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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein%20precipitation | Protein precipitation is widely used in downstream processing of biological products in order to concentrate proteins and purify them from various contaminants. For example, in the biotechnology industry protein precipitation is used to eliminate contaminants commonly contained in blood. The underlying mechanism of precipitation is to alter the solvation potential of the solvent, more specifically, by lowering the solubility of the solute by addition of a reagent.
General principles
The solubility of proteins in aqueous buffers depends on the distribution of hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acid residues on the protein's surface. Hydrophobic residues predominantly occur in the globular protein core, but some exist in patches on the surface. Proteins that have high hydrophobic amino acid content on the surface have low solubility in an aqueous solvent. Charged and polar surface residues interact with ionic groups in the solvent and increase the solubility of a protein. Knowledge of a protein's amino acid composition will aid in determining an ideal precipitation solvent and methods.
Repulsive electrostatic force
Repulsive electrostatic forces form when proteins are dissolved in an electrolyte solution. These repulsive forces between proteins prevent aggregation and facilitate dissolution. Upon dissolution in an electrolyte solution, solvent counterions migrate towards charged surface residues on the protein, forming a rigid matrix of counterions on the protein's surface. Next to this layer is another solvation layer that is less rigid and, as one moves away from the protein surface, contains a decreasing concentration of counterions and an increasing concentration of co-ions. The presence of these solvation layers cause the protein to have fewer ionic interactions with other proteins and decreases the likelihood of aggregation.
Repulsive electrostatic forces also form when proteins are dissolved in water. Water forms a solvation layer around the hydrophilic sur |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serum%20amyloid%20A | Serum amyloid A (SAA) proteins are a family of apolipoproteins associated with high-density lipoprotein (HDL) in plasma. Different isoforms of SAA are expressed constitutively (constitutive SAAs) at different levels or in response to inflammatory stimuli (acute phase SAAs). These proteins are produced predominantly by the liver.
Acute-phase serum amyloid A proteins
Acute-phase serum amyloid A proteins (A-SAAs) are secreted during the acute phase of inflammation. These proteins have several roles, including the transport of cholesterol to the liver for secretion into the bile, the recruitment of immune cells to inflammatory sites, and the induction of enzymes that degrade extracellular matrix. A-SAAs are implicated in several chronic inflammatory diseases, such as amyloidosis, atherosclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis. Three acute-phase SAA isoforms have been reported in mice, called SAA1, SAA2, and SAA3. During inflammation, SAA1 and SAA2 are expressed and induced principally in the liver, whereas SAA3 is induced in many distinct tissues. SAA1 and SAA2 genes are regulated in liver cells by the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α. Both SAA1 and SAA2 are induced up to a 1000-fold in mice under acute inflammatory conditions following exposure to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Three A-SAA genes have also been identified in humans, although the third gene, SAA3, is believed to represent a pseudogene that does not generate messenger RNA or protein. Molecular weights of the human proteins are estimated at 11.7 kDa for SAA1 and 12.8 kDa for SAA4.
Serum amyloid A (SAA) is also an acute phase marker that responds rapidly. Similar to CRP, levels of acute-phase SAA increase within hours after inflammatory stimulus, and the magnitude of increase may be greater than that of CRP. Relatively trivial inflammatory stimuli can lead to SAA responses. It has been suggested that SAA levels correlate better with disease activity in early inflammatory joint disease t |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma%20modeling | Plasma modeling refers to solving equations of motion that describe the state of a plasma. It is generally coupled with Maxwell's equations for electromagnetic fields or Poisson's equation for electrostatic fields. There are several main types of plasma models: single particle, kinetic, fluid, hybrid kinetic/fluid, gyrokinetic and as system of many particles.
Single particle description
The single particle model describes the plasma as individual electrons and ions moving in imposed (rather than self-consistent) electric and magnetic fields. The motion of each particle is thus described by the Lorentz Force Law.
In many cases of practical interest, this motion can be treated as the superposition of a relatively fast circular motion around a point called the guiding center and a relatively slow drift of this point.
Kinetic description
The kinetic model is the most fundamental way to describe a plasma, resultantly producing a distribution function
where the independent variables and are position and velocity, respectively.
A kinetic description is achieved by solving the Boltzmann equation or, when the correct description of long-range Coulomb interaction is necessary, by the Vlasov equation which contains self-consistent collective electromagnetic field, or by the Fokker–Planck equation, in which approximations have been used to derive manageable collision terms. The charges and currents produced by the distribution functions self-consistently determine the electromagnetic fields via Maxwell's equations.
Fluid description
To reduce the complexities in the kinetic description, the fluid model describes the plasma based on macroscopic quantities (velocity moments of the distribution such as density, mean velocity, and mean energy). The equations for macroscopic quantities, called fluid equations, are obtained by taking velocity moments of the Boltzmann equation or the Vlasov equation. The fluid equations are not closed without the determination of transport coef |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Skinner%20Cooper | William Skinner Cooper (25 August 1884 – 8 October 1978) was an American ecologist. Cooper received his B.S. in 1906 from Alma College in Michigan. In 1909, he entered graduate school at the University of Chicago, where he studied with Henry Chandler Cowles, and completed his Ph.D. in 1911. His first major publication, "The Climax Forest of Isle Royale, Lake Superior, and Its Development" appeared in 1913.
Cooper served briefly in 1914-1915 as a lecturer in plant ecology at Stanford University before beginning his long career in the botany department at the University of Minnesota, where he taught from 1915 to 1951. Among his students at Minnesota were Henry J. Oosting, Murray Fife Buell, Rexford F. Daubenmire, Frank Edwin Egler and Arnold M. Schultz; the latter went on to teach "Ecosystemology" at U.C. Berkeley, and received U.C. Berkeley's "Distinguished Teaching Award" in 1992. Cooper was the president of the Ecological Society of America in 1936 and the president of the Minnesota Academy of Science in 1937. Other professional accolades included receipt of the Botanical Society of America's Merit Award in 1956 and the Eminent Ecologist Award from the Ecological Society of America in 1963.
Cooper's travels in Glacier Bay, Alaska, compelled him to lead scientists in nominating it as a national park or monument. He also established the oldest permanent plot network in post-glacial areas in the world in 1916 in the Glacier Bay basin, now maintained by Brian Buma at the University of Colorado. At the Ecological Society of America's 1922 meeting, Cooper headed a committee that drafted a resolution adopted by the organization and sent to President Calvin Coolidge asking him to name the bay a monument. His 1935 monograph on the late glacial and postglacial environment of the Glacier Bay Basin is considered a classic. Mount Cooper in Glacier Bay is named in his honor.
The Ecological Society of America recognizes Cooper's work in the discipline by bestowing its a |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%20separation%20by%20silica%20adsorption | DNA separation by silica adsorption is a method of DNA separation that is based on DNA molecules binding to silica surfaces in the presence of certain salts and under certain pH conditions.
Operations
In order to conduct DNA separation by silica adsorption, a sample (this may be anything from purified cells to a tissue specimen) is lysed, releasing proteins, DNA, phospholipids, etc. from the cells. The remaining tissue is discarded. The supernatant containing the DNA is then exposed to silica in a solution with high ionic strength. The highest DNA adsorption efficiencies occur in the presence of buffer solution with a pH at or below the pKa of the surface silanol groups.
The mechanism behind DNA adsorption onto silica is not fully understood; one possible explanation involves reduction of the silica surface's negative charge due to the high ionic strength of the buffer. This decrease in surface charge leads to a decrease in the electrostatic repulsion between the negatively charged DNA and the negatively charged silica. Meanwhile, the buffer also reduces the activity of water by formatting hydrated ions. This leads to the silica surface and DNA becoming dehydrated. These conditions lead to an energetically favorable situation for DNA to adsorb to the silica surface.
A further explanation of how DNA binds to silica is based on the action of guanidinium chloride (GuHCl), which acts as a chaotrope. A chaotrope denatures biomolecules by disrupting the shell of hydration around them. This allows positively charged ions to form a salt bridge between the negatively charged silica and the negatively charged DNA backbone in high salt concentration. The DNA can then be washed with high salt and ethanol, and ultimately eluted with low salt.
After the DNA is bound to the silica it is then washed to remove contaminants and finally eluted using an elution buffer or distilled water.
See also
Spin column-based nucleic acid purification |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garudiya | Garudhiya or Garudiya () is a clear fish broth. It is one of the basic and traditional food items of Maldivian cuisine. The broth is based on tuna species found in the nation's ocean waters such as skipjack (kanḍumas or goḍa), yellowfin tuna (kanneli), little tunny (lațți), or frigate tuna (raagonḍi).
Despite the introduction of new items in the Maldivian cuisine, garudhiya is still a Maldivian favourite as it has been for generations.
Preparation
In order to cook garudhiya, tuna fish are cut up following a traditional pattern. After having had the gills and some of the innards thrown away, the fish pieces, the heads and the bones are carefully washed. The fish is then boiled in water with salt, until it is well cooked. The foam or scum (filleyo) is carefully removed while boiling and is later discarded.
Garudhiya is usually eaten with steamed rice, but it can also be eaten with roshi, the Maldivian chapati. When eaten with steamed taro (Alocasia and Colocasia), or with steamed breadfruit, grated coconut is added.
Variants and derivatives
Sometimes Maldivians use chilies, curry leaves and onions to flavor the garudhiya according to their taste, however, mostly this broth is cooked simply using fish, salt and water.
Kekki garudhiya is a variant of garudhiya with spices.
Garudhiya could be also obtained using other fishes like wahoo (kurumas), mahi-mahi (fiyala) or bluefin jack (handi), among others, but the favored fish for garudhiya is tuna and related species.
When the tuna-based garudhiya is cooked until all the water evaporates, it forms a thick brown paste known as rihaakuru that is highly valued in the Maldivian diet.
See also
Maldives fish
List of tuna dishes |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbial%20loop | The microbial loop describes a trophic pathway where, in aquatic systems, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is returned to higher trophic levels via its incorporation into bacterial biomass, and then coupled with the classic food chain formed by phytoplankton-zooplankton-nekton. In soil systems, the microbial loop refers to soil carbon. The term microbial loop was coined by Farooq Azam, Tom Fenchel et al. in 1983 to include the role played by bacteria in the carbon and nutrient cycles of the marine environment.
In general, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is introduced into the ocean environment from bacterial lysis, the leakage or exudation of fixed carbon from phytoplankton (e.g., mucilaginous exopolymer from diatoms), sudden cell senescence, sloppy feeding by zooplankton, the excretion of waste products by aquatic animals, or the breakdown or dissolution of organic particles from terrestrial plants and soils. Bacteria in the microbial loop decompose this particulate detritus to utilize this energy-rich matter for growth. Since more than 95% of organic matter in marine ecosystems consists of polymeric, high molecular weight (HMW) compounds (e.g., protein, polysaccharides, lipids), only a small portion of total dissolved organic matter (DOM) is readily utilizable to most marine organisms at higher trophic levels. This means that dissolved organic carbon is not available directly to most marine organisms; marine bacteria introduce this organic carbon into the food web, resulting in additional energy becoming available to higher trophic levels. Recently the term "microbial food web" has been substituted for the term "microbial loop".
History
Prior to the discovery of the microbial loop, the classic view of marine food webs was one of a linear chain from phytoplankton to nekton. Generally, marine bacteria were not thought to be significant consumers of organic matter (including carbon), although they were known to exist. However, the view of a marine pelagic food web w |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Dixon%20%28ornithologist%29 | Charles Dixon (1858 – 17 June 1926) was an English ornithologist, born in London. He discovered the St Kilda wren and a new species in North Africa. He collaborated with Henry Seebohm on his great work on British Birds, in the second volume of which he summarized and modified A. R. Wallace's theory of the relation between nests and coloration of birds. Elliott Coues wrote in the preface to the American edition of Dixon's book "Rural bird life" pointing out the originality of the observations made from the field and Julian Huxley noted Dixon for recognizing the value of prismatic binoculars for bird study. In his later years, he wrote in the newspapers on agricultural fairs and horse shows.
Biography
Little is known of Dixon's early life. Dixon's early studies on ornithology were followed by numerous books. He did not believe in the role of natural selection in evolution and in his Evolution without Natural Selection (1885) he used examples of adaptations that were apparently of little survival value to illustrate his position. Reviewers were quick to point out that natural selection essentially works on adaptations that do have a survival value. He also argued that Darwin was mistaken to conclude that ornate male plumages evolved due to female selection.
Dixon made a special study of bird migration — especially in his 1892 book The Migration of Birds (new edition, 1897), an ingenious theoretical work — and of geographical distribution of birds. Dixon changed his ideas drastically between the two editions of his book on migration. In the 1892 edition he supported the idea that birds moved out of unfavourable environmental conditions but in the 1897 edition he suggested that migration is essentially derived from dispersal and range extension of birds. He believed that glaciation in former times could not have induced migration on its own and that southward migration was because of a former mass of tropical land that stretched around the equator. Reviewers did not |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20whirl | The atomic whirl is a symbol of science and has come to be used as a symbol of atheism in general.
The Atomic Whirl is based on the historical Rutherford model of the atom, which erroneously showed the orbital paths of electrons around the central nucleus, and not on the atomic orbitals. It resembles the authoritative logos and symbols of the United States Atomic Energy Commission and the International Atomic Energy Agency who also based their designs on the Rutherford Model. The symbol is used by the American Atheists organization to symbolize that "only through the use of scientific analysis and free, open inquiry can humankind reach out for a better life".
The lower part of the central loop is left open or "broken" to represent the fact that atheists accept that while they rely on the scientific method, they are searching for the answers, and in some cases, further questions. This central loop forms an "A" which represents the word "atheism".
American Atheists has a copyright on the symbol.
Approved emblem of belief (US)
This symbol is one of the permitted "Emblems of Belief" that the United States Department of Veterans Affairs allows on government-furnished headstones and markers.
See also
Rutherford model
Atheism |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubiquitin-conjugating%20enzyme | Ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes, also known as E2 enzymes and more rarely as ubiquitin-carrier enzymes, perform the second step in the ubiquitination reaction that targets a protein for degradation via the proteasome. The ubiquitination process covalently attaches ubiquitin, a short protein of 76 amino acids, to a lysine residue on the target protein. Once a protein has been tagged with one ubiquitin molecule, additional rounds of ubiquitination form a polyubiquitin chain that is recognized by the proteasome's 19S regulatory particle, triggering the ATP-dependent unfolding of the target protein that allows passage into the proteasome's 20S core particle, where proteases degrade the target into short peptide fragments for recycling by the cell.
Relationships
A ubiquitin-activating enzyme, or E1, first activates the ubiquitin by covalently attaching the molecule to its active site cysteine residue. The activated ubiquitin is then transferred to an E2 cysteine. Once conjugated to ubiquitin, the E2 molecule binds one of several ubiquitin ligases or E3s via a structurally conserved binding region. The E3 molecule is responsible for binding the target protein substrate and transferring the ubiquitin from the E2 cysteine to a lysine residue on the target protein.
A particular cell usually contains only a few types of E1 molecule, a greater diversity of E2s, and a very large variety of E3s. In humans, there are about 30 E2s which can bind with one of the 600+ E3s. The E3 molecules responsible for substrate identification and binding are thus the mechanisms of substrate specificity in proteasomal degradation. Each type of E2 can associate with many E3s.
E2s can also be used to study protein folding mechanisms. Since the ubiquitylation system is shared across all organisms, studies can use modified E2 proteins in order to understand the overall system for how all organisms process proteins. There are also some proteins which can act as both and E2 and an E3 containing domain |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacrimal%20caruncle | The lacrimal caruncle, or caruncula lacrimalis, is the small, pink, globular nodule at the inner corner (the medial canthus) of the eye. It consists of tissue types of neighbouring eye structures. It may suffer from lesions and allergic inflammation.
Structure
The lacrimal caruncle is found at the medial canthus of the eye. It consists of skin, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, accessory lacrimal tissue and other tissues that are present in the skin and accessory lacrimal glands. Its non-keratinized epithelium resembles the conjunctival epithelium.
Clinical significance
Lesions
The lacrimal caruncle may have a lesion. This can have any one of a number of causes, which may be difficult to diagnose. Cancer is a rare cause. These lesions include papillomas and oncocytomas.
Allergies
With ocular allergies, the lacrimal caruncle and the plica semilunaris of the conjunctiva may be inflamed and pruritic (itchy) due to histamine release in the tissue and tear film.
