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1. What is the definition of 'shelf life' in the context of animal products? -. Shelf life refers to the length of time that animal products remain safe to consume and retain their quality under specified storage conditions. 2. Why is it important to understand the shelf life of animal products? -. Understanding shelf life helps in ensuring food safety, minimizing waste by proper storage, and maintaining the nutritional quality of the products. 3. List some methods used to preserve meat in local communities. -. Common methods include salting, smoking, and sun drying. 4. How does smoking preserve meat? -. Smoking preserves meat by impregnating it with smoke s antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, which inhibit the growth of bacteria and prolong shelf life. 5. What method would you use at home to preserve meat and why? -. Freezing might be preferred for its simplicity and effectiveness in keeping meat safe and preserving its nutritional value. 6. Describe the steps involved in the salting method of preserving meat. -. Meat is first cleaned, then salt is applied generously to all surfaces. The meat is left to sit in salt, which draws out moisture and inhibits bacterial growth. 7. What are the benefits of using modern technology in preserving meat? -. Modern technology, such as vacuum packing and refrigeration, extends shelf life, maintains meat quality, and reduces the risk of foodborne illnesses. 8. How can Maria s family preserve milk to ensure it does not spoil? -. Maria s family can preserve milk by boiling or fermenting it to produce yogurt, all of which kill bacteria and extend the milk's usability. 9. Which method do you use to preserve milk at home and why? -. Boiling due to its simplicity and effectiveness in destroying pathogens, or refrigeration for keeping milk fresh without altering its taste. 10. What are the hygiene practices important for preserving meat and milk? -. Practices include maintaining cleanliness of storage areas, using clean utensils and equipment, and ensuring the meat and milk are handled minimally to avoid contamination. 11. Discuss the advantages of pasteurization in milk preservation. -. Pasteurization eliminates harmful bacteria without significantly changing the nutritional content or flavor of milk, making it safer for consumption. 12. What is the role of temperature control in the preservation of animal products? -. Temperature control is crucial as it helps in slowing down the growth of microorganisms and the rate of chemical changes which spoil the product. 13. How does fermentation extend the shelf life of milk products? |
- Temperature control is crucial as it helps in slowing down the growth of microorganisms and the rate of chemical changes which spoil the product.13.How does fermentation extend the shelf life of milk products?- Fermentation converts lactose into lactic acid, lowering the pH and creating an environment unsuitable for many bacteria, thus preserving the milk product.14.Explain how vacuum sealing affects the preservation of meat.- Vacuum sealing removes air from the packaging, reducing oxidative rancidity and slowing microbial growth, thereby extending the meat's shelf life.15.What are the signs that preserved meat has gone bad?- Signs include off odors, slimy texture, discoloration, and mold growth.16.Why is it important to package animal products properly for preservation?- Proper packaging protects the product from environmental contaminants, physical damage, and moisture loss or gain, all of which can affect quality and safety.17.Describe a traditional method of meat preservation used in your community.- Traditional methods might include air drying or fermenting, depending on local practices and climate conditions.18.How do cultural practices influence methods of animal product preservation?- Cultural practices can dictate preferences for certain preservation methods based on taste, the availability of resources, and historical usage.19.What innovations in animal product preservation have emerged in recent years?- Innovations include the use of natural preservatives, improvements in canning technology, and the development of biodegradable packaging materials.20.Evaluate the effectiveness of traditional vs.modern preservation methods for meat.- Traditional methods are often sustainable and adapted to local conditions but may not achieve the shelf life and safety standards of modern methods, which are generally more controlled and efficient but can be resource-intensive. |
GRADE 8 PRE- TECHNICAL STUDIES RATIONALIZED LESSON NOTESSTRAND 1: FOUNDATION OF PRETECHNICAL STUDIES1.1 FIRE AND DATA SAFETYImportance of safety in a work environment. Reduces financial losses needed to repair damaged property. Increases business rating because of customer and worker satisfaction. Reduces job losses that comes from permanent injuries. Reduces financial losses needed for medical expenses. Reduces damage to property because of lower number of accidents at workplaces. Reduces cases of injury because of lower number of accidents at workplaces. It improves productivity. Causes of fire in a work environment. Some of the possible causes of fire outbreak in the work environment include:Faulty equipment such as extension cables in places such as kitchens, offices, workshop or warehouses. Fires when performing tasks such as welding, flame cutting or grinding. This work generates heat, sparks or flames to cause fire. Improper storage of flammable and combustible materials such as flammable liquids or charcoal in workplace. Human errors such as using equipment such as electric cooker incorrectly, not reporting faulty machinery as well as leaving cooking food unattended may lead to fire accidents. Injuries caused by fire at work places. Injuries caused by fire occurs when you get in contact with open fire or burning objects. Some of the injuries caused by fire in a work environment include:Burns-where fire raises temperature of the skin and tissues causing the tissues and cells to die. Smoke chocking- where the victim suffers obstructed breathing, seizures and comas. Chemical poisoning from inhaling poisonous fumes such as carbon monoxide. Shock where a victim develops abnormal heart rhythm and becomes unconscious. Prevention of fire outbreaks in a work environment. Ways of preventing fire outbreak in the environment include:Providing enough safety and security at work premises. Keeping a work environment clean and orderly. Being cautious when performing activities using open fire. Having all equipment well services and maintained. Allowing for easy access to electrical switches and fire alarm equipment. Storing and handling flammable materials and liquids with care. Types of fire injuries and their first aid requirements. Different types of fire injuries require different First aid approaches. The first aid for different fire injuries are as follows:Performing First Aid for fire burns. Assess find out the situation to ascertain your own safety. Immediately get the person away from the heat sources to stop the burning. |
The first aid for different fire injuries are as follows:Performing First Aid for fire burns. Assess find out the situation to ascertain your own safety. Immediately get the person away from the heat sources to stop the burning. Cool the burn with cool or lukewarm running water for 20 minutes. Remove any clothing or jewellery that is near the burnt area of the skin. Do not move anything stuck to the skin. Make sure the person keeps warm using a warm cover such as blanket, but take care not to rub it against the burnt area. Cover the burn by placing a layer of cling film over it. If the injury is on the face, sit up as much as possible, rather than lying down. This helps to reduce swelling. Performing First Aid for smoke choking. Remove casuality from smoke or toxic exposure to a safe and more ventilated open space. Sit casuality upright and loosen clothing around the neck and airways. If the casuality has breathing difficulties, call for assistance to take him or her to the hospital. Performing First Aid for smoke poisoning. Move the casuality or victim to a safer place with fresh air if you can. Sit the person or lay them down on their side, not their back. If the victim has breathing difficulties, get emergency help to take him or her to hospital. Performing First Aid for shock. Lay the person down, and if possible, elevate their feet about 30cm unless the head, neck or back is injured or you suspect broken hip or leg bones. Do not raise the person s head or turn the person on the side if they are vomiting or bleeding from the mouth. Keep the person warm and comfortable. If the victim has breathing difficulties, get emergency help o take him or her to the hospitalFire fighting methods at work environment. There are four fire fighting methods applicable in a work environment. These are:Cooling method. This is where the temperature of the burning materials is reduced to slow down the burning. A suitable example is where cold water is used to put out a fire. Smothering method. This is where the supply of oxygen to the burning object is cut out to slow down the burning process. An example is covering a burning object with a fire blanket or sand. Starving method. This method involves the following activities:Removing combustible items from the vicinity of the fire. Removing the parts of the burning material from the mass of burning material. |
1.2 -Computer Hardware. Computer hardware are the physical parts of the computer that are tangible. The physical parts of the computer make up the computer hardware. Computer hardware is made up the following categories of:Central processing unit. Input devices that are also subcategorized into keying, pointing, scanning, voice input, touch screen, digitizer, digital cameras. Output devices subcategorized into softcopy output devices and hardcopy output devices. Storage devices subcategorized into fixed and removable devicesCategories of the computer hardware. The computer hardware is grouped into the following categories:Input devices. Output devices. Storage devices. Central processing unit. CPU They include; mouse, keyboard, touchpad, joystick, scanner, camera, microphone and stylus. CPU-it processes the data entered into the computer according to the instruction given by the computer user. It is the brain of the computer and it is also called the processor. It is made up of Arithmetic Logic Unit. ALU , Control Unit and the registers. It retrieves and executes instructions by coordinating and processing all the functions of a computer. Output device-they are used to give out information from the computer. Examples of output devices include monitor, speakers, plotter, headphones, projectors and printer. Storage devices-they are used to store data and information. They save data, information, computer softwares and running operations. Examples of storage devices include hard disk, memory card, flash disk and external hard disks. Selecting Appropriate Hardware for different situations. Different computer hardware components are used in different situations depending on the tasks to be performed. Examples. For a taxi driver to communicate with his client he as to use a phone. To accurately capture item prices in a super market a scanner is used. During presentations a speaker and projector are required alongside a computer. Input devicesA computer works faster after receiving data. The data is entered in the computer system using input devices. Therefore, the work of input devices is to enable a computer user to enter data that needs to be processed and the instructions on how to process it. Categories of Input device. Input devices are categorized according to how they are used to enter data into the computer. They are hardware components that help in providing data and instructions to a digital device. The categories are as follow:Pointing input devices- they control a pointer or cursor on the screen. They include mouse, touchpads, joystick, light pen, mice and trackballs. |
They are hardware components that help in providing data and instructions to a digital device. The categories are as follow:Pointing input devices- they control a pointer or cursor on the screen. They include mouse, touchpads, joystick, light pen, mice and trackballs. Keying input devices- they help in entering data by pressing the keys on them. They include keyboard, keypads, and television remotes. Scanning input device- they capture data directly from the source and convert it into a form a computer can understand. They include barcode readers, optical character readers, optical mask readers, magnetic stripe reader and magnetic ink character readers. Voice input devices-they enter data and instructions into a computer in form of speech. The microphone is an example of a voice input device. Touch screen input devices -they enter data into a device by touching the screens that have electronic keyboards such as touch screen keypads. Digitizers they are also called graphic tables or drawing tablets. They convert analog touch input into digital signals that the device s processor can understand. This allows users to interact with the device through touch, tapping, swiping and pinching. They are devices that allows you to input drawings, sketches and handwritten notes into a computer. They consist of a flat surface and a stylus or pen-like instrument that you use to draw or write on the surface. Others Input devices categoriesGaming controller-they are used when playing computer games. Example includes joystick and steering wheel. Visual and imaging devices-They include digital camera, image scanner and video recorders. Appropriate input devices for different situations. Factors to consider when selecting input devices. User needs-the device should meet the need of the user. Type of data to be input. Available space for the input devices. Volume of the data to be input. Accuracy of the input devices. Cost of the input devices-the device shot be affordable. Compatibility-it is the ability of the input devices to work with the existing computer hardware. The device should be able to work together with other available devices in the computer. Reusing Input devices to minimize wastage. Input devices that are in good condition can be reused to minimize waste. Computers keyboards can be used to make: book covers, pencil holders, key holders, rings and fridge notes. A computer mouse can be used to make toys, soap dishes, toothbrush holders and Christmas tree decorations. Obsolete and dysfunctional input devices can be sent to recycling facility where they will be recycled to make new products. Output Devices. |
A computer mouse can be used to make toys, soap dishes, toothbrush holders and Christmas tree decorations. Obsolete and dysfunctional input devices can be sent to recycling facility where they will be recycled to make new products. Output Devices. Processed data can be given out in form of audio, text, pictures, graphics or videos. Output devices are used to give out information from the computer. Output devices of a computer. Output devices are peripheral devices that give out information from a computer to the user. Examples of output devices are: monitors, printers, actuators, plotters, speakers, earphones and projectors. Functions of Output devices. MonitorIt displays data in text and graphics. Speakers. Gives information in form of sound or audio. Headphones earphones. Produce audio information. Printers. Produce text or picture on paper. Projectors. Gives visual information by projecting it on a flat smooth like wall or a white board. Plotters. Produces digital created graphics and drawings. A plotter uses a pen to draw lines on paper. Actuators. A part of a device or machine that helps to create physical movement using signals from a computer. Braille embosser. A device that presses dots onto paper for people with visual impairment to read using their fingers. Categories of Computer Output devicesSoftcopy output devices. They give intangible output in form of text, audios and videos. These devices include; monitors, speakers and projectors. Hardcopy output devices. They give tangible output that is in form of printed text or graphics. Examples of hardcopy output devices are printers and plotters. Advantages and disadvantages of Softcopy and Hardcopy output. Advantages of hardcopy Disadvantages of hardcopyIt is considered permanent data as editing It is expensive to produce as it requires and changing is not easy. Paper, ink and printer. It does not need electricity, special devices It is not easy to move from one place to or software to display show another. When properly stored it is not easily lost It requires a lot of physical storage space. It is not subjected to data stealing and cyber It can be stolen or destroyed through wearattacks and tear or be subjected to factors such asfire and water. Advantages of softcopy Disadvantages of softcopyIt is easy to move from one place to It is vulnerable to cyber and data stealing. Another. |
A nonvolatile memory used to store data in computers, digital cameras, universal serial bus, flash drives and mp3 players. Data in flash memory can be electrically erased and new data stored in it. Location of Fixed storage devices in a computer. Some fixed storage devices in a computer such as the hard disk and solid-state drive are usually found in the drive bay of the computer case or on underside of a laptop. Some solid-state drives are embedded on the motherboard. Internal flash drives are mostly located in small portable devices such as mobile phones and cameras. How data is stored Written and retrieved read from fixed storage devices. Writing data or saving data means storing data. Data is written on a fixed storage device by:Creating new files. Downloading. Copying or moving files and saving them in a computer storage device. Reading Data, retrieving data or opening data is same as getting data back from its location. When data is opened or a file is accessed in a fixed storage device then the data is read. Give the advantages and disadvantages of Fixed storage devices in a computer. The following table clearly gives the advantages and disadvantages of Fixed storage devices. How to manage waste from fixed storage devices:Always reuse the devices if still in good conditions or sell at a lower price. Return the device its manufacturer for reuse or recycling. Take the device to an e-waste management center for recycling and proper disposal. Removable storage devicesThese are portable storage devices that are not housed or fixed inside the computer case. The have to be connected or attached to a computer system through a port so that data can be read from or written to them. They can be used for backup and store and transfer of data from one computer to another. Types of Removable storage devices. External hard drives. Universal Serial Bus USB Flash drive. Memory drives. Memory cards. Compact discs CDs . Digital versatile discs DVDs . Blu-ray discs. Removable storage devices are used in a computing environment because:They are portable and can be used for transporting data and information from one computer to another. They can be used to back up data away from the computer in case the original data is lost or damaged. They can be read from or written to easily without affecting the operations of the computer. They enable sharing of information and data among computer users. They can store and be used to install critical applications like operating system in a computer. |
They can be read from or written to easily without affecting the operations of the computer. They enable sharing of information and data among computer users. They can store and be used to install critical applications like operating system in a computer. Factors to consider when selecting a removable storage device for use:Advantages of removable storage devices over fixed storage devices. Easy transfer of data and sharing between computer and users. Portable-can store data while outside or not attached to a computer. Easily read from and written to. 1.3-Consumer and Investor Protection. Consumer protection refers to measures by either the government of NGO or consumers to avoid exploitation of consumers by business people. It is a deliberate attempt to safe guard consumers against exploitation or malpractices in business. Investor protection -Importance of consumer protection. Prevents consumers from access poor quality goods and services. Prevents consumers from purchase of goods and services under unhygienic conditions and environment. Protects consumers from over priced goods and services. Protects consumer against underweight goods and inadequate services. Protects consumers against illegal goods and services. Protects consumers against harmful goods and services. Protects consumers against hoarding of goods to create an artificial shortage. Ways in which consumers and investors protect themselves. Educate members on their rights as consumers. Ensure regular supply of goods to avoid hoarding to create shortages. Ensure health and safety regulations are followed. Forming consumer associations to deal with all consumer related issues. Ways in which the government protects consumers and investors. Form laws that protect consumers such as public health act to ensure health and safety standards are met. Encourage formation of consumer organisations to deal with consumers interests. Encourage businesses to conduct their affairs in a way that does not exploit consumers interests. Ways in which Non-Governmental Organisations protect consumers and investors. Ensure standards are maintained by bot h producers and traders. Customer protection by informing customers on their rights. STRAND 2-COMMUNICATION. 2.1-Business Communication. Communication is the process of sharing information through a channel from the sender to the receiver. Business communication is the exchange of information between a business organization and its customers or between people within and outside a company. When business communication is done correctly, everyone can do their job, all of which increases productivity and even creativity. A communication channel is a medium or method that is used to deliver a message to an intended audience. |
Business communication is the exchange of information between a business organization and its customers or between people within and outside a company. When business communication is done correctly, everyone can do their job, all of which increases productivity and even creativity. A communication channel is a medium or method that is used to deliver a message to an intended audience. Forms of communication channels used in Business. Oral verbal communication channels. Written communication channels. Audio-visual communication channels. Oral verbal communication channels. It involves speaking and listening by both the sender and the receiver. Examples of oral communication channels include: Face to face conversations. Group presentations. Telephone calls. Speeches. Lectures. Advantages and disadvantages of oral communication channels. Written communication channels. They involve use of text to pass information. The text can be handwritten, printed or shared using digital communication devices. Examples of written channels of communication in businesses are: Emails. Letters. Memos. Reports. Circulars. Short message services SMS Newsletters. Advantages and disadvantages of written communication channels. Audio-visual communication channels. It involves a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images, video and animation. Examples are: social media platforms. Blogs. Televisions. Video-conferencing. Websites. Advantages and disadvantages of audio-visual communication channels. Factors considered when selecting channels of communication. Cost of the channel. Urgency of the message. Number of people receiving the message. Confidentiality of the message. Reliability of communication. Nature of the message: whether it is urgent, private or confidential. Need for immediate feedback. Supporting technology: both the sender and the receiver should have supporting tools to ensure the message is delivered successfully, for example mobile phones and internet connectivity. 2.2-Plain Scale Drawing. Plain scale drawing involves drawing a line that has been divided into a specific number of equal parts. The first part of the line is subdivided into equal smaller portions or units. It can be used to represent two units, a unit or a fraction of a unit. Plain scale is used in engineering drawings to measure up to two units such as metre and decimeters or feet and inches. Interpreting a plain scale used in drawing. |
It can be used to represent two units, a unit or a fraction of a unit. Plain scale is used in engineering drawings to measure up to two units such as metre and decimeters or feet and inches. Interpreting a plain scale used in drawing. A representative fraction R.F is the ration od the size of a feature on a drawing to its true size on the object. It is expressed in fraction form as R FA plain scale can be constructed using the example below. Example 1.:On a drawing, 1 cm represents 1,5m on the ground. Draw a plain scale to measure up to 30m in 5m interval. Show the length of 27m on the scale. Steps to follow. Step 1Determine the scale to use. In our case 1cm represents 1.5m or 150cm. In this example, it is appropriate to use Centimetres. Step 2. Calculate the Representative fraction, R.FR.F measurement on the map divided by measurement on the ground. R.F 1cm 1.5m R.F 1 150. R.F 1:150. Step 3. Calculate the maximum length of the scale to read 30 metres length. Measurement on map R. F x measurement on the ground. Measurement on map 1 150 x3000 Measurement on map 20. Step 4Draw a straight line 20cm long and divide it into 6 equal parts. Divide again first part into 5 equal parts. Indicate the number on the points on the line as shown. To show length 27m, draw a line AB above the scale with and B at 25 m mark on the main scale. Extend the line for point A to be at point 2m on the smaller scale. Complete the drawing with all details. Example 2:On a scale 1:150, determine the length of line PQ as shown in the figure. Give your answer in metres. Steps to follow. Determine where line begins on the main scale. In this example, point Q is at the 15m mark. Determine the point on the smaller scale where the line reaches. From the diagram above, point P is between 2 and 3 on the smaller scale. Therefore, this point represents 2.5m from 0. |
Determine the point on the smaller scale where the line reaches. From the diagram above, point P is between 2 and 3 on the smaller scale. Therefore, this point represents 2.5m from 0. Combine the two values such that 15 is the value on main scale, while 2.5 is the value from smaller scale. Therefore, length of the line PQ is 15 2.5 17.5 m. Example 3On a drawing of scale 1.5, the length of a line is a s shown in the diagram. The unit of the scale is decimeters. Determine the length of the line in centimetres. Determine where the line begins on the main scale. In this came point is at 9cm mark. Determine the point on the smaller scale where the line reaches. From this case it is 8 mark representing a length of 8cm. Combine the two values such that: 90cm 9dm is the value rom main scale and 8cm is the value from smaller scale, 90 cm 8cm 98cm. Hence the length of the line 98cm. 2.3 Visual Programming. Introduction. Visual programming is developing applications using graphical components and figures. These graphical components and figures mostly include images and video clips. Types of visual programming applications. Visual programming is also called block-based programming. It is a way of creating applications using graphical components and figures. This is mostly done through the use of code blocks and drag-and drop processes. The most common examples of visual programming applications are:Microsoft MakeCode. Scratch. Code.org. Sprite box. Microsoft Visual Studio. Roblox. Minecraft. Visual programming applications are used because they are easy and interesting to use. They also help in creating stories, animations and videos that entertain users. Launching a visual programming application. Type the word Scratch in the search box. The Scratch application will appear. Click on the Scratch application to launch it. Alternatively, click Start. Scroll down to category S then click on Scratch App. The application will launch. Visual Programming Features. Features of Scratch. Scratch is a visual programming language that can be used to create interactive stories, games and animations. |
