………… 19. Give two reasons why a luminous flame is not used for heating purposes 20. Classify the following processes as chemical changes or physical changes Process ... | {
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Displacement reaction ………………………………………… 21. Give two reasons why a luminous flame is not used for heating purposes 22. State two criteria for determining the purity of a substance Substance Water Concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid Con... | {
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Study the information in the table below and answer the questions. i) A mixture contains ethene, Hydrogen and ammonia gases. Explain how a sample of hydrogen gas can be obtained fr... | {
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i) A mixture contains ethene, Hydrogen and ammonia gases. Explain how a sample of hydrogen gas can be obtained from this mixture. 24.a)i) The diagram below show spots of a ... | {
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24.a)i) The diagram below show spots of a pure substance A, B, and C on a chromatography paper. Spot D is that of a mixture After development A, B, and C were found to have moved 8cm, ... | {
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D had separated into two spots which had moved 6cm and 8cm On the diagram above; I. Label the baseline (origin) II. Show the positions of all the spots after development ii) Identify the substances present in mixture D b) Describe how... | {
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A student left some crushed fruit mixture with water for some days. He found the mixture
had fermented. He concluded that the mixture was contaminated with water and ethanol with boiling point of 100oC and 78oC respectively. The set-up of a... | {
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iii) At which end of the apparatus W should tap water be connected?…………………………… (iv) Which liquid was collected as the first distillate? Explain (v) What is the name given to the above method of separating mixture? (vi) State two applications of t... | {
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26. The set-up below was used to separate a mixture:- (a) Name the apparatus missing in the set-up
(b) Give one example of mixture T (c) What is the name of this method of separation
27.a) The diagram below shows a set – up used by a studen... | {
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(ii) Identify liquid Y and write an equation for its formation. b) Pellets of sodium hydrogen and anhydrous Copper (II) sulphate were put in separate Petri- dishes and left in the open for two hours. Explain the observation in eac... | {
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b) Pellets of sodium hydrogen and anhydrous Copper (II) sulphate were put in separate Petri- dishes and left in the open for two hours. Explain the observation in each Petri-dish. 28. The chromatography below shows the constituents of a flow... | {
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28. The chromatography below shows the constituents of a flower extract using an organic solvent:- (a) (i) Name a possible organic solvent you can use for this experiment (ii) State one property that makes the red pigment to move the fur... | {
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The chromatography below shows the constituents of a flower extract using an organic solvent:- (a) (i) Name a possible organic solvent you can use for this experiment (ii) State one property that makes the red pigment to move the furthes... | {
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Given a mixture of lead (II) oxide, ammonium chloride and sodium chloride, describe how this mixture can be separated to obtain a sample of each. 31. The setup below was used to separate two miscible liquids Q a... | {
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33. The following diagram shows a paper chromatogram of substances A, B, C, and D which are coloured (a) Indicate the solvent front on the chromatogram (b) Which substance is pure? ……………………………………….. (c) Sub... | {
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(c) Substance E is a mixture of C and D. Indicate its chromatogram in the diagram 34. Study the information below and answer the following questions. A mixture contains three solids A, B, and C. The ... | {
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State and explain the observations made when iodine crystals is heated in a boiling tube? Acids, bases and combustion 1. The table below shows solutions A, B and C are tested and observations records as shown: Solution Observations on indicator A Meth... | {
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Acids, bases and combustion 1. The table below shows solutions A, B and C are tested and observations records as shown: Solution Observations on indicator A Methyl orange turns yellow B Phenolphthalein turns colourless C Litmus turns purple (a) Using the tabl... | {
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The table below shows solutions A, B and C are tested and observations records as shown: Solution Observations on indicator A Methyl orange turns yellow B Phenolphthalein turns colourless C Litmus turns purple (a) Using the table above, name an acid (b) How... | {
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The information below gives PH values of solutions V, W, X, Y Z Solution PH values V W X Y Z 2 6.5 11 14 4.5 (a) Which solution is likely to be: (i) Calcium hydroxide?………………………………………………. (ii) Rain water?…... | {
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4. Use the information given below to answer the questions that follow: Solution G H I J K pH 1.5 6.5 13.0 7.0 8.0 (a) Which of the solutions would be used to relieve a stomach upset caused by indigestion? (b) Which solution is likely to be: (i) ... | {
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5. Solid copper (II) oxide is a base although it does not turn litmus paper to blue. Explain 6. Below are the pH values of 4 types of medicine represented by letters P, Q, R and S MEDICINE pH VALUES P Q R S 7.0 5.0 8.0 6.0 a) It is not advi... | {
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Below are the pH values of 4 types of medicine represented by letters P, Q, R and S MEDICINE pH VALUES P Q R S 7.0 5.0 8.0 6.0 a) It is not advisable to use S when a patient has indigestion .Explain b) What is the role of chemistry in dru... | {
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The following data gives the pH values of some solutions Solution pH P Q R 14.0 6.8 2.5 (a) What colour change would occur in solution P on addition of two drops of phenolphthalein indicator? (b) State the pH value of ... | {
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(b) Explain using physical properties of the gas why ammonia is not collected by downward delivery 11. The table shows the colours obtained when some indicators are added to solutions:- Solution Blue litmus paper Indicator W ... | {
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The table shows the colours obtained when some indicators are added to solutions:- Solution Blue litmus paper Indicator W Distilled water ………………….. Colourless Calcium hydroxide Blue Pink Nitric acid ………………………… Colourless (a) Complete the table by filling in the missin... | {
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Colourless Calcium hydroxide Blue Pink Nitric acid ………………………… Colourless (a) Complete the table by filling in the missing colours (b) Identify indicator W
12. (a) Flower extracts can be used as Acid-base indicators. Give two limitations of such ... | {
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