Other diagnoses
Sweat glands and oil glands are contained in the caruncle of the eye (lacrimal caruncle in medial canthus). As with all oil glands, lacrimal caruncles can become clogged, causing a pimple, whitehead, or pustule beneath the skin. Clogged oil and sweat glands in the caruncle can affect tear ducts. Treatment for dry eyes due to clogged glands includes refraining from rubbing the eyes and rinsing the eyes with clear water frequently during the day, either with clean hands or a spray faucet. Anti-bacterial eye drops may also be prescribed. If the pustules enlarge, an oral antibiotic may be prescribed. If lesions such as cysts form, they must be surgically drained; this operation is rarely necessary. If it affects the tear sac it may be dacryocystitis. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GemStone/S | GemStone/S is computer software, an application framework that was first available for the programming language Smalltalk as an object database. It is proprietary commercial software.
Company history
GemStone Systems was founded on March 1, 1982, as Servio Logic, to build a database machine based on a set theory model. Ian Huang instigated the founding, as the technology adviser to the CEO of Sampoerna Holdings (Putera Sampoerna), by recruiting the following team, consisting of:
Frank Bouton - President, who was the cofounder of Floating Point Systems Inc
Dr. Michael Mulder - Vice President of Engineering, who was the Group Manager for Advanced Processor Design at Sperry Univac and Principal Architect for the Univac 1180 mainframe
Steve Ivy - Vice President of Operation, who was a senior manager at Tektronix
Leonard Yuen - Vice President, Business Development, who was the Development Manager for the IBM DB2 database
Dr. George Copeland - Chief Architect, who was the Senior Staff Engineer at the Advanced Development Group in Tektronix
Steve Redfield - Chief Engineer, who was the Chief Engineer for the Intel 80286 microprocessor
Alan Purdy - who was a Staff Engineer at Tektronix
Bob Bretl - who was a software engineering manager at Tektronix Signal Processing Systems
Allen Otis - who was also with Tektronix
John Telford - who was a software engineering manager from Electro Scientific Industries
Monty Williams
Servio Logic was renamed GemStone Systems, Inc. in June 1995. The firm developed its first hardware prototype in 1982, and shipped its first software product (GemStone 1.0) in 1986. The engineering group resides in Beaverton, Oregon. Three of the original cofounding engineers, Bob Bretl, Allen Otis, and Monty Williams (now retired), have been with the firm since its start.
GemStone's owners pioneered implementing distributed computing in business systems. Many information system features now associated with Java EE were implemented earlier in GemSt |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antitermination | Antitermination is the prokaryotic cell's aid to fix premature termination of RNA synthesis during the transcription of RNA. It occurs when the RNA polymerase ignores the termination signal and continues elongating its transcript until a second signal is reached. Antitermination provides a mechanism whereby one or more genes at the end of an operon can be switched either on or off, depending on the polymerase either recognizing or not recognizing the termination signal.
Antitermination is used by some phages to regulate progression from one stage of gene expression to the next. The lambda gene N, codes for an antitermination protein (pN) that is necessary to allow RNA polymerase to read through the terminators located at the ends of the immediate early genes. Another antitermination protein, pQ, is required later in phage infection. pN and pQ act on RNA polymerase as it passes specific sites. These sites are located at different relative positions in their respective transcription units.
Antitermination may be a regulated event
Antitermination was discovered in bacteriophage infections. A common feature in the control of phage infection is that very few of the phage genes can be transcribed by the bacterial host RNA polymerase. Among these genes, however, are regulators whose products allow the next set of phage genes to be expressed. One of these types of regulator is an antitermination protein. In the absence of the antitermination protein, RNA polymerase terminates at the terminator. When the antitermination protein is present, it continues past the terminator.
The best characterized example of antitermination is provided by lambda phage, in which the phenomenon was discovered. It is used at two stages of phage expression. The antitermination protein produced at each stage is specific for the particular transcription units that are expressed at that stage.
The host RNA polymerase initially transcribes two genes, which are called the immediate early genes (N |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical%20user%20interface%20testing | In software engineering, graphical user interface testing is the process of testing a product's graphical user interface (GUI) to ensure it meets its specifications. This is normally done through the use of a variety of test cases.
Test case generation
To generate a set of test cases, test designers attempt to cover all the functionality of the system and fully exercise the GUI itself. The difficulty in accomplishing this task is twofold: to deal with domain size and sequences. In addition, the tester faces more difficulty when they have to do regression testing.
Unlike a CLI (command-line interface) system, a GUI may have additional operations that need to be tested. A relatively small program such as Microsoft WordPad has 325 possible GUI operations. In a large program, the number of operations can easily be an order of magnitude larger.
The second problem is the sequencing problem. Some functionality of the system may only be accomplished with a sequence of GUI events. For example, to open a file a user may first have to click on the File Menu, then select the Open operation, use a dialog box to specify the file name, and focus the application on the newly opened window. Increasing the number of possible operations increases the sequencing problem exponentially. This can become a serious issue when the tester is creating test cases manually.
Regression testing is often a challenge with GUIs as well. A GUI may change significantly, even though the underlying application does not. A test designed to follow a certain path through the GUI may then fail since a button, menu item, or dialog may have changed location or appearance.
These issues have driven the GUI testing problem domain towards automation. Many different techniques have been proposed to automatically generate test suites that are complete and that simulate user behavior.
Most of the testing techniques attempt to build on those previously used to test CLI programs, but these can have scaling probl |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zymomonas%20mobilis | {{Speciesbox
| grandparent_authority = Hördt et al. 2020
| genus = Zymomonas
| parent_authority = Kluyver and van Niel 1936 (Approved Lists 1980)
| species = mobilis
| authority = (Lindner 1928) De Ley and Swings 1976
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision_ref =
| subdivision =
Zymomonas mobilis subsp. francensis Coton et al. 2006
Zymomonas mobilis subsp. mobilis (Lindner 1928) De Ley and Swings 1976
'Zymomonas mobilis subsp. pomaceae (Millis 1956) De Ley and Swings 1976
| synonyms_ref =
| synonyms =
Achromobacter anaerobium [sic] Shimwell 1937
Pseudomonas lindneri Kluyver and Hoppenbrouwers 1931
Saccharomonas lindneri (Kluyver and Hoppenbrouwers 1931) Shimwell 1950
Thermobacterium mobile Lindner 1928
Zymomonas anaerobia (Shimwell 1937) Kluyver 1957
Zymomonas mobile [sic] (Lindner 1928) Kluyver and van Niel 1936
}}Zymomonas mobilis is a Gram negative, facultative anaerobic, non-sporulating, polarly-flagellated, rod-shaped bacterium. It is the only species found in the genus Zymomonas. It has notable bioethanol-producing capabilities, which surpass yeast in some aspects. It was originally isolated from alcoholic beverages like the African palm wine, the Mexican pulque, and also as a contaminant of cider and beer (cider sickness and beer spoilage) in European countries.
Beer spoilageZymomonas is an unwanted waterborn bacteria in beer, creating an estery-sulfury flavor due to the production of acetaldehyde and hydrogen sulfide. This can be likened to a rotten apple smell or fruity odor. Zymomonas have not been reported in lager breweries due to the low temperatures (8–12 °C) and stringent carbohydrate requirements (able to ferment only sucrose, glucose, and fructose). It is commonly found in cask-conditioned ales where priming sugar is used to carbonate the beer. The optimum growth temperature is 25 to 30 °C.
Ethanol productionZymomonas mobilis degrades sugars to pyruvate using the Entner–Doudoroff pathway. The pyruvate is then fermented to prod |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%20excess | The mass excess of a nuclide is the difference between its actual mass and its mass number in daltons. It is one of the predominant methods for tabulating nuclear mass. The mass of an atomic nucleus is well approximated (less than 0.1% difference for most nuclides) by its mass number, which indicates that most of the mass of a nucleus arises from mass of its constituent protons and neutrons. Thus, the mass excess is an expression of the nuclear binding energy, relative to the binding energy per nucleon of carbon-12 (which defines the dalton). If the mass excess is negative, the nucleus has more binding energy than 12C, and vice versa. If a nucleus has a large excess of mass compared to a nearby nuclear species, it can radioactively decay, releasing energy.
Energy scale of nuclear reactions
The 12C standard provides a convenient unit (the dalton) in which to express nuclear mass for defining the mass excess. However, its usefulness arises in the calculation of nuclear reaction kinematics or decay. Only a small fraction of the total energy that is associated with an atomic nucleus by mass–energy equivalence, on the order of 0.01% to 0.1% of the total mass, may be absorbed or liberated as radiation. By working in terms of the mass excess, much of the mass changes which arise from the transfer or release of nucleons is effectively removed, highlighting the net energy difference.
Nuclear reaction kinematics are customarily performed in units involving the electronvolt, which derives from accelerator technology. The combination of this practical point with the theoretical relation makes the unit megaelectronvolt over the speed of light squared (MeV/c2) a convenient form in which to express nuclear mass. However, the numerical values of nuclear masses in MeV/c2 are quite large (even the proton mass is ~938.27 MeV/c2), while mass excesses range in the tens of MeV/c2. This makes tabulated mass excess less cumbersome for use in calculations. The 1/c2 factor is typically om |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckling%20%28fish%29 | A buckling is a form of hot-smoked herring similar to the kipper and the bloater. The head and guts are removed but the roe or milt remain. They may be eaten hot or cold.
Terminology
The name comes from the German word bückling or the Swedish böckling, both words denoting a type of hot-smoked herring.
Bucklings, bloaters and kippers
All three are types of smoked herring. Bucklings are hot-smoked whole; bloaters are cold-smoked whole; kippers are split, gutted and then cold-smoked.
See also
Fish preservation
Herring as food
List of dried foods
List of smoked foods
Red herring
Smoked fish
Solomon Gundy |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitisinone | Nitisinone, sold under the brand name Orfadin among others, is a medication used to slow the effects of hereditary tyrosinemia type 1 (HT-1).
It is available as a generic medication.
Medical uses
Nitisinone is used to treat hereditary tyrosinemia type 1 (HT-1) in patients from all ages, in combination with dietary restriction of tyrosine and phenylalanine.
Since its first use for this indication in 1991, it has replaced liver transplantation as the first-line treatment for this ultra rare condition.
Adverse effects
The most common adverse reactions (>1%) for nitisinone are elevated tyrosine levels, thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, conjunctivitis, corneal opacity, keratitis, photophobia, eye pain, blepharitis, cataracts, granulocytopenia, epistaxis, pruritus, exfoliative dermatitis, dry skin, maculopapular rash and alopecia.has several negative side effects; these include but are not limited to: bloated abdomen, dark urine, abdominal pain, feeling of tiredness or weakness, headache, light-colored stools, loss of appetite, weight loss, vomiting, and yellow-colored eyes or skin.
Mechanism of action
The mechanism of action of nitisinone involves inhibition of 4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD). This is a treatment for patients with Tyrosinemia type 1 as it prevents the formation of 4-Maleylacetoacetic acid and fumarylacetoacetic acid, which have the potential to be converted to succinyl acetone, a toxin that damages the liver and kidneys. This causes the symptoms of Tyrosinemia type 1 experienced by untreated patients.
Alkaptonuria is caused when an enzyme called homogentisic dioxygenase (HGD) is faulty, leading to a buildup of homogenisate. Alkaptonuria patients treated with nitisinone produce far less HGA than those not treated (95% less in the urine), because nitisinone inhibits HPPD, resulting in less homogenisate accumulation. Clinical trials are ongoing to test whether nitisinone can prevent ochronosis experienced by older alkaptonuria patients.
Hist |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wear%20%28journal%29 | Wear is a scientific journal publishing papers on wear and friction. The papers may fall within the subjects of physics, chemistry, material science or mechanical engineering. It is published by Elsevier.
See also
List of periodicals published by Elsevier
External links
Wear homepage
Elsevier academic journals
Physics journals |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard%20anatomical%20position | The standard anatomical position, or standard anatomical model, is the scientifically agreed upon reference position for anatomical location terms. Standard anatomical positions are used to standardise the position of appendages of animals with respect to the main body of the organism. In medical disciplines, all references to a location on or in the body are made based upon the standard anatomical position.
A straight position is assumed when describing a proximo-distal axis (towards or away from a point of attachment). This helps avoid confusion in terminology when referring to the same organism in different postures. For example, if the elbow is flexed, the hand remains distal to the shoulder even if it approaches the shoulder.
Human anatomy
In standard anatomical position, the human body is standing erect and at rest. Unlike the situation in other vertebrates, the limbs are placed in positions reminiscent of the supine position imposed on cadavers during autopsy. Therefore, the body has its feet together (or slightly separated), and its arms are rotated outward so that the palms are forward, and the thumbs are pointed away from the body (forearms supine). As well, the arms are usually moved slightly out from the body, so that the hands do not touch the sides. The positions of the limbs (and the arms in particular) have important implications for directional terms in those appendages. The penis in the anatomical position is described in its erect position and therefore lies against the abdomen, hence the dorsal surface of the penis is actually anterior when the penis is flaccid.
Skull
In humans, the anatomical position of the skull has been agreed by international convention to be the Frankfurt plane or Frankfort plane, a position in which the lower margins of the orbits, the orbitales, and the upper margins of the ear canals, the poria, all lie in the same horizontal plane. This is a good approximation to the position in which the skull would be if the sub |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aironet%20ARLAN | ARLAN is a family of both proprietary non-802.11 and 802.11-compliant wireless networking technologies developed and marketed by Aironet Wireless Communications in the 1990s prior to Aironet's acquisition by Cisco Systems. Operating in the 900 MHz and 2.4 GHz ISM bands and offering a nominal 2.0 Mbit/s throughput, the non-802.11 DSSS products competed directly with NCR's WaveLAN technology. After acquisition, the ARLAN lineup was renamed to Cisco Aironet; the non-802.11 products were supported briefly then discontinued.
Hardware
The ARLAN lineup consisted of several offerings:
900 MHz DSSS non-802.11
Half-length ISA card, part number 655-900, RP-TNC connector. Cisco part number 200-001292.
MCA card, part number 670-900, RP-TNC connector
PC card, part number 690-900, large external antenna dongle
900 MHz access point, part number 630-900
900 MHz bridge, part number 640-900
2.4 GHz DSSS non-802.11
Half-length ISA card, part number 655-2400 (later renamed to IC 2200), RP-TNC connector
MCA card, part number 670-2400, RP-TNC connector
PC card, part number 690-2400 (later renamed to PC 2200), large external antenna dongle
2.4 GHz access point, part number 630-2400
2.4 GHz bridge, part number 640-2400
2.4 GHz high-speed bridge, part number BR2040-EE
2.4 GHz FHSS early 802.11 draft D5 compliant
2.4 GHz PC card, part number PC3000
2.4 GHz PC card, part number LM3000
2.4 GHz access point, part number AP3000
Official specifications
External links
Cisco End-Of-Life announcement about pre-acquisition Aironet devices
Wayback machine archive of documentation on an ARLAN backbone built in Latvia
Linux drivers for Aironet ARLAN
Wayback machine archive of the Aironet products webpage
Wireless networking hardware |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern%20playback | The pattern playback is an early talking device that was built by Dr. Franklin S. Cooper and his colleagues, including John M. Borst and Caryl Haskins, at Haskins Laboratories in the late 1940s and completed in 1950. There were several different versions of this hardware device. Only one currently survives. The machine converts pictures of the acoustic patterns of speech in the form of a spectrogram back into sound. Using this device, Alvin Liberman, Frank Cooper, and Pierre Delattre (later joined by Katherine Safford Harris, Leigh Lisker, and others) were able to discover acoustic cues for the perception of phonetic segments (consonants and vowels). This research was fundamental to the development of modern techniques of speech synthesis, reading machines for the blind, the study of speech perception and speech recognition, and the development of the motor theory of speech perception.
To create sound, the pattern playback machine uses an arc light source which is directed against a rotating disk with 50 concentric tracks whose transparencies vary systematically in order to produce 50 harmonics of a fundamental frequency. The light is further projected against a spectrogram, whose reflectance corresponds to the sound pressure level of the partial of the signal, and is then directed towards a photovoltaic cell by which the light variation is converted into sound pressure variations.
The pattern playback was last used in an experimental study by Robert Remez in 1976. The pattern playback now resides in the Museum at Haskins Laboratories in New Haven, Connecticut.
The technique of pattern playback also now refers, more generally, to algorithms or techniques for converting spectrograms, cochleagrams, and correlograms from pictures back into sounds.
A demonstration is in the TV show Adventure. Pioneering technology in psycholinguistics (CBS Television. 1953).