Visual Programming Features. Features of Scratch. Scratch is a visual programming language that can be used to create interactive stories, games and animations. Features of scratch include:The menu bar-it contains the fie menu used to save and load projects and the view menu which displays rulers, grid lines, status, zoom in and out options. The black palette-it contains a coloured set of code blocks that are used to program and give instructions to the sprite. The stage-it is the main working area where the sprite moves and performs according to the given code of instruction. Backdrops pane-it is the part used to add a back ground to the project. Functions of the features of Scratch. A sprite is a small graphic character that performs actions such as moving around the stage. The script area is also called the coding area; it is where codes scripts are created for a sprite to do a specific action. Codes are dragged and dropped here then snapped together to create a program. Code blocks are blocks shaped differently and are used to create codes in Scratch. The codes connect to each other vertically like a jigsaw. The sprite info shows information about the size of each sprite. The sprite pane displays all the sprites in a project. A selected sprite has a blue border around it. NBTo move the sprite, add a move block from the motion category. To add sound, click on sound category and choose a sound block. To move the sprite back, use a negative value on the move back block. The block can be repeatedly severally to generate the desired animation. Terminologies used in visual programming applications. The start option commands the sprite to perform moves, it is represented by a green flag. When you click stop the sprite ends its moves. Reserved words are also known as key words. These are words with a special meaning to the programming application. In scratch they are words that we cannot edit on the blocks. They include when, by and change. The rules that should be followed when writing a program using an application are called syntax. Input statement are blocks that are used to create animations. Output statements are outcomes of the processed instructions that are programmed using clocks. These are the actions viewed on the stage when the blocks are executing. Control structures are the blocks that allow selecting or repeating execution of certain blocks or instructions. A backdrop is the background for the stage. Backdrops can be changed from the gallery or photo in the computer. |
Control structures are the blocks that allow selecting or repeating execution of certain blocks or instructions. A backdrop is the background for the stage. Backdrops can be changed from the gallery or photo in the computer. The sensing category helps one to enable input from the mouse, keyboard and other input devices. IF is used to choose between two output. For example, it can be used to perform mathematical calculations and state whether the answer given is correct or notSTRAND 3-MATERIALS FOR PRODUCTION. 3.1 Composite Materials. Identification of Composite materials. A composite material is formed by combining two or more materials of different characteristics. Some of the composite materials found in the locality include:Composition of composite materials. Different composite materials are made of different materials as described in the table below. Uses of Composite materials. Some of the uses of composite materials are explained as follows:In sports industry, composite materials are used to make various games and sports items. O Composite materials are used to make body parts of vehicles and bicycles. Composites materials are used to make customer goods and electronics such as mobile phones, television sets, radios and calculators. At home, composite materials are used to make hand tools and furniture. In construction industry, composites like concrete are used to build houses and to construct roads and bridges among other structures. In medical engineering, composite materials are used to make artificial body parts and implants. In transport industry, composite materials are used to make the body parts of vehicles, aeroplane, ships and boats among others. It is also used to make travelling bags and briefcases. NOTE:Artificial body parts are also called prosthetics. Prosthetics limbs are given to substitute missing body parts. These body parts may have been lost in an accident or through amputation. The prosthetic body parts help people with missing limbs to function properly and with ease despite the missing body partsCareers in use of Composite materials. Masonry-involves use of mortar, stones and concrete to construct structures. Pottery- involves use of mud to make pots, dishes, mugs, vases and other types of artworks. Interior design involves use of papier mache and manufactured boards to decorate interior of houses and motor vehicles. Sculpting -involves uses of clay, fiberglass, stone or concrete to make sculptures. Boat construction -involves use of fiberglass to construct boats that are light and resistant to corrosion. |
Interior design involves use of papier mache and manufactured boards to decorate interior of houses and motor vehicles. Sculpting -involves uses of clay, fiberglass, stone or concrete to make sculptures. Boat construction -involves use of fiberglass to construct boats that are light and resistant to corrosion. Carpentry involves use of manufactured boards to make furniture, construct ceilings and other finishes in a building. Importance of composite materials used in the locality. Promote recreation that improves health. Providing employment. Use of manufactures boards such as blockboards, softboards or chipboards to reduce deforestation through recycling of waste. Improves the appearance in landscaping of compounds3.2 -Ceramic materials. A ceramic material is made by mixing clay, earthen elements like silica, kaolin, alumina and feldspar, and water. The material is thoroughly kneaded, shaped into desired forms and baked before being covered in decorative, waterproof, paint-like substances called glazes. Some ceramic materials like sea shells occur naturally. The common type of ceramic materials are:Earthenware- clay heated at temperatures of between 10000C and 11500C. An example is clay used to make pot. Stoneware clay heated at an average temperature of 12000C until it appears like glass. An example is material used to make a stoneware mug. Porcelain -clay mixed with glass and heated at high temperature of between 12000C and 14500C. Example is material used to make a porcelain cup. Most common ceramics materials found in the locality. Ceramic tiles. Glass. Backed clay bricks. Clay tiles. Physical properties of Ceramic materials. Ceramic materials break easily when crushed. Ceramic materials are poor conductors of electricity. Ceramic materials have a hard surface which is difficult to scratch. Ceramic materials are resistant to corrosion. Ceramic materials do not absorb water. Ceramic materials do not bend. Ceramic materials do not burn. Uses of ceramic materials. In electrical and electronic engineering, ceramics are used to make items like resistors, semiconductors and inductors etc. Ceramic materials are used to make a variety of pottery items like pots and utensils. In the manufacturing industry, ceramics are used to make a variety of household utensils. |
In electrical and electronic engineering, ceramics are used to make items like resistors, semiconductors and inductors etc. Ceramic materials are used to make a variety of pottery items like pots and utensils. In the manufacturing industry, ceramics are used to make a variety of household utensils. Ceramics are used in plumbing works to make drainage installations and sanitary fittings such as toilets and wash basins,In construction, ceramics like bricks and tiles are used in building construction for walling, roofing and finishing materials. In beautification, ceramics are used to produce items like flower vase, lamp stand and souvenirs. STRAND 4 -TOOLS AND PRODUCTION. 4.1 Cutting tools. Identify and uses of various cutting tools. A cutting tool is a device that is used to chop, split, shape or remove excess materials from a workpiece. The common cutting tools are as follows:Knife-a small tool that has a sharp metal blade fastened to a handle. Its purpose is to cut cords, cutting and scrapping hides, reshaping timber, carving, cutting paper and kitchen work. Utility knife Skiving knifePanga-it is also called a machete. It is a tool made of a broad metallic blade with shapes. Used to chop wood as well as cut tree branches, shrubs and long weeds. Mainly used in fields of woodwork, construction and gardening. Axe-an axe is a woodwork tool. It is used to cut, split and shape wood. It is used to in the woodwork conversion industry as well as in the stone carving industry. Scissors-it is a tool that has to blades joined together at the middle so that the sharp edges can slide each other. They are of different types such as tailors scissors, barber s scissors, paper scissors and surgical scissors. They are used for cutting cloth, foil and paper, among othersScissors are used in fields like textile, medicine, beauty and leisure industry. Shears-a tool that has two blades joined together at the middle so that the sharp blades slide against each other,They are of different types. They are used to cut tough materials like leather, canvas and rubber. Shears are used by workers in leather industry, furniture industry and interior design. Carton shears. Leather shears. Snips-they are hand tools used to cut sheet metals and other tough materials. They come in different sizes. Mainly used in area such as construction, sheet metal work and leather industry. |
Snips-they are hand tools used to cut sheet metals and other tough materials. They come in different sizes. Mainly used in area such as construction, sheet metal work and leather industry. Secateurs-also called pruning shears-It is a cutting tool that looks like a pair of strong, heavy scissors. Used to prune flowers and small branches of shrubs, Main used in gardening and landscaping among others. Hand saw-a hand tool with toothed edge. Comes in different types. Main used in the field of woodwork, carpentry, gardening and building construction. Used to:Cut wood and wood products. Cat joints in carpentry and woodwork. Prune trees and large shrubs. Hack saw-it is a cutting tool made of thin blade held across a frame. Used to cut through thin materials such as plastic or metal pipes in the fields of plumbing, steel fixing, electrical installations and metal workPlane- a general purpose woodwork tool for smothering the surface of timber by removing excess material. It is used for shaving wood to provide uniformity to the wooden surface. Mainly used in carpentry and woodwork. Chisel-a hand tool with a characteristic shaped cutting edge of blade on its ends. Comes in different types. Used for carving, cutting and shaping hard materials such as wood, stone or metal. Used in fields like woodwork, metal work, masonry and stone carving. Cold chisel Wood chisel Stone chiselStrap cutter-it is a handheld tool with a sharp blade. Used to cut long lengths of leather materials into consistent widths. It is used in the leather industry to cut strap blanks such as belts, guitar straps etc. Bolt cutter-it is a tool with two handles and two short blades. It is used to cut bolts, chains, padlocks and wire mesh. Mainly used in mechanical engineering and metal work. Pipe cutter-also called tube cutter, a pipe cutter us a type of tool used by plumbers to cut pipes. Pipe cutters come in different shapes and designs. It is used to cut pipes and tubes. Pipe cutters come in different shapes and sizes. Mainly used by plumbers and other tradespeople. Scrapper- it is a hand tool that has a small handle and a metallic or plastic blade, Used to remove a wide range of materials from various surfaces such as walls and floors. Care for cutting tools. |
Mainly used by plumbers and other tradespeople. Scrapper- it is a hand tool that has a small handle and a metallic or plastic blade, Used to remove a wide range of materials from various surfaces such as walls and floors. Care for cutting tools. Caring for cutting tools is the process of keeping them in good condition even when they are not being used. Some of the ways of caring for cutting tools in the work environment are: Inspect tools regularly as some manufacturers have specific instructions for how to use cutting tools that are the right size and type for the job. Follow the correct procedure for using every cutting tool. Keep your cutting tools, sharp and in good condition. Always carry pointed tools with the points and heavy ends facing down. Never carry cutting tools in your pocket. Keep your punches and chisels in good conditions because mushroomed heads can slip and cause injuries. Don t use a cutting tool without a handle. Clean the cutting tool after use and return it to its proper storage place. Never place cutting tools where they hang on the edge of a bench. Store cutting tools vertically, with the points and heavy end facing down. Frequently clean and oil your scissors, snips and shears. Fit protective guards to sharp edges to prevent injury to you and damage to the tool. Importance of Cutting Tools. The importance of cutting tools in a work environment includes: Cutting tools enable workers to cut, shape and remove materials like metals, wood and plastics among others for use to make desired items in different work environment. It enables preservation of extra material from workplace. This enables the worker to only use materials that is required to make an item and leave the rest for others uses, thus lowering of cost of production. Cutting tools like saws, drills and blades are designed to make accurate cuts. They enable a worker achieve specific dimensions, angles and shapes required for a particular task or project. Cutting tools improve the appearance of items made by removing excess materials making the surface smoother. Working tools are used to accurately cut workpieces and their joints to the required size and shape. This enables the cut pieces and joints to fit properly. Some cutting tools have specialized uses. |
Working tools are used to accurately cut workpieces and their joints to the required size and shape. This enables the cut pieces and joints to fit properly. Some cutting tools have specialized uses. For example, mechanical workplaces, specialize cutting tools are used for shaping and modifying components and body parts for vehicle and building among others. 4.2 - Production UnitA production unit is a business enterprise that uses economic resources to provide goods and services for sale, with aim of making a profit. Examples of production units in your locality. Posho milli. Salon. Barber shop. Welding. Cybercafe etc. Factors that determine the size of a production unit:Volume of output large unit produce goods on large scale while small unit produce goods in small scale. Area covered by the premises a unit covering large floor area is considered large while a unit covering a small floor area is considered small. Number of workers -a large unit has many workers while a small unit has few workers. Methods of production- highly mechanized unit with capital-intensive method of production are considered large. Small unit uses labour-intensive methods. Size of the market controlled- when a business controls a large portion of the total market, it is considered big. When a business controls a small portion of the total market, it is considered small. Capital invested- if a lot of capital is invested in a unit, it is considered big. Incase small amount of capital is invested in a unit; it means that the unit is small. Volume of sales- large units make large amount of sales, while small units make small amounts of sales. Factors to consider when locating a production unit. Access to raw materials- raw materials should be readily available at affordable. Availability of labour-skilled and unskilled labour should be easy to access. Market-production units are usually located close to the market to cut on distribution costs. Government policies-to encourage production, the government may implement policies such as reduced taxes on imported raw materials, providing free land and building supporting infrastructure for business. Such like policies could be aimed at influencing location of production units in certain areas. Access to electricity and water supply-these are important in the operations of productions units. Access to supporting services such as banking, insurance and warehousing. Access to social amenities to be used by employees and their family. STRAND 5- ENTERPRENEURSHIP. 5.1 Bookkeeping. |
Access to social amenities to be used by employees and their family. STRAND 5- ENTERPRENEURSHIP. 5.1 Bookkeeping. Book keeping -This is the practice of recording and tracking on a regular basis the financial transactions of a business. It is done to keep records of a business which can be used anytime in decision making. Importance of Book keeping in entrepreneurship. Making accurate budgeting possible. Book keeping provides important information that helps in Helps an entrepreneur prepare for taxes. Book keeping maintain organized records in a business. It also enables proper reporting to investors, aiding in setting and monitoring business goals, ensuring compliance with government regulations. Book keeping reveals the financial status of a business. Classifying business transactions in entrepreneurship. Business transactions in entrepreneurship can be classified as:Cash transactions. Credit transactions. Cash transaction- is a transaction where payment is settled immediately. Credit transaction is a transaction in which payment is settled or done at a later date as agreed by the parties. Advantages of cash transaction. It is simple and faster. Use of cash transactions makes it easier to budget and stick to it. It helps to avoid any additional charges. Personal information is protected. Disadvantages of cash transactions. Carrying large amount of money can be risky making parties involved vulnerable to theft and robbery. May involve cases of fake money being used. Advantages of Credit transactions. It provides a record of transactions. Disadvantages of credit transactions. Customers may go bankrupt and fail to pay as agreed earlier. Credit transaction may come with charges and interests. Calculating assets, liabilities and Capital using the Bookkeeping formula. What is an asset? Assets are resources belonging to a business. They are things owned by the business. Examples of assets include:Money in hand cash Money in bank accounts. Properties such as buildings, machinery, furniture, crops and livestock, motor vehicles, tock or goods for sale. Money other businesses owes you. What is a liability? Liabilities are debts you owe other business and other people. Main examples of liabilities are:Creditors money owed by the business to supplier Bank loans. Bank overdrafts. What is Capital? Capital is the amount of investment the business owner put or used to start a certain business. Book keeping formulaAssets liabilities capital. To calculate the Assets:Calculate all the liabilities and adding them to the capital. |
Capital is the amount of investment the business owner put or used to start a certain business. Book keeping formulaAssets liabilities capital. To calculate the Assets:Calculate all the liabilities and adding them to the capital. That means for one to find the capital used to start a certain business they have to calculate all the liabilities and subtract from all the total assets owned by the business. 5.2 Income Budgeting. Income-this is the money earned on a regular basis as payment of work done or as earning from an investment or business. A person can earn income when employed or self-employed. Categories of income sources. Active sources of income. This are income sources that require one to work to earn from them. Examples of active sources of income are:Fees. Wages. Salaries. Passive sources of income. These are sources of income resulting from work done to create an asset, painting or a block. These sources generate income for the owner without the person actively participating in the income generating process. Examples of passive sources of income are:Rent. Dividends. Interest. Royalties income earned from abilities and talents such as musician. Importance of budgeting in day-to day life. A budget is an estimate of how one plans to spend income over a certain period of time. Budgeting is the process of making a plan on how to spend income. Importance of budgeting. Helps one to have a clear picture of the amount of income that one had and how to spend it. Helps to control spending, therefore enables people to live within their means. Helps one to make and implement a saving plan. Helps to identify and avoid unnecessary expenses. Ways of Spending money wisely in day-to-day life. Spending is the act of using money to pay for goods and services. Spending money wisely is about strictly buying items on budget and purchasing them at reasonable prices. One should make a priority list with items to spend money on. Some ways in which money is spend include:Paying for basic needs such as food, clothes, water and healthcare. Paying rent. Paying school fees. Impulsive buying this is the tendency to buy items that a person had not planned for. Ways of spending money wisely in day-to-day life. Make a budget and stick to it. Find out the prices of items in various shops and market for comparison purpose. Avoid impulsive buying by only purchasing items that are budgeted for. |
Make a budget and stick to it. Find out the prices of items in various shops and market for comparison purpose. Avoid impulsive buying by only purchasing items that are budgeted for. Buy in cash and make sure you carry enough cash for what you want to buy. Buying items on discount. Preparing a simple budget for personal finance management. A format of budget sample. Step 1: list all your income of the month. Step 2: list all things you want to spend money on and their prices. Start with the most urgent needs to the least urgent wants. Step 3: Calculate the total cost of all the items you want to buy. Compare the total cost with the total amount to be spent, in your budget. If the total cost exceeds your budget, adjust your list by removing the least important items. Step 4: Buy the items you have budgeted for. Sale of dairy products 15,300. Sale of poultry products 15,000. Sale of vegetables 5,500. Expenses Amount Ksh. Savings 4,000. Food 5,000. Rent 8,000. School fees 7,500. Medical insurance 500. Transport 2,000. Airtime 1,500. Television subscription 800. Internet 2,000. Donations to charity 1,000. Entertainment 1,500. Task. Calculate Mr. Gitau s total: a. Income:Income 15,300 15,000 3500 sh.33,800. B. Expenses. Expenses 400 5000 8000 7500 500 2000 1500 800 2000 1000 1500 sh.30,200. Ethical and unethical practices in budgeting and spending. Ethical practices in budgeting and spending include:Make budget and strictly following it. Balance income and expenses and adjusting to situations accordingly. Determining the amount one needs to save before spending money. Avoiding to carry excess cash when going for shopping. Unethical practices in budgeting and spending include:Unethical practices are bad behaviours or practices people adopt when spending money. These practices include:Spending money without a budget. Making a budget and not strictly following it. Misusing money because of bad influence, for example, entertaining friends when family needs have not been met. Postponing paying bills and clearing debts when one has money. |
Making a budget and not strictly following it. Misusing money because of bad influence, for example, entertaining friends when family needs have not been met. Postponing paying bills and clearing debts when one has money. Accumulating many unnecessary debts. 5.3 -Marketing of Goods Services. Meaning and importance of marketing. A market is where buyers and sellers interact to facilitate the exchange of goods and services. Marketing is the process of promoting and selling goods and services. Consumer is any person who buys goods and services for their personal use. Goods, produces and services offered should target a specific market or consumers of the goods or services. Marketing should target specific consumers. Sources of information about the market and its potential customers. Sources of information about the market and its potential customers include the following:Family and friends. Internet from websites and social media platforms or sites. Mass media such as radio, television and newspapers. Business dealings in similar products and services. Organisations that conduct research about markets. Customers of business dealings in similar products. Factors to Consider when selecting a suitable market for goods and services. The number of traders selling goods and services that are similar. Accessibility of the market. Consumers taste and preferences-levels of income and living standards. The living standard of consumers. Consumer potential-involves considering consumers spending habits, consumers purchasing potential. Competition-one must consider the extent o competition as well as the strength of the competitor. Market size-one needs to access whether the market is large enough for him to capture market share. Demographic trends such as size, level of income. Marital status. Market cost and budget. Physical infrastructure. Market acceptance. ICT Platforms used for marketing goods and services. The following platforms are used for marketing goods and services. Mobile phones that are used to communicate with consumers who are in different places. Radios are used to advertise and promote goods to many consumers. Television can be used to market goods and services to the consumers. Social media such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter among others have become the best platforms to market goods and services. Internet provides platforms for marketing goods and services through online newspapers and magazines. Emails can be used to market goods and services. Methods of gathering information about the market and its potential customers:Observation-watch and note people behaviours to know their taste and preferences. Interviews-involves questions and answers. Surveys-gather information by asking targeted questions to a sample group of people. Focus on group discussions-gather information from a group of people who represents target market. |
STRAND 1 FOUNDATIONS OF CREATIVE ARTS. WHAT IS CREATIVE ARTSIntroduction to Creative Arts and Sports. Creative Arts is a description of various artistic activities that allow performers to use their imaginations, creativity, and express ideas through a variety of mediums to passage a message to the audience. What is sports? A sport is any activity involving physical or mental effort combined with skills in which an individual or a team or teams compete against another or others for entertainmeRoles of Creative arts and sports in the society. Creates a sense of identity-bring people together, creating shared experiences that help to foster a sense of community and collective identity. Creative arts and sports promote cohesion through teamwork. Through creative arts and sports culture is preserved-it ensures that our history and traditions are not forgotten, and that future generations can appreciate and learn from them. Creative arts and sports inspire creativity, talents and abilities. Creative arts and sports provide provides us with entertainment through components such as music, dance, drama, narratives, films and movies, various sports i.e., soccer, basketball, netball, volley ball. Creative arts and sports provide employment opportunities such as artists, musicians, referees, sports coaches, sports doctors, choreographers. Trainers, teachers etc. One can earn income through activities related to creative arts and sports hence eradicating poetry. Through creative arts and sports, a country can earn or generate tax revenue. Boosts revenue collection Creative arts and sports attract investments which in turn increases job opportunities. Creative arts and sports stimulate growth of economy through sectors such as tourism. Encourages tourism Creative arts is made of the following components:Visual arts -creative art forms appreciated through sense of sight such as;Drawing. Painting. Sculpture. Montage. CollagePlay - a written work that tells a story through action and speech and is meant to be acted on a stage. Music - Music is a collection of coordinated sound or sounds. Making music is the process of putting sounds and tones in an order, often combining them to create a unified compositionDance dance is the movement of the body in a rhythmic way, usually to music and within a given space, for the purpose of expressing an idea or emotion. Principles of Visual arts. There are two principles of visual arts namely:Principle of dominance. Principle of proportion. Principle of dominance in Visual Arts. |