Digital pattern playback
In the 1970s, digital pattern playbacks began to supplant the earlier version. A |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MASS%20syndrome | MASS syndrome is a medical disorder of the connective tissue similar to Marfan syndrome.
MASS stands for mitral valve prolapse, aortic root diameter at upper limits of normal for body size, stretch marks of the skin, and skeletal conditions similar to Marfan syndrome. It is caused by a mutation in the FBN1 gene, which encodes fibrillin-1. Fibrillin-1 is an extracellular matrix protein that is found in microfibrils; defects in the fibrillin-1 protein cause the malfunctioning of microfibrils, which results in improper stretching of ligaments, blood vessels, and skin.
Treatment options for MASS syndrome are largely determined on a case-by-case basis and generally address the symptoms as opposed to the cause of the disorder. Due to the similarities between MASS syndrome and Marfan syndrome, the treatment plans are also similar.
Other possible symptoms are mitral valve prolapse, a large aortic root diameter, and myopia. The skeletal features found in MASS syndrome include curvature of the spine (scoliosis), chest wall deformities, and joint hypermobility.
MASS syndrome and Marfan syndrome are overlapping connective tissue disorders. Both can be caused by mutations in the gene encoding a protein called fibrillin. These conditions share many of the same signs and symptoms including long limbs and fingers, chest wall abnormalities (indented chest bone or protruding chest bone), flat feet, scoliosis, mitral valve prolapse, loose or hypextensible joints, highly arched roof of the mouth, and mild dilatation of the aortic root. Unlike in Marfan syndrome, aneurysm does not develop.
Individuals with MASS syndrome do not have progressive aortic enlargement or lens dislocation, while people with Marfan syndrome do. Skin involvement in MASS syndrome is typically limited to stretch marks (striae distensae). Also, the skeletal manifestations of MASS syndrome are generally mild. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballooning%20%28spider%29 | Ballooning, sometimes called kiting, is a process by which spiders, and some other small invertebrates, move through the air by releasing one or more gossamer threads to catch the wind, causing them to become airborne at the mercy of air currents and electric fields. A 2018 study concluded that electric fields provide enough force to lift spiders in the air, and possibly elicit ballooning behavior. This is primarily used by spiderlings to disperse; however, larger individuals have been observed doing so as well. The spider climbs to a high point and takes a stance with its abdomen to the sky, releasing fine silk threads from its spinneret until it becomes aloft. Journeys achieved vary from a few metres to hundreds of kilometres. Even atmospheric samples collected from balloons at five kilometres altitude and ships mid-ocean have reported spider landings. Ballooning can be dangerous (due to predators, and due to the unpredictable nature of long-distance ballooning, which may bring individuals to an unfavorable environment).
It is observed in many species of spiders, such as Erigone atra, Cyclosa turbinata, as well as in spider mites (Tetranychidae) and in 31 species of lepidoptera, distributed in 8 suborders. Bell and his colleagues put forward the hypothesis that ballooning first appeared in the Cretaceous. A 5-year-long research study in the 1920s–1930s revealed that 1 in every 17 invertebrates caught mid-air is a spider. Out of 28,739 specimens, 1,401 turned out to be spiders.
Description
Ballooning is a behaviour in which spiders and some other invertebrates use airborne dispersal to move between locations. A spider (usually limited to individuals of a small species), or spiderling after hatching, will climb as high as it can, stand on raised legs with its abdomen pointed upwards ("tiptoeing"), and then release several silk threads from its spinnerets into the air. These automatically form a triangular shaped parachute which carries the spider away on updraft |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick%20Tracy%20vs.%20Crime%2C%20Inc. | Dick Tracy vs. Crime, Inc. (1941) is a Republic Movie serial based on the Dick Tracy comic strip. It was directed by the team of William Witney and John English with Ralph Byrd reprising his role from the earlier serials. It was the last of the four Dick Tracy serials produced by Republic, although Ralph Byrd went on to portray the character again in two features and on television.
Plotline
Dick Tracy and his allies find themselves up against a villain known as The Ghost, with the impossible ability of becoming invisible.
Cast
Main cast
Ralph Byrd as Dick Tracy
Michael Owen as Bil Carr
Jan Wiley as June 'Eve' Chandler
John Davidson as Lucifer
Ralph Morgan as J.P. Morton/the Ghost
Supporting cast
Kenneth Harlan as Police Lt Cosgrove
John Dilson as Henry Weldon
Howard C. Hickman as Stephen Chandler
Robert Frazer as Daniel Brewster
Robert Fiske as Walter Cabot
Jack Mulhall as Jim Wilson
Hooper Atchley as Arthur Trent
Anthony Warde as John Corey
Chuck Morrison as Trask
Forrest Taylor as Netzikoff's Butler
Production
Dick Tracy vs. Crime, Inc. cost $175,919 (a $1,380 overspend).
It was filmed between 17 September and 24 October 1941 under the working titles Dick Tracy Strikes Again and Dick Tracy's Revenge. The serial's production number was 1097.
The scenes of giant waves hitting New York were recycled from the RKO Pictures film Deluge.
Cliffhangers
Most of the cliffhangers were stock footage from previous Dick Tracy serials. However, the reuse of the highlights of previous Dick Tracy serials actually added to this serial, making it seem like a "best of" compilation.
Release
Theatrical
Dick Tracy vs. Crime, Inc.'''s official release date is 27 December 1941, during Christmas week 1941, although this is actually the date the seventh chapter was made available to film exchanges.
The serial was re-released on 8 October 1952, under the title Dick Tracy vs. Phantom Empire, between the first runs of Zombies of the Stratosphere and Jungle Drums of Africa.
VCI re |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurepa%20tree | In set theory, a Kurepa tree is a tree (T, <) of height ω1, each of whose levels is at most countable, and has at least ℵ2 many branches. This concept was introduced by . The existence of a Kurepa tree (known as the Kurepa hypothesis, though Kurepa originally conjectured that this was false) is consistent with the axioms of ZFC: Solovay showed in unpublished work that there are Kurepa trees in Gödel's constructible universe . More precisely, the existence of Kurepa trees follows from the diamond plus principle, which holds in the constructible universe. On the other hand, showed that if a strongly inaccessible cardinal is Lévy collapsed to ω2 then, in the resulting model, there are no Kurepa trees. The existence of an inaccessible cardinal is in fact equiconsistent with the failure of the Kurepa hypothesis, because if the Kurepa hypothesis is false then the cardinal ω2 is inaccessible in the constructible universe.
A Kurepa tree with fewer than 2ℵ1 branches is known as a Jech–Kunen tree.
More generally if κ is an infinite cardinal, then a κ-Kurepa tree is a tree of height κ with more than κ branches but at most |α| elements of each infinite level α<κ, and the Kurepa hypothesis for κ is the statement that there is a κ-Kurepa tree. Sometimes the tree is also assumed to be binary. The existence of a binary κ-Kurepa tree is equivalent to the existence of a Kurepa family: a set of more than κ subsets of κ such that their intersections with any infinite ordinal α<κ form a set of cardinality at most α. The Kurepa hypothesis is false if κ is an ineffable cardinal, and conversely Jensen showed that in the constructible universe for any uncountable regular cardinal κ there is a κ-Kurepa tree unless κ is ineffable.
Specializing a Kurepa tree
A Kurepa tree can be "killed" by forcing the existence of a function whose value on any non-root node is an ordinal less than the rank of the node, such that whenever three nodes, one of which is a lower bound for the other two, are |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoction | Decoction is a method of extraction by boiling herbal or plant material (which may include stems, roots, bark and rhizomes) to dissolve the chemicals of the material. It is the most common preparation method in various herbal-medicine systems. Decoction involves first drying the plant material; then mashing, slicing, or cutting the material to allow for maximum dissolution; and finally boiling in water to extract oils, volatile organic compounds and other various chemical substances. Occasionally, aqueous ethanol or glycerol may be used instead of water. Decoction can be used to make tisanes, tinctures and similar solutions. Decoctions and infusions may produce liquids with differing chemical properties, as the temperature or preparation difference may result in more oil-soluble chemicals in decoctions versus infusions. The process can also be applied to meats and vegetables to prepare bouillon or stock,
though the term is typically only used to describe boiled plant extracts, usually for medicinal or scientific purposes.
Decoction is also the name for the resulting liquid. Although this method of extraction differs from infusion and percolation, the resultant liquids can sometimes be similar in their effects, or general appearance and taste.
Etymology
The term dates back to 1350–1400 from the past participle stem of Latin (meaning "to boil down"), from ("from") + ("to cook").
Use
In brewing, decoction mashing is the traditional method where a portion of the mash is removed to a separate vessel, boiled for a time and then returned to the main mash, raising the mash to the next temperature step.
In herbalism, decoctions are usually made to extract fluids from hard plant materials such as roots and bark. To achieve this, the plant material is usually boiled for 1–2 hours in 1-5 liters of water. It is then strained. Ayurveda also utilizes this method to create Kashayam-type herbal medicines.
For teas, decoction involves boiling the same amount of the herb and w |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ei%C3%B0ar%20longwave%20transmitter | The Eiðar longwave transmitter was a facility previously used by RÚV (the Icelandic National Broadcasting Service) for longwave radio broadcasting on 207 kHz with a power of 100 kW. The transmitter was situated at Eiðar near Egilsstaðir in East Iceland. At the time of its closure, it used an omnidirectional aerial in the form of a tall steel lattice mast radiator insulated against the ground.
Along with the more powerful Hellissandur longwave transmitter, it formed RÚV's longwave service. It was intended to fill in gaps of the FM radio, serve seafarers and act as a critical communications facility.
History
The first transmission towers at Eiðar were built in 1938, consisting of two masts forming a T-antenna. Eiðar first broadcast on medium-wave, with a power of 1 kW. This was later increased to 5 kW with new equipment in 1950. In 1951, the original towers were demolished and replaced with a single tall mast. In 1966, a second 75m mast was erected, forming a T-antenna, and the transmitter was converted to longwave, at a power of 20 kW.
In 1998, the mast was again reconstructed at a height of and its power increased to 100 kW. Originally a tall mast was planned, but aircraft flight safety considerations precluded this.
RÚV announced the retirement of its longwave transmissions in 2023, citing its inadequacy as a backup service as most vehicles and radios do not support longwave broadcasts anymore. The Eiðar tower was the first to be removed due to its proximity to Egilsstaðir Airport.
On 2 March 2023 the mast was demolished, ceasing 207 kHz transmissions.
See also
RÚV
List of tallest structures in Europe
List of tallest structures in Iceland |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clastogen | A clastogen is a mutagenic agent that disturbs normal DNA related processes or directly causes DNA strand breakages, thus causing the deletion, insertion, or rearrangement of entire chromosome sections. These processes are a form of mutagenesis which if left unrepaired, or improperly repaired, can lead to cancer. Known clastogens include acridine yellow, benzene, ethylene oxide, arsenic, phosphine, mimosine, actinomycin D, camptothecin, methotrexate, methyl acrylate, resorcinol and 5-fluorodeoxyuridine. Additionally, 1,2-dimethylhydrazine is a known colon carcinogen and shows signs of possessing clastogenic activity. There are many clastogens not listed here and research is ongoing to discover new clastogens. Some known clastogens only exhibit clastogenic activity in certain cell types, such as caffeine which exhibits clastogenic activity in plant cells. Researchers are interested in clastogens for researching cancer, as well as for other human health concerns such as the inheritability of clastogen effected paternal germ cells that lead to fetus developmental defects.
Mechanism
There is not one all encompassing method by which clastogens damage chromosomal DNA, instead different clastogens have unique ways they interact with DNA, or DNA associated proteins, and disrupt normal function. Broadly these different types of clastogenic activity can be organized into three classes: ‘classic’ breaks theory; ‘mis-repair of breaks’ theory and ‘repair-created breaks’ theory. It may not always be known how a clastogen causes chromosomal damage.
Radiation was the earliest known clastogen that caused direct DNA damage, following the classic breaks theory. DNA is frequently damaged and there are many DNA repair pathways that combat this, but repair does not always work perfectly resulting in mistakes (called a misrepair). A widely studied class of clastogens are alkylating agents which do not break DNA at all, but instead form DNA adducts, and these have often eluded the comm |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random%20vibration | In mechanical engineering, random vibration is motion which is non-deterministic, meaning that future behavior cannot be precisely predicted. The randomness is a characteristic of the excitation or input, not the mode shapes or natural frequencies. Some common examples include an automobile riding on a rough road, wave height on the water, or the load induced on an airplane wing during flight. Structural response to random vibration is usually treated using statistical or probabilistic approaches. Mathematically, random vibration is characterized as an ergodic and stationary process.
A measurement of the acceleration spectral density (ASD) is the usual way to specify random vibration. The root mean square acceleration (Grms) is the square root of the area under the ASD curve in the frequency domain. The Grms value is typically used to express the overall energy of a particular random vibration event and is a statistical value used in mechanical engineering for structural design and analysis purposes.
While the term power spectral density (PSD) is commonly used to specify a random vibration event, ASD is more appropriate when acceleration is being measured and used in structural analysis and testing.
Crandall is uniformly considered as the father of random vibrations (see also books by Bolotin, Elishakoff et al.). The dramatic effect of often neglected cross-correlations is elucidated in the monograph by Elishakoff.
Random vibration testing
Test specifications can be established from real environment measurements using an ASD envelope or a fatigue damage equivalence criterion (Extreme response spectrum and Fatigue damage spectrum). Random vibration testing is one of the more common types of vibration testing services performed by vibration test labs. Some of the more common random vibration test standards are MIL-STD-810, RTCA DO-160, and IEC 60068-2-64.
See also
Random noise |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity%20time%20control | Sensitivity time control (STC), also known as swept-gain control, is a system used to attenuate the very strong signals returned from nearby ground clutter targets in the first few range gates of a radar receiver. Without this attenuation, the receiver would routinely saturate due to the strong signals. This is used in air traffic control systems and has an influence on the shape of the elevation pattern of the surveillance antenna. It is represented in terms of numerical value typically expressed in decibels (dB), starting from zero, indicating that there is no muting and that the radar system is accepting all returns.
The radar equation is based on , meaning that doubling the range to a target results in sixteen times less energy being returned. STC is due to the corollary of this statement - nearby targets return orders of magnitude more radio signal. In the case of a long-range radar with high power outputs, the return from nearby targets can be so powerful that it causes the amplifiers to saturate, producing a blank area on the screen beyond which nothing can be detected until the amplifiers return to normal operation again.
For early radar systems, the solution was to point the signal away from the ground. This can be difficult for ground or ship-based radars, which required other solutions. In the case of the ground-based AMES Type 7, for instance, the radars were installed in natural dish-like depressions so that all returns below a certain angle were cut off very close to the radar. This still had the same effect in terms of causing the amplifiers to saturate, but occurred so rapidly after transmission that the saturation decayed at relatively short ranges. The downside to this approach is that it permanently hides any signal below a certain angle, which for a very long-range system might prevent it from seeing anything near the radar site.
STC addresses this problem by implementing a reverse gain curve with the same characteristics as the radar equation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urediniospore | Urediniospores (or uredospores) are thin-walled spores produced by the uredium, a stage in the life-cycle of rusts.
Development
Urediniospores develop in the uredium, generally on a leaf's under surface.
Morphology
Urediniospores usually have two dikaryote nuclei within one cell. In mass they are usually pale brown in contrast to teliospores which are generally dark brown.
See also
Chlamydospore
Urediniomycetes
Pycniospore
Aeciospore
Teliospore
Ustilaginomycetes
Rust fungus: Spores |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GenMAPP | GenMAPP (Gene Map Annotator and Pathway Profiler) is a free, open-source bioinformatics software tool designed to visualize and analyze genomic data in the context of pathways (metabolic, signaling), connecting gene-level datasets to biological processes and disease. First created in 2000, GenMAPP is developed by an open-source team based in an academic research laboratory. GenMAPP maintains databases of gene identifiers and collections of pathway maps in addition to visualization and analysis tools. Together with other public resources, GenMAPP aims to provide the research community with tools to gain insight into biology through the integration of data types ranging from genes to proteins to pathways to disease.
History
GenMAPP was first created in 2000 as a prototype software tool in the laboratory of Bruce Conklin at the J. David Gladstone Institutes in San Francisco and continues to be developed in the same non-profit, academic research environment. The first release version of GenMAPP 1.0 was available in 2002, supporting analysis of DNA microarray data from human, mouse, rat and yeast. In 2004, GenMAPP 2.0 was released, combining the previously accessory programs MAPPFinder and MAPPBuilder, and expanding support to additional species. GenMAPP 2.1 was released in 2006 with new visualization features and support for a total of eleven species.