There are two principles of visual arts namely:Principle of dominance. Principle of proportion. Principle of dominance in Visual Arts. Dominance is when a single element is so large and or different compared to the rest of the design that it dominates. It grabs your attention. Famous examples include the London Eye that dominates the skyline of London or the Ashoka Lions that dominate the Indian Passport and other official documents. Principle of Proportion in Visual arts. Proportion refers to the dimensions of a composition and relationships between height, width and depth. How proportion is used will affect how realistic or stylized. Proportion also describes how the sizes of different parts of a piece of art or design relate to each other. Proportion in any art is the relative size of objects in relation to each other or corresponding to the other elements as a whole. Basic Elements of a play. Theme - What is the meaning of theme in element of drama? The theme refers to the message meaning that is intended to be expressed in the story. In other words, it is the main idea or the lesson to be learned from the story. Examples of themes in plays include: justice, loyalty. Drugs, bullying, human rights etc. Character- this is a person or individual taking part in the play or drama that may have defined personal qualities and or histories. Plot- A plot is a sequence of events within a play that tells a story. A plot is what makes a story. Five components make up a plot: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Conflict and theme help drive the plot forward. Language- Language in drama is represented as spoken language or, in other words, as speech. In drama, language refers to the particular manner of verbal expression, the diction or style of writing, or the speech or phrasing that suggests a class or profession or type of character. Setting- The setting is the time and place in which the story takes placeElements of Music in Creative Arts. Sound-any tone with characteristics such as controlled pitch and timbre Rhythm- Rhythm is the pattern of sound, silence, and emphasis in a song Melody- a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm. Harmony-harmony, in music, the sound of two or more notes heard simultaneously. Elements of Dance in Creative Arts. Body - In dance, the body is the mobile figure or shape, felt by the dancer, seen by others. |
It helps an athlete to catch a breath and relax before striding again which helps in developing speed and running skills. Photomontage. Photomontage is the process and the result of making a composite photograph by cutting, gluing, rearranging and overlapping two or more photographs into a new image. It is assembly of images that relate to each other in some way to create a single work or part of a work of art. Photomontage is an image constructed from collaged photographs. Characteristics shown in photomontage. Superimposition-combine two images to create something new. Use of pictures. Emphasis on shape. Composing Melody. Netball. Chest pass in Net ball. Chest pass is a way of throwing the ball to a teammate where the ball is released and received at the chest level. The pass is usually used when the teammates are not far from each other. Learning points for the chest pass. 1. Grip Spread your fingers out behind the ball to form a W formation, holding it at chest height with your elbows out in front of you. 2. Stance. Face the direction you want the ball to go in. Step forwards with your dominant foot as you begin to straighten your arms. 3. Execution of the pass. Push the ball away from your body at chest height by powerfully extending the arms forwards and flicking the wrists. Follow through with the arms, wrists, hands and fingers in the direction of the throw. Chest pass drillsDodging and marking in Netball. Dodging is a technique used to counter the marking attempts. It is applied by members of the team in control of the ball. The player being marked attempts to get free from the marker and move into space to receive a pass. It may involve changing pace and use of deceptive body actions to put the marking player off balance. Deceptive means misleading or trickiness while off-balance means not steady or stable. Intercept means block a pass or prevent it from reaching destination or to block something from happening. Body movements used by a player when dodging an opponent. Using bending or leaning movements with the body trunk to the left or right or left once or repeatedly. Sprinting off from the marker. Sprinting and stopping. Extending the left or right arm away from the opponent. Marking is a technique used by a team that is not in possession of the ball to prevent an opponent from receiving a pass. |
Sprinting and stopping. Extending the left or right arm away from the opponent. Marking is a technique used by a team that is not in possession of the ball to prevent an opponent from receiving a pass. The intention is to obstruct passes made by the team in control of the ball. A player can mark an opponent in possession of the ball or an opponent without the ball. Marking opponent with the ball. Marking opponent without the ball. Body movements used by a player when marking an opponent. Standing in front of the player being marked. Standing beside the player being marked. Raising hands up or to the side to reach the path of the ball. Stepping forward, or sideways while avoiding any obstruction. Things to learn when dodging and marking stance. Marking a player without the ball. Establish the basic stance for marking with body weight on your toes. Take a position slightly in front of the player you intend to mark. Be on your toes, with knees slightly bent, ready to catch the ball or move in the direction of the opponent. The hands should be on the side of the body. React quickly when the opponent being marked makes any movement, move in the direction of the opponent using short steps, shuffle sideways without crossing the feet. Focus on both the ball and the player and forth from one place to another. Activity. Guided by the teacherDemonstrateBasic stance for dodging, marking, body movement for dodging and marking. Footwork in Netball. Landing techniques. In netball, the ball is played using hands. During play, the players may:Run to doge an opponent or to reach a ball. Jump to catch a high ball or rebound from the ring. Stop the running action suddenly to dodge an opponent or avoid getting to an offside position. Land on the floor or the ground as dedicated by the laws of gravity in integrated science and as guided by the law of the game. However, players need to land safely for safety and healthy living. There are two landing techniques in Netball: The double foot landing. Single foot landing. Pivoting. Pivoting is the act of turning with one foot on the ground while the other foot makes repeated short steps. Picoting:Helps the player develop balance after landing. It helps the player turn away from the defender who may be marking. Helps in locating teammates who may be well-positioned to receive the pass. Things to learn in Pivoting. |
It helps the player turn away from the defender who may be marking. Helps in locating teammates who may be well-positioned to receive the pass. Things to learn in Pivoting. Land one foot and maintain balance. Maintain a firm grip of the ball. Keep the landing foot grounded with knees slightly bent. Keep the head up and the trunk upright. Step with the non-landing foot and turn around. Keep the ball close to the body. 2.5 Descant recorder or Any other western instrument. Examples of western solo instruments. The following techniques are used to play descant recorder:Tonguing. Gently say tu when blowing air into the recorder. Embouchure. This is how one places their mouth on the recorder s mouthpiece to ensure that no air is lost when blowing into the instrument. Fingering. Correct placement of the fingers on the recorder. As a rule, the left hand is always at the top part of the recorder. All the holes must be tightly covered to prevent leakage of air. Blowing. Blow warm air into the recorder. Blowing gently gives a good sound. Blowing too hard generates unpleasant sounds. Slurring. This is the technique of playing more than two notes in one breath. This involves only the movement of fingers while the airflow is constant. Staccato. Playing notes in a detached manner. Notes to be played staccato have a dot above or below the note. Tone quality. Listen carefully to the sound you produce when you blow into the recorder. Blowing gently and having consistent air gives a good tone. Blend and balance. Being able to listen to what the other in an ensemble are playing helps to blend and create a balanced sound. Interpret performance directions when playing the descant recorder. You should be able to play melodies on the descant recorder while observing the following directions: a. Repeat. Repeat signs are two dots that are placed before or after a double bar line. Whey they are placed after a double bar line, it means it is the start of the repeat. However, when they are placed before a double line, it means the end of repeat. 1st and 2nd endingThe two lines above the staff mean that one will avoid playing 1 notes when repeating. This applies where there is a repeat and the last part of the melody is different from the first one. Da capo al fineIt is often abbreviated as D.C al Fine. |
1st and 2nd endingThe two lines above the staff mean that one will avoid playing 1 notes when repeating. This applies where there is a repeat and the last part of the melody is different from the first one. Da capo al fineIt is often abbreviated as D.C al Fine. It means one goes back to the beginning of the piece and plays to the point written. Dal segno al fine. It is often abbreviated as D.S al fine. It means you go back to a point in the piece of music with the sign and play or sing to the bar marked Fine end then stop. Accent. The note with sign is played with emphasis. Fermata. This sign means that you can hold the note a little longer that its given time value or number of counts. G. Dynamics. This refers to how quietly or loudly a piece of music should be played. Italian terms are used to indicate dynamics in the piece of music. H. Tempo. This term is used to refer to how fast or slow a piece of music can be played. Italina terms are used to indicate what tempo the music is played2.6 Volleyball. Overarm and Jump serve in Volley. Over arm serve. Over arm serve is where a player tosses the ball with one hand and strikes it in the air above their head with the other hand so that it crosses the net and lands into the opponents side. Safety instructions. Ensure you perform thorough warm up activities. Avoid congestion by maintaining a safe distance from your peers. Follow instructions. Jump serve in Volleyball. This is a type of serve where the serving player increases power and serve height by jumping to hit the ball when serving in volleyball. Minor Games and basic rules. Minor games are small sided games that help you practice skills learnt in volleyball while applying the rules of the games. Safety precaution. Never fist hit the ball as you could hit someone s face. Do not swing on the post. Do not go under the net, always walk around the nets. Do not throw the ball over the net, roll it under the net. Diagram of human figures playing Volley. Student activities monitored and instructed by the teacher Draw human figures of players serving or volleying a ball. Serve the ball using the jump serve over a net. Perform the volley for skill acquisition,Play. Swimming. Breast stroke in swimming. |
Perform the volley for skill acquisition,Play. Swimming. Breast stroke in swimming. Breast stroke is a stroke in which the arms are pushed forward and then swept back in a circular movement, while the legs are tucked in towards the bod and then kicked out in a sideways and backward movement. Description of the prone body position. The body lies in a horizontal position in the water with the head in line, with the spine and the face in the water, eyes looking down. The arms are extended forward and the legs are held close together, toes pointed. The breast stroke begins with a forceful push from the poolside in order to generate some propulsion, which results in a glide. The body moves in a smooth, continuous and effortless motion while lying on the stomach and glides in a horizontal position. From the glide phase, the propulsive arm action takes place and then the leg action as the arms recover. The body is then in a streamlined glide for a short moment in each before the next stroke begins. Glide. For effective gliding in the water, the body should be well streamlined. This can be affected by the underwater recovery movements, as the propulsive force remain still and streamlined. For example, as the legs kick to provide propulsion, the arms should be extended forward to create the ideal streamlined body position at the front. Similarly, as the arms pull around, the legs should be in the glide phase to create the same streamlined body position at the back. Gliding helps to make the breast stroke movement smooth and reduces the effort required by the arms to move forward, resulting on a more efficient swimming technique. It is important to cultivate a glide so that the proper sequence of arms-breath-leg - glide can be established. The breast stroke starts with the arm pull, breathe, then the kick and finally the glide in a streamlined position. Prone body postion and glide. Stand waist-deep in water, with knees bent or feet flat against the side of the pool. You can hold onto the side of the pool with one hand for support. Breathe in and put your face in the water. Puch off the wall and glide to the prone body position. Lie flat, head facing down with your body in line with the water surface. Keep your face down and arms extended forward. Your eyes should look downwards and slightly forward to avoid straining the neck. Keep your shoulders, hips and legs horizontal as possible, and keep your hips as close as possible to the surface. |
Keep your face down and arms extended forward. Your eyes should look downwards and slightly forward to avoid straining the neck. Keep your shoulders, hips and legs horizontal as possible, and keep your hips as close as possible to the surface. Do not let your hips drop in the water. Stretch your legs behind with toes pointed but slope your body slightly to allow the legs to stay beneath the water. Keep your neck and shoulders as relaxed as possible to aid the arm action and reduce strain. Keep your body straight and streamlined to make swimming easier and enhance speed. The head movement should be kept to a minimum, and the shoulder should remain level throughout the stroke. Arm action. The arm pull technique is needed to assist the leg movement and also to keep the breast stroke streamlined and efficient. Cath phase. Begin with the glide position, arms extended out in front of you, fingers and hands together, palms facing downwards. Pitch your hand outwards and downwards to an angle of about 45 degrees at the start of the catch phase. Pull your arms outwards and downwards until they are appropriately shoulderwidth apart. Your elbows should begin to bend, and your shoulders to roll inwards at the end of the catch phase. Propulsive phase. Sweep your arms downwards and inwards, and let the hands pull to their deepest point. The elbows bend to 900 and remain high. At the end of the down sweep, your hands, your hands should sweep inwards and slightly upwards. The elbow should tuck into the side as you pull your hand inwards towards the chest and the chin. Recovery phase. Your hands should recover by stretching forward in a streamlined position. They should recover under, on, or over the water surface ready to restart the arm action. Leg action. The legs are the powerhouse of the breast stroke, and the full leg kick should be a simultaneous and flowing action, resulting in a powerful boost that propels the whole stroke. Start with your legs straight and together. Bend your knees and bring the heels towards your seat with the sole of the feet facing outwards for the frog kick . Sweep the legs outwards and download in a flowing circular path. The heels and soles of your feet should drive around and back to provide power and propulsion to the stroke. Squeeze legs together to come back together to the starting streamlined position with the toes pointed. Breathing action. -. Breast stroke breathing occurs naturally as the breast technique has a body lift, which gives the ideal breathing point for each stroke. |
Squeeze legs together to come back together to the starting streamlined position with the toes pointed. Breathing action. -. Breast stroke breathing occurs naturally as the breast technique has a body lift, which gives the ideal breathing point for each stroke. Breathing in takes place every time your arms pull back to all the body to lift and the head to rise. Lift your shoulders to bring your face out of the water to breath. Don t raise your head, let the head naturally rise with the shoulders so your chin is resting just above the water. Inhale through your mouth before letting your shoulder drop as you sweep with your arms. Breath out as your legs kick back and extend your arms forward. The head returns to the water to exhale as the arms stretch forward to begin their recovery phase. Timing. A well-executed breast stroke timing sequence is key to achieving a smooth and efficient swimming stroke as you will effortlessly glide through the water. Try to time your arm action and leg kick so there is always something propelling you through water. The arms will be propulsive while the legs recover and the legs propulsive while the arms recover. To coordinate the leg kick, the arm strokes, and the breathing, think of the phrase pull, breath, kick, glide As your arms complete the power phase, take a breath, and then draw your feet toward the hips. When your arms are about halfway through the recovery phase, begin the leg action. Time the arm strokes and kick so that the arms and legs are both at their full length as the kick finishes. Rest in the phase position as your body glides through the water. Then the glide begins to slow down, it is time to start another stroke. Water treading. To maintain an upright position in deep water by moving the feet with a walking movement and the hands with a downward circular motion African folk songs are classified according to the following. Their origin. Occasion. Function. Type. A. Community of origin. African songs can be classified according to their origin. The origin in this case means the community they are drawn from. Therefore, songs belong to a particular community such as luhya, luo, gikuyu, gusii. Kuria, Kamba, iteso, giriama, digo, Pokomo, gabra, nandi, Kipsigis, Marakwet, pokot, turkana and taita. |
The origin in this case means the community they are drawn from. Therefore, songs belong to a particular community such as luhya, luo, gikuyu, gusii. Kuria, Kamba, iteso, giriama, digo, Pokomo, gabra, nandi, Kipsigis, Marakwet, pokot, turkana and taita. These songs are passed on by oral tradition from one generation to the next. The music is related to the culture of a particular or region. For example, you can identify the culture od a particular community or region by their dressing, language used, musical instruments, props, body adornments, ornaments, body movements, vocal embellishments used to enrich music, style of sing and tone among others. B. Occasion. African folk songs can also be categorized according to occasions they are performed. For example:naming folk songs. Initiation folk songs. Marriage folk songs. War folk songs. Funeral folk songs. Worship folk songs among others. C. Function. Folk songs belong to the people with a common culture. Therefore, folk songs keep people connected to their cultures and heritage. They give history of the people and their culture. Folk songs usually pass important information, stories, messages and history from generation to generation. Folk songs are used to express emotions. They narrate stories of joy and sorrows in the simplest way. Folk songs are used as a means of unifying the community members when they come together to sing. This also creates positive outcomes or consequences if they do not watch their actions and intention. Some of the folk songs are purely for entertainment, enjoyment by performers and the audience. D. Type. African folk songs can also be classified according to the type such as:Lullabies. Dirges. Love songs. Protest songs. Children s songs among others. Creating improvised implements to use in performance of Folkdance songs. Folk dances are performed by different participants who plays different roles as follows:Soloist-person who leads the rest of the participants in singing the melodies and dancing during the performance of the dance. Response group-they provide an answer to the soloist during the dance. Instrumentalist-plays instruments to accompany a dance. Dancers- makes dance movements and formation in response to the songs and instruments. |
Response group-they provide an answer to the soloist during the dance. Instrumentalist-plays instruments to accompany a dance. Dancers- makes dance movements and formation in response to the songs and instruments. Along side the participants, folk song dances also require other implements so help in identifying different cultures and diversities such as costumes, ornaments, body adornments, body make ups, props etc. During a folk-dance performance, participants wear specially designed cloths, hides or skins called costumes. Costumes are made using locally available materials such as sisal fibre, sisal string, comb and pair of scissors. The participants also decorate their bodies using different paints to make patterns. This is called body adornments. Body adornments are made using the following materials:Water paints. Chalk powder. Objects or items of different shapes and sizes like bottle tops, water bottles, combs, folk and other design shaped objects. Dancers also use beads, necklaces, bracelets and anklets during the dance performance. These are called ornaments. Body ornaments are made using locally available materials such as:Pieces of thread. Pair of scissors. Grains such as beans, maize soaked in water to make them soft A needle. The costumes, body adornments and ornaments vary from one community to another expressing different cultures in Kenya. The following are social importance of songs to the pastoralists:Songs they sing accompany their journey to facilitate movements. They songs are sung during their herding sessions to take away boredom. They are a source of unity and collaboration among the community members. They educate on the importance of the animals and other resources. They tell the history of the community. General uses of Folk songs. As a source of entertainment. As a source of cultural and national unity. In teaching subjects such as history, literature and geography among others. To educate. To rebuke. To advise. To worship. To encourage. To promote culture. To give moral teachings. Economic importance of the songs. Economic importance or economic significance of something refers to the monetary or trade value of an item. Songs have economic importance to individuals, the cultural community and even the country. General these are the economic importance of folk songs:Performers can earn money or income by performing folk songs at private parties. Folk song musicians also earn a living by offering singing lessons. Some musicians are employed as singers or trainers of folk songs by some institutions such as cultural centres, universities and schools among others. |
General these are the economic importance of folk songs:Performers can earn money or income by performing folk songs at private parties. Folk song musicians also earn a living by offering singing lessons. Some musicians are employed as singers or trainers of folk songs by some institutions such as cultural centres, universities and schools among others. Folk songs musicians also earn the country foreign exchange when they perform outside the country. Folk musicians also earn the country revenue when they pay taxes. Folk musicians can be independent artists by recording and selling their music. |
1. What is the importance of heat transfer methods like conduction, convection, and radiation in cooking foods? -. These methods are crucial for cooking food evenly and efficiently, each using different means to transfer heat into food, affecting the texture, flavor, and nutritional value. 2. How does the method of heat transfer affect the nutritional content of foods? -. Different methods can either preserve nutrients or lead to their loss; for example, slow cooking at lower temperatures generally preserves nutrients better than high-temperature methods. 3. What are simple sugars, and can you provide examples? -. Simple sugars are basic forms of carbohydrates that digest quickly, such as glucose and fructose, found in fruits and sweetened foods. 4. Explain the concept of double sugars with examples. -. Double sugars, or disaccharides, consist of two linked sugar molecules, like sucrose table sugar and lactose milk sugar . 5. What are starchy foods, and why are they important in the diet? -. Starchy foods like potatoes, rice, and bread are primary sources of energy and provide essential nutrients, including fiber. 6. Describe the effect of dry heat on carbohydrate-rich foods. -. Dry heat methods like baking or roasting can cause caramelization and dextrinization, enhancing flavor and changing texture. 7. How does moist heat affect carbohydrate-rich foods like rice? -. Moist heat, such as boiling or steaming, gelatinizes starch, making grains like rice softer and easier to digest. 8. What are the nutritional changes that occur when carbohydrates are exposed to heat? -. Heat can break down vitamins and alter starches and sugars, affecting their digestibility and caloric content. 9. How can you conserve food nutrients when cooking carbohydrate-rich foods? -. Methods include using minimal water for boiling, avoiding overcooking, and incorporating steaming to preserve vitamins and minerals. 10. Why is it important to observe safety measures when cooking carbohydrate-rich foods? -. Ensuring safety, like avoiding cross-contamination and cooking foods to safe temperatures, prevents foodborne illnesses. 11. What are the requirements for boiling carbohydrates like porridge? -. Adequate water to cover the food, consistent heat to maintain a steady boil, and occasional stirring to prevent sticking. 12. Outline the steps to follow when cooking porridge to ensure it is well-cooked. -. Measure the water and porridge mix, bring to a boil, then simmer while stirring frequently until the mixture thickens and cooks thoroughly. 13. |
Outline the steps to follow when cooking porridge to ensure it is well-cooked. -. Measure the water and porridge mix, bring to a boil, then simmer while stirring frequently until the mixture thickens and cooks thoroughly. 13. What are the effects of heat on food like maize when grilling? -. Grilling maize can develop flavor through caramelization and may reduce some nutrient levels like vitamin C. 14. What are the methods of heat transfer applicable when grilling foods? -. Radiation from the heat source cooks the food, creating distinctive charred flavors and textures. 15. Why is it necessary to understand different cooking methods for carbohydrate-rich foods? -. Different methods can affect the taste, texture, nutritional value, and overall digestibility of carbohydrate-rich foods. 16. What are the factors to consider during the table setting in meal presentation? -. Consider the occasion, the number of guests, the menu items, and the cultural context of the meal. 17. How do you properly set a table for meal presentation? -. Arrange tableware according to the sequence of courses, with utensils placed in the order of use from outside in. 18. What are the requirements for table setting when serving meals? -. Clean and appropriate tableware, a clean tablecloth, and utensils arranged neatly and functionally for each diner. 19. Explain the guidelines for planning meals for special occasions. -. Include a variety of foods to cater to different dietary needs, ensure the menu fits the event's formality, and prepare foods that can be easily served and eaten at the event. 20. How should you prepare carbohydrate-rich foods to maximize nutrient retention? -. Use cooking methods that require less water and shorter cooking times, such as steaming or microwaving, to preserve water-soluble nutrients. 21. What is meal presentation and why is it important? -. Meal presentation involves arranging food attractively on the plate, enhancing the dining experience by appealing to the senses. 22. Discuss the importance of meal planning in nutritional balance. -. Meal planning helps ensure that all food groups and essential nutrients are appropriately included across meals, promoting a balanced diet. 23. How does food presentation affect the perception of a meal's quality? -. Attractive food presentation can enhance perceived taste and satisfaction, makingthe meal more enjoyable. 24. Describe how to ensure food safety in meal preparation. -. Follow hygiene practices like washing hands and surfaces, cook foods to safe temperatures, and store foods properly before and after preparation. 25. |