Usage
GenMAPP was developed by biologists and is focused on pathway visualization for bench biologists. Unlike many other computational systems biology tools, GenMAPP is not designed for cell/systems modeling; it focuses on the immediate needs of bench biologists by enabling them to rapidly interpret genomic data with an intuitive, easy-to-use interface.
GenMAPP is implemented in Visual Basic 6.0 and is available as a stand-alone application for Microsoft Windows operating systems, including Boot Camp or Parallels Workstation on a Mac.
Content and Features
GenMAPP builds and maintains gene databases for a variety of |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CacheFS | CacheFS is the name used for several similar software technologies designed to speed up distributed file system file access for networked computers. These technologies operate by storing (cached) copies of files on secondary memory, typically a local hard disk, so that if a file is accessed again, it can be done locally at much higher speeds than networks typically allow.
CacheFS software is used on several Unix-like operating systems. The original Unix version was developed by Sun Microsystems in 1993. Another version was written for Linux and released in 2003.
Network filesystems are dependent on a network link and a remote server; obtaining a file from such a filesystem can be significantly slower than getting the file locally. For this reason, it can be desirable to cache data from these filesystems on a local disk, thus potentially speeding up future accesses to that data by avoiding the need to go to the network and fetch it again. The software has to check that the remote file has not changed since it was cached, but this is much faster than reading the whole file again.
Prior art
Sprite used large disk block caches. These were located in main-memory to achieve high performance in its file system. The term CacheFS has found little or no use to describe caches in main memory.
Grossmont version
The first CacheFS implementation, in 6502 assembler, was a write through cache developed by Mathew R Mathews at Grossmont College. It was used from fall 1986 to spring 1990 on three diskless 64 kB main memory Apple IIe computers to cache files from a Nestar file server onto Big Board, a 1 MB DRAM secondary memory device partitioned into CacheFS and TmpFS. The computers ran Pineapple DOS, an Apple DOS 3.3 derivative developed in the course of a follow on to WR Bornhorst's NSF funded Instructional Computing System. Pineapple DOS features, including caching, were unnamed; the name CacheFS was introduced seven years later by Sun Microsystems.
Sun version
The first U |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COinS | ContextObjects in Spans (COinS) is a method to embed bibliographic metadata in the HTML code of web pages. This allows bibliographic software to publish machine-readable bibliographic items and client reference management software to retrieve bibliographic metadata. The metadata can also be sent to an OpenURL resolver. This allows, for instance, searching for a copy of a book at a specific library.
History
In the late 1990s OpenURL was created at Ghent University as a framework to provide context-sensitive links. The OpenURL link server implementation called SFX was sold to Ex Libris Group which marketed it to libraries, shaping the idea of a "link resolver". The OpenURL framework was later standardized as ANSI/NISO Z39.88 in 2004 (revised 2010). A core part of OpenURL was the concept of "ContextObjects" as metadata to describe referenced resources.
In late 2004, Richard Cameron, the creator of CiteULike, drew attention to the need for a standard way of embedding metadata in HTML pages. In January 2005 Daniel Chudnov suggested the use of OpenURL. Embedding OpenURL ContextObjects in HTML had been proposed before by Herbert Van de Sompel and Oren Beit-Arie and a working paper by Chudnov and Jeremy Frumkin. Discussion of the latter on the GPS-PCS mailing list resulted in a draft specification for embedding OpenURLs in HTML, which later became COinS. A ContextObject is embedded in an HTML span element.
The adoption of COinS was pushed by various publications and implementations. The specification was OCOinS.info, which includes specific guides to implement COinS for journal articles and books.
Summary of the data model
From OpenURL 1.0 COinS borrows one of its serialization formats ("KEV") and some ContextObject metadata formats included in OpenURL implementation guidelines. The ContextObject implementation guidelines of COinS include four publication types (article with several subtypes, book, patent, and generic) and a couple of simple fields. However, the gui |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treviso%20Arithmetic | The Treviso Arithmetic, or Arte dell'Abbaco, is an anonymous textbook in commercial arithmetic written in vernacular Venetian and published in Treviso, Italy, in 1478.
The author explains the motivation for writing this textbook:
The Treviso Arithmetic is the earliest known printed mathematics book in the West, and one of the first printed European textbooks dealing with a science.
The Arithmetic as an early printed book
There appears to have been only one edition of the work. David Eugene Smith translated parts of the Treviso Arithmetic for educational purposes in 1907. Frank J. Swetz translated the complete work using Smith's notes in 1987 in his Capitalism & Arithmetic: The New Math of the 15th Century. Swetz used a copy of the Treviso housed in the Manuscript Library at Columbia University. The volume found its way to this collection via a curious route. Maffeo Pinelli (1785), an Italian bibliophile, is the first known owner. After his death his library was purchased by a London book-dealer and sold at auction on February 6, 1790. The book was obtained for three shillings by Mr. Wodhull. About 100 years later the Arithmetic appeared in the library of Brayton Ives, a New York lawyer. When Ives sold the collection of books at auction, George Arthur Plimpton, a New York publisher, acquired the Treviso and made it an acquisition to his extensive collection of early scientific texts. Plimpton donated his library to Columbia University in 1936. Original copies of the Treviso Arithmetic are extremely rare.
There are 123 pages of text with 32 lines of print to a page. The pages are unnumbered, untrimmed and have wide margins. Some of the margins contain written notes. The size of the book is 14.5 cm by 20.6 cm.
The book included information taken from the 1202 Liber Abaci, such as lattice multiplication. George G. Joseph in Crest of the Peacock suggests that John Napier read this book to create Napier's bones (or rods).
Reasons for publication
The Treviso Arithm |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS%20blood%20group%20tattoo | SS blood group tattoos () were worn by members of the Waffen-SS in Nazi Germany during World War II to identify the individual's blood type. After the war, the tattoo was taken to be prima facie evidence of being part of the Waffen-SS, leading to potential arrest and prosecution.
Description and purpose
The SS blood group tattoo was applied, in theory, to all Waffen-SS members, except members of the British Free Corps. It was a small black ink tattoo located on the underside of the left arm. It generally measured around long and was placed roughly above the elbow. The tattoo consisted of the soldier's blood type letter, either A, B, AB or O. The discovery of the Rh D antigen had been made in 1937, but was not fully understood during World War II, so was not implemented. In the early part of the war, tattoos were printed in Fraktur, while later on they were printed in Latin-style.
The purpose of the tattoo was to identify a soldier's blood type in case a blood transfusion was needed while unconscious, or his Erkennungsmarke (dog tag) or Soldbuch (pay book) were missing. The tattoo was generally applied by the unit's Sanitäter (medic) in basic training but could have been applied by anyone assigned to do it at any time during his term of service.
Usage
Not all Waffen-SS men had the tattoo, particularly those who had transferred from other branches of the military to the Waffen-SS, or those who transferred from the Allgemeine SS, the "General" or non-military SS. Some non-SS men also had the tattoo: if a member of a branch of the Wehrmacht was treated in an SS hospital, he would often have the tattoo applied.
Although the tattoo was widely used in the early war years, over the course of the war it was gradually applied to fewer and fewer soldiers, and towards the end of the war, having the tattoo was more the exception than the rule. The application of the tattoo to foreign volunteers was apparently an issue of contention with some, such as the British Free Corp |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically%20modified%20food%20controversies | Genetically modified food controversies are disputes over the use of foods and other goods derived from genetically modified crops instead of conventional crops, and other uses of genetic engineering in food production. The disputes involve consumers, farmers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists. The key areas of controversy related to genetically modified food (GM food or GMO food) are whether such food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of genetically modified crops on health and the environment, the effect on pesticide resistance, the impact of such crops for farmers, and the role of the crops in feeding the world population. In addition, products derived from GMO organisms play a role in the production of ethanol fuels and pharmaceuticals.
Specific concerns include mixing of genetically modified and non-genetically modified products in the food supply, effects of GMOs on the environment, the rigor of the regulatory process, and consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs. Advocacy groups such as the Center for Food Safety, Organic Consumers Association, Union of Concerned Scientists, and Greenpeace say risks have not been adequately identified and managed, and they have questioned the objectivity of regulatory authorities.
The safety assessment of genetically engineered food products by regulatory bodies starts with an evaluation of whether or not the food is substantially equivalent to non-genetically engineered counterparts that are already deemed fit for human consumption. No reports of ill effects have been documented in the human population from genetically modified food.
There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoregulation | Autoregulation is a process within many biological systems, resulting from an internal adaptive mechanism that works to adjust (or mitigate) that system's response to stimuli. While most systems of the body show some degree of autoregulation, it is most clearly observed in the kidney, the heart, and the brain. Perfusion of these organs is essential for life, and through autoregulation the body can divert blood (and thus, oxygen) where it is most needed.
Cerebral autoregulation
More so than most other organs, the brain is very sensitive to increased or decreased blood flow, and several mechanisms (metabolic, myogenic, and neurogenic) are involved in maintaining an appropriate cerebral blood pressure. Brain blood flow autoregulation is abolished in several disease states such as traumatic brain injury, stroke, brain tumors, or persistent abnormally high levels.
Homeometrics and heterometric autoregulation of the heart
Homeometric autoregulation, in the context of the circulatory system, is the heart's ability to increase contractility and restore stroke volume when afterload increases. Homeometric autoregulation occurs independently of cardiomyocyte fiber length, via the Bowditch and/or Anrep effects.
Via the Bowditch effect, positive inotropy occurs secondary to an increased cardiac frequency. The exact mechanism for this remains unknown, but it appears to be the result of an increased exposure of the heart to contractile substances arising from the increased flow caused by an increased cardiac frequency.
Via the Anrep effect, positive inotropy occurs secondary to increased ventricular pressure.
This is in contrast to heterometric regulation, governed by the Frank-Starling law, which results from a more favorable positioning of actin and myosin filaments in cardiomyocytes as a result of changing fiber lengths.
Coronary circulatory autoregulation
Since the heart is a very aerobic organ, needing oxygen for the efficient production of ATP & Creatine Phosphate |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infortrend | Infortrend Technology () is a Taiwanese technology company specializing in SAN and NAS storage systems. The company is headquartered in the Zhonghe District of New Taipei, Taiwan, and has regional headquarters in Tokyo, Sunnyvale, California, Beijing, Munich, and Basingstoke, UK.
History
Infortrend was founded in 1993 in Taiwan, initially focusing on RAID controllers. The company gradually expanded its focus to include full RAID storage arrays.
In 2003 it started to ship its own-branded products when it launched the EonStor product series. Since then, its own-branded business has continued to grow, including product lines such as EonStor DS, ESVA and EonNAS.
Infortrend launched the world's first 8Gbit/s Fibre Channel-host (FC-host) RAID array, the world's first 16Gbit/s FC-host RAID array, 2.5"-drive RAID array, SAS-drive RAID array and SATA-drive RAID array.
Infortrend was listed on the Taiwan Stock Exchange in 2002.
Products
The company's main product families include EonStor GS, EonStor GSe, EonStor GSe Pro and EonStor DS.
See also
List of companies of Taiwan
External links
Businessweek Online - 'Asia's Hot Growth Companies: 2006 (ranked no.5) - Businessweek Online'
1993 establishments in Taiwan
Electronics companies established in 1993
Companies based in Taipei
Computer storage companies
Electronics companies of Taiwan
Taiwanese brands |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracellular%20transport | Paracellular transport refers to the transfer of substances across an epithelium by passing through the intercellular space between the cells. It is in contrast to transcellular transport, where the substances travel through the cell, passing through both the apical membrane and basolateral membrane.
The distinction has particular significance in renal physiology and intestinal physiology. Transcellular transport often involves energy expenditure whereas paracellular transport is unmediated and passive down a concentration gradient, or by osmosis (for water) and solvent drag for solutes. Paracellular transport also has the benefit that absorption rate is matched to load because it has no transporters that can be saturated.
In most mammals, intestinal absorption of nutrients is thought to be dominated by transcellular transport, e.g., glucose is primarily absorbed via the SGLT1 transporter and other glucose transporters. Paracellular absorption therefore plays only a minor role in glucose absorption, although there is evidence that paracellular pathways become more available when nutrients are present in the intestinal lumen. In contrast, small flying vertebrates (small birds and bats) rely on the paracellular pathway for the majority of glucose absorption in the intestine. This has been hypothesized to compensate for an evolutionary pressure to reduce mass in flying animals, which resulted in a reduction in intestine size and faster transit time of food through the gut.
Capillaries of the blood–brain barrier have only transcellular transport, in contrast with normal capillaries which have both transcellular and paracellular transport.
The paracellular pathway of transport is also important for the absorption of drugs in the gastrointestinal tract. The paracellular pathway allows the permeation of hydrophilic molecules that are not able to permeate through the lipid membrane by the transcellular pathway of absorption. This is particularly important for hydrophi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia%20Tree%20Project | Armenia Tree Project (ATP) is a non-profit organization based in Watertown, Massachusetts, United States, and Yerevan, Armenia, founded in 1994 by Carolyn Mugar to promote Armenia's socioeconomic development through reforestation. Since its founding, the organization has planted more than 6.5 million trees in communities throughout Armenia.
The organization has a full-time staff of 70 in Armenia. The Yerevan branch manages four state-of-the-art tree nurseries, two environmental education centers, and partners with families to create tree-based small business opportunities. Its major program initiatives include planting trees at urban and rural sites, environmental education and advocacy, community development and poverty reduction.
Environmental challenge
When Carolyn Mugar, from Boston, visited Armenia in 1992, the country had been impoverished by an energy embargo imposed during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. Armenians had previously depended upon natural gas for 90 percent of their energy needs, but their supply had been cut off by the embargo. Deforestation was particularly severe during the early 1990s, because many Armenians had only their trees as a fuel source during the winter. This condition raised a concern about whether land formerly protected by forest cover would become desert. A study in 2005 estimated Armenia's forest cover at 11.2 percent of its total land area, dropping to 8.2 percent by 2000. In 2012, the ATP reported the country's forest cover down to only 7 percent.
In 1994, Carolyn Mugar established the Armenia Tree Project to address the environmental and economic disaster of Armenia's dwindling forests. The ATP was organized as a subsidiary of the Armenian Assembly of America, which continues to provide administrative assistance. Since its founding, the ATP has planted over 4.5 million trees throughout Armenia. As of 2014, the organization was operating three tree nurseries, providing full-time employment for 45 people, and fruit trees p |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehn%E2%80%93Sommerville%20equations | In mathematics, the Dehn–Sommerville equations are a complete set of linear relations between the numbers of faces of different dimension of a simplicial polytope. For polytopes of dimension 4 and 5, they were found by Max Dehn in 1905. Their general form was established by Duncan Sommerville in 1927. The Dehn–Sommerville equations can be restated as a symmetry condition for the [[h-vector|h-vector]] of the simplicial polytope and this has become the standard formulation in recent combinatorics literature. By duality, analogous equations hold for simple polytopes.
Statement
Let P be a d-dimensional simplicial polytope. For i = 0, 1, ..., d − 1, let fi denote the number of i-dimensional faces of P. The sequence
is called the 'f-vector of the polytope P. Additionally, set
Then for any k = −1, 0, ..., d − 2, the following Dehn–Sommerville equation' holds:
When k = −1, it expresses the fact that Euler characteristic of a (d − 1)-dimensional simplicial sphere is equal to 1 + (−1)d − 1.
Dehn–Sommerville equations with different k are not independent. There are several ways to choose a maximal independent subset consisting of equations. If d is even then the equations with k = 0, 2, 4, ..., d − 2 are independent. Another independent set consists of the equations with k = −1, 1, 3, ..., d − 3. If d is odd then the equations with k = −1, 1, 3, ..., d − 2 form one independent set and the equations with k = −1, 0, 2, 4, ..., d − 3 form another.
Equivalent formulations
Sommerville found a different way to state these equations:
where 0 ≤ k ≤ (d−1). This can be further facilitated introducing the notion of h-vector of P. For k = 0, 1, ..., d, let
The sequence
is called the h-vector of P. The f-vector and the h-vector uniquely determine each other through the relation
Then the Dehn–Sommerville equations can be restated simply as
The equations with 0 ≤ k ≤ (d−1) are independent, and the others are manifestly equivalent to them.
Richard Stan |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triploid%20syndrome | Triploid syndrome, also called triploidy, is a chromosomal disorder in which a fetus has three copies of every chromosome instead of the normal two. If this occurs in only some cells, it is called mosaic triploidy and is less severe.
Most embryos with triploidy miscarry early in development.
Signs and symptoms
Many organ systems are affected by triploidy, but the central nervous system and skeleton are the most severely affected:
Common central nervous system defects seen in triploidy include holoprosencephaly, hydrocephalus (increased amount of cerebrospinal fluid within the brain), ventriculomegaly, Arnold–Chiari malformation, agenesis of the corpus callosum and neural tube defects.
Skeletal manifestations include cleft lip/palate, hypertelorism, club foot and syndactyly of fingers three and four.
Congenital heart defects, hydronephrosis, omphalocele and meningocele (spina bifida) are also common. Cystic hygromas occur but are uncommon.
Triploid fetuses have intrauterine growth restriction beginning early in the pregnancy, as early as 12 weeks, and does not affect the head as severely as the body. Oligohydramnios, low levels of amniotic fluid, is common in triploid pregnancies. Placental abnormalities are common in triploidy. Most frequently, the placenta is enlarged and may have cysts within. In some cases, the placenta may be unusually small, having ceased to grow.
During the first trimester, fetuses with Triploidy have a thicker fluid under the skin behind their neck, which calls for observation during the first and second trimester of gestation.
The mother will usually have high levels of specific proteins including maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) and beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). Symptoms may include, but are not limited to, swelling, edema, or hypertension.
Infants may show facial abnormalities, micrognathia, cleft lip, spina bifida, as well as other birth defects that result from kidney, limb, and umbilical cord complications. Th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncan%20Sommerville | Duncan MacLaren Young Sommerville (1879–1934) was a Scottish mathematician and astronomer. He compiled a bibliography on non-Euclidean geometry and also wrote a leading textbook in that field. He also wrote Introduction to the Geometry of N Dimensions, advancing the study of polytopes. He was a co-founder and the first secretary of the New Zealand Astronomical Society.
Sommerville was also an accomplished watercolourist, producing a series New Zealand landscapes.
The middle name 'MacLaren' is spelt using the old orthography M'Laren in some sources, for example the records of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Early life
Sommerville was born on 24 November 1879 in Beawar in India, where his father the Rev Dr James Sommerville, was employed as a missionary by the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland. His father had been responsible for establishing the hospital at Jodhpur, Rajputana.
The family returned home to Perth, Scotland, where Duncan spent 4 years at a private school, before completing his education at Perth Academy. His father died in his youth. He lived with his mother at 12 Rose Terrace. Despite his father's death, he won a scholarship, allowing him to continue his studies to university level.
He then studied mathematics at the University of St Andrews in Fife, graduating MA in 1902. He then began as an assistant lecturer at the university. In 1905 he gained his doctorate (DSc) for his thesis, Networks of the Plane in Absolute Geometry and was promoted to lecturer. He continued teaching mathematics at St Andrews until 1915.
In projective geometry the method of Cayley–Klein metrics had been used in the 19th century to model non-euclidean geometry. In 1910 Duncan wrote "Classification of geometries with projective metrics". The classification is described by Daniel Corey as follows:
He classifies them into 9 types of plane geometries, 27 in dimension 3, and more generally 3n in dimension n. A number of these geometries have found applications, for instan |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random%20neural%20network | The random neural network (RNN) is a mathematical representation of an interconnected network of neurons or cells which exchange spiking signals. It was invented by Erol Gelenbe and is linked to the G-network model of queueing networks as well as to Gene Regulatory Network models. Each cell state is represented by an integer whose value rises when the cell receives an excitatory spike and drops when it receives an inhibitory spike. The spikes can originate outside the network itself, or they can come from other cells in the networks. Cells whose internal excitatory state has a positive value are allowed to send out spikes of either kind to other cells in the network according to specific cell-dependent spiking rates. The model has a mathematical solution in steady-state which provides the joint probability distribution of the network in terms of the individual probabilities that each cell is excited and able to send out spikes. Computing this solution is based on solving a set of non-linear algebraic equations whose parameters are related to the spiking rates of individual cells and their connectivity to other cells, as well as the arrival rates of spikes from outside the network. The RNN is a recurrent model, i.e. a neural network that is allowed to have complex feedback loops.
A highly energy-efficient implementation of random neural networks was demonstrated by Krishna Palem et al. using the Probabilistic CMOS or PCMOS technology and was shown to be c. 226–300 times more efficient in terms of Energy-Performance-Product.
RNNs are also related to artificial neural networks, which (like the random neural network) have gradient-based learning algorithms. The learning algorithm for an n-node random neural network that includes feedback loops (it is also a recurrent neural network) is of computational complexity O(n^3) (the number of computations is proportional to the cube of n, the number of neurons). The random neural network can also be used with other learning a |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational%20and%20Systems%20Neuroscience | Computational and Systems Neuroscience (COSYNE or CoSyNe) is an annual scientific conference for the exchange of experimental and theoretical/computational approaches to problems in systems neuroscience. It is an important meeting for computational neuroscientists where many levels of approaches are discussed. It is a single track-meeting with oral and poster sessions and attracts about 800-900 participants from a variety of disciplines, including neuroscience, computer science and machine learning. Until 2018, the 3-day long main meeting was held in Salt Lake City, followed by two days of workshops at Snowbird, Utah. In 2018, COSYNE moved to Denver (3 days) and Breckenridge (2 days).
History
COSYNE grew out of the Neural Information and Coding (NIC) meetings founded by Anthony Zador in 1996. The first COSYNE was organized in 2004 by Michael Shadlen, Alexandre Pouget, Carlos Brody and Anthony Zador. The current Executive Committee consists of Alexandre Pouget, Zachary Mainen, Stephanie Palmer and Anthony Zador.
Meetings
Related Meetings
Neural Information Processing Systems (since 1987)
Annual meeting of the Organization for Computational Neuroscience (since 1990/1992)
Conference on Cognitive Computational Neuroscience (since 2017)
Berstein Conference (since 2005) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renner%E2%80%93Teller%20effect | The Renner–Teller effect is observed in the spectra of molecules having electronic states that allow vibration through a linear configuration. For such molecules electronic states that are doubly degenerate at linearity (Π, Δ, ..., etc.) will split into two close-lying nondegenerate states for non-linear configurations. As part of the Renner–Teller effect, the rovibronic levels of such a pair of states will be strongly Coriolis coupled by the rotational kinetic energy operator causing a breakdown of the Born-Oppenheimer approximation. This is to be contrasted with the Jahn–Teller effect which occurs for polyatomic molecules in electronic states that allow vibration through a symmetric nonlinear configuration, where the electronic state is degenerate, and which further involves a breakdown of the Born-Oppenheimer approximation but here caused by the vibrational kinetic energy operator.
In its original formulation, the Renner–Teller effect was discussed for a triatomic molecule in a degenerate electronic state that has a linear equilibrium configuration. The 1934 article by Rudolf Renner was one of the first that considered dynamic effects that go beyond the Born–Oppenheimer approximation, in which the nuclear and electronic motions in a molecule are uncoupled. This is a good approximation when the electronic energies are well separated. However, in linear molecules many of the electronic states are two-fold degenerate due to C∞v or D∞h symmetry, and the Born–Oppenheimer approximation breaks down significantly. Since the best-known linear triatomic molecule (CO2) is electronically non-degenerate in its ground state, Renner chose the electronically excited two-fold degenerate Π-state of this well-known molecule as a model for his studies. The products of purely electronic and purely nuclear rovibrational states served as the zeroth-order (no rovibronic coupling) wave functions in Renner's study. The rovibronic coupling acts as a perturbation.
Because Renner i |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consider%20the%20Oyster | Consider the Oyster is a book by M. F. K. Fisher that deals in the history, preparation and eating of oysters. The work was first published in the United States in 1941 and has been in print ever since.
See also
Consider the Lobster, by David Foster Wallace
External links
Synopsis by Powell's Books
Cookbooks
1941 non-fiction books
Seafood
Books about food and drink
Oysters
M. F. K. Fisher |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pod%20People%20%28Invasion%20of%20the%20Body%20Snatchers%29 | Pod people (also known as body snatchers) is the colloquial term for a species of plant-like aliens featured in the 1954 novel The Body Snatchers by Jack Finney, the 1956 film Invasion of the Body Snatchers, the 1978 remake of the same name, and the 1993 film Body Snatchers. Although sharing themes, they are not in the 2007 film Invasion of the Pod People.
The novel
Pod people are a race of nomadic extraterrestrial parasites from a dying planet. Realizing their planet's resources are nearing depletion, the pods evolved the ability to defy gravity and leave their planet's atmosphere in the search of planets to colonize. For millennia, the pods floated in space like spores, propelled by the solar winds, some occasionally landing on inhabited planets. Upon landing, they replace the dominant species by spawning emotionless replicas; the original bodies disintegrate into dust after the duplication process. After consuming all the resources, the pods leave in search of other planets. Such a consumption was apparently the fate of civilizations inhabiting Mars and the Moon. The Pods' sole purpose is survival with no attention to the civilizations they conquer or the resources they squander. The duplicates have lifespans of five earth years, and cannot sexually reproduce. Their invasion of Earth was short; unable to tolerate our determination, the pods abandoned our planet, leaving behind their duplicates, but those died quickly.
Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956 film)
One of the pod people hints at their extraterrestrial origin and purpose without explaining. Physician Miles Bennell, played by Kevin McCarthy, gets away from the town and tells his story to another doctor. A truck carrying pods is wrecked; thereafter, the second physician believes the tale. He asks the government agents to quarantine the town, but viewers are left to wonder whether they were successful. Prior to a rewrite, the ending was less hopeful about the fate of humanity, ending before McCarth |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretext | A pretext (adj: pretextual) is an excuse to do something or say something that is not accurate. Pretexts may be based on a half-truth or developed in the context of a misleading fabrication. Pretexts have been used to conceal the true purpose or rationale behind actions and words. They are often heard in political speeches.
In US law, a pretext usually describes false reasons that hide the true intentions or motivations for a legal action. If a party can establish a prima facie case for the proffered evidence, the opposing party must prove that these reasons were "pretextual" or false. This can be accomplished by directly demonstrating that the motivations behind the presentation of evidence is false, or indirectly by evidence that the motivations are not "credible". In Griffith v. Schnitzer, an employment discrimination case, a jury award was reversed by a Court of Appeals because the evidence was not sufficient that the defendant's reasons were "pretextual". That is, the defendant's evidence was either undisputed, or the plaintiff's was "irrelevant subjective assessments and opinions".
A "pretextual" arrest by law enforcement officers is one carried out for illegal purposes such as to conduct an unjustified search and seizure.
As one example of pretext, in the 1880s, the Chinese government raised money on the pretext of modernizing the Chinese navy. Instead, these funds were diverted to repair a ship-shaped, two-story pavilion which had been originally constructed for the mother of the Qianlong Emperor. This pretext and the Marble Barge are famously linked with Empress Dowager Cixi. This architectural folly, known today as the Marble Boat (Shifang), is "moored" on Lake Kunming in what the empress renamed the "Garden for Cultivating Harmony" (Yiheyuan).
Another example of pretext was demonstrated in the speeches of the Roman orator Cato the Elder (234–149 BC). For Cato, every public speech became a pretext for a comment about Carthage. The Roman statesman had |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast%20multipole%20method |
The fast multipole method (FMM) is a numerical technique that was developed to speed up the calculation of long-ranged forces in the n-body problem. It does this by expanding the system Green's function using a multipole expansion, which allows one to group sources that lie close together and treat them as if they are a single source.
The FMM has also been applied in accelerating the iterative solver in the method of moments (MOM) as applied to computational electromagnetics problems. The FMM was first introduced in this manner by Leslie Greengard and Vladimir Rokhlin Jr. and is based on the multipole expansion of the vector Helmholtz equation. By treating the interactions between far-away basis functions using the FMM, the corresponding matrix elements do not need to be explicitly stored, resulting in a significant reduction in required memory. If the FMM is then applied in a hierarchical manner, it can improve the complexity of matrix-vector products in an iterative solver from to in finite arithmetic, i.e., given a tolerance , the matrix-vector product is guaranteed to be within a tolerance The dependence of the complexity on the tolerance is , i.e., the complexity of FMM is . This has expanded the area of applicability of the MOM to far greater problems than were previously possible.
The FMM, introduced by Rokhlin Jr. and Greengard has been said to be one of the top ten algorithms of the 20th century. The FMM algorithm reduces the complexity of matrix-vector multiplication involving a certain type of dense matrix which can arise out of many physical systems.
The FMM has also been applied for efficiently treating the Coulomb interaction in the Hartree–Fock method and density functional theory calculations in quantum chemistry.
See also
Barnes–Hut simulation
Multipole expansion
n-body simulation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20animals%20by%20number%20of%20neurons | The following are two lists of animals ordered by the size of their nervous system. The first list shows number of neurons in their entire nervous system, indicating their overall neural complexity. The second list shows the number of neurons in the structure that has been found to be representative of animal intelligence. The human brain contains 86 billion neurons, with 16 billion neurons in the cerebral cortex.
Scientists are engaged in counting, quantification, in order to find answers to the question in the strategy of neuroscience and intelligence of "self-knowledge": how the evolution of a set of components and parameters (~1011 neurons, ~1014 synapses) of a complex system could lead to the phenomenon of the appearance of intelligence in the biological species "sapiens".
Overview
Neurons are the cells that transmit information in an animal's nervous system so that it can sense stimuli from its environment and behave accordingly. Not all animals have neurons; Trichoplax and sponges lack nerve cells altogether.
Neurons may be packed to form structures such as the brain of vertebrates or the neural ganglions of insects.
The number of neurons and their relative abundance in different parts of the brain is a determinant of neural function and, consequently, of behavior.
Whole nervous system
All numbers for neurons (except Caenorhabditis and Ciona), and all numbers for synapses (except Ciona) are estimations.
List of animal species by forebrain (cerebrum or pallium) neuron number
The question of what physical characteristic of an animal makes an animal intelligent has varied over the centuries. One early speculation was brain size (or weight, which provides the same ordering.) A second proposal was brain-to-body-mass ratio, and a third was encephalization quotient, sometimes referred to as EQ. The current best predictor is number of neurons in the forebrain, based on Herculano-Houzel's improved neuron counts. It accounts most accurately for variations |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dromotropic | The term dromotropic derives from the Greek word δρόμος drómos, meaning "running", a course, a race. A dromotropic agent is one which affects the conduction speed (in fact the magnitude of delay) in the AV node, and subsequently the rate of electrical impulses in the heart.
Positive dromotropy increases conduction velocity (e.g. epinephrine stimulation), negative dromotropy decreases velocity (e.g. vagal stimulation).
Agents that are dromotropic are often (but not always) inotropic and chronotropic. For instance, parasympathetic stimulation is usually negatively chronotropic and dromotropic, but because the vagus nerve does not innervate ventricular myocardium, there is no effect on inotropy.
Non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers such as verapamil block the slow inward calcium current in cardiac tissues, thereby having a negatively dromotropic, chronotropic and inotropic effect. This (and other) pharmacological effect makes these drugs useful in the treatment of angina pectoris. Conversely, they can lead to symptomatic disturbances in cardiac conduction and bradyarrhythmias, and may aggravate left ventricular failure.
See also
Bathmotropic
Inotrope
Catecholamines |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eternity%20puzzle | The Eternity puzzle is a tiling puzzle created by Christopher Monckton and launched by the Ertl Company in June 1999. It was marketed as being practically unsolvable, with a £1 million prize on offer for whoever could solve it within four years. The prize was paid out in October 2000 for a winning solution arrived at by two mathematicians from Cambridge. A follow-up prize puzzle called Eternity II was launched in 2007.
Description
The puzzle's scope was to fill a large equiangular (but not equilateral) dodecagon board with 209 puzzle pieces. The board is equipped with a triangular grid made of equilateral triangles. Its sides alternate in length: six sides coincide with the grid and are 7 triangles (placed edge-to-edge) long, while the other sides are slightly shorter and measure 8 triangles base-to-tip, which equals edge lengths.
Each puzzle piece is a 12-polydrafter (dodecadrafter) made of twelve 30-60-90 triangles (that is, a continuous compound of twelve halves of equilateral triangles, restricted to the grid layout). Each piece has an area equal to that of 6 equilateral triangles, and the area of the entire dodecagon is exactly 209 * 6 = 1254 equilateral triangles' (or 2508 drafters) worth.