Describe how to ensure food safety in meal preparation.- Follow hygiene practices like washing hands and surfaces, cook foods to safe temperatures, and store foods properly before and after preparation.25.What are the health considerations when preparing meals for individuals with allergies?- Avoid cross-contamination, use allergen-free ingredients, and clearly communicate menu contents to guests.26.How do cultural preferences impact meal planning and food preparation?- Cultural preferences dictate the selection of ingredients, cooking methods, and how food is served and eaten, reflecting community traditions and values.27.Why is dietary diversity important in meal planning?- Dietary diversity ensures a range of nutrients are consumed, supporting overall health and reducing the risk of nutrient deficiencies.28.How can one incorporate seasonal produce into meal planning?- Use seasonal fruits and vegetables as they are fresher, more flavorful, and often more affordable, enhancing the nutritional quality of meals.29. What techniques can be used to enhance the flavor of meals without adding excessive salt? -. Use herbs, spices, citrus, and vinegar to add flavor depth and complexity without relying heavily on salt.30.Explain the role of aesthetics in food preparation and presentation.- Aesthetics in food preparation enhances the dining experience, making meals more appealing and enjoyable through visual presentation techniques. |
Nutrition security Nutrition security means consistent access, availability, and affordability of foods and beverages that promote well-being, prevent disease, and, if needed, treat disease, particularly among racial ethnic minority, lower income, and rural and remote populations including Tribal communities and Insular areas. Kitchen garden Kitchen garden is the growing of fruits and vegetables at the backyard of house by using kitchen waste water. Otherwise called as Home garden or Nutrition garden or Kitchen gardening or Vegetable gardening. Advantages of Kitchen garden : Supply fresh fruits and vegetables high in nutritive value.tyReasons For Kitchen Garden 1.Clean air: Your balcony, terrace or courtyard can become your green lungs amidst the dust and dirt around you. The more you plant, the more fresh air with good oxygen you get. 2.Herbs detox: Herbs are quite essential in our food which helps in detoxifying and healing properties in our body. Few herbs and plants that are easy to maintain in kitchen garden are: lemon grass, coriander, cilantro, mint, tulsi, celery, fenugreek, spinach. 3.Aesthetics matter: Plants make your home greener, more peaceful, uplift your mood and make you feel more positive. 4. Stay grounded: Modernisation uproots us from the mother earth. As the ancient sages say, our body is made of five components that includes earth, water, ether, air and fire. So it is very important to stay connected with earth. 5.Organic vegetables: Growing own fruits and vegetables can offer the opportunity to reduce the amount of pesticides that are used commercially, making them healthier6. Compost your waste: Plant fertilisers, made by decaying organic materials, like kitchen wastes, will help your plants grow faster, while helping you to get rid of your garbage 7.Cheap and easy: Kitchen gardens can help you grow things at home and bring down the need to buy from the market, hence, save money on food purchase. 8.Recycle and use: You can recycle vegetables in your kitchen garden. For example, you can collect your unwanted vegetables and make compost for it and use it again for compost, growing new vegetables and herbs. 10. Health friendly: It is a great way to engage the whole family in physical activity. Gardening is known to reduce levels of stress hormones. Crops for kitchen garden Seeds or seedlings. |
Health friendly: It is a great way to engage the whole family in physical activity. Gardening is known to reduce levels of stress hormones. Crops for kitchen garden Seeds or seedlings. Common foods to grow include leafy greens such as spinach, leafy onions, sukumawiki, lettuce, tomatoes, terere, strawberries, herbs-mint, dhania, broccoli, cauliflower and even potatoes. Types of kitchen gardens. 1. Hanging kitchen gardens in Kenya Hanging kitchen gardens are perfect for small spaces or if you want to save on countertop space. Herbs and leafy greens do well in hanging gardens, as they don t need a lot of root room to grow. Just make sure to water your plants regularly so the soil doesn t dry out. Advantages: Offers a unique decoration for your kitchen Gives you the opportunity to grow your own herbs and spices Saves counter space Provides fresh air Can be a fun project for the whole family Cons: Requires regular watering May attract pests Must be positioned in a sunny spot Limited growing space Requires some initial set-up 2. Container kitchen gardens in KenyaContainer gardening is another great option for small spaces or those who want to move their garden around easily. You can use just about any type of container from pots and barrels to old wheelbarrows as long as it has drainage holes. Be sure to choose plants that are well-suited for container gardening, such as tomatoes, strawberries, and peppers. Advantages: They are less expensive than in-ground gardens. Are easier to set up and take care of. They can be placed almost anywhere, including on patios, decks, and balconies. Can help to save water since the soil is not exposed to the elements. They can produce a lot of food in a small space. Cons: The plants may not get enough sunlight if they are placed in a shaded area. The roots may become entangled if the containers are placed too close together. The plants may become stressed if they do not have enough room to grow. The soil may need to be replaced more often than in an inground garden. There is a greater risk of pests and diseases with container gardens than with in-ground gardens in Kenya. 3. Raised bed kitchen gardens in Kenya Raised beds are a great way to grow a variety of vegetables, herbs, and fruits. |
There is a greater risk of pests and diseases with container gardens than with in-ground gardens in Kenya. 3. Raised bed kitchen gardens in Kenya Raised beds are a great way to grow a variety of vegetables, herbs, and fruits. They re perfect for small spaces or areas with poor soil quality. Just be sure the bed is at least 6 inches deep so roots have enough room to grow. Also, make sure the sides of the bed are tall enough so you can reach in without stepping on your plants this will help prevent compacting the soil . Advantages: They take up less space than traditional gardens, so they re perfect for small yards or patios. The soil in raised beds warms up faster in the spring, so you can plant earlier. You can control the quality of the soil more easily, so your plants will be healthy and thrive. Because they re elevated, raised beds are easier on your back and knees when you re gardening. They re also more attractive than traditional gardens, so they can enhance the curb appeal of your home. Cons: They can be more expensive to set up than traditional gardens, since you ll need to buy lumber and soil. They require more watering than traditional gardens, since the soil tends to dry out quicker. The soil in raised beds can also get too hot in the summer, which can damage plants or hinder their growth. 4. In-ground kitchen gardens in KenyaIn-ground gardens are the most traditional type of kitchen garden. If you have the space, an in-ground garden is a great way to grow a large variety of plants. Be sure to choose soil that s well-suited for your climate and plant choices. For example, if you live in an area with hot summers, opt for sandy soil that will drain well and won t bake your plants in the heat. Advantages: You can design them to fit your specific needs and the space you have available. They can include features such as built-in irrigation and drainage systems. You can choose from a wide variety of plants to grow. They can be beautiful and add curb appeal to your home. They can increase your property value. Cons: They require more initial investment than above-ground gardens. They require more maintenance than above-ground gardens. They are subject to soil erosion and compaction if not properly cared for. |
Cons: They require more initial investment than above-ground gardens. They require more maintenance than above-ground gardens. They are subject to soil erosion and compaction if not properly cared for. They can attract pests and diseases if not properly managed. They may require special permits or permission from your homeowner s association or local government. 5. Indoor kitchen gardens: If you don t have any outdoor space or if you want to extend your growing season, consider starting an indoor kitchen garden in Kenya. Many vegetables, herbs, and fruits can be grown indoors with the right setup. Just make sure you choose a sunny spot in your home and use to grow lights if needed. ADVANTAGES: No pests or bad weather to ruin your plants! You can grow a wide variety of plants indoors. Indoor gardens are low maintenance. They can add color and life to any room. You can control the environment, making it ideal for growing delicate plants. CONS: Not all plants will do well indoors. You need adequate lighting to grow indoor plants successfully. Some plants require a lot of space, so they may not be suitable for small homes or apartments. Indoor gardens can be expensive to set up, especially if you need to buy special equipment like grow lights. If you re not careful, your indoor garden can become a breeding ground for mould and mildew. 6. Potager kitchen gardenA Potager is a type of kitchen garden that s designed for both beauty and function. These gardens are typically laid out in a symmetrical or geometric pattern and often feature ornamental plants as well as edible ones. If you have the space, consider adding a small pond or fountain to your potager this will not only add to its visual appeal but also provide a home for beneficial insects like dragonflies and frogs. PRO: A potager kitchen garden is a great way to have fresh herbs and vegetables right at your fingertips. They are also visually appealing and can add a touch of beauty to your yard or patio. They are easy to care for and don t require a lot of space. Potager kitchen gardens in Kenya are also great for entertaining since they can be used as a conversation piece. They are also a great way to get kids interested in gardening and eating healthy. |
They are easy to care for and don t require a lot of space. Potager kitchen gardens in Kenya are also great for entertaining since they can be used as a conversation piece. They are also a great way to get kids interested in gardening and eating healthy. CONS: The biggest con of having a potager kitchen garden is that it can be costly to set up. They also require regular maintenance in order to keep them looking their best. If you have pets, you ll need to be careful that they don t dig in the garden and disturb the plants. Bad weather can also damage your potager kitchen garden 7. Permaculture kitchen garden Permaculture is all about working with nature instead of against it. In a permaculture kitchen garden in Kenya, plants are grown close together so they can support each other for example, tall plants may provide shade for shorter ones . Companion planting is often used in permaculture gardens, which means different types of plants are planted next to each other to deter pests or improve yields. For example, garlic repels many common insect pests so it could be planted near tomatoes or cabbage just make sure you don t plant too much of any one thing as this can throw off the balance . Advantages: A permaculture kitchen garden can provide a family with most of their fresh produce needs year-round. These types of gardens in Kenya are designed to be lowmaintenance, meaning less work for the gardener. The use of companion planting and other natural methods means that permaculture gardens are typically more pest and disease resistant than conventional gardens. Water usage is often much lower in permaculture gardens due to the use of mulch and other water-conserving techniques. Permaculture gardens can be beautiful, incorporating edible plants into the design. Cons: Permaculture gardens can take some time to establish, especially if you are starting from scratch. You may need to learn some new gardening techniques if you want to start a permaculture kitchen garden. You may need to make some changes to your cooking habits if you want to make the most of your permaculture garden. 8. Vertical kitchen garden in KenyaA vertical garden is a great way to save space and grow a variety of plants. There are many different ways to create a vertical garden, from trellises and lattices to hanging baskets and shelves. |
8. Vertical kitchen garden in KenyaA vertical garden is a great way to save space and grow a variety of plants. There are many different ways to create a vertical garden, from trellises and lattices to hanging baskets and shelves. Just make sure you choose plants that are appropriate for the type of support you re using. For example, vines will need something to climb on while smaller herbs or leafy greens can be grown in shallow containers without much root room. Advantages: You can grow a lot of plants in a small space. The plants get more sun than they would if they were on the ground. You can control the environment around the plants more easily. It looks cool. You can use the water that drains from the plants to water other plants. Cons: You have to water the plants more often because they dry out faster. The plants are more susceptible to pests and diseases. If you don t have a good support system, the plants can fall over and die. It can be difficult to harvest the plants. You have to be careful not to overwater the plants, or they will rot. 9. Hydroponic kitchen garden in Kenya Hydroponics is a method of growing plants in water instead of soil. This can be done with just about any type of plant, but it s especially well-suited for leafy greens like lettuce and spinach which don t need deep roots . Hydroponic gardens in Kenya are often used indoors since they take up very little space and can be controlled more easily than outdoor gardens for example, you can adjust the temperature and humidity levels . Advantages: They are very space efficient since the plants are grown vertically in a small footprint. They can be set up indoors, so even if you live in an apartment you can still grow your own food. Hydroponically grown plants tend to be more nutrient-dense than soil-grown plants, so you get more bang for your buck, nutritionally speaking. Since hydroponic gardens use less water than traditional gardens, they are more environmentally friendly. They are also less likely to attract pests and diseases since the plants are not growing in dirt. Cons: There are some drawbacks to hydroponic kitchen gardens as well: They can be expensive to set up, depending on the size and complexity of the system you choose. |
Since hydroponic gardens use less water than traditional gardens, they are more environmentally friendly. They are also less likely to attract pests and diseases since the plants are not growing in dirt. Cons: There are some drawbacks to hydroponic kitchen gardens as well: They can be expensive to set up, depending on the size and complexity of the system you choose. They require some basic knowledge of plant nutrition and physiology in order to be successful. If not properly maintained, hydroponic gardens can become breeding grounds for mould and other pathogens. 10. Staircase kitchen garden in KenyaA staircase garden is a type of vertical garden that s perfect for small spaces. These gardens are typically built on staircases or other types of raised platforms. Plants are grown in shallow containers, which can be placed close together to save space. Be sure to choose plants that don t need deep roots, such as herbs and leafy greens. ADVANTAGES: A staircase kitchen garden is a great way to make use of vertical space. Staircase kitchen gardens in Kenya are perfect for small spaces. They are easy to build and maintain. Staircase kitchen gardens are aesthetically pleasing. They can be used to grow a variety of plants and vegetables. CONS: Staircase kitchen gardens can be expensive to build. They require a lot of maintenance. The stairs can be dangerous if they are not built properly. They can be difficult to access for people with disabilities. Pests and diseases can easily spread in a staircase kitchen garden. 11. Simple drip garden12. Tyre kitchen garden 13. Multi storey kitchen garden14. Food robe kitchen garden15, Sack kitchen garden16. Wick irrigation kitchen garden17. Moist bed kitchen garden 18. Aquaponics kitchen garden19. Yard small kitchen garden20. Cone kitchen garden 21. Micro-kitchen gardenStarting a kitchen garden To start a kitchen garden in Kenya, you will need to find a sunny spot in your yard and prepare the soil. You can then choose what vegetables or herbs you would like to grow. Once you have chosen your plants, you will need to plant them in the prepared soil and water them regularly. Step 1: Find a sunny spot in your yard and prepare the soil. |
You can then choose what vegetables or herbs you would like to grow. Once you have chosen your plants, you will need to plant them in the prepared soil and water them regularly. Step 1: Find a sunny spot in your yard and prepare the soil. You will need to find an area in your yard that gets a lot of sunlight. Then, you will need to till the soil and add some compost or manure. Step 2: Choose what vegetables or herbs you would like to grow. Decide which plants you want to grow in your garden. Some popular choices include tomatoes, peppers, carrots, and lettuce. You can also choose to grow herbs such as basil or oregano. Step 3: Plant your seeds or seedlings. Plant the seeds or seedlings in the prepared soil and water them regularly. You will need to keep an eye on your plants and make sure they have enough water and sunlight. Harvest your vegetables or herbs when they are ready! What are the benefits of growing a kitchen garden in Kenya? There are many benefits to growing a kitchen garden. Some of these include: Getting fresh fruits, vegetables, and herbs that are pesticide-free Saving money by not having to buy produce at the grocery store Having a relaxing hobby that gets you outside in the fresh air Improving your physical health by getting exercise while gardening Boosting your mental health by reducing stressWhat are the best types of vegetables and fruits to grow in a kitchen garden? FOOD AND NUTRITION COOKING STARCHY CARBOHYDRATES https: www.youtube.com watch?v r9ZrT5vtVv0 Why is food cooked? Food may be contaminated with harmful microbes that can cause disease. The high temperature involved in cooking brings about chemical changes in food and kills these microbes. Cooking also makes food easier to digest and improves the food s appearance, texture and flavour. These are a few examples of ways to cook food, and notice that all of these methods involve heating the food to a high temperature: Baking Boiling Steaming Grilling FryingHeat transfer when cooking During cooking, heat is transferred from the source of heat to the food through conduction e.g. grilling steak on a grilling pan sitting on a stove , convection e.g. running cold water over frozen food to speed up thawing process and or radiation roasting marshmallow over fire . |
These are a few examples of ways to cook food, and notice that all of these methods involve heating the food to a high temperature: Baking Boiling Steaming Grilling FryingHeat transfer when cooking During cooking, heat is transferred from the source of heat to the food through conduction e.g. grilling steak on a grilling pan sitting on a stove , convection e.g. running cold water over frozen food to speed up thawing process and or radiation roasting marshmallow over fire . Check out the resources below to learn more why food is cooked and how heat is transferred conduction, convection and radiation . We know that cooking gets the food hot. It makes what is otherwise unsafe to be consumed raw, safe to eat. In order to do so, food has to be put in an oven or on the stovetop and be subjected to a source of heat. When the heat transfers from something that is hot, such as a flame or a pot of boiling water, to the food, this process is called heat transfer. There are three types of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. What distinguishes them is the manner in which the heat in transferred. Without a medium, heat cannot be transferred. The different ways that heat transfer can be accomplished determines how the food is cooked and what the end result will be. Convection Heat is transferred via liquids and gases. Fast moving molecules of the convection medium collide with the slower molecules in the food and heat them up. As warmer areas of a liquid or gas rise to cooler areas, it forms a continuous circulation pattern. These convection currents can be observed when water is boiling in a pot. Convection that takes place through air occurs in a convection oven. Compared to traditional ovens, ovens using convection are usually the better choice as it has fas to circulate the air around. On the contrary, traditional ovens mostly rely on radiation off the oven walls and is therefore a more eficient method of heat transfer. It heats food faster and reduces cooking times by at least 25 . Below are some examples of convection heating. Baking and roasting Boiling and steaming Running cold water over frozen food, which transfers heat into the food to thaw it more quickly Radiation Heat is transferrred via electromagnetical waves. |
Fibre-rich vegetables. ... Beans. How Heat Affects Foods and Their Flavors Posted on June 8, 2021 by MadgeTech MarketingStarches Starch is the most common carbohydrate in human diets, whether it s natural or is added to foods. As heat is applied to starch it absorbs moisture from its surroundings and becomes softer. This process is called gelatinization and is the reason pasta and rice double in size and soften when cooked. Gelatinization begins at 150 F. EFFECT OF OVERHEATING IN FOODNandhini Ramanathan Nandhini Ramanathan I am a foodtechnology student Leadership self-motivated team work Published Aug 30, 2023 Follow HOW HEAT AFFECTS FOOD During the heating process or the cooking of food, a complex series of physical and chemical changes take place. These changes vary according to the heating method and time exposed, but may ultimately include changes in nutrient composition, fat content, moisture, flavor, smell, texture, and color. The longer the food is heated, and the higher the temperature, the greater the nutrient loss. When we look at commercially prepared dog food or even home cooking as preparation, the heat applied during the extrusion process, grilling or microwaving contribute to the reduction in nutritional value most of the time. Graph Protein goes through certain physical and chemical changes when it is heated and cooked pg 88, SACN When the proteins in food are heated, they coagulate. An example of this can be observed in the proteins found in eggs which become denatured and coagulate during the heating process. The heat disrupts the hydrogen bonds and non-polar hydrophobic interactions. The bonds are disrupted by increasing the kinetic energy and causing the molecules to vibrate so rapidly and violently. Researchers have observed that single amino acid digestibilities, especially for aspartic acid and cysteine, which are known to be heat-sensitive, revealed a disproportionate reduction when tested in the commercially processed food compared to when tested alone. Protein that is exposed to hot temperatures, shrinks and loses moisture. This usually occurs at temperatures between 160 and 185 degrees Fahrenheit. When animal sources of protein are cooked slowly, any connective tissues present in the meat are likely to dissolve. |
Protein that is exposed to hot temperatures, shrinks and loses moisture. This usually occurs at temperatures between 160 and 185 degrees Fahrenheit. When animal sources of protein are cooked slowly, any connective tissues present in the meat are likely to dissolve. Heat does not destroy the protein in food, but it may reduce the overall content Dextrinisation: The reaction of dry heat on the surface of food which changes starch to dextrin, e.g. toast. Gelatinisation: The process of thickening which takes place when a mixture of starch and liquid is heated. Ways to retain nutrients while cooking Prolonged exposure to water, heat, and light may cause some foods to lose nutritional value like vitamin B1, vitamin C and polyphenols. Here are simple tips which will help you retain nutrients while enjoying your favourite foods. Have a look! 02 11Rule for washingAlways wash the vegetables first and then chop them. Chopping first and then washing takes away the nutrition of your food. 03 11Don t chop small Do not chop vegetables into very small pieces as most of the nutients will be destroyed when they come in contact with air. The best way is to chop the vegetable into larger chunks. 04 11Water usageCook vegetables in smaller amounts of water. Boiling in too much water damages the nutrients. It is best advised to cook the veggies covered on low flame in their own water. 05 11Heating your foodAvoid re-heating of food as it destroys the chemical structure of nutrients and vitamins. 06 11Loss of mineralsAs soon as you chop veggies, you should cook them as the vitamins and minerals are secure in their cells as once they are exposed to light and air, the nutrient contents can be destroyed. 07 11Excess waterDo not throw away the excess water drained after boiling rice or vegetables. The excess water is loaded with nutrients and it can used in preparing gravies, kneading dough or serve it as a refreshment drink. 08 11Root rulesRoot vegetables like potato, ginger, turnip and carrots should be boiled with skins and the peel should be removed after boiling. Boiling with peels helps the nutrients to migrate to the centre of the vegetables which helps in better retention of its nutrients. 09 11Baking sodaDon't use baking soda when cooking vegetables. Although it helps in retaining color of the vegetables as well as speeds up the cooking process, but destroys the vitamin C content of the veggies. |
Boiling with peels helps the nutrients to migrate to the centre of the vegetables which helps in better retention of its nutrients. 09 11Baking sodaDon't use baking soda when cooking vegetables. Although it helps in retaining color of the vegetables as well as speeds up the cooking process, but destroys the vitamin C content of the veggies. 10 11Fresh food Eating fresh food is an good idea because the depletion of nutrients could be slowed down. Another reason is the quicker you consume it, the more nutrients can be gained from it. Try eating within 4 hours of cooking your food Check for aflatoGuidelines to minimize nutrient losses during preparation 1. Choose fresh foods that are not over-ripe, bruised, cut or scraped. 2. Peel thinly or cook inn their skins,jacket 3. Aim at golden brown whenncooking indry heat. 4. Use enough water to cover 5. Cooknthem for the appropriate time 6. Blend starchy flavours with cold water before cooking 7. Stirbthoroughly and continuously over low heat 8. Wash vegetables before cutting. Soaking or washing time should be reduced to minimize nutrient loss. 9. Cut vegetables into big pieces so that exposure of vitamins to water is less while cooking and washing. 10. Use a vegetable peeler to remove skin as it helps remove only a very thin layer of skin. 11. Use minimum water for cooking. Bring the water to boil and add the vegetables to cook. 12. Cook vegetables by steaming and pressure cooking to conserve nutrients. 13. Cover the vessel with a lid while cooking as it hastens cooking. 14. Vegetables salads should be prepared just before serving to conserve nutrients. 15. Use acids such as lime juice or vinegar to salads as it prevents loss of Vitamin C since Vitamin C is stable in acid. 16. Store foods in a cool, dark place. 17. When boiling, add the raw food to the boiling water rather than to cold water. 18. Steaming is a way of cooking with a minimum amount of water. 19. If possible use the cooking water for gravies, sauces or soups as it is a source of watersoluble vitamins and elements minerals . 20. Cook for the minimum time necessary to make the food palatable and safe. 21. Do not use baking soda to help keep the green colour of vegetables, as this increases loss of vitamin C. 22. Do not use copper utensils. |
Do not use baking soda to help keep the green colour of vegetables, as this increases loss of vitamin C. 22. Do not use copper utensils. Copper helps to destroy vitamin C. 23. Soak whole pulses overnight and other dhals for one hour before cooking. Safety in preparing and cooking starchy carbohydrates Choose foods processed for safety. ... Cook food thoroughly. ... Don t cook root tubers when they have any green, damaged ir sprouting bits Check aflatoxins in cereals or grains before cooking Eat cooked foods immediately. ... Store cooked foods carefully. ... Reheat cooked foods thoroughly. ... Avoid contact between raw foods and cooked foods. ... Wash hands repeatedly. ... Keep all kitchen surfaces meticulously clean. Explain four factors to consider when setting a table. The number of people taking the meal as this determine the number of covers to be laid. The meal to be served as this ensures that all the tableware is available. Number of courses dishes as this enables one to set the cover for the courses. Tableware as this determines their placement. Type of meal service as each type has its own way of laying the table. The type of dinners determines the way of table setting e.g. ages, special needs. A center piece should be available for beauty enhance appetite. Provide adequate space to avoid overcrowding for comfort. Ensure the room is clean for hygiene. The table cloth should be well laundered for neatness. Table appointments should be clean for hygiene enhance appetite Essentials for table settingplace setting for one person is a "cover.". 2. The plate, flatware and placemat should be 1-1 2" from the table edge to allow for an attractive table and safety. 3. Flatware is placed in order of use from the outside in. 4. The napkin should be folded in a square or rectangle and placed so that the open edge is toward the plate. 5. Allow 20-24 inches for each place setting or cover. 6. Use only flatware and plates that are necessary for the specific meal. 7. Table cloth - the center fold should fall exactly on the center line of the table. The cloth then drops evenly on both sides. The cloth should hang over the table no more than 10-12 inches. |
Table cloth - the center fold should fall exactly on the center line of the table. The cloth then drops evenly on both sides. The cloth should hang over the table no more than 10-12 inches. 8. Tables should be set according to these principles; art, common sense, concern for comfort for those eating and courtesy. 9. A good centerpiece is: - in scale with the table - is low so people opposite each other can see across the table - can be placed anywhere on table as long as table looks well-balanced - can be part of the meal salad, fruit bowl, dessert, etc. Skip to document University High School Books Sign in My Library Information AI Chat Mealsfor special groups and occasion Used in meal planning Course Nutrition and dietetics DND 2204 36 documents University Thika School of Medical and Health Sciences More info Uploaded by: Anonymous Student Thika School of Medical and Health Sciences Comments Please sign in or register to post comments. Students also viewed Types of management styles Diseases of the Small Intestines Meal preparation units and equipments Background OF Medical Terminologies Inborn Errors OF Metabolism GIT disorders Upper - GIT Notes Related documents Lifespan notes on adolescents,adults,elderly Parenteral nutrition Criteria for Formula Selection Commonly used equipment in enteral feeding and parenteral Community Partnership Skills 1 Notes Principles OF Human Nutrition notes Preview text MEAL PLANNING FOR VARIOUS GROUPS AND SPECIAL OCCASIONS Unit objectives By the end of this unit, the learner should be able to: 1. Identify the various groups of individual with different nutritional needs 2. Describe on how to prepare and serve meals to meet their recommended allowance individually 3. Explain the need for the nutritional requirement in the lifespan and occupation 8 Introduction A nutritious and wholesome balanced diet is a key to good health. A well-balanced diet includes eating the right amount of foods from the five main food groups. Most people will have three main meals a day. No single food contains all nutrients the body needs so it is important to eat a wide variety. The right amount of different nutrients can increase life expectancy by keeping the heart and body healthy, and preventing many long-term illnesses. |
Most people will have three main meals a day. No single food contains all nutrients the body needs so it is important to eat a wide variety. The right amount of different nutrients can increase life expectancy by keeping the heart and body healthy, and preventing many long-term illnesses. Body weight can be kept to an acceptable level through healthy eating, leading to a fitter and more active lifestyle. Nutrition is one of the factors that contributes to the wellness of an individual. A balanced diet, when plannedcarefully, provides adequate energy and nutrients for growth, health maintenance, disease prevention and therefore it is essential for our whole lifespan. There is a number of factors to be considered when planning meals. Factors to be considered in meal planning for different categories Figure 1: Factors to be considered in meal planning for different categories Different examples of occasions are Fiesta, birthday, weddings, anniversaries, Christmas, Mother s day, Father s day, Baptismale.t. It important to plan meals for different occasions success of occasion depends on how well it is planned- from the decors, house arrangement and the food that must be specially chosen, prepared and served Foods, techniques and equipment C. Kitchen equipment must be safe and reliable if it is to be used to prepare and serve food for special occasions. Remember that: facilities must be appropriate for the number of guests being served if the celebration is to be held at a venue away from home, the host or caterer must consider what equipment and facilities are available cutlery, plates and storage space in refrigerators, freezers, cupboards and benches must be organised before the event to avoid any last-minute shortages kitchen equipment such as hand mixers, microwave ovens, blenders and stoves must be tested and checked before the event to detect any faulty equipment only equipment that saves time should be used the preparation and cleaning of some equipment outweighs its value oven, refrigerator and freezer temperatures must be tested to see that they are suitable for keeping food safe and so preventing any risk of food poisoning equipment should be cleaned before and after use to ensure proper hygiene stored equipment can often attract insects, rodents and cockroaches there must be enough serving equipment such as spoons, forks and tongs-when people swap serving utensils, cross-contamination can easily occur. Small- and large-scale meal preparation The size of an event can have a great impact on the preparation involved. |
Kitchen equipment must be safe and reliable if it is to be used to prepare and serve food for special occasions. Remember that: facilities must be appropriate for the number of guests being served if the celebration is to be held at a venue away from home, the host or caterer must consider what equipment and facilities are available cutlery, plates and storage space in refrigerators, freezers, cupboards and benches must be organised before the event to avoid any last-minute shortages kitchen equipment such as hand mixers, microwave ovens, blenders and stoves must be tested and checked before the event to detect any faulty equipment only equipment that saves time should be used the preparation and cleaning of some equipment outweighs its value oven, refrigerator and freezer temperatures must be tested to see that they are suitable for keeping food safe and so preventing any risk of food poisoning equipment should be cleaned before and after use to ensure proper hygiene stored equipment can often attract insects, rodents and cockroaches there must be enough serving equipment such as spoons, forks and tongs-when people swap serving utensils, cross-contamination can easily occur. Small- and large-scale meal preparation The size of an event can have a great impact on the preparation involved. Planning an event for five or ten people is very different from organising an event for hundreds of guests. Planning ahead allows the host to organise an appropriate menu according to the information they have on the number of guests attending. This planning is necessary to: - avoid excessive waste of food and money - avoid the embarrassment of running short of food - ensure that the food is the best choice for the event. When catering for small numbers of guests, it is relatively easy to estimate rough quantities of food. When catering for large numbers of guests, a rough guess or estimate is not suitable. Every caterer follows a set of guidelines. A host must consider the factors listed when planning a menu. Consideration to consider in planning meals for special occasions 1. Factors to consider in meal planning a. Food Budget - refers to the amount of money needed for the food to be prepared. It should be prepared ahead of time b. Tools, Facilities and Equipment- menu you have planned can only be prepared if you have the needed tools, facilities and equipment c. |
Food Budget - refers to the amount of money needed for the food to be prepared. It should be prepared ahead of time b. Tools, Facilities and Equipment- menu you have planned can only be prepared if you have the needed tools, facilities and equipment c. Time and Energy Available plan meals which will make reasonable demand on time and energy to save time and energy it is advisable to plan dishes you are familiar with and that you have skills and ability in preparing them. Plan cooking dishes which do not use the same equipment since it takes time for one dish to be cooked plan dishes that will not require last minute attention 2. Food Preferences of Guests - consider what dishes would the guests love to eat and what popular and special in a given culture or regions. Consider special nutritional needs 3. Goals in Preparing Meals for special occasions it is important to set goals that will not only satisfy the palate but also promote health and wellbeing of every guest. The meal should be nutritionally adequate, economically feasible, aesthetically satisfying, palatable and hygienically prepared 4. Nutritionally adequate means the meal has enough nutrients to make the body healthy. It contains all nutrients needed by the body like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Use the Three Basic Food Groups as guide 5. Economically feasible Food budget is enough to meet the food expenditures food budget should be reasonable and affordable 6. Aesthetically satisfying every dish is pleasing, deliciously inviting and satisfying it should appeal to the senses and to the appetite. There should be a variety of colorThe calorific requirement is generally higher in men than in women because men have larger body size, and they are more physically active and have more lean muscle mass. 8.1 Age groups i. Infants breast feeding is the safest and most desirable method of nourishment Human milk is considered the ideal starting food, with most of the nutritional requirements. However breast feeding should not be relied on exclusively for optional nutrition beyond the sixth mouth of the infant s life. For twins, optimum is 3-4 months. O Interval of feeding: Breast feeding should be started as soon as possible after birth if a mother and a baby are okay. A baby should be allowed to feed on demand and may suckle 1215 times day. |
For twins, optimum is 3-4 months. O Interval of feeding: Breast feeding should be started as soon as possible after birth if a mother and a baby are okay. A baby should be allowed to feed on demand and may suckle 1215 times day. However a common routine is that of 10-15 times during the day. After such feed a baby should be burped to remove the air swallowed together with milk by allowing the baby on the mothers knee or shoulders. For the first days the baby should be suckle both breast for only a few minutes each time to prevent any nipple sores or cracks. About 150ml of human milk per kg body weight the baby is getting enough milk if satisfied at a 12-20 times feeding, falls asleep promptly and sleep quietly for several hours, and also makes satisfactory weight gains from week to week. Duration of breastfeeding: sufficient until about 6 months of age, should continue for 2 years or even longer. Refer: duration of breast milk Replacement of breast milk Is the process of feeding an infant child who is not receiving any breast milk with a diet that provides all the nutrients a child needs Introduction of solid foods before the age of 4-6 months is not recommended due to immaturity of gastrointestinal tract and kidneys to handle solid food. After that, solid foods could be introduced gradually and individually. The typical order of introduction begins with cereal, usually iron-fortified ones, vegetables, fruits, eggs and then meat. A waiting period of 4-5 days before the introduction of another new food is recommended to make sure no allergic reaction or intolerance. It s only recommended when the AFASS criteria can be met. AFASS A -ACCEPTANCE: no barriers replacement feeding Barriers can be cultural, social and also due to fear of stigma and discrimination F- FEASIBLE: mother or the family has adequate time, knowledge ,skills and other resources to prepare the replacement food and feed the infant up to 12 times in 24 hours A- AFFORDABLE: Mother, family, community or even the health system support can pay for the cost of purchasing, preparing and using replacement feeding without compromising the health and nutrition of the entire family. |
This can lead to serious health problems, nutrient deficiencies and eating disorders in later life iv. Adults Growth is usually completed by the age of 25 years. The aims of nutrition during adult years are to obtain adequate energy and nutrients to maintain a healthy body weight and prevention of chronic diseases through appropriate food choices. Adulthood is a period when an individual begins to experience and cope with numerous changes in the realms of work, family and education. Healthy eating and lifestyle are important for them to cope with stress and maintain health. The calorific requirement begins to decrease after the age of 25 years as basal metabolic rates decrease. People during adult years may not get as much exercise as they did in earlier years. Thus, when appetite and food intake do not decrease, there is a common tendency toward weight gain during this period. An intake of 3,500 calories more than the body needs for maintenance and activities will result in a weight gain of 500 grams fat. A person who overeats by only 120 calories a day equal to a can of soft drink can gain 6kilograms in 1 year. Therefore, it is important to reach energy balance to maintain a healthy weight i. energy intake equals energy output . This can be achieved by eating less energydense foods, and increasing physical activities as exercise will increase the number of calories burned. Healthy eating and lifestyle are encouraged during adult years to maintain health and prevention of chronic diseases v. Elderly Physiological, psychosocial and economic changes of the elderly affect their nutrition status. The body s function changes with age. Metabolic rate slows down, bones become less dense and lean muscle mass is reduced. Eye-sight,hearing, taste and smell are less acute and poor dentition is common. The secretion of digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid is diminished which in turn impairs digestion and absorption of nutrients such as vitamin B12. The reduced muscle tone of the intestine may result in constipation in an elderly. The loss of spouse or close friends, physical disabilities, poor health, feeling of loneliness and uselessness may diminish an elderly s ability to shop, cook and also his her appetite to eat. Retirement of the elderly results in decreased income and this may affect one s choice of food. Some may choose foods by cost rather than nutrient content. |
Adequate folate intake is important for adult women before pregnancy to prevent neural tube defects in infant. The iron requirement is highfor women throughout the childbearing years to replace blood loss during menstruation. Fruits and vegetables are important source of vitamins A, C, folate , minerals potassium , phytochemicals, and fiber. A diet high in fruits and vegetables are associated with lower risk of chronic diseases. For manual workers, meals should be a balanced diet rich in carbohydrates such as rice, noodles and pasta or bread to provide enough energy to work. Manual work increases sweating which in turn increases the loss of water and electrolytes. It is essential to increase fluid intake water, juice, soup to regulate body temperature and avoid dehydration. People with a sedentary lifestyle e. office workers, require to pay attention to energy balance to maintain a healthy body weight. Reduced physical activity together with an excessive energy intake from a large portion of energy-dense foods such as fast food, snacks increase the risk of obesity and other chronic disease in later life. The modern busy lifestyle has made fast food become popular because it is convenient and time-saving. High consumption of food in restaurants and fast food shops result in higher intake of fat, trans-fat, salt and sugar while the intake in fruits and vegetables is low. Meals for office workers should be rich in nutrients but low in energy. It is recommended to include more vegetables and fruits as they are rich in dietary fiber and low in calories, instead of energy dense snacks such as ice-cream, chocolates and chips. They are also rich in vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals that are beneficial to health and may help to prevent chronic diseases. Higher fiber diet is also more filling and helps to prevent constipation. Energy-dense foods and alcohol should be eaten in moderation only. E Elderly A balanced nutrient-dense diet is essential for maintaining good health of the elderly. Good nutritional status can help to prevent chronic disease and speed up recovery from illness, surgery or broken bones. An elderly s diet should include varied choices of food with most of the calories from carbohydrates, moderate in protein while low in fat, salt and sugar. Adequate protein is essential for tissue repairing, synthesis of immune cells and hormones. Lean meat or poultry without skin and low fat dairy products are good protein choices. |
An elderly s diet should include varied choices of food with most of the calories from carbohydrates, moderate in protein while low in fat, salt and sugar. Adequate protein is essential for tissue repairing, synthesis of immune cells and hormones. Lean meat or poultry without skin and low fat dairy products are good protein choices. Elderly are also encouraged to have adequate fruits, vegetables, whole grains products and legumes. These foods are rich source of vitamins, minerals and fiber. Adequate fiber and fluid can help to prevent constipation. Foods for breakfast should include enough carbohydrates noodles, whole meal bread, breakfast cereals, and congee and moderate protein foods lean meat, milk and dairy products, eggs . Lunch and dinner choices can follow the principles of healthy eating with cereals or cereal products as major food, moderate amount of fish, seafood, legumes, egg and lean meat. It is advised to prepare foods with low fat cooking methods such as steaming, boiling, stewing, grilling and stir-frying with little oil. Chinese family dinner usually consists of 2-3 dishes that are shared by family members, whereas western style dinner usually includes soup, appetizer, main dish, dessert and or a drink that are served on an individual basis. Healthy snacks such as low fat dairy products, sandwich, fruits, whole meal biscuits, chestnuts, sweet corn can supplement main meals for those with additional nutrition needs and small appetite. 8 Meal planning for special occasions celebrations; such as social gatherings, parties and festivals should take into consideration of the occasion, venue, age and number of guests, style of meal sit down or buffet type, Chinese or Western meal and special food if necessary. Prepare appropriate tableware, napkins, tablecloth and home decorations flowers or other ornaments , seats and tables for celebrations or parties. Background of guests, their age, gender, total number, food preference, nutritional needs and special ethnic or religion are factors for consideration when planning meals. A good meal should be nutritious, well cooked with careful combination of foods and flavors. For example, food for a birthday party for school-age children should be colorful, attractive, and easy to manage, in bite size, small packs and include more body building foods for growth. Dishes can be prepared using different methods e. |
A good meal should be nutritious, well cooked with careful combination of foods and flavors. For example, food for a birthday party for school-age children should be colorful, attractive, and easy to manage, in bite size, small packs and include more body building foods for growth. Dishes can be prepared using different methods e. grilling, baking, boiling to give various texture e. soft, firm, crispy and served either hot or cold. Special food can be prepared for special occasions or festivals e. birthday cake for birthday party; Easter chocolate eggs for Easter festival, Chinese turnip cake for Chinese New Year etc. It is also advised to shop and plan for food in advance to allow changes of food in the menu if they are not available. Meals for outing; should be well planned and prepared. Depending on the duration of the outing, the meal should provide enough nutrients and energy to sustain daily activities as that from amain meal. It should be well-balanced by choosing foods from the three basic food groups and to include a suitable drink. Choose foods that are easy to eat, pack and carry, and can be kept for a longer time such as bread, fruits, packed drinks or canned foods. Use thermal containers with insulation or spaces for ice packs to keep food drinks at a safe temperature to avoid bacterial growth. Food can be packed in a plastic box for easy transport to avoid crushing damage. Download AI Quiz 00 SaveShare Document continues below Discover more from: Nutrition and dieteticsDND 2204 Thika School of Medical and Health Sciences 36 documents Go to course 6 Steps OF DIET Planning questions Nutrition and dietetics100 2 55 Tsmhs Nutrition Intervention IN Hivaids Module Nutrition and dieteticsNone 1 What Is Behavioral Psychology With Duties and Specialties Indeed Nutrition and dieteticsNone 1 Difference Between Cognitive and Behavioral Psychology Compare the Difference Between Similar Terms Nutrition and dieteticsNone 17 Milk oils and other food production notes Nutrition and dieteticsNone 2 Commonly used equipment in enteral feeding and parenteral Nutrition and dieteticsNone fruits vegetables, meats, dairy products, fats sweets . Main energy source should come dairy products, dried or fresh fruits, wholemeal biscuits, unsweetened soy bean milk. |
Food can be packed in a plastic box for easy transport to avoid crushing damage. Download AI Quiz 00 SaveShare Document continues below Discover more from: Nutrition and dieteticsDND 2204 Thika School of Medical and Health Sciences 36 documents Go to course 6 Steps OF DIET Planning questions Nutrition and dietetics100 2 55 Tsmhs Nutrition Intervention IN Hivaids Module Nutrition and dieteticsNone 1 What Is Behavioral Psychology With Duties and Specialties Indeed Nutrition and dieteticsNone 1 Difference Between Cognitive and Behavioral Psychology Compare the Difference Between Similar Terms Nutrition and dieteticsNone 17 Milk oils and other food production notes Nutrition and dieteticsNone 2 Commonly used equipment in enteral feeding and parenteral Nutrition and dieteticsNone fruits vegetables, meats, dairy products, fats sweets .Main energy source should come dairy products, dried or fresh fruits, wholemeal biscuits, unsweetened soy bean milk. Company About Us Ask AI Studocu World University Ranking 2023 E-Learning Statistics Doing Good Academic Integrity Jobs Blog Dutch Website Contact Help F.A.Q. Contact Newsroom Legal Terms Privacy Policy Cookie Statement View our reviews on Trustpilot English Rest of the World Copyright 2023 StudeerSnel B.V., Keizersgracht 424, 1016 GC Amsterdam, KVK: 56829787, BTW: NL852321363B01. |
Strand 1.1: Foundations of Pre-Technical Studies - Fire and Data SafetyLesson 1: Understanding Fire CausesCauses of Fire:Flammable Substances:Chemicals: Used in laboratories e.g., solvents, fuels . Common Materials: Such as paper, wood, fabric, and oily rags. Gases: Like propane and butane used in workshops. Lesson 2: Preventing FirePreventing Fires:Proper Storage:Flammable materials stored in designated areas with proper ventilation. Separate storage for different types of materials to prevent chemical reactions. Regular Maintenance:Checking electrical equipment for wear and tear, frayed wires, or damaged plugs. Ensuring machinery is well-lubricated to prevent overheating. Safety Protocols:Clearing workspaces from unnecessary clutter to reduce fire hazards. Displaying and following emergency evacuation plans. Lesson 3: Firefighting TechniquesFirefighting Techniques:Cooling:Using water hoses or fire extinguishers to cool down the flames. Emergency showers for individuals with chemical burns. Smothering:Utilizing fire blankets to cover flames and cut off their oxygen supply. Deploying foam-based fire suppressants to smother liquid fires. Interrupting:Using fire extinguishers with appropriate agents for different fire types e.g., ABC fire extinguishers . Explanation: ABC fire extinguishers are versatile and effective for three classes of fires - A ordinary combustibles , B flammable liquids , and C electrical fires . Lesson 4: Data Threat AnalysisThreats to Data:Malware:Viruses, including trojans, worms, spyware, ransomware, and adware. Phishing: Attempts to trick individuals into revealing sensitive information through fake emails or websites. Hacking:Unauthorized access by individuals seeking to manipulate or steal data. Data breaches where sensitive information is accessed without permission. Data Corruption:Software bugs causing unexpected errors and data loss. Hardware failures, such as a malfunctioning hard drive leading to data corruption. Lesson 5: Securing Electronic DataSecuring Data:Use Strong Passwords:Combine uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, and symbols e.g., P ssw0rd . Avoid easily guessable passwords, like "password" or "123456."Regularly Back Up Data:Use external devices like USB drives, external hard drives, or cloud services e.g., Google Drive . Schedule automatic backups to ensure consistent data protection. |
Lesson 5: Securing Electronic DataSecuring Data:Use Strong Passwords:Combine uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, and symbols e.g., P ssw0rd . Avoid easily guessable passwords, like "password" or "123456."Regularly Back Up Data:Use external devices like USB drives, external hard drives, or cloud services e.g., Google Drive . Schedule automatic backups to ensure consistent data protection. Install and Update Antivirus Software:Choose reputable antivirus software and keep it up-to-date to guard against new threats. Enable real-time scanning for continuous protection. Lesson 6: Hands-On ApplicationHands-On Application:Creating a Strong Password:Utilize a mix of letters, numbers, and symbols to enhance complexity. Avoid personal information, like birthdays or names, to strengthen security. Backing Up Important Files:Use external hard drives, USB drives, or cloud services like Dropbox, OneDrive, or iCloud. Regularly review and update the backup strategy based on evolving needs. Running an Antivirus Scan:Schedule regular scans to detect and remove potential threats automatically. Perform manual scans after downloading new files or visiting unfamiliar websites. Key Inquiry QuestionsImportance of Fire Safety:Protect Lives and Property:By preventing injuries, fatalities, and damage to structures. Avoid Disruptions in Work Environments:Ensuring uninterrupted workflow and maintaining productivity. Prevent Injuries and Ensure a Safe Working Atmosphere:Fostering a secure and comfortable workplace for all individuals. Strand 1.0: Foundations of Pre-Technical StudiesSub Strand 1.2: Computer Hardware 11 lessons Lesson 1: Introduction to Computer HardwareComputer Hardware:Physical parts of a computer system, including tangible components that can be touched and seen. Explanation: Computer hardware comprises the physical elements that make up a computer, allowing it to function. These components include devices such as keyboards, monitors, hard drives, and more. Lesson 2: Categories of Computer HardwareInput Devices:Keying devices e.g., keyboards . Pointing devices e.g., mice, trackpads . Scanning devices e.g., scanners . Voice input devices e.g., microphones . Touchscreen and digitizer. Digital cameras. Output Devices:Hardcopy e.g., printers . Softcopy e.g., monitors, speakers . Storage Devices:Fixed e.g., hard disk drives, SSDs . Removable e.g., USB drives, external hard drives . |