A hint piece was shown placed on every board and solution sheet, although it was not required to be placed there in any solution submission for the prize. Five other hints could be obtained by solving three smaller clue puzzles, which were sold separately.
Sales
The puzzle was launched in June 1999, by Ertl, marketed to puzzle enthusiasts and 500,000 copies were sold worldwide, with the game becoming a craze at one point. Eternity was the best-selling puzzle or game in the UK at its price-point of £35 in the month it was launched.
Solution
As soon as the puzzle was launched, an online community emerged devoted to solving it, centred on a mailing list on which many ideas and techniques were discussed. It was soon realised that it was trivial to fill the board almost |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splanchnic | Splanchnic is usually used to describe organs in the abdominal cavity.
It is used when describing:
Splanchnic tissue
Splanchnic organs - including the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, pancreas, spleen, liver, and may also include the kidney.
Splanchnic nerves
Splanchnic mesoderm
Splanchnic circulation – the circulation of the gastrointestinal tract originating at the celiac trunk, the superior mesenteric artery and the inferior mesenteric artery.
History and etymology
The term derives from , meaning "inward parts, organs".
The term "splanchnologia" is used for grouping in Nomina Anatomica, but not in Terminologia Anatomica. It includes most of the structures usually considered "internal organs", but not all (for example, the heart is excluded). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crease%20pattern | A crease pattern (commonly referred to as a CP) is an origami diagram that consists of all or most of the creases in the final model, rendered into one image. This is useful for diagramming complex and super-complex models, where the model is often not simple enough to diagram efficiently.
The use of crease patterns originated with designers such as Neal Elias, who used them to record how their models were made. This allowed the more prolific designers to keep track of all their models, and soon crease patterns began to be used as a means for communication of ideas between designers. After a few years of this sort of use, designers such as Robert J. Lang, Meguro Toshiyuki, Jun Maekawa and Peter Engel began to design using crease patterns. This allowed them to create with increasing levels of complexity, and the art of origami reached unprecedented levels of realism. Now most higher-level models are accompanied by crease patterns.
Although not intended as a substitute for diagrams, folding from crease patterns is starting to gain in popularity, partly because of the challenge of being able to 'crack' the pattern, and also partly because the crease pattern is often the only resource available to fold a given model, should the designer choose not to produce diagrams. For example, an algorithm for the automatic development of crease patterns for certain polyhedra with discrete rotational symmetry by composing right frusta has been implemented via a CAD program. The program allows users to specify a target polyhedron and generate a crease pattern that folds into it. Still, there are many cases in which designers wish to sequence the steps of their models but lack the means to design clear diagrams. Such origamists occasionally resort to the sequenced crease pattern (SCP) which is a set of crease patterns showing the creases up to each respective fold. The SCP eliminates the need for diagramming programs or artistic ability while maintaining the step-by-step process for |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal%20physiology | Gastrointestinal physiology is the branch of human physiology that addresses the physical function of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The function of the GI tract is to process ingested food by mechanical and chemical means, extract nutrients and excrete waste products. The GI tract is composed of the alimentary canal, that runs from the mouth to the anus, as well as the associated glands, chemicals, hormones, and enzymes that assist in digestion. The major processes that occur in the GI tract are: motility, secretion, regulation, digestion and circulation. The proper function and coordination of these processes are vital for maintaining good health by providing for the effective digestion and uptake of nutrients.
Motility
The gastrointestinal tract generates motility using smooth muscle subunits linked by gap junctions. These subunits fire spontaneously in either a tonic or a phasic fashion. Tonic contractions are those contractions that are maintained from several minutes up to hours at a time. These occur in the sphincters of the tract, as well as in the anterior stomach. The other type of contractions, called phasic contractions, consist of brief periods of both relaxation and contraction, occurring in the posterior stomach and the small intestine, and are carried out by the muscularis externa.
Motility may be overactive (hypermotility), leading to diarrhea or vomiting, or underactive (hypomotility), leading to constipation or vomiting; either may cause abdominal pain.
Stimulation
The stimulation for these contractions likely originates in modified smooth muscle cells called interstitial cells of Cajal. These cells cause spontaneous cycles of slow wave potentials that can cause action potentials in smooth muscle cells. They are associated with the contractile smooth muscle via gap junctions. These slow wave potentials must reach a threshold level for the action potential to occur, whereupon Ca2+ channels on the smooth muscle open and an action potential |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban%20number | In recreational mathematics, a ban number is a number that does not contain a particular letter when spelled out in English; in other words, the letter is "banned." Ban numbers are not precisely defined, since some large numbers do not follow the standards of number names (such as googol and googolplex).
There are several published sequences of ban numbers:
The aban numbers do not contain the letter A. The first few aban numbers are 1 through 999, 1,000,000 through 1,000,999, 2,000,000 through 2,000,999, ... The word "and" is not counted.
The eban numbers do not contain the letter E. The first few eban numbers are 2, 4, 6, 30, 32, 34, 36, 40, 42, 44, 46, 50, 52, 54, 56, 60, 62, 64, 66, 2000, 2002, 2004, ... . The sequence was coined in 1990 by Neil Sloane. Coincidentally, all the numbers in the sequence are even.
The iban numbers do not contain the letter I. The first few iban numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 40, ... . Since all -illion numbers contain the letter I, there are exactly 30,275 iban numbers, the largest being 777,777.
The oban numbers do not contain the letter O. The first few oban numbers are 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 25, 26, ... . Since "thousand" and all the -illion numbers contain the letter O, there are exactly 454 oban numbers, the largest being 999.
The tban numbers do not contain the letter T. The first few tban numbers are 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106, 107, 109, 111, 400, 401, 404, 405, 406, ... .
The uban numbers do not contain the letter U. The first few uban numbers are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, ... .
Basic properties
Aban numbers
For 1<N<109, aban numbers are numbers which the integer part of N/1000 is divisible by 1000.
Eban numbers
Eban numbers are even, due to "one", "three", "five", "seven", "nine", "eleven" and the suffix -teen all containing 'e's.
Further reading
External li |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GoPubMed | GoPubMed was a knowledge-based search engine for biomedical texts. The
Gene Ontology (GO) and Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) served as "Table of contents" in order to structure the millions of articles in the MEDLINE database. MeshPubMed was at one point a separate project, but the two were merged.
The technologies used in GoPubMed were generic and could in general be applied to any kind of texts and any kind of knowledge bases. The system was developed at the Technische Universität Dresden by Michael Schroeder and his team at Transinsight.
GoPubMed was recognized with the 2009 red dot: best of the best award in the category communication design – graphical user interfaces and interactive tool. Transinsight was recognized with the German Innovation Prize IT for its developments in Enterprise Semantic Intelligence at CeBIT 2011. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MyGrid | The myGrid consortium produces and uses a suite of tools design to “help e-Scientists get on with science and get on with scientists”. The tools support the creation of e-laboratories and have been used in domains as diverse as systems biology, social science, music, astronomy, multimedia and chemistry.
The consortium is led by Carole Goble of the Department of Computer Science at the University of Manchester, UK.
Tools produced and used by myGrid
Tools developed by the myGrid consortium include:
The Taverna workbench for designing, editing and executing scientific workflows
myExperiment for sharing workflows and related data
BioCatalogue a public registry of Web services for Life Scientists
Seek produced in collaboration with the SysModb: Systems Biology of Micro-Organisms DataBase Finding, sharing and exchanging data, models and processes in Systems Biology
MethodBox Browse datasets and share knowledge.
RightField Sharing the meaning of your data by embedding ontology annotation in spreadsheets
The Kidney and Urinary Pathway Database (KUPKB)
Workflows for Ever (wf4ever) Scientific workflow preservation
History
The consortium has three distinct phases:
Phase 1
The consortium was formed in 2001, bringing together collaborators at the Universities of Manchester, Southampton, Newcastle, Nottingham and Sheffield, The European Molecular Biology Laboratory-European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI) in Cambridge, and industrial partners GlaxoSmithKline, Merck KGaA, AstraZeneca, Sun Microsystems, IBM, GeneticXchange, Epistemics and Cerebra, (formerly Network Inference). The UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council funded the first phase of the project with £3.5 million.
To date, Grid development has focused on the basic issues of storage, computation and resource management needed to make a global scientific community's information and tools accessible in a high performance environment. However, from an e-Science viewpoint, the purpose of th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup%20CZ | In human mitochondrial genetics, the Haplogroup CZ is a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup.
Origin
Haplogroup CZ is a descendant of haplogroup M8 and is a parent to the haplogroups C and Z. The C and Z subclades share a common ancestor dated to approximately 36,500 years ago.
Distribution
Today, CZ is found in eastern Asian, Central Asian, Siberian, indigenous American, and European populations, and is most common in Siberian populations. It is recognized by a genetic marker at 249d.
Subclades
Tree
This phylogenetic tree of haplogroup CZ subclades is based on the paper by Mannis van Oven and Manfred Kayser Updated comprehensive phylogenetic tree of global human mitochondrial DNA variation and subsequent published research.
M
M8
CZ
C
Z
See also
Genealogical DNA test
Genetic genealogy
Human mitochondrial genetics
Population genetics
Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HADES%20%28software%29 | HADES (Haskins Analysis Display and Experiment System) refers to a family of signal processing computer programs that was developed in the 1980s at Haskins Laboratories by Philip Rubin and colleagues to provide for the display and analysis of multiple channel physiological, speech, and other sampled data in an experimental context. Principal programmers over the years on this project included Vance Maverick , Mark Tiede , Marian Pressler, and Simon Levy . The most significant feature of HADES was the incorporation of a procedural language known as SPIEL (Signal Processing Interactive Editing Language) that provided for the creation and customization of specialized analysis procedures that can be stored as text files, edited, etc., and are similar to functions and subroutines in programming languages like C and Fortran. HADES was one of the earliest signal processing systems with an integrated language and, through the use of SPIEL, provided for automated procedural analysis of large datasets, usually speech data or multiple-channel physiological data acquired with specialized hardware such as the EMMA magnetometer system. Previous systems at the time included ILS from STI, Inc., and the MITSYN system designed by Bill Henke. HADES was written in C and implemented on VAX systems running VMS. Although HADES still finds limited use, its functionality was eventually replaced by commercial systems such as MATLAB.
Bibliography
Rubin, Philip E. (1995). HADES: A Case Study of the Development of a Signal Processing System. In R. Bennett, S. L. Greenspan & A. Syrdal (Eds.), Behavioral Aspects of Speech Technology: Theory and Applications. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 501–520.
Rubin, Philip E. and Löfqvist, Anders (1997). HADES (Haskins Analysis Display and Experiment System). Haskins Laboratories Technical Report, unpublished.
Numerical programming languages
Digital signal processing |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colored%20music%20notation | Colored music notation is a technique used to facilitate enhanced learning in young music students by adding visual color to written musical notation. It is based upon the concept that color can affect the observer in various ways, and combines this with standard learning of basic notation.
Basis
Viewing color has been widely shown to change an individual's emotional state and stimulate neurons. The Lüscher color test observes from experiments that when individuals are required to contemplate pure red for varying lengths of time, [the experiments] have shown that this color decidedly has a stimulating effect on the nervous system; blood pressure increases, and respiration rate and heart rate both increase. Pure blue, on the other hand, has the reverse effect; observers experience a decline in blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing. Given these findings, it has been suggested that the influence of colored musical notation would be similar.
Music education
In music education, color is typically used in method books to highlight new material. Stimuli received through several senses excite more neurons in several localized areas of the cortex, thereby reinforcing the learning process and improving retention. This information has been proven by other researchers; Chute (1978) reported that "elementary students who viewed a colored version of an instructional film scored significantly higher on both immediate and delayed tests than did students who viewed a monochrome version".
Color studies
Effect on achievement
A researcher in this field, George L. Rogers is the Director of Music Education at Westfield State College. He is also the author of 25 articles in publications that include the Music Educators Journal, The Instrumentalist, and the Journal of Research in Music Education. In 1991, George L. Rogers did a study that researched the effect of color-coded notation on music achievement of elementary instrumental students. Rogers states that the color-co |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blastospore | A blastospore is an asexual fungal spore produced by budding. Produced by fungi within the phylum Glomeromycota and others. It is also known as a blastoconidium (plural = blastoconidia).
An example of a fungus that forms blastospores is Candida albicans. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syringomycin%20E | Syringomycin E is a member of a class of lipodepsinonapeptide molecules that are secreted by the plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae. Lipodepsinonapeptides comprise a closed ring of nine nonribosomally synthesized amino acids bonded to a fatty acid hydrocarbon tail. A commonly encountered pathovar (pv) of P. syringae is P. syringae pv syringae, which secretes a number of closely related forms of the molecule. Syringomycins are virulence determinants, which means that their secretion is required for the manifestation of disease symptoms on a number of stone fruit crop plants.
Syringomycins have two widely recognized mechanisms of action. They can function as detergents which are powerful enough to dissolve plant membranes at high concentrations. It is not clear whether concentrations high enough to dissolve membranes are ever reached in planta. In addition to being surfactants, aggregates of syringomycins can insert into plant cell membranes and form small pores. These pores allow the leakage of ions from the plant cell cytoplasm. Affected plant cells are unable to maintain their required levels of electrolyte and ultimately cell death and lysis occurs. It is believed that P. syringae benefits from the release of nutrients that occurs as a consequence of cellular lysis.
The biosynthesis of this class of molecules has been elucidated. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell%20fate%20determination | Within the field of developmental biology, one goal is to understand how a particular cell develops into a final cell type, known as fate determination. Within an embryo, several processes play out at the cellular and tissue level to create an organism. These processes include cell proliferation, differentiation, cellular movement and programmed cell death. Each cell in an embryo receives molecular signals from neighboring cells in the form of proteins, RNAs and even surface interactions. Almost all animals undergo a similar sequence of events during very early development, a conserved process known as embryogenesis. During embryogenesis, cells exist in three germ layers, and undergo gastrulation. While embryogenesis has been studied for more than a century, it was only recently (the past 25 years or so) that scientists discovered that a basic set of the same proteins and mRNAs are involved in embryogenesis. Evolutionary conservation is one of the reasons that model systems such as the fly (Drosophila melanogaster), the mouse (Mus musculus), and other organisms are used as models to study embryogenesis and developmental biology. Studying model organisms provides information relevant to other animals, including humans. While studying the different model systems, cells fate was discovered to be determined via multiple ways, two of which are by the combination of transcription factors the cells have and by the cell-cell interaction. Cells’ fate determination mechanisms were categorized into three different types, autonomously specified cells, conditionally specified cells, or syncytial specified cells. Furthermore, the cells’ fate was determined mainly using two types of experiments, cell ablation and transplantation. The results obtained from these experiments, helped in identifying the fate of the examined cells.
Cell fate
The development of new molecular tools including GFP, and major advances in imaging technology including fluorescence microscopy, have made poss |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive%20algorithm | An adaptive algorithm is an algorithm that changes its behavior at the time it is run, based on information available and on a priori defined reward mechanism (or criterion). Such information could be the story of recently received data, information on the available computational resources, or other run-time acquired (or a priori known) information related to the environment in which it operates.
Among the most used adaptive algorithms is the Widrow-Hoff’s least mean squares (LMS), which represents a class of stochastic gradient-descent algorithms used in adaptive filtering and machine learning. In adaptive filtering the LMS is used to mimic a desired filter by finding the filter coefficients that relate to producing the least mean square of the error signal (difference between the desired and the actual signal).
For example, stable partition, using no additional memory is O(n lg n) but given O(n) memory, it can be O(n) in time. As implemented by the C++ Standard Library, stable_partition is adaptive and so it acquires as much memory as it can get (up to what it would need at most) and applies the algorithm using that available memory. Another example is adaptive sort, whose behavior changes upon the presortedness of its input.
An example of an adaptive algorithm in radar systems is the constant false alarm rate (CFAR) detector.
In machine learning and optimization, many algorithms are adaptive or have adaptive variants, which usually means that the algorithm parameters such as learning rate are automatically adjusted according to statistics about the optimisation thus far (e.g. the rate of convergence). Examples include adaptive simulated annealing, adaptive coordinate descent, adaptive quadrature, AdaBoost, Adagrad, Adadelta, RMSprop, and Adam.