Softcopy e.g., monitors, speakers . Storage Devices:Fixed e.g., hard disk drives, SSDs . Removable e.g., USB drives, external hard drives . Input devices get data, output devices display information, and storage devices save data. Lesson 3: Categories DiscussionGroup Discussion Outcomes:Identify scenarios where voice input devices are more suitable than keying devices. Discuss real-world applications of storage devices in various industries. Explanation: Engaging in group discussions helps explore diverse perspectives and understand practical applications of different hardware categories. Lesson 4: Matching Devices to CategoriesMatching Activity:Associate hardware devices with categories. Ensure clear understanding of input, output, and storage devices. Explanation: This hands-on activity reinforces the connection between specific devices and their respective hardware categories. Lesson 5: Task Performance Using HardwareHands-On Experience:Use input devices for data entry. Generate output using devices. Save and retrieve data from storage devices. Explanation: Performing tasks with various hardware devices enhances practical skills and demonstrates how these components work together. Lesson 6: Importance of Computer HardwareImportance Discussion:Discuss how computer hardware enhances user experiences. Recognize the integral role of hardware in performing tasks. Explanation: Recognizing the importance of computer hardware encourages an appreciation for its role in making technology functional and user-friendly. Top of FormStrand 1: Foundations of Pre-Technical Studies - Substrand 1.3: Consumer and Investor ProtectionLesson 1: Importance of Consumer and Investor ProtectionObjective: Explain the importance of consumer and investor protection in Kenya. Importance of Protection:Safeguarding the rights of consumers and investors is crucial for a fair and just marketplace. Building trust and confidence in economic activities is achieved through effective protection measures. Examples:Consumer protection ensures fair pricing, quality products, and ethical business practices. Investor protection fosters confidence in financial markets, encouraging investment and economic growth. Lesson 2: Analyzing Protection Mechanisms in KenyaObjective: Analyze ways in which consumers and investors are protected in Kenya. Regulatory Mechanisms:Laws and policies ensure fair trade and protect against fraud. The Competition Authority of Kenya enforces competition laws for fair market practices. Institutional Protection:Government bodies like the Capital Markets Authority regulate financial markets for stability. The Central Bank of Kenya protects consumers and investors by ensuring financial system integrity. Examples:Consumer Protection Laws:The Consumer Protection Act safeguards consumers from deceptive and unfair trade practices. |
Institutional Protection:Government bodies like the Capital Markets Authority regulate financial markets for stability. The Central Bank of Kenya protects consumers and investors by ensuring financial system integrity. Examples:Consumer Protection Laws:The Consumer Protection Act safeguards consumers from deceptive and unfair trade practices. It addresses issues like product safety, misleading advertising, and unfair contract terms to protect consumer rights. Capital Markets Act:The Capital Markets Act empowers regulators to protect investors through various mechanisms. Regulators can license and supervise market intermediaries like brokers and investment advisors to ensure ethical standards. Ways in which the Capital Markets Act Empowers Regulators to Protect Investors:Licensing and Supervision: Regulators can license and supervise market intermediaries to ensure adherence to ethical standards without compromising investor interests. Market Surveillance: Regulators can use advanced surveillance systems to monitor and detect market manipulation, insider trading, and other fraudulent activities. Enforcement of Disclosures: Companies are mandated to provide accurate and timely information to the public. Regulators enforce these requirements to ensure investors have access to essential information for informed decision-making. Investor Education: Regulators implement educational programs to empower investors with knowledge, helping them make informed investment decisions without falling victim to scams or unethical practices. Market Integrity: The Act enables regulators to maintain market integrity by preventing and investigating any form of market abuse, ensuring a fair and transparent trading environment. Lesson 3: Government Financial RegulatorsObjective: Explore the Government financial regulators in Kenya. Institutional Roles:Government bodies like the Capital Markets Authority regulate financial markets. The Central Bank of Kenya ensures stability and protects the interests of consumers and investors. Examples:Capital Markets Authority CMA :Regulates securities to protect investors by ensuring fair, efficient, and transparent capital markets. Enforces rules on disclosure, preventing insider trading, and promoting market integrity. Central Bank of Kenya CBK :Protects consumers through monetary policy and financial stability. Manages inflation to ensure price stability, safeguarding the purchasing power of consumers. Maintains a stable banking sector, ensuring the safety of deposits and protecting consumers' financial interests. Lesson 4: Protecting Oneself from ExploitationObjective: Protect oneself from exploitation. Practical Strategies for Protection:Be an informed consumer; verify product information before making purchases. Read and understand contracts thoroughly before entering into transactions to avoid exploitation. NGO Involvement:Non-Governmental organizations like the Consumer Federation of Kenya advocate for consumer rights. |
Practical Strategies for Protection:Be an informed consumer; verify product information before making purchases. Read and understand contracts thoroughly before entering into transactions to avoid exploitation. NGO Involvement:Non-Governmental organizations like the Consumer Federation of Kenya advocate for consumer rights. Ways NGOs Protect Consumers:Legal Advocacy: NGOs may engage in legal actions to challenge unfair business practices on behalf of consumers. Public Awareness Campaigns: NGOs conduct campaigns to educate the public about their rights, empowering them to make informed choices. Policy Advocacy: NGOs work towards influencing policies that enhance consumer protection laws and regulations. Consumer Helplines: Provide platforms for consumers to report grievances and seek advice, ensuring a responsive mechanism for dispute resolution. Critical Thinking Questions:Why does the Government protect consumers and investors? Government intervention ensures fairness, transparency, and stability in the marketplace, fostering economic growth. How do consumers protect themselves from exploitation by traders? By being informed, verifying information, and understanding their rights, consumers can avoid falling victim to unfair practices. Strand 2: CommunicationSubstrand 2.1: Business CommunicationLesson 1: Importance of Business CommunicationObjective: Understand the importance of business communication. Business Communication:Business communication refers to the exchange of information within and outside an organization to facilitate its operations and success. Examples:Intra-organizational communication involves emails, memos, and meetings. External communication includes advertisements, press releases, and social media. Critical Thinking Questions:Why is business communication important? Business communication is crucial for effective operations, information sharing, and success. Lesson 2: Selecting Channels of CommunicationObjective: Learn to choose appropriate communication channels. Factors for Selection:Urgency:Consider how quickly the information needs to be conveyed. Urgent matters may require immediate channels like phone calls or face-to-face meetings. Confidentiality:Determine the sensitivity of the information. Private matters might demand more secure channels such as encrypted emails. Nature of the Message:Assess the type of information being communicated. Complex details may be better suited for written channels like emails, while simple updates could use instant messaging. Case Study Analysis: Ethical and Unethical Practices in Business CommunicationEthical Practices:Clear Communication:Providing accurate and transparent information. For example, clearly stating product specifications in advertising materials. Respect for Privacy:Protecting sensitive information and respecting privacy. For instance, ensuring customer data is securely handled. Honesty:Providing truthful and unbiased information. |
Respect for Privacy:Protecting sensitive information and respecting privacy. For instance, ensuring customer data is securely handled. Honesty:Providing truthful and unbiased information. An example is transparently communicating any potential delays in project timelines. Professionalism:Maintaining a professional tone and demeanor in written and verbal communication. For example, using formal language in official documents and meetings. Unethical Practices:Misleading Information:Providing false or misleading information to gain an advantage. For instance, exaggerating product features in marketing. Bullying or Harassment:Using communication to intimidate or harm others. An example is sending threatening messages to colleagues. Lack of Transparency:Withholding crucial information to manipulate perceptions. For example, not disclosing potential risks to investors. Plagiarism:Presenting someone else's work or ideas as one's own. This could involve copying a competitor's marketing strategy without attribution. Debates:Engage in debates on the importance of ethical practices in communication. Critical Thinking Questions: 2. How do people communicate in a business environment? Through various channels like emails, meetings, advertisements, and official documents. Substrand 2.2: Plain Scale DrawingLesson 3: Plain Scale Drawing FundamentalsObjective: Understand and apply plain scale drawing skills. Plain Scale Drawing:Involves creating accurate representations of objects or spaces using a uniformly divided scale. Essential for architects, engineers, and designers for precise communication of measurements. Features of a Plain Scale:Evenly spaced divisions representing specific measurements. Numerical scale and markings indicating units of measurement. Importance of Drawing Figures to Scale:Ensures accurate representation of objects in drawings. Facilitates clear communication of design and dimensions. Prevents misunderstandings and errors in construction or manufacturing. Visual Aids and Practical Exercises:Use drawing instruments to construct a plain scale. Practice drawing plane figures to a given plain scale. Additional Points:Precision in Design:Enables precise design and planning in architecture and engineering. Standardization:The use of standard scales ensures consistency and compatibility. Critical Thinking Questions:What is the importance of drawing figures to scale? Drawing to scale ensures accuracy in representing objects and designs. Why are plane figures drawn to scale? Drawing to scale facilitates clear communication of design and dimensions. Substrand 2.3: Visual ProgrammingLesson 4: Introduction to Programming and Visual ProgrammingObjective: Understand the basics of programming and visual programming. Programming:Creating sets of instructions that computers can understand and execute. Allows automation of tasks and application development. |
Expected Outcome:Understanding how the combination of different materials enhances properties. General Properties of Composite Materials:High strength-to-weight ratio:Meaning: These materials are strong but not heavy. Resistance to corrosion:Meaning: They do not easily corrode or deteriorate. Versatility in applications:Meaning: Can be used in various ways due to their adaptability. Lesson 3: Uses of Composite Materials in the LocalityObjective: Relate composite materials to their use in a work environment. Additional Examples of Composite Materials:Kevlar composites Kevlar fibers, resin . Metal matrix composites. Expected Outcome:Understanding diverse applications in construction, manufacturing. Uses and Importances:Fiberglass:Uses:Boat construction, aircraft components. Importance:High strength, lightweight. Plywood:Uses:Furniture, construction. Importance:Structural stability, flexibility. Kevlar Composites:Uses:Bulletproof vests, sports equipment. Importance:High tensile strength. Lesson 4: Acknowledging the Importance of Composite MaterialsObjective: Acknowledge the importance of composite materials used in the locality. Core Competency Development:Enhance communication and collaboration skills. Values Emphasis:Promote the value of peace by respecting diversity. Pertinent and Contemporary Issues:Emphasize online safety when exploring information on composite materials. Link to Other Subjects:Relate concepts to non-metals in Integrated Science. Substrand 3.2: Ceramic MaterialsLesson 5: Identifying Ceramic MaterialsObjective: Identify common ceramic materials in the locality. Ceramic Materials:Materials made through the process of firing or baking materials like clay. Examples:Pottery, ceramic utensils, glass, shells. Porcelain, earthenware, stoneware. Ceramic Firing Process:Baking Method: Ceramics are baked in a special oven called a kiln. Critical Thinking Question:How can ceramic materials be identified? Recognizable by the firing or baking process, often visible in their appearance. Lesson 6: Physical Properties of Ceramic MaterialsObjective: Describe the physical properties of ceramic materials. Investigation:Investigate physical properties of ceramic materials. Additional Physical Properties:Hardness, electrical insulation, durability. Brittle in nature easily breaks when force is applied . Expected Outcome:Understanding the significance of ceramic materials in various applications. General Properties of Ceramic Materials:High melting points:Meaning: They require high temperatures to melt. |
Brittle in nature easily breaks when force is applied . Expected Outcome:Understanding the significance of ceramic materials in various applications. General Properties of Ceramic Materials:High melting points:Meaning: They require high temperatures to melt. Excellent thermal and electrical insulation:Meaning: They are good at resisting heat and electricity. Hard and brittle:Meaning: They are tough but easily breakable. Lesson 7: Matching Ceramic Materials to Their UsesObjective: Use a chart to match ceramic materials to their uses in the work environment. Examples of Matching:Pottery: Decorative items, storage containers. Glass: Windows, containers, tableware. Porcelain: Dinnerware, decorative items. Expected Outcome:Practical understanding of how different ceramic materials serve specific purposes. Uses and Importances:Pottery:Uses:Decorative items, storage containers. Importance:Heat resistance, aesthetic appeal. Glass:Uses:Windows, containers, tableware. Importance:Transparency, versatility. Porcelain:Uses:Dinnerware, decorative items. Importance:Elegant appearance, durability. Strand 4: Tools and ProductionSubstrand 4.1: Cutting ToolsLesson 1: Identifying Cutting ToolsObjective: Learn to identify cutting tools used in the work environment. Cutting Tools:Instruments designed for cutting materials. Examples:Snips cutting thin materials like wires , chisels cutting and shaping wood , handsaws cutting wood , planes smoothing wood , hacksaws cutting metal , scrapers removing material from surfaces , knives cutting various materials , strippers removing insulation from wires , cutters cutting various materials . Critical Thinking Question:Why should cutting tools be cared for? Ensures longevity, safety, and optimal performance. Lesson 2: Selecting Cutting Tools for TasksObjective: Select cutting tools for given tasks in a workplace. Discussion:Discuss the use of cutting tools in the work environment. Learning to Learn:Acquire the skill of working collaboratively when discussing cutting tool use. Lesson 3: Observing Cutting Tool UseObjective: Use audio-visual aids to observe the use of cutting tools in the work environment. Audio-Visual Aids:Videos and images demonstrating safe and efficient use. Lesson 4: Demonstrating Safe Use of Cutting ToolsObjective: Demonstrate safe use of cutting tools to perform specific tasks. Critical Thinking and Problem Solving:Acquire evaluation and decision-making skills during demonstrations. |
Audio-Visual Aids:Videos and images demonstrating safe and efficient use. Lesson 4: Demonstrating Safe Use of Cutting ToolsObjective: Demonstrate safe use of cutting tools to perform specific tasks. Critical Thinking and Problem Solving:Acquire evaluation and decision-making skills during demonstrations. Lesson 5: Performing Tasks Using Cutting ToolsObjective: Carry out given tasks using cutting tools. Practical Application:Application of learned skills in real-life scenarios. Lesson 6: Maintaining and Storing Cutting ToolsObjective: Learn to care for cutting tools in the work environment. Caring for Cutting Tools:Keep tools clean and dry. Regularly oil moving parts. Sharpen blades as needed. Store in a designated place. Use the right tool for the right job. Discussion:Discuss the importance of maintaining and storing cutting tools. Values:Emphasize responsibility in observing safety precautions. Lesson 7: Acknowledging the Importance of Cutting ToolsObjective: Recognize the importance of cutting tools in the work environment. Pertinent and Contemporary Issues:Emphasize safety when demonstrating the use of cutting tools. Link to Other Subjects:Relate the use of cutting tools to farm and kitchen tools in Agriculture and Nutrition. Substrand 4.2: Production UnitLesson 8: Explaining Factors in Locating a Production UnitObjective: Explain the factors considered when locating a production unit. Definition:A production unit is a facility or space where goods or services are produced or provided. Factors Influencing Location of Production Unit:Accessibility:Proximity to transportation for the movement of goods and services. Market Proximity:Nearness to the target market for easy distribution. Resource Availability:Availability of raw materials and resources. Labor Force:Accessibility to skilled or available labor. Infrastructure:Presence of necessary infrastructure like power and water supply. Lesson 9: Analyzing Factors Determining Production Unit SizeObjective: Analyze the factors determining the size of a production unit. Factors Determining Production Unit Size:Market Demand:Adjusting size based on market needs and demand. Resource Availability:Utilizing available resources efficiently. Technology:Incorporating technology for increased production efficiency. Economies of Scale:Achieving cost advantages with increased production. Financial Considerations:Available budget and financial feasibility. Lesson 10: Locating a Production Unit in a Suitable AreaObjective: Locate a production unit in a suitable area. Research Outcome:Identify suitable areas based on factors affecting the location of a production unit. |
Financial Considerations:Available budget and financial feasibility. Lesson 10: Locating a Production Unit in a Suitable AreaObjective: Locate a production unit in a suitable area. Research Outcome:Identify suitable areas based on factors affecting the location of a production unit. Lesson 11-15: Application of Knowledge in Practical ScenariosObjective: Apply knowledge gained in real-life situations. Practical Scenarios:Engage in hands-on activities related to locating and assessing production units. Examples of Production Units:Posho Mill:Location influenced by proximity to a community, accessibility to maize, and power supply. Salon:Located where the target market, typically residential areas, is easily accessible. Barber Shop:Positioned in areas with high foot traffic for increased visibility and accessibility. Welding Workshop:Located in an industrial area with ample space and proximity to raw materials. Cybercaf :Situated where there is demand for internet services, often in commercial or educational hubs. Strand 5: EntrepreneurshipSubstrand 5.1: BookkeepingLesson 1: Understanding Basic Terms in BookkeepingBookkeeping:Explanation: Bookkeeping is the systematic recording, organizing, and storing of financial transactions in a business. Key Terms:Transactions:Explanation: Business activities that involve money. Financial Statements:Explanation: Documents summarizing the financial activities of a business. Assets:Explanation: Resources owned by a business, such as cash, inventory, or property. Liabilities:Explanation: Debts or obligations a business owes to external parties. Equity:Explanation: The residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting liabilities. Capital:Explanation: The owner's investment in the business; the difference between assets and liabilities. Lesson 2: Importance of Bookkeeping for a BusinessImportance:Provides financial clarity. Assists in decision-making. Ensures legal compliance. Lesson 3: Calculating Assets, Liabilities, and CapitalEquation:Assets Liabilities Capital. Example:Calculated Asset: If a business has ksh10,000 in the bank asset , owes ksh2,000 to suppliers liability , then the capital is ksh8,000. Lesson 4: Case Study Analysis of Cash and Credit TransactionsCase Study:Example scenarios differentiating between cash and credit transactions. Lesson 5: Costing, Pricing, and Profit CalculationCosting and Pricing:Costing:Explanation: The process of determining the expenses involved in producing a product or service. |
Example:Calculated Asset: If a business has ksh10,000 in the bank asset , owes ksh2,000 to suppliers liability , then the capital is ksh8,000. Lesson 4: Case Study Analysis of Cash and Credit TransactionsCase Study:Example scenarios differentiating between cash and credit transactions. Lesson 5: Costing, Pricing, and Profit CalculationCosting and Pricing:Costing:Explanation: The process of determining the expenses involved in producing a product or service. Pricing:Explanation: Setting a selling price for a product or service. Financial Aspect of Product Pricing:Calculating costs, determining a competitive price, and ensuring profitability. Lesson 6: Components of Financial StatementsComponents:Statement of Financial Position:Assets, liabilities, and equity. Cash Flow Statement:Inflows and outflows of cash. Income Statement:Revenue, expenses, and profit. Lesson 7: Drawing Simple Financial StatementsPractical Application:Creating visual representations using learned concepts. Substrand 5.2: Income and BudgetingLesson 8: Sources of Income for an IndividualSources of Income:Employment salary, business profits, rental income, dividends, etc. Lesson 9: Importance of BudgetingImportance:Ensures financial discipline. Facilitates goal achievement. Minimizes overspending. Lesson 10: Wise Spending and Budget PreparationWise Spending:Prioritize needs over wants. Look for discounts and deals. Budget Preparation:Budgeting:Explanation: The process of creating a plan for how to spend money. Importance of Budgeting:Ensures financial discipline. Facilitates goal achievement. Minimizes overspending. Lesson 11: Ethical and Unethical Practices in Income and BudgetingEthical Practices:Honest reporting, responsible spending. Unethical Practices:Fraudulent reporting, overspending. Substrand 5.3: Marketing of Goods and ServicesLesson 12: Meaning and Importance of MarketingMarketing:Explanation: Marketing involves promoting, selling, and distributing goods or services. Importance:Increases brand visibility. Attracts potential customers. Boosts sales. Lesson 13: Sources of Information about the MarketInformation Sources:Market research reports, customer feedback, sales data. Lesson 14: Factors in Selecting a Suitable MarketFactors in Selecting a Suitable Market:Geographic location, target demographics, competition, consumer behavior. |
Boosts sales. Lesson 13: Sources of Information about the MarketInformation Sources:Market research reports, customer feedback, sales data. Lesson 14: Factors in Selecting a Suitable MarketFactors in Selecting a Suitable Market:Geographic location, target demographics, competition, consumer behavior. Lesson 15: ICT Tools in MarketingDigital Tools:Examples: Social media platforms, email marketing, search engine optimization. Substrand 5.4: Saving and InvestmentLesson 16: Reasons for Saving and InvestmentReasons:Wealth accumulation, financial security, future planning. Lesson 17: Methods of Saving and InvestmentMethods:Saving accounts, fixed deposits, mutual funds, real estate. Lesson 18: Creating a Simple Saving and Investment PlanPractical Exercise:Creating a personalized financial plan with specific goals. Lesson 19: Ethical and Unethical Practices in Saving and InvestingEthical Practices:Transparent reporting, responsible investing. Unethical Practices:Fraudulent schemes, risky investments. Lesson 20: Researching Ethical and Unethical PracticesResearch Outcome:Identifying and understanding ethical and unethical practices in saving and investment. Top of FormTop of FormTop of Form. |
GRADE 8 RATIONALIZED INTEGRATED SCIENCELESSON NOTES COMPLETESTRAND 1- MIXTURES, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS. ELEMENTS AND COMPUNDSMeaning of Atoms, Elements, molecules and Compounds. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter is composed of pure substances and mixtures. The pure substances are can be element and compounds while the mixtures can either be uniform or non-uniform. An element is a substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical or physical means. An element is a pure substance which cannot be made simpler using chemical means. Elements are the building blocks of matter. Everything around is made up of an element or elements. An element is made of atoms. Atoms of the same element are identical. A compound is pure substance that consists of atoms of two or more elements that are chemically joined together. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements react. Compounds can be broken down into elements through chemical reactions. Sodium and chlorine are elements that combine chemically to form sodium chloride which is a compound. Relating common elements to their symbols. Pure substances either elements or compounds has a unique name and symbol. A symbol is a sort -hand notation for the chemical name of an element. Chemical symbols are used instead of names by scientists because they are much easier, convenient and universally recognized. Compounds are represented by a chemical formula. A chemical symbol is usually derived from first letter of the English name of the element. It is also derived from Latin name of the element. For example,H is the chemical symbol of hydrogen. O is the chemical symbol of Oxygen. K is the chemical symbol of potassium. For potassium the K is derived from Latin word Kalium. Some elements might start with same first letters, such as Carbon, Calcium, Chlorine and Copper have their names starting with letter C, therefore letter C can not be used to represent all of them as chemical symbol. The first letter C is assigned to represent Carbon, while the rest of the elements are assigned two letters from their name as follows. Carbon represented by C. Calcium represented by Ca. Chlorine represented by ClCopper represented by Cu from Latin word cuprumThe first letter of a symbol is always capitalized, while the second letter is written in small letters. Compounds are combinations of two or more elements. |
Calcium represented by Ca. Chlorine represented by ClCopper represented by Cu from Latin word cuprumThe first letter of a symbol is always capitalized, while the second letter is written in small letters. Compounds are combinations of two or more elements. A chemical formula is an expression that shows the elements in a compound and the relative proportions of those elements. Water is composed of Hydrogen and Oxygen in the ration 2:1. The chemical formula of water is H2O. Sodium chloride also called common salt is composed of Sodium and Chlorine in the ration 1:1. The chemical formula for Sodium chloride is NaCl. Application of common elements in our day-to-day life. Food nutrients are chemical compounds found in foods. These nutrients are used by the body to function properly and maintain health. Examples of food nutrients include:Proteins. Fats. Carbohydrates. Vitamins. Mineral salts. Food nutrients are made up o various elements such as: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Various food sources that contain various elements. Plants receive water, mineral and other nutrients from the soil which are carried to the other parts of the plantThere are various mineral elements present in the soil that are absorbed by the roots of plants. The following are some of the important mineral elements required by plants:Phosphorus magnesium they are essential for the growth, development and reproduction of the plant. Potassium increases the quality of fruits and vegetables. Various elements are used in manufacture of different toiletries that we use in day-to-day life. Some toiletries, for example toothpaste contains flouride compounds to prevent tooth decay while soaps and detergents contain a compound of potassium. Importance of various elements and compounds. Gold:Gold is a precious metal. It is widely used to make jewellery as it is fairly soft and easy to work with. It is attractive in appearance and neither rust or discolours. Silver:It is a precious metal. It is used in making jewellery but it tends to discolour. It is also used in making cutlery, teapots and medals. Iron:It is one of the most useful metals. It is strong, can be sharpened and it is easy to work with. Many items are made of iron or steel. Steel is a combination of iron and carbon. Steel is important in construction. Gold and silver:They are precious metals elements that occur naturally and have high market value. |
Steel is a combination of iron and carbon. Steel is important in construction. Gold and silver:They are precious metals elements that occur naturally and have high market value. In some cases, Gold and silver can be used as currency. In other cases, these precious metals have various uses such as in electronics, medical technology and awards therefore gold and silver valuable to many businesses. Gold is more valuable because it is rare than silver. Information on Packaging labels. Substances purchased contain various elements that are part of ingredients. The elements present are usually indicated in the information found on the packaging labels. Few examples are given below. Toothpaste- contains sodium flouride, zinc sulphate and sodium hydroxide. Body lotion contains sodium hydroxide and other compoundsLiquid handwash contains sodium chloride. Baking powder contains sodium hydroxide carbonate. Curry powder contains sodium. Tomato source contains a compound of sodium. Margarine-contains a preservative that is a compound of potassium. Beef cubes-contains a compound of iron and a compound of sodium. Bottled water-contains calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and other common elements. 1.2 -Physical and Chemical changes. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. All solids, liquids and gases are made up of matter. The three states of matter have different physical properties. These properties depend on intermolecular forces. Intermolecular forces are forces that hold the particles of matter together. Properties of different states of matter. Solids have a definite shape which does not change on its own unless use of external forces such as breaking it into smaller pieces. For example, when a stone is place on a table, or a plate or a tin, it does not change its shape according to the item it is place in or on. A liquid has no definite shape. That means a liquid changes its shape to take the shape of the container or vessel in which it is put. A liquid also changes its shape when spilled on the floor. For example, when a liquid id poured in two different containers, the liquid will display two different shapes that resemble or are similar to the container they are placed in. This means liquids lack a definite shapeGases-a gas has no definite shape. A gas changes its shape to look like that of container in which it is held in. For example, when a balloon is inflated with air, the air inside takes the shape of the balloon. |
This means liquids lack a definite shapeGases-a gas has no definite shape. A gas changes its shape to look like that of container in which it is held in. For example, when a balloon is inflated with air, the air inside takes the shape of the balloon. Solids, liquids and gases are different in terms of their volumes. Solids. When a solid is totally immersed in a liquid, the volume of the displace liquid is equivalent, equal to the volume of the solid. The volume of the stone remains the same when place in two different measuring cylinders. Therefore, solids have a definite shape. Liquids. The volume of water poured in a measuring cylinder remains unchanged even when it is transferred from one measuring cylinder to other measuring cylinders of different capacities. For example, if you pour 30ml of water in a 50mli measuring cylinder, its reading will be 30ml. If the same water is transferred to a 100ml measuring cylinder, the reading will still remain 30ml. Therefore, liquids have a definite shape just like solids. Gases. A given mass of a gas can occupy different volumes in different containers. This is an indication that gases, do not have a fixed volume. Solids, liquids and gases are different in terms of their Compressibility. Compressibility is the ability of a substance to be reduced in volume or size by applying force or pressure on it. Compressibility can also be defined as how much a given volume of matter decreases when pressed. When a bottle id filled with air, it can easily be squeezed compared to one filled up with water. If the two are replaced with sand, we cannot squeeze the bottle anymore. This experiment proves that gases are highly compressible, liquids have little compressibility while solids are incompressible. Occupies entire volume of container. Their particles move freely because the intermolecular forces are very weak. This makes particles to move far apart from each other and can be brough closer when pressure is applied. This is the reason gases are highly compressible. Their properties lie between those of gases and solids. Their intermolecular forces in liquids are weaker than in solids but stronger than in gases. The particles in liquids do not move freely as in gases, therefore, it is difficult to compress liquids since the liquid particles can move but keep same volume. Particles in solids are very close to each other closely packed and the intermolecular forces between the particles are very strong. |
Their intermolecular forces in liquids are weaker than in solids but stronger than in gases. The particles in liquids do not move freely as in gases, therefore, it is difficult to compress liquids since the liquid particles can move but keep same volume. Particles in solids are very close to each other closely packed and the intermolecular forces between the particles are very strong. The strong forces keep the particles in fixed position. This is the reason why solids are hard, firm and rigid. Therefore, solids are incompressible. C. Solids, liquids and gases are different in terms of their ability to flow. Particles in liquids can move from one place to another, therefore, a liquid can flow and change shape. This makes liquids such as water to flow from a tap to fill a jar or a bucket. This is applied when pouring tea in a cup. Solids have particle that do not move therefore solids cannot flow. Gases have freely moving particles which can be moved from an area. For example, when you breathe, you force air gas into and out of your lungs. This is an indication that gas flow in and out of the body. This is also applied when cooking gas flows from the gas cylinders to the burners when cooking. Therefore, liquids and gases can flow while solids cannot flow. Summary of properties of different states of matter. Pure and Impure substances. When two pure substances are mixed together, they form a mixture. A mixture is an impure substance. Therefore, a pure substance is any material that is not a mixture at all. The melting and boiling points of pure and impure substances can be determined. Melting point of pure substances Ice . It is the temperature at which a solid change into liquid state. The melting point of ice is the temperature at which ice is converted from its solid state to its liquid state. Heat from a heat source is used to melt the ice. The thermometer helps to note the temperature at which the ice melts. After the initial and final readings are taken, it will be observed that once the ice attained its melting temperature 0oC , the temperature remains the same until all the ice is converted into liquid state. Pure solids have specific melting points. Therefore, it means that ice is a pure substance. Melting point of Impure substances Candle wax . The melting point of candle wax is the temperature at which the solid materials turns into liquid by heating it . |
Therefore, it means that ice is a pure substance. Melting point of Impure substances Candle wax . The melting point of candle wax is the temperature at which the solid materials turns into liquid by heating it . The melting point of candle wax ranges between 46oC to 68 oC. Therefore, it means that candle wax is an impure substance. Impure substances do not have specific melting points. The presence of impurities affects the melting point of the substances. Determining Boiling points of Pure and Impure substances. Procedure for the experiment above. Put about 10cm3 of distilled water on a boiling tube. Close the tube with a stopper that has two holes. Pass a thermometer through one hole. Immerse the thermometer bulb into the water. Push and L shaped tube through the other hole as shown above. Heat the apparatus using a small flame. Observe the changes in temperature and record your observations. Cool the apparatus and remove the stopper. Add a spoonful of salt to some water stir to dissolve all the salt to form a salty water solution. Repeat the above experiment using a salty water solution in place of pure distilled water. Observe changes in temperature, record your observation. What conclusion have you made. At what temperature does water pure water boil? At what temperature does water with dissolved salt impure water boil Compare your observations. Observations and conclusion Explanation. When distilled water is heated, the temperature of the water rises to about 100oC. After this, the temperature remains constant not changing for some time. The heat absorbed changes liquid water into water vapour or steam. Pure water has a definite or specific boiling point. Salty impure water has a range of boiling temperatures above 100oC. Impurities cause a rise in temperatures of the boiling point of liquids. The greater the impurities in the given solution, the higher the boiling point. Therefore, we can use the boiling point to determine the purity of a liquid. Temporary and Permanent Changes in SubstancesTemporary Physical changes. Experiment to demonstrate physical change. Requirements:A pair of tongs. An iron pin. A source of heat such as burning candle or Bunsen burner and writing materials. Procedure:Hold iron pin using a pair of tongs over a burning flame from either a candle or Bunsen burner for sometime. Remove the pin from the flame after noticing any changes you can observe. |
A source of heat such as burning candle or Bunsen burner and writing materials. Procedure:Hold iron pin using a pair of tongs over a burning flame from either a candle or Bunsen burner for sometime. Remove the pin from the flame after noticing any changes you can observe. Observations, Explanation conclusion. Iron pin becomes red-hot when heated. After sometime the iron pin regains its original colour on cooling. This indicates that the iron pin went through a temporary change on heating. Any change in properties such as shape, size, colour and state of a substance is called a physical change. Physical changes are reversible. When a change is reversible is said to be temporary. This is demonstrated when the heated red-hot iron pin regains its original colour after cooling. Temporary chemical changesExperiment to demonstrate temporary chemical changes. Requirements:Safety googles. Two test tubes. Delivery tube right-angled Beaker 250ml . Bunsen burner. Clamp. Stand. 5g of hydrated copper II sulphate. Procedure:- Put 5g of powdered blue hydrated copper II sulphate in the test tube. -. Set up the experiment as shown below. Heating blue hydrated copper II sulphateObservation, Explanation and Conclusion. When blue hydrated copper II sulphate is heated in the test tube as show above, it turns colour from blue to white. This because it loses water which was making it hydrated. After losing water, it become white anhydrous copper II sulphate. When water is added to the white anhydrous copper II sulphate, it turns back to its original blue colour. The chemical change that had occurred is reversed. Some chemical changes are therefore temporary and can be reversed easily. These changes are referred to as temporary chemical changes or reversible chemical changes. Other examples of temporary chemical changes include the following;On mixing baking soda and vinegar, a chemical reaction produces carbon IV oxide gas. This gas causes the mixture to bubble. Once the gas escapes into the air, the reaction stops and the mixture returns to its original state. Freezing, melting and vapourisation of waterPermanent Chemical changesExperiment to demonstrated permanent chemical change. Requirements:5cm magnesium ribbon. A source of heat. Sand paper. A pair of tongs. Writing materials. Procedure:Clean the magnesium ribbon by rubbing it with sand paper. Examine the appearance of the magnesium ribbon. |
Writing materials. Procedure:Clean the magnesium ribbon by rubbing it with sand paper. Examine the appearance of the magnesium ribbon. Hold the ribbon with a pair of tongs over a burning candle or Bunsen burner for a few minutes. Caution:Burning magnesium ribbon produces a very bright flame that can damage your eyes. Avoid looking directly at the flame. Observation, Explanation Conclusion. Magnesium ribbon burns with a bright light forming a white ash. If the magnesium ribbon is not shining it may take long to ignite. Therefore, is advisable to clean the ribbon by rubbing it with sand paper since it is coated with an oxide layer that prevents it from burning. Burning magnesium ribbon form a substance called magnesium oxide. A change in which one or more substances are formed is known as chemical change. A chemical change is also known as permanent change. Most chemical changes are irreversible in nature. Chemical changes are important in life. Example of chemical changes include:Digestion of food in the body. O Ripening of fruits. Fermentation of grapes. Applications of changes of state of matter in day-to-day life. Change of state of matter has many applications in day-to-day life. Some of these changes are:Refrigerators. -. Liquids evaporate and absorbs heat in the process. A refrigerator works by using a liquid to remove heat from the food items inside and transfer it to the surrounding. The liquid is first heated and then cooled at the back of the fridge where the heat is removed. The process of changing liquid to gas cools the food. Ice cream vendor. -. Ice cream vendors place ice inside their ice cream carts. The ice absorbs heat from the container surrounds and change to a gas. This leaves the inside of the ice cream cart cold, thus maintaining the ice cream in frozen state. Melting metals. -. Metals are heated to a molten state making it possible to shape and form them into desired objects or structures. Generating electricity. -. Water can be converted to steam, which can in turn be used to drive turbines to generate electricity. Fog formation. -. Fog forms when water vapour gaseous state condenses. During condensation, molecule of water of water vapour combine to make tiny liquid water droplets that are suspended in the air. Fog reduces visibility. Some animals such as insects, depend on fog as a source of water, especially in desert climate. -Classes of Fire. Fires can be classified between four and seven classes. |
Some animals such as insects, depend on fog as a source of water, especially in desert climate. -Classes of Fire. Fires can be classified between four and seven classes. The following are six classes of fire mostly widely used and accepted. Fire control measures. To prevent the start and spread of fire, one or more components should be removed from the fire triangle. A fire triangle in a simple model of understanding the components of fire which are fuel, heat and oxygen. Therefore, to control fire one or more components should be removed from the fire triangle as follows: Removing fuel:Use fire-resistant materials where possible. This will help to prevent the fire from starting and spreading. Removing heat:Water is mostly used to remove the heat from fire. A water fire extinguisher would be the safest way of doing this. However, these extinguishers cannot be used on all types of fire. Removing oxygen:It is important to remove oxygen gas from fore triangle to prevent spread of a fire. This can be achieved by using either a carbon IV oxide or a form fire extinguisher. Fire extinguisher come in different types depending on the kind of environment you are in. Some places such as school, work or home, one or more types of fire extinguishers may be required. The following are different types of fire extinguishers and the classes of fire they put. Other items that can be used to control fire. In addition to the fire extinguishers, the following items can also be used to control fire. Sand-it absorbs heat and cuts off the supply of oxygen. Sand can be used to put out class A, D and F fires. Fire blanket-it is useful in putting out class F fires and wrapping around a person whose clothing is on fire. Rights to safety and access to information. At school, home and workplace you are supposed to be safe. These paces should take the following precautions for our safety:Avoid build up of rubbish that can fuel fire. Put measures in place to detect fires and warn people quickly in case fires start. This can be done successfully by installing smoke detectors and fire alarms or bells. Have correct fire fighting equipment to put out a fire quickly. Keep fire exits and escape routes clearly marked and unobstructed at all times. Give proper training on emergency procedures to follow, including fire drills. Access to information on flammable substances is important for the following reasons. |
Keep fire exits and escape routes clearly marked and unobstructed at all times. Give proper training on emergency procedures to follow, including fire drills. Access to information on flammable substances is important for the following reasons. It makes us aware of all hazards fire and explosion of the materials we are handling. Helps us to know which of the materials or products we are working with are flammable. Helps us to remove sources of ignition sparks, smoking, flames or hot surfaces when working with flammable and combustible products. Helps to use approved equipment, including labelled safety containers, for flammable liquids. Helps to know the proper personal protective equipment to use when handling hazardous liquids. Helps us to know how to handle emergencies fires, spills, personal injury involving the hazardous materials we work with. Fire safety posters we should be aware in the environment we are in. Strand 2 LIVING THINGS THEIR ENVIRONMENT. 2.1 The Cell. Cells make up the structure of living organisms and carry out various biological processes. Organisms such as amoeba are composed of a single cell hence are said to be unicellular. Organisms such as plants and animals are composed of many cells hence are said to be multicellular. Therefore, a cell is defined as the basic unit of structure and functions in organisms. To observe the cell, a powerful magnifying instrument called a microscope is used. A microscope enlarges the image of objects when observed and improves the resolution of the image. Plant and animal cell structures as seen under a light microscope. The following diagram shows the components of a plant cell as seen under a light microscope. Components of a plant cell. The following diagram shows different components of the animal cell as seen under a light microscope. Components of an animal cell. Comparing plant and animal cells. Plant and animal cells have slight differences in their internal structures while sone features are common in both. The figures below show the components of both plant and animal cells as seen under a light microscope. Similarities between a plant cell and an animal cell. They both have the cell membrane. Both have nucleus within themFunctions of the cell structures found in plants and animals cells. Magnification of Cells. Magnification of a specimen is the measure of how much bigger a specimen is when it is viewed through a hand lens or microscope compared to its original size. Magnification is usually expressed using X before the digits, for example, X2, X10 and X20. |
Writing materials. Procedure:pour some water in a beaker. Put a drop of the dye or ink in the water. What observations do you make after a few minutes? Observation, explanation and conclusion. After a few minutes, the ink or dye spread throughout the water in the beaker. The ink pr dye spread from the region where it was highly concentrated to region in water where it was in low concentration. Diffusion is defined as the movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Experiment demonstrating diffusion in gases. Requirements: A bottle of perfume of scented flowers. Procedure:Place the scented flower in a corner of the classroom. Remove the stopper of the perfume, hold it a few centimetres away from your friend s nose. Observation, explanation and conclusion. After a few seconds, you and your classmates will be able to smell the scent of the flower or perfume. This is due to diffusion. The scent of the flower and perfume molecules diffuse the air to their nose. Molecules in the scent of flower or perfume moved from the region of high concentration and spread evenly towards the region of low concentration. Diffusion in gases also makes it possible for us to smell things, for example, flower, food being cooked and also foul smells. Roles of diffusion in Living things. Plants absorb minerals salts from soil through diffusion. Nutrients such as glucose and amino acids move from the small intestines into bloodstream of animals by diffusion. Cells and unicellular organisms such as amoeba get rid of waste substance through diffusion. Gaseous exchange is the process through which gases are transferred across cell membrane to either enter or leave the blood. This process is done by diffusion in human beings in the alveoli in lungs. Oxygen gas moves from alveoli where is it is highly concentrated to the blood capillaries where it is lowly concentrated. On the other hand, carbon IV oxide moves from the capillaries where it is highly concentrated into the alveoli where it is lowly concentrated to be exhaled out. Factors that affect the rate of diffusion. Concentration gradient-molecules move from region of high concentration to that of low concentration. The greater the difference in concentration between high and low regions, the faster the rate of diffusion. Temperature-high temperature increases energy and therefore faster movement of molecules. This increases the rate of diffusion. Mass of particles- heavy particles move slowly hence slower rate of diffusion. |
Temperature-high temperature increases energy and therefore faster movement of molecules. This increases the rate of diffusion. Mass of particles- heavy particles move slowly hence slower rate of diffusion. Light particles on the other hand move fast hence faster rate of diffusion. -Diffusion distance- rate of diffusion depends on distance that particles have to travel in order to be evenly distributed within available space. Medium of diffusion- particles diffuse faster through gases than liquids. Surface area to volume ration- diffusion occurs faster in smaller organisms as compared to larger organisms. This is because small organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio. OSMOSIS. Experiment to demonstrate osmosis process. Requirements:Procedures:Moisten a piece of visking tube and rubber between your fingers to open it. O Tie one end of the visking tubing tightly with a thread. Put the dye concentrated sugar solution in the Visking tubing using a measuring cylinder. O Insert one end of capillary tube to the open end of the visking tubing and tie that end. Slowly lower it into a beaker containing distilled water and hold the capillary tube with a clamp. O Mark the level of dyed concentrated sugar solution in the capillary tube at the beginning of the experiment. Leave the experiment for about 20 minutes. Observe and record your resultsQuestions to answer. What happens to the level of the dye concentrated sugar solution in the capillary tube after 20 minutes? The level of the dye concentrated sugar solution increases in the capillary tube. Why did the above change take place? Water is highly concentrated in the beaker than in the visking tubing. Water moves from where is it more into the visking tubing across the visking tubing where it is less hence making the visking tubing to swell. Explain the biological process taking place in the experiment. Osmosis takes place since water moves from the beaker where it is highly concentrated to the visking tube where is lowly concentrated. What is the role of the visking tubing in the experiment? The visking tubing acts as a semipermeable membrane. What can we compare the visking tubing with in living cells? The cell membrane. Observation and explanation. The concentration of water outside the visking tubing is higher than the concentration of water inside the visking tubing. Water moves in through the pores in the semi-permeable membrane of the Visking tubing by osmosis because of the differences in concentration inside and outside the visking tubing. |
Observation and explanation. The concentration of water outside the visking tubing is higher than the concentration of water inside the visking tubing. Water moves in through the pores in the semi-permeable membrane of the Visking tubing by osmosis because of the differences in concentration inside and outside the visking tubing. Osmosis is the random movement of water solvent molecules from there they are more to where they are less through a semi-permeable membrane. Osmosis can also be defined as the random movement of water solvent molecules from a dilute solution to a more concentrated solution through a semi-permeable membrane until the concentration on each side is equal. Visking tubing is similar to the cell membrane. It is also a semi-permeable membrane, it has tiny holes pores that allows small molecules through but prevents large molecules from passing through. Investigating the process of Osmosis using plant materials. Requirements:Raw potato tuber. -. Distilled water. Table salt. -. A measuring cylinder. Boiled potato. -. A scalpel. Labels. -. A spatula. Petru dishes. -. Writing material. Clock or wrist watch. Procedure:Label two petri dish A and B. Half fill each petri dish with equal volume of distilled water. Using a scalpel, peel a raw potato tuber and trim both if its ends. Make a scoop cavity in one of the ends. Using a scapula, place a given amount of salt in the cavity. Carefully place the set-up in petri dish labelled A and note the time. Repeat step 3 and 5, this time using a previously boiled potato. Place it in a petri dish and label it B. Leave the set up for 40 minutes. Observe and record. Questions to answer. Why is it necessary to peel off the potato tuber before carrying out this experiment? Explain the changes in the petri dish A and B. What biological process is being investigated? Observation and explanation. It is necessary to peel off potato tubers so as to expose large surface area and expose the inner cells that are permeable for osmosis. Petri dish A-water moves up by osmosis through the potato cells then dissolves the table salt in the cavity. Petri dish B-the slat did not dissolve because no water moved by osmosis in to the cavity. |
It is necessary to peel off potato tubers so as to expose large surface area and expose the inner cells that are permeable for osmosis. Petri dish A-water moves up by osmosis through the potato cells then dissolves the table salt in the cavity. Petri dish B-the slat did not dissolve because no water moved by osmosis in to the cavity. This is because the boiled potatoes have destroyed semi-permeable cells membranes that cannot carry out osmosis. The process being investigated is osmosis in living cells. Factors affecting the rate of osmosis. Temperatures -rate of osmosis increases with increase in temperature. This is because increase in temperature increases energy of the molecules. Concentration gradient- osmosis increases where the difference in concentration of water molecules is higher. Type of semi-permeable membrane- larger number of pores, the faster the rate of osmosis. Role of osmosis in living things. In plants Osmosis plays the following roles:Absorption of water from the soil-roots absorb water from the soil by osmosis. Support-some plants have cells that absorb water, become turgid hence providing support to the plants. Feeding in insectivorous plants-insectivorous plants such as pitcher plant prey on insects. They trap insects when there is a sudden change in their stiffness when disturbed by the insect. Trapped insects are digested to provide the plant with nitrogen. In animals, Osmosis plays the following roles:Absorption of water in the human body. Excretion-this is the removal of waste products from the body. Urine is the main product through which excess water is excreted from the body. Kidneys filter urine to control the amount of water lost. This happens through osmosis. Similarities and difference between osmosis and diffusion. Similarities. Both are mean to equalize concentration of two solutions. Both are passive transport processes, i.e., they do not require any energy to occur. In both, particles move from an area of higher concentration to an area of low concentration. Differences. Osmosis happens in liquid medium while diffusion happens in liquids, gases and even solids. Semi-permeable membrane is required in osmosis while in diffusion no membrane is needed. Osmosis requires water for movement of particles while diffusion does not require water. In osmosis there is only one way for particles to flow while in diffusion particles can flow in any direction. |