In data compression, adaptive coding algorithms such as Adaptive Huffman coding or Prediction by partial matching can take a stream of data as input, and adapt their compression technique based on the symbols that th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20root | The digital root (also repeated digital sum) of a natural number in a given radix is the (single digit) value obtained by an iterative process of summing digits, on each iteration using the result from the previous iteration to compute a digit sum. The process continues until a single-digit number is reached. For example, in base 10, the digital root of the number 12345 is 6 because the sum of the digits in the number is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15, then the addition process is repeated again for the resulting number 15, so that the sum of 1 + 5 equals 6, which is the digital root of that number. In base 10, this is equivalent to taking the remainder upon division by 9 (except when the digital root is 9, where the remainder upon division by 9 will be 0), which allows it to be used as a divisibility rule.
Formal definition
Let be a natural number. For base , we define the digit sum to be the following:
where is the number of digits in the number in base , and
is the value of each digit of the number. A natural number is a digital root if it is a fixed point for , which occurs if .
All natural numbers are preperiodic points for , regardless of the base. This is because if , then
and therefore
because .
If , then trivially
Therefore, the only possible digital roots are the natural numbers , and there are no cycles other than the fixed points of .
Example
In base 12, 8 is the additive digital root of the base 10 number 3110, as for
This process shows that 3110 is 1972 in base 12. Now for
shows that 19 is 17 in base 12. And as 8 is a 1-digit number in base 12,
.
Direct formulas
We can define the digit root directly for base in the following ways:
Congruence formula
The formula in base is:
or,
In base 10, the corresponding sequence is .
The digital root is the value modulo because and thus so regardless of position, the value is the same – – which is why digits can be meaningfully added. Concretely, for a three-digit number
.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barab%C3%A1si%E2%80%93Albert%20model | The Barabási–Albert (BA) model is an algorithm for generating random scale-free networks using a preferential attachment mechanism. Several natural and human-made systems, including the Internet, the World Wide Web, citation networks, and some social networks are thought to be approximately scale-free and certainly contain few nodes (called hubs) with unusually high degree as compared to the other nodes of the network. The BA model tries to explain the existence of such nodes in real networks. The algorithm is named for its inventors Albert-László Barabási and Réka Albert.
Concepts
Many observed networks (at least approximately) fall into the class of scale-free networks, meaning that they have power-law (or scale-free) degree distributions, while random graph models such as the Erdős–Rényi (ER) model and the Watts–Strogatz (WS) model do not exhibit power laws. The Barabási–Albert model is one of several proposed models that generate scale-free networks. It incorporates two important general concepts: growth and preferential attachment. Both growth and preferential attachment exist widely in real networks.
Growth means that the number of nodes in the network increases over time.
Preferential attachment means that the more connected a node is, the more likely it is to receive new links. Nodes with a higher degree have a stronger ability to grab links added to the network. Intuitively, the preferential attachment can be understood if we think in terms of social networks connecting people. Here a link from A to B means that person A "knows" or "is acquainted with" person B. Heavily linked nodes represent well-known people with lots of relations. When a newcomer enters the community, they are more likely to become acquainted with one of those more visible people rather than with a relative unknown. The BA model was proposed by assuming that in the World Wide Web, new pages link preferentially to hubs, i.e. very well known sites such as Google, rather than to pages t |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumpkin%20Adventure%20III%3A%20The%20Hunt%20for%20the%20Unknown | Pumpkin Adventure III: The Hunt for the Unknown is a video game for the MSX2, created by Umax and released in 1995 by Sunrise Foundation. It is a role-playing game with a turn-based fighting system.
Synopsis
Los Angeles is under attack by strange creatures. Nobody knows where these creatures are from or who sent them. As a last hope the L.A. government sets up a special police team: S.O.D.O.M. But even S.O.D.O.M. is not able to stop the threat. As a last resort the brilliant professor Steinein uses his time machine to find the most brave people in history. These people are Steve, Damien and the Bishop, who stopped Lucifer from taking over the world in Pumpkin Adventure 2. These three, together with S.O.D.O.M. member Jeff Tates, start their quest to find the source of the creatures and destroy it. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community%20structure | In the study of complex networks, a network is said to have community structure if the nodes of the network can be easily grouped into (potentially overlapping) sets of nodes such that each set of nodes is densely connected internally. In the particular case of non-overlapping community finding, this implies that the network divides naturally into groups of nodes with dense connections internally and sparser connections between groups. But overlapping communities are also allowed. The more general definition is based on the principle that pairs of nodes are more likely to be connected if they are both members of the same community(ies), and less likely to be connected if they do not share communities. A related but different problem is community search, where the goal is to find a community that a certain vertex belongs to.
Properties
In the study of networks, such as computer and information networks, social networks and biological networks, a number of different characteristics have been found to occur commonly, including the small-world property, heavy-tailed degree distributions, and clustering, among others. Another common characteristic is community structure.
In the context of networks, community structure refers to the occurrence of groups of nodes in a network that are more densely connected internally than with the rest of the network, as shown in the example image to the right. This inhomogeneity of connections suggests that the network has certain natural divisions within it.
Communities are often defined in terms of the partition of the set of vertices, that is each node is put into one and only one community, just as in the figure. This is a useful simplification and most community detection methods find this type of community structure. However, in some cases a better representation could be one where vertices are in more than one community. This might happen in a social network where each vertex represents a person, and the communities represen |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical%20clustering%20of%20networks | Hierarchical clustering is one method for finding community structures in a network. The technique arranges the network into a hierarchy of groups according to a specified weight function. The data can then be represented in a tree structure known as a dendrogram. Hierarchical clustering can either be agglomerative or divisive depending on whether one proceeds through the algorithm by adding links to or removing links from the network, respectively. One divisive technique is the Girvan–Newman algorithm.
Algorithm
In the hierarchical clustering algorithm, a weight is first assigned to each pair of vertices in the network. The weight, which can vary depending on implementation (see section below), is intended to indicate how closely related the vertices are. Then, starting with all the nodes in the network disconnected, begin pairing nodes from highest to lowest weight between the pairs (in the divisive case, start from the original network and remove links from lowest to highest weight). As links are added, connected subsets begin to form. These represent the network's community structures.
The components at each iterative step are always a subset of other structures. Hence, the subsets can be represented using a tree diagram, or dendrogram. Horizontal slices of the tree at a given level indicate the communities that exist above and below a value of the weight.
Weights
There are many possible weights for use in hierarchical clustering algorithms. The specific weight used is dictated by the data as well as considerations for computational speed. Additionally, the communities found in the network are highly dependent on the choice of weighting function. Hence, when compared to real-world data with a known community structure, the various weighting techniques have been met with varying degrees of success.
Two weights that have been used previously with varying success are the number of node-independent paths between each pair of vertices and the total number of |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VSim | VSim is a cross-platform computational framework for multiphysics including electrodynamics in the presence of metallic and dielectric shapes as well as with or without self-consistent charged particles and fluids. It is compatible with compatible with Windows, Linux, and macOS.
It comes with VSimComposer, a full-featured graphical user interface for visual setup of any simulation, including CAD geometry import and/or direct geometry construction. With VSimComposer, the user can execute data analysis scripts and visualize results in one, two, or three dimensions. VSim computes using the powerful Vorpal computational engine, which has been used to simulate the dynamics of electromagnetic systems, plasmas, and rarefied as well as dense gases. VSim is used for modeling basic electromagnetics and plasma physics, complex metallic and dielectric shapes, photonics, vacuum electronics including multipactor effects, laser wake-field acceleration, plasma thrusters, and fusion plasmas.
The Vorpal computational engine is arbitrary dimensional, meaning that it can be run in one, two, or three dimensions. It can be run in full electromagnetic mode, using the FDTD algorithm, or with electrostatically or magnetostatically computed fields. Charged and neutral particles in Vorpal can be represented by a fluid or kinetically using the PIC algorithm in either case self-consistently. The fields and particles can interact with arbitrarily shaped structures, including conductors, particle absorbers, reflectors, and many more. Accuracy is maintained using cut-cell techniques. The computational domain can be periodic or mimic boundaries at infinity via PML or other outgoing wave boundary conditions. Vorpal outputs data in HDF5 (Hierarchical Data Format) that is VizSchema compliant.
Input
Simulations can be set up in the VSimComposer setup panel. Shapes can be imported or constructed, materials can be assigned to shapes, fields and particles can be added, and algorithms can be chosen. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical%20imaging | Chemical imaging (as quantitative – chemical mapping) is the analytical capability to create a visual image of components distribution from simultaneous measurement of spectra and spatial, time information. Hyperspectral imaging measures contiguous spectral bands, as opposed to multispectral imaging which measures spaced spectral bands.
The main idea - for chemical imaging, the analyst may choose to take as many data spectrum measured at a particular chemical component in spatial location at time; this is useful for chemical identification and quantification. Alternatively, selecting an image plane at a particular data spectrum (PCA - multivariable data of wavelength, spatial location at time) can map the spatial distribution of sample components, provided that their spectral signatures are different at the selected data spectrum.
Software for chemical imaging is most specific and distinguished from chemical methods such as chemometrics.
Imaging instrumentation has three components: a radiation source to illuminate the sample, a spectrally selective element, and usually a detector array (the camera) to collect the images. The data format is called a hypercube. The data set may be visualized as a data cube, a three-dimensional block of data spanning two spatial dimensions (x and y), with a series of wavelengths (lambda) making up the third (spectral) axis. The hypercube can be visually and mathematically treated as a series of spectrally resolved images (each image plane corresponding to the image at one wavelength) or a series of spatially resolved spectra.
History
Commercially available laboratory-based chemical imaging systems emerged in the early 1990s (ref. 1-5). In addition to economic factors, such as the need for sophisticated electronics and extremely high-end computers, a significant barrier to commercialization of infrared imaging was that the focal plane array (FPA) needed to read IR images were not readily available as commercial items. As high-spee |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional%20differentiation | In the field of developmental biology, regional differentiation is the process by which different areas are identified in the development of the early embryo. The process by which the cells become specified differs between organisms.
Cell fate determination
In terms of developmental commitment, a cell can either be specified or it can be determined. Specification is the first stage in differentiation. A cell that is specified can have its commitment reversed while the determined state is irreversible. There are two main types of specification: autonomous and conditional. A cell specified autonomously will develop into a specific fate based upon cytoplasmic determinants with no regard to the environment the cell is in. A cell specified conditionally will develop into a specific fate based upon other surrounding cells or morphogen gradients. Another type of specification is syncytial specification, characteristic of most insect classes.
Specification in sea urchins uses both autonomous and conditional mechanisms to determine the anterior/posterior axis. The anterior/posterior axis lies along the animal/vegetal axis set up during cleavage. The micromeres induce the nearby tissue to become endoderm while the animal cells are specified to become ectoderm. The animal cells are not determined because the micromeres can induce the animal cells to also take on mesodermal and endodermal fates. It was observed that β-catenin was present in the nuclei at the vegetal pole of the blastula. Through a series of experiments, one study confirmed the role of β-catenin in the cell-autonomous specification of vegetal cell fates and the micromeres inducing ability. Treatments of lithium chloride sufficient to vegetalize the embryo resulted in increases in nuclearly localized b-catenin. Reduction of expression of β-catenin in the nucleus correlated with loss of vegetal cell fates. Transplants of micromeres lacking nuclear accumulation of β-catenin were unable to induce a second axis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucagon%20rescue | Glucagon rescue is the emergency injection of glucagon in case of severe diabetic hypoglycemia. It is needed during seizures and/or unconsciousness by an insulin user who is unable at that point to help themselves. Glucagon will facilitate the release of stored glucose back into the bloodstream, raising the blood glucose level.
Rescue has been simplified by the development of the glucagon hypoglycemia rescue kit, consisting of:
biosynthetic human glucagon, in a freeze dried form within a vial,
a sturdy syringe, pre-filled with a sterile diluting solution, and
a conspicuous red or orange colored plastic storage box, which includes instructions.
At the first signs of hypoglycemia, an insulin user should treat it immediately by consuming carbohydrate to restore blood glucose to safe levels (thereby preventing progression to severe hypoglycemia). However, not all insulin users can feel and recognize the early signs, particularly when sleeping. This can quickly lead to an emergency resulting in unconsciousness, inability to swallow, seizures, and in extreme cases death. In the past, treatment consisted of intravenous delivery of dextrose (glucose) usually in a hospital emergency department; however, the delay in treatment due to emergency response and transport to a medical facility is life-threatening.
The glucagon rescue kit facilitates rapid rescue by a simple injection, which does not require medical expertise, and can be done quickly and easily outside of a medical facility.
Glucagon rescue kits
Glucagon rescue kits are manufactured by Novo Nordisk and Eli Lilly and Company. Novo Nordisk manufactures the GlucaGen HypoKit and Eli Lilly and Company manufactures the Glucagon emergency kit.
Potential issues with glucagon administration
Glucagon must be reconstituted using a multi-step process that requires the administrator to use a prepared syringe containing an inactive compound and a sealed dosage bottle of glucagon. After the contents of the syringe are |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action%20%28UML%29 | In the Unified Modeling Language, an action is a named element that is the fundamental unit of executable functionality. Actions take a set of inputs, which may be empty, and convert them to a set of outputs, which in turn may also be empty.
The execution of an action represents some transformation or processing in the modeled system. An action execution represents the run-time behavior of executing an action within a specific behavior execution. All action executions will be executions of specific kinds of actions because action is an abstract class. When the action executes, and what its actual inputs are, is determined by the concrete action and the behaviors in which it is used.
An action is the specification of an executable statement and is the fundamental unit of processing or behavior in an activity node that represents some transformation in the modeled system.
An action forms an abstraction of a computational procedure which is an atomic execution and therefore completes without interruption. An action is considered to take zero time and cannot be interrupted. In contrast, an activity is a more complex collection of behavior that may run for a long duration. An activity may be interrupted by events, in which case it does not run to completion.
An action is a result of a system state change and is realized by sending a message to an object or modifying a link or a value of an attribute.
An action may receive inputs in the form of control flows and object flows (the latter via input pins) and passes the results of its processing or transformations to one or more outgoing control flows or object flows (the latter via output pins) and onto downstream nodes.
Execution of the action cannot begin until all its prerequisites are satisfied. All incoming control flows have control tokens and all input pins have object tokens.
An action refers to the suite of rules and policies associated with a state machine state, and is represented as an object method. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDS%20matrix | An MDS matrix (maximum distance separable) is a matrix representing a function with certain diffusion properties that have useful applications in cryptography. Technically, an matrix over a finite field is an MDS matrix if it is the transformation matrix of a linear transformation from to such that no two different -tuples of the form coincide in or more components.
Equivalently, the set of all -tuples is an MDS code, i.e., a linear code that reaches the Singleton bound.
Let be the matrix obtained by joining the identity matrix to . Then a necessary and sufficient condition for a matrix to be MDS is that every possible submatrix obtained by removing rows from is non-singular. This is also equivalent to the following: all the sub-determinants of the matrix are non-zero. Then a binary matrix (namely over the field with two elements) is never MDS unless it has only one row or only one column with all components .
Reed–Solomon codes have the MDS property and are frequently used to obtain the MDS matrices used in cryptographic algorithms.
Serge Vaudenay suggested using MDS matrices in cryptographic primitives to produce what he called multipermutations, not-necessarily linear functions with this same property. These functions have what he called perfect diffusion: changing of the inputs changes at least of the outputs. He showed how to exploit imperfect diffusion to cryptanalyze functions that are not multipermutations.
MDS matrices are used for diffusion in such block ciphers as AES, SHARK, Square, Twofish, Anubis, KHAZAD, Manta, Hierocrypt, Kalyna and Camellia, and in the stream cipher MUGI and the cryptographic hash function Whirlpool. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus%20inactivation | Viral inactivation is to stop the viruses in a given sample from contaminating the desired product either by removing viruses completely or rendering them non-infectious. These techniques are used widely in the food and blood plasma industries, as those products can be harmed by the presence of viral particles. Some of the more common viruses removed by these methods are the HIV-1 and HIV-2 viruses; hepatitis A, B, and C; and parvoviruses. These methods have been adapted to remove prions, which are not related to viruses, from blood products.
Removal
This overarching process, which has come to be known simply as virus removal, is one in which all of the viruses in a given sample are removed by traditional extraction or [full energy] methods. Some of the more prominent methods include:
Nanofiltration
Chromatography
These extraction processes are considered "traditional processes" because they do not chemically affect the virus in any way; they simply remove it physically from the sample.