Semi-permeable membrane is required in osmosis while in diffusion no membrane is needed. Osmosis requires water for movement of particles while diffusion does not require water. In osmosis there is only one way for particles to flow while in diffusion particles can flow in any direction. 2.3 Reproduction in Human Beings. Menstrual cycle. Menstrual cycle consists of natural changes that occur to the body of a female human being every month in preparation to pregnancy. A menstrual cycle lasts between 28-35 days. However, this can vary between female and from one cycle to the next. The cycle depends on hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers in the body. They direct the body on what to do and when to do it. The menstrual cycle is a process controlled by hormones in the female body. The menstrual cycle is divided in to the following phases:Challenges related to the Human menstrual cycle. Irregular periods. This can be determined by finding out how long your menstrual cycles are. You can determine your personal menstrual length by counting from day 1 of your period to day 1 of your next period. Day 1 means the first day of the actual flow. It is normal to have menstrual cycles that are between 21 and 35 says. Your periods are irregular if it tends to come more frequently than every 21 days or less often than 35 days. If the circle length falls in the normal range but varies by 7 to 9 days from the cycle to cycle that is a sign of an irregular period too. For example, if one is 25 days and the next is 33 days, your cycles would be considered irregular. Absent periods. In some cases, some females may fail to get periods. Others might not get their first period by the age of 16 years. Other cases when some females stop getting their regular periods for 6 months or more. Irregular bleeding. Bleeding very little or no bleeding at all with each menstrual cycle is another challenge related to the menstrual cycle. Light or lack of bleeding can result from being extremely underweight or overweight. If you are overweight, losing weight might help to make your periods regular. If you are underweight, slow and steady weight gain may help to regulate your menstrual circle. Excessive bleeding is another challenge related to the menstrual cycle. Bleeding is considered heavy if it interferes with normal activities. |
If you are underweight, slow and steady weight gain may help to regulate your menstrual circle. Excessive bleeding is another challenge related to the menstrual cycle. Bleeding is considered heavy if it interferes with normal activities. However, though common, you should see a doctor. Heavy periods can be a sign of a health problem. Painful periods. Most women experience menstrual cramps before or during their period at some point in their lives. For some of them it is part of the regular monthly routine. However, if the cramps are painful and persistent, you should see a doctor. A doctor can prescribe hormonal medication that can help control heavy bleeding. If one experiences heavy bleeding, an iron supplement might help to prevent anaemia. Mild to moderate pain or cramps can be lessened reduced by taking an appropriate pain reliever. Taking a warm bath might also help to relieve cramps. Surgery can also be performed. If symptoms persist, always visit a doctor. Fertilization and Implantation. Fertilization is the fusion of a sperm with an ovum in the oviduct also called the fallopian tube. During sexual intercourse, thousands of sperms are released into the vagina by the penis. Sperms swim through the cervix into the uterus up to the oviduct. Few sperms that reach the ovum try to penetrate it. Only one sperm penetrates the ovum. When the sperm penetrates the ovum, the surface of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the ovum to form a zygote. The zygote moves from the oviduct and enters the uterus, attaching itself to the uterus walls. This process is called implantation. Once implantation has taken place, the zygote is now referred to as an embryo. Symptoms and prevention of common STIs. HIV aid. Symptoms. Chronic diarrhea. High fever and night sweating. Weight loss. Patient becomes very thin and weak. Prevention. Abstain from unnecessary sex. Self control in drinking. Carry out blood transfusion only in extreme need and consider safety. Gonorrhea. Symptoms. Vaginal discharge with bad odours. Penis becomes sore at the tip. Urination is difficult and painful. If untreated it spreads to rest of the organs blocking passages. Prevention. Avoid unnecessary sexual behaviours. Abstain from sexual intercourse. Faithfulness in marriage is encouraged. Syphilis. |
Abstain from sexual intercourse. Faithfulness in marriage is encouraged. Syphilis. Symptoms. Sore resembling blisters appear at site of infection. Rashes appear on the skin. Patient feels feverish, suffers body pains and loses hair. Can be prevented by using same measures as in gonorrhea. HerpesSymptoms. Painful sores on the genitals. Blisters may disappear. Can be prevented by;Not indulging in promiscuous sexual behavior. Being faithful in marriage. Avoiding sexual contact with an HSV-II infected personStrand 3 FORCE ENERGY. 3.1 Transformation of energy. Energy is the ability to do workEnergy is not visible, has no mass and neither does it occupy space. Energy exists in different forms. Energy transformation is the process of changing one form of energy to another. Forms of energy in nature. Forms of energy in nature include:Heat or thermal energy. Sound energy. Electromagnetic energy. Nuclear energy. Electrical energy. Chemical energy. Mechanical energy- divided into potential and kinetic energy. Heat energy. Heat is a form of energy transferred from one body to another due to difference in temperature. In an experiment where a metal rod on which different pins are attached using candle wax is heated on a source of heat, the pins start to fall starting with one closest to the source of heat. This means heat flows through the metallic rod from the burning candle to the other end of metallic rod. Sound energy. Sound energy is the energy associated with vibration or disturbance of bodies or particles. Such as striking a drum with a piece of wood or plucking the wire. Nuclear energy. Nuclear energy is the energy that results from nuclear reactions in the nucleus of atom. Very large amounts of energy can be released when changes take place within the nucleus of an atom. Examples of these changes are nuclear fission in which a nucleus breaks down to give two smaller nucleus or nuclear fusion where two small nuclei join to form one big nucleus and radioactive decay in which the nucleus of an element change to different nucleus by releasing certain particles. Electrical energy. Electrical energy is energy produced by flow of electric charges electrons Chemical energy. Is a type of energy stored in atoms and molecules that make up a substance. For example, a thermometer records a higher temperature reading after the steel and vinegar are mixed. This reaction of vinegar and steel wool produces heat. |
Is a type of energy stored in atoms and molecules that make up a substance. For example, a thermometer records a higher temperature reading after the steel and vinegar are mixed. This reaction of vinegar and steel wool produces heat. People and other living things get their energy needs from the chemical energy stored in food. Other sources are dry cells and fuels. Mechanical energy. Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion or due to its position. It can either be kinetic or potential energy or both. When an object is falling down through air, it possesses both potential energy PE and kinetic energy KE due to its speed as it falls. The sum of its PE and KE is its mechanical energy. Mechanical energy kinetic energy potential energy. In conclusion. Kinetic energy is possessed by a moving body while potential energy is possessed by a body due to its position. The sum of an object s kinetic energy and potential energy is its mechanical energy. Potential energy. When a stone is held and released to fall on the ground, this indicates that the stone had stored energy due to its position that made it to start moving down after it had been released. The energy possessed by a body e.g., the stone due to its position above the ground is known as gravitational potential energy. In the same way, when a compressed spring or a stretched catapult is released, it goes back to its original shape and size. This indicates that the spring had stored energy due to compression. The energy possessed by a body dur to compression for example the spring or stretch for example a catapult is called elastic potential energy. Kinetic energyKinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving object. Examples of objects that possess Kinetic energy KE include:Moving air. Rotating windmills. Falling water. A person running. Any moving object in general. Classifications of energy sources. Energy sources are classified either as renewable sources and non-renewable sources. Renewable energy sources-this are energy sources that cannot be depleted or they can be used again and again. Examples are solar energy, water and wind. Non-renewable energy sources are energy sources that can be depleted and are limited. That means they are completely used and can not be replaced such as fossil fuels like coal and petroleum. Demonstrating energy transformation in nature. Using a flash light. When using a flashlight, the circuit closes. Chemical energy is transformed into electrical energy in the dry cells. |
Using a flash light. When using a flashlight, the circuit closes. Chemical energy is transformed into electrical energy in the dry cells. The electrical energy is then converted into light energy. The torch bulb therefore lights which is light energy. Chemical energy to Electrical energy to Light energyUsing a basketball. When you dribble a basketball, the ball had potential energy at its starting point above the ground. The potentials energy is converted to kinetic energy as the ball starts o fall to the ground. Some of the energy is lost on impact as it produces sound and generate heat as it hits the floor When the ball bounces back, it may not return to its starting height. If your hand is there to put more energy into the ball by pushing it down again , the ball can continue to bounce up and down and the energy will shift back and forth between potential and kinetic energy. Potential energy to kinetic energy to potential energy. Appliances whose working rely on energy transformation. Bulb electrical energy -light energy. Solar panels-solar energy to electrical energy. Hammer-potential energy to kinetic energy. Diodes-electrical energy to light energy. Moving coil microphone-electrical energy to sound energy. Electrical heater-electrical energy to heat energy. Dynamo-mechanical energy to electrical energy. Motor-electrical energy to mechanical energy. Safety measures associated with energy transformation. Road accidents. In case an accident, a moving vehicle has kinetic energy that is transformed into other forms incase of head-on collision with another vehicle or a stationery object. Most of kinetic energy is converted to other forms of energy as the vehicle undergoes permanent deformation that causes it to bend and twist. This is a destructive mechanical energy. Some kinetic energy is converted to heat energy and sound energy. Accidents caused by fire. Heat is produced during energy transformation from one form to another. Heat can cause fire accidents, especially when electrical energy is transformed to thermal energy through the use of various appliances. Accidental fires can also be caused by lighting when electrical energy is transformed into heat energy. We should take precaution when handling electrical appliances. We should also observe safety measures during a thunderstorm. Accident associated with the use of electricity. At home various appliances that transform electrical energy into other forms of energy such as light, sound and heat. These appliances include:Electrical heater. Television sets. Iron boxes etc. Risks or accidents associated with use of electricity include electrical shocks, electrical burns and electric fires. |
Television sets. Iron boxes etc. Risks or accidents associated with use of electricity include electrical shocks, electrical burns and electric fires. To reduce electricity accidents the following should be done:Move electrical appliances away from water. Repair any faulty wirings. Replace faulty appliances. Health hazard from bright light. Some energy transformation produces very bright light that can damage the eyes, for example in welding Electrical energy is transformed into heat and light energy. This produces a very bright spark of flame that is a health hazard. Welders and other people nearby should wear protective welding shield to avoid exposure to the bright light from the flame. Loud sounds. Various transformations of energy results in production of sound. For example, a motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The mechanical rotation of the fan, blenders and other appliance produces sound. In our environment, sound can be classified into loud or soft sound. Loud sounds such as loud music and shouting or screaming are not good for the environment. Loud soud affect living things by:Causing irritation. Damaging our eardrumsTo reduce loud sounds, we should do the following:Use more efficient appliances that minimise production of loud sound. Wear hearing protection devices to protect our ears from loud sounds. Common types of hearing protection devices include: Earplugs. Earmuffs3.2 Pressure I. Meaning of pressure. Pressure is defined as the force acting normally per unit area. Normally here means at a right angle or perpendicularly. For example,If two leaners of equal mass walked on mud and the boy pus on flat-sole shoes while the girl wears sharp-high heeled shoes, which of the two would make deeper impression on the muddy ground? In the scenario above, the girl makes deeper impressions on the muddy ground than the boy. This is because the weight of the boy is spread over a large surface area than that of the girl. The greater the force weight acts on, the less the effect or impression made on the muddy surface. The sharp heel shoes of the girl have a small surface area in contact with the ground. The smaller the area the deeper the impressions or more sinking than the shoes of the boy for the same weightExample 2,If a leaner has two identical bags, but one has wider shoulder strap and the other has narrow shoulder straps. If the learner places same books with similar weight in the two bags, which bag will the learner feel the straps squeezing more into their shoulder? |
The sharp heel shoes of the girl have a small surface area in contact with the ground. The smaller the area the deeper the impressions or more sinking than the shoes of the boy for the same weightExample 2,If a leaner has two identical bags, but one has wider shoulder strap and the other has narrow shoulder straps. If the learner places same books with similar weight in the two bags, which bag will the learner feel the straps squeezing more into their shoulder? In this case, the bag with narrow straps will produce more squeezing effect than that one with wider straps for the same force weight of books carried. This is because, pressure is high when the surface area is small, and it is low when the surface area is large. Therefore, pressure is the force acting normally per unit area. Pressure in liquids. Pressure is represented by a symbol P It is defined as force acting normally per unit area applied to the surface of an object. Pressure increases as the force increases. In mathematical terms, pressure can be expressed as:Pressure ForceAreaSI unit for Force is measured in Newtons N SI unit for Area is measured in m2. ThereforePressure Force F N Area A m2 Form the equation, we obtain unit of pressure as N m2 Pressure can also be measured in Pascal Pa where1N m2 1 Pascal Pa Experiment to demonstrate pressure in solids. Use two different knives. One that is sharp and one that is blunt to cut an orange. Make an observation of the process. From the observation, It is easier to cut an orange with a sharp knife than with a blunt knife. This is because, while cutting, the sharp knife has very small area of contact with the orange. When using the blunt edge of the knife, the force requires to apply for cutting the orange is over a large area. The sharp knife has a smaller area that produces a greater cutting effect. The blunt knife has a large area that produces a lesser cutting effect. The cutting effect is equivalent to pressure. For the same applied force, pressure is higher with a smaller area and it is less with a large area. It is easier to cut with a sharp knife, axe, panga than trying to cut with a blunt knife, axe or panga. A farm tractor has wide wheels that prevent it from sinking into the soil because pressure is distributed over a large area of the wide wheels. |
For the same applied force, pressure is higher with a smaller area and it is less with a large area. It is easier to cut with a sharp knife, axe, panga than trying to cut with a blunt knife, axe or panga. A farm tractor has wide wheels that prevent it from sinking into the soil because pressure is distributed over a large area of the wide wheels. A trailer or trailers are fitted with many wheels to reduce pressure exerted on the road since the wheels increase surface area. Demonstrating pressure exerted by objects of different cross-sectional area. The block below has a weight of 20kg. Use it to:Determine maximum pressure it exerts in a surface. Determine the minimum pressure it exerts on a surface. G 10N Kg1m1.5m2mPressure is calculated by dividing Force over Area F A From the block above Force, F is given as 20kg. Change 20k into Newtons N this is done by multiplying the weight given in Kg by the gravitational force g 10N kg Therefore, F 20 x 10N kg 200 N. To calculate the maximum m pressure the block exerts on the surface. To calculate minimum pressure the block exerts on the surface. Use the force provided divided by the largest area of the block. If a force is exerted on a small area of contact, it will exert higher or more pressure than if the same force is exerted over a large area. Since weight of force of a brick is constant does not change , a higher pressure is exerted on the sand when the brick lands on narrow face than when it lands on the wide face. The narrow face therefore, produces a deeper depression on the sand than the wide face. Example 2. Suppose the mass of a learner is 40kg and the total area of her feet is 500cm2. What pressure does the girl exert when standing on one of her feet? Assume het feet have equal area. G 10g Kg Solution. Pressure F A. Force the student exerts on the ground is her weight, which is 40kg x 10N Kg. 400 N. Area 500cm2 2 250 cm2. Change area form cm2 to m2. 1m2 10000cm2. ? |
Change area form cm2 to m2. 1m2 10000cm2. ? 250cm2 250 10000 0.025m2Substitute the values into the formula. Pressure Force Area 400N 0.025m216,000N m2Example 3. A mass of 50kg exerts a pressure of 2000N m2. What area is in contact with the ground? Pressure Force Area Pressure 2000N m2. Area? To be determined. 2000N m2 50kg x 10N kgAreaTherefore, area Force Pressure. Force 500N. Pressure is given as 2000N m2 Area 500N 2000N m2. 0.25m2. Pressure in liquids. Demonstrating that a liquid exerts equal pressure at the same depth. Use an empty bottle or cylindrical container. Drill holes all round near the bottom of the bottle at the same height from the bottom of the bottle. Close the holes using cellotape and fill the bottle with water, remove the cellotape at once. Explain your observation. Observation and explanation. If you observe the jest coming of the bottle, you will notice that they fall at equal distances on all sides of the bottle only if the pressure of water at the depth of the holes in the bottle is the same. Therefore, we conclude that:A liquid exerts pressure on the walls of its container. A liquid exerts pressure at the same depth. The formation of fountains of water from the leaking pipes of water supply tells is that water exerts pressure on the walls of its container. Demonstrating that pressure in liquids increases with depth. ABCIf a bottle is filled with water and equal size holes made from the bottom to the tops as show above. You will observe that after opening all the holes, water jet fall in different horizontal distances depending on the depth they are on the bottle. For example, in the diagram above. The water jet C is observed to move the farthest horizontally. As the depth from the surface decreases like in hole A and B, the distance from the container to where the jet strikes decrease, indicating a lower pressure by the water. The weight of the liquid acts downwards. The more the depth, the more the liquid is above the point. |
As the depth from the surface decreases like in hole A and B, the distance from the container to where the jet strikes decrease, indicating a lower pressure by the water. The weight of the liquid acts downwards. The more the depth, the more the liquid is above the point. This increases the weight causing more pressure at that level. The pressure at this level acts on the container, on any object in water and on the liquid below this level. Determining pressure in liquids. The pressure exerted by a liquid at a particular point is determined by the following:Depth. Density of the liquid. Acceleration due to gravity g 10N Kg Formular for pressure at appoint in liquidsPressure Force Area F A Pressure exerted at the bottom of the cylinder F A Volume of the liquid base are x height Ah. Mass of the liquid; m volume x density Ah x p. Weight of the liquid mass x gravitational field strength force exerted. Weight of the liquid; W F mg Ah g. Therefore pressure Ah gAP h g. From the formula, pressure at a given point in liquids depends on the following:Depth or height of the liquid. Density of the liquid. Acceleration due to gravity g 10N kg Applications of pressure in solids and liquids in day-to-day life. Applications of pressure in solids. Animals such as elephants and camels have broad feet to reduce the pressure exerted on the ground when walking. Cutting tool- cutting tools like a panga, saw and knives have very small surface area of contact at their cutting edges. When a force is applied to cut an object, the small surface area results in high pressure which makes cutting easier. Wooden plank- when a wooden plank is placed on a soft ground surface it increases the surface area in contact between the wheel barrow and the ground. As a result, the pressure exerted on the ground by the wheel barrow is reduced. Digging-edge of a jembe is sharp to reduce surface area when jembe is driven into the ground. This exerts high pressure making digging easier. Football boots-they have studs that are sharp to reduce area of contact and increase pressure on the football pitch. This provides a player with a better grip on the ground. School bag shoulder pads- they are made wide so that they reduce the pressure applied on the shoulder. |
Football boots-they have studs that are sharp to reduce area of contact and increase pressure on the football pitch. This provides a player with a better grip on the ground. School bag shoulder pads- they are made wide so that they reduce the pressure applied on the shoulder. This makes one comfortable as narrow strap increase pressure on the shoulders causing pain. Application of pressure in liquids. Construction of dams-walls of a dam have thicker bottom to help withstand high pressure of water due to depth. Water supply-water tanks are erected high or elevated on high grounds so that water has enough pressure to flow to a house. Intravenous transfusion IV -this a is method of putting fluids, for example blood, into the bloodstream of a patient. In this method, a bottle is hung at high position to ensure that the fluid in the IV bottle have enough pressure to flow into the vein of the patient. |
CHAPTER ONETransport in Plants and Animals1.1 IntroductionIn form one, we learnt that animals and plants require nutrients andoxygen for the various metabolic activities taking place in theirbodies. Nutrients and oxygen must be transported to all the livingcells of the body. Metabolic activities release by-products such ascarbon IV dioxide carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes thatmust be removed the moment they are formed. Otherwise ifallowed to accumulate, they will poison the cells. A means oftransport is essential for organisms to carry the required substancesto various parts of the body and to remove the waste products fromthe various parts of the body. The type of transport system dependson the size of organism. Lower organisms such as bacteria and simple multi-cellularorganisms have small bodies that make them to have large surfacearea to volume ratio. As a result of this, most of their body surfaceis in contact with the environment. Therefore, diffusion alone isenough to transport substances across their cell membranes andwithin the cells of organisms such as hydra and spirogyra. In higher organisms the surface area to volume ratio is smalldue to their large body size. Hence, the tissues and organs are farremoved from the site of supply of materials. In order for theinteriorly located tissues and organs to obtain adequate supply ofmaterials, and at the same time have rapid waste elimination, anelaborate transport system is essential. This would transportsubstances closer to the tissues from where diffusion can take placeefficiently.1.2 Transport in NAME is essential in plants. Study Questions1. State the substances absorbed AUTHOR tothe rest of the plant body?2. What substance is transported from leaves to the rest of thebody?In simple plants such as mosses and liverworts, transport ofsubstances occur from cell to cell through the processes of diffusion,osmosis, and active transport. These plants lack specialisedtransport systems. |
State the substances absorbed AUTHOR tothe rest of the plant body?2. What substance is transported from leaves to the rest of thebody?In simple plants such as mosses and liverworts, transport ofsubstances occur from cell to cell through the processes of diffusion,osmosis, and active transport. These plants lack specialisedtransport systems. In higher plants, the transport function is carriedout AUTHOR known as the vascularbundle. It comprises of the xylem and the phloem tissues. Thexylem transports water and mineral salts while the phloemtransports dissolved food substances such as sugars. To understand the mechanisms involved in the transport ofsubstances in higher plants it is necessary to study the anatomy ofroots and stems in relation to transport. NAME 1To observe the external structure of the rootRequirementsPetri dishes, razor blade, ruler, slides and dissecting microscope,hand lens and seedlings of pea or bean. Procedure1. Uproot one of the seedlings and wash off the soil carefullywithout destroying the roots.2. Identify the radicle or tap root. Measure 3 cm length from theroot tip and cut off. Transfer the piece onto a glass slide. Add afew drops of water to avoid drying.3. Examine the piece using a hand lens or a dissecting microscope. Identify the root hairs and their region of growth. Make a fullylabelled drawing of your observations. Study Questions3. How are the root hairs adapted to their functions?4. Make a fully labelled drawing of your observation in practicalactivity 1. NAME of Roots and Root HairsThe primary functions of roots are: i Anchorage holding the plant firmly in the soil . Ii Absorption uptake of mineral salts and water . Otherfunctions performed AUTHOR storageand breathing gaseous exchange .A microscopic examination of internal structure of a young rootshows various structural features. See figure 1.1 a and 1.1 b . Fig. 1.1 a : Transverse section of a young dicotyledonous rootFig. 1.1 b : Longitudinal section through a dicotyledonous root tipThe root cap is at the terminal position of the root tip. It consistsof simple parenchyma cells that protect the apical meristem as theroot tip is pushed past soil particles. |
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