Nanofiltration
Virus removal processes using nanofiltration techniques remove viruses specifically by size exclusion. This type of process is typically used for parvoviruses and other viruses containing a protein coat. A typical HIV virion is 180 nm and a typical parvovirus can vary between 15 and 24 nm, which is very small. One great advantage of filtration, as opposed to methods involving extremes of temperature or acidity, is that filtration will not denature the proteins in the sample. Nanofiltration is also effective for most types of proteins. Since it is not chemically selective, no matter what the surface chemistry of the viral particle is, viral removal processes using nanofiltration techniques will still be effective. Another great advantage of this technique is its ability to be performed on a lab scale and then effectively scaled up to production standards. It is important to consider, however, the fact that the level of removal of the viruses is dependent on the |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Pollack%20%28biologist%29 | Robert Elliot Pollack is an American biologist whose interests cross many academic lines. He grew up in Brooklyn, attended public schools, and majored in physics at Columbia University, where he graduated from the College in 1961. He received a PhD in Biological Sciences from Brandeis University in 1966, and subsequently was a postdoctoral Fellow in Pathology with Howard Green at NYU Medical center, and at the Weizmann Institute in Israel with Ernest Winocour. He was then recruited to Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory by James Watson to establish a research program on reversion of cancer cells. He became a tenured Associate Professor of Microbiology at the Stony Brook University Medical Center before returning to Columbia as a Professor of Biological Sciences in 1978. He served as Dean of Columbia College from 1982 to 1989, overseeing the enrollment of women in the College for the first time.
He remains at Columbia as a Professor of Biological Sciences, and also serves as Director of The University Seminars; he is the fifth Director since its founding in 1944. He is also a member of the Affiliate Faculty of the American Studies Program. From 1999-2012, he was the Director of the Center for the Study of Science and Religion, a program within Columbia’s Earth Institute. In 2014 his interest in questions that lie at the intersection of science and subjectivity, coupled with the gift of an endowment from College alumnus Harvey Krueger ’51, led him to establish the Research Cluster on Science and Subjectivity, a project within Columbia’s Center for Science and Society.
In addition to these activities, Pollack has authored many research reports, reviews, articles, and opinion pieces on molecular biology, medical ethics and science education. For the academic year 1993–1994 he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in science writing. He has written or edited ten books, including Signs of Life: the Language and Meanings of DNA (1994), which won the Lionel Trilling Award and |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supravaginal%20portion%20of%20cervix | The supravaginal portion of the cervix (also known as the uterine portion of the cervix) is separated in front from the bladder by fibrous tissue (parametrium), which extends also on to its sides and lateralward between the layers of the broad ligaments.
The uterine arteries reach the margins of the cervix in this fibrous tissue, while on either side the ureter runs downward and forward in it at a distance of about 2 cm. from the cervix.
Posteriorly, the supravaginal cervix is covered by peritoneum, which is prolonged below on to the posterior vaginal wall, when it is reflected on to the rectum, forming the recto-uterine pouch.
It is in relation with the rectum, from which it may be separated by coils of small intestine. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uterine%20horns | The uterine horns (cornua of uterus) are the points in the upper uterus where the fallopian tubes exit to meet the ovaries. They are one of the points of attachment for the round ligament of uterus (the other being the mons pubis). They also provide attachment to the ovarian ligament, which is located below the fallopian tube at the back; while the round ligament of uterus is located below the tube at the front.
The uterine horns are far more prominent in other animals (such as cows and cats) than they are in humans. In the cat, implantation of the embryo occurs in one of the two uterine horns, not the body of the uterus itself.
Occasionally, if a fallopian tube does not connect, the uterine horn will fill with blood each month, and a minor one-day surgery will be performed to remove it. Often, people who are born with this have trouble getting pregnant as both ovaries are functional and either may ovulate. The spare egg, that cannot travel the fallopian tube, is absorbed into the body. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl%20Meister%20Greengard%20Prize | The Pearl Meister Greengard Prize is an award for women scientists in biology given annually by the Rockefeller University.
The Prize was founded by Nobel laureate Paul Greengard and his wife Ursula von Rydingsvard in honor of Greengard's mother, Pearl Meister Greengard, who died giving birth to him. Greengard began funding the award in 1998. Greengard donated the full share of his 2000 Nobel Prize to the fund, and was able to use his new publicity to attract additional funding for the award, which was launched in 2004. The award is meant to shine a spotlight on exceptional female scientists, since, as Greengard observed, "[women] are not yet receiving awards and honors at a level commensurate with their achievements."
The award includes a $100,000 honorarium (previously $50,000).
Three recipients of the Prize, Carol Greider, Elizabeth Blackburn and Katalin Karikó, have gone on to receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. One recipient, Jennifer Doudna, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Winners
Source: Rockefeller University
Nicole Marthe Le Douarin (2004)
Philippa Marrack (2005)
Mary Frances Lyon (2006)
Gail R. Martin, Beatrice Mintz, Elizabeth Robertson (2007)
Elizabeth Blackburn, Carol Greider, Vicki Lundblad (2008)
Suzanne Cory (2009)
Janet Rowley and Mary-Claire King (2010)
Brenda Milner (2011)
Joan Steitz (2012)
Huda Y. Zoghbi (2013)
Lucy Shapiro (2014)
Helen Hobbs (2015)
Bonnie Bassler (2016)
JoAnne Stubbe (2017)
Jennifer Doudna (2018)
Xiaowei Zhuang (2019)
Joanne Chory (2020)
Pamela Björkman (2021)
Katalin Karikó (2022)
Lily Jan, Eve Marder (2023)
See also
List of prizes, medals, and awards for women in science
List of biology awards |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye%E2%80%93hand%20span | The eye–hand span is the distance across part of a text, usually a linguistic text that is being copied via typing or a piece of notated music that is being performed, defined as the distance between the position of the eyes acquiring that information and the hand(s) typing or performing it. Specifically, the eye–hand span is typically measured from the location of central visual input, and stretches between the syllable or chord currently being typed or performed, and the lateral location of the simultaneous fixation. This distance may be measured either in units of linear measurement or in characters or other "bits" of data. Some authors refer to the eye–hand span as the "perceptual span" for the visual information perceivable around the region of center of vision used in reading, and in some cases including peripheral input. The eye–hand span is analogous to the eye–voice span in reading language aloud and in singing.
See also
Eye movement in language reading
Eye movement in music reading
Hand–eye coordination |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory%20ordering | Memory ordering describes the order of accesses to computer memory by a CPU. The term can refer either to the memory ordering generated by the compiler during compile time, or to the memory ordering generated by a CPU during runtime.
In modern microprocessors, memory ordering characterizes the CPU's ability to reorder memory operations – it is a type of out-of-order execution. Memory reordering can be used to fully utilize the bus-bandwidth of different types of memory such as caches and memory banks.
On most modern uniprocessors memory operations are not executed in the order specified by the program code. In single threaded programs all operations appear to have been executed in the order specified, with all out-of-order execution hidden to the programmer – however in multi-threaded environments (or when interfacing with other hardware via memory buses) this can lead to problems. To avoid problems, memory barriers can be used in these cases.
Compile-time memory ordering
Most programming languages have some notion of a thread of execution which executes statements in a defined order. Traditional compilers translate high-level expressions to a sequence of low-level instructions relative to a program counter at the underlying machine level.
Execution effects are visible at two levels: within the program code at a high level, and at the machine level as viewed by other threads or processing elements in concurrent programming, or during debugging when using a hardware debugging aid with access to the machine state (some support for this is often built directly into the CPU or microcontroller as functionally independent circuitry apart from the execution core which continues to operate even when the core itself is halted for static inspection of its execution state). Compile-time memory order concerns itself with the former, and does not concern itself with these other views.
General issues of program order
Program-order effects of expression evaluation
Durin |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smale%27s%20problems | Smale's problems are a list of eighteen unsolved problems in mathematics proposed by Steve Smale in 1998 and republished in 1999. Smale composed this list in reply to a request from Vladimir Arnold, then vice-president of the International Mathematical Union, who asked several mathematicians to propose a list of problems for the 21st century. Arnold's inspiration came from the list of Hilbert's problems that had been published at the beginning of the 20th century.
Table of problems
In later versions, Smale also listed three additional problems, "that don't seem important enough to merit a place on our main list, but it would still be nice to solve them:"
Mean value problem
Is the three-sphere a minimal set (Gottschalk's conjecture)?
Is an Anosov diffeomorphism of a compact manifold topologically the same as the Lie group model of John Franks?
See also
Millennium Prize Problems
Simon problems |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buparvaquone | Buparvaquone is a naphthoquinone antiprotozoal drug related to atovaquone. It is a promising compound for the therapy and prophylaxis of all forms of theileriosis. Buparvaquone has been shown to have anti-leishmanial activity in vitro. It can be used to treat bovine East Coast fever protozoa in vitro, along with the only other substance known – Peganum harmala. It is the only really effective commercial therapeutic product against bovine theileriosis, where it has been used since the late 1980s.
Industrial production
It was first produced in Great Britain, then in Germany. Its patent expired in the mid-2000s, and was then produced in different countries, e.g., India and Iran.
Use in bovine theileriosis
Using a single dose of 2,5 mg/kg, the recovery rate of curable cases is 90 to 98%. In tropical theileriosis, a dosage of 2.0 mg/kg has the same efficacy. Body temperature returns to normal in two to five days.
Parasitemia lowers from 12% on day 0 to 5% the next day, then to 1% by day 5 and none at day 7.
Molecular target
Buparvaquone resistance appears to be associated with parasite mutations in the Qo quinone-binding site of mitochondrial cytochrome b. Its mode of action is thus likely to be similar to that of the antimalarial drug atovaquone, a similar 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone that binds to the Qo site of cytochrome b thus inhibiting Coenzyme Q – cytochrome c reductase. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontostriatal%20circuit | Frontostriatal circuits are neural pathways that connect frontal lobe regions with the basal ganglia (striatum) that mediate motor, cognitive, and behavioural functions within the brain. They receive inputs from dopaminergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and cholinergic cell groups that modulate information processing. Frontostriatal circuits are part of the executive functions. Executive functions include the following: selection and perception of important information, manipulation of information in working memory, planning and organization, behavioral control, adaptation to changes, and decision making. These circuits are involved in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease as well as neuropsychiatric disorders including schizophrenia, depression, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), and in neurodevelopmental disorder such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Anatomy
There are five defined frontostriatal circuits: motor and oculomotor circuits originating in the frontal eye fields are involved in motor functions; while dorsolateral prefrontal, orbital frontal, and anterior cingulate circuits are involved in executive functions, social behavior and motivational states. These five circuits share same anatomical structures. These circuits originate in prefrontal cortex and project to the striatum followed by globus pallidus and substantia nigra and finally to the thalamus. There are also feedback loops from thalamus back to prefrontal cortex completing the closed loop circuits. Also, there are open connections to these circuits integrating information from other areas of the brain.
Function
The role of frontostriatal circuits is not well understood. Two of the common theories are action selection and reinforcement learning. The action selection hypothesis suggest that frontalcortex generates possible actions and the striatum selects one of these actions by inhibiting the execution of other actions while allow |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretomotor | The adjective secretomotor refers to the capacity of a structure (often a nerve) to induce a gland to secrete a substance (usually mucus or serous fluid).
Secretomotor nerve endings are frequently contrasted with sensory neuron endings and motor nerve endings. An example of secretomotor activity can be seen with the lacrimal gland, which secretes the aqueous layer of the tear film. The lacrimal branch of the ophthalmic nerve (itself a branch of trigeminal nerve V1) supplies secretomotor innervation to the lacrimal gland, stimulating its secretion of the aqueous layer. However, these nerves fibers originate from the facial nerve (VII) and only travel briefly with fibers from the trigeminal nerve.
Secretomotor neurons in the intestines and gall bladder control the movement of fluid and electrolytes. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major%20sublingual%20duct | The excretory ducts of the sublingual gland are from eight to twenty in number. Of the smaller sublingual ducts (ducts of Rivinus), some join the submandibular duct; others open separately into the mouth, on the elevated crest of mucous membrane (plica sublingualis), caused by the projection of the gland, on either side of the frenulum linguae. One or more join to form the major sublingual duct (larger sublingual duct, duct of Bartholin), which opens into the submandibular duct. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20comic | A mobile comic is a digital comic or cartoon strip that can be purchased, downloaded, read and sometimes edited or shared with friends via mobile phones.
Overview
Increasingly the line between digital comics, animation and games is blurring and the same applies to their mobile counterparts as mobile comics become multimedia with sounds and interactivity. In 2008 IDW Publishing and Devil's Due Publishing (now Devil's Due Digital) became two of the earliest adopters of comics for mobile devices. Devil's Due's initially offered mobile comics through companies such as Uclick, on their GoComics Mobile Store.
Mobile comic content has until recently been miniaturized or adapted versions of established branded comic content. With the rise of file sharing and piracy it has been increasingly hard for publishers to control money leakage from digital/mobile comics and as such publishers (especially traditional Japanese Manga houses) have shied away from licensing digital or mobile comics.
This however, has led to the rise of user-generated (independent artists) using platforms to publish and sell their work at low cost, and (for the first time in years) do so profitably.
The challenges for mobile comics creation include:
Small screen size, which means as little text as possible can be included.
Different handsets with different screen sizes and technical specifications means the same java viewer will not work on all phones.
Story telling must end within 25 frames, or less. The number of frames depends on delivery method
Several mobile content providers have now developed their own mobile comics platforms, some using java-based applications which have to be downloaded to the mobile first before comics can be viewed. Others are using Multi Media Messaging and WAP subscription to deliver strips. However, there are platforms for iPhone and iPad that have been developed to distribute RSS-based webcomics for free, such as the iOS application Comic Avenue.
Titles
Initiall |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balding%E2%80%93Nichols%20model | In population genetics, the Balding–Nichols model is a statistical description of the allele frequencies in the components of a sub-divided population. With background allele frequency p the allele frequencies, in sub-populations separated by Wright's FST F, are distributed according to independent draws from
where B is the Beta distribution. This distribution has mean p and variance Fp(1 – p).
The model is due to David Balding and Richard Nichols and is widely used in the forensic analysis of DNA profiles and in population models for genetic epidemiology. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wei-Hwa%20Huang | Wei-Hwa Huang (born August 4, 1975 in Eugene, Oregon) is an American puzzler, member of the US Team for the World Puzzle Championship, and game designer.
Huang was a member of the United States International Math Olympiad team in 1992 and 1993, where he was awarded a Silver Medal both years. He was a Putnam Fellow in 1993. Huang has won the annual World Puzzle Championship on four occasions: 1995 and 1997–1999. He also won the 2008 Sudoku National Championship. With team Left Out, he won the 2019 MIT Mystery Hunt.
With Tom Lehmann, Huang designed the board game Roll for the Galaxy released in 2014 by Rio Grande Games. Roll for the Galaxy is a dice-based adaption of the award-winning card game Race for the Galaxy with deck-building mechanics. Huang and Lehmann also designed Roll for the Galaxy: Ambition, an expansion released in 2015. Roll for the Galaxy was nominated for three Golden Geek Awards and an International Gamers Award.
Huang graduated from Montgomery Blair High School and the California Institute of Technology and was an employee at Google until July 2008. One of his most famous projects was the Da Vinci Code Quest on Google, which was a set of 24 puzzles launched on April 17, 2006, in cooperation with Columbia Pictures.
Huang submitted a crossword puzzle to The New York Times newspaper which was published on Tuesday, September 10, 2002. In 2012, Huang co-authored a book with Will Shortz, the editor of The New York Times crossword puzzle.
Huang is an investor and co-producer of the Broadway musical The Lightning Thief (musical). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Centre%20for%20Mathematical%20Sciences | The International Centre for Mathematical Sciences (ICMS) is a mathematical research centre based in Edinburgh. According to its website, the centre is "designed to bring together mathematicians and practitioners in science, industry and commerce for research workshops and other meetings."
The centre was jointly established in 1990 by the University of Edinburgh and Heriot-Watt University, under the supervision of Professor Elmer Rees, with initial support from Edinburgh District Council, the Scottish Development Agency and the International Centre for Theoretical Physics.
In April 1994 the Centre moved to 14 India Street, Edinburgh, the birthplace of James Clerk Maxwell and home of the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation. In 2010 it was relocated to 15 South College Street to accommodate larger events. As of 2020, the ICMS is located within the newly established Bayes centre.
The current scientific director (appointed in 2016) is Professor Paul Glendinning. The ICMS is a member of the European Mathematical Society.
Premises
From April 1994, the Centre rented from the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation accommodation at 14, India Street, the birthplace of James Clerk Maxwell. Increased activity necessitated removal in 2010 to a converted church in South College Street, and then in 2018 to its present location in the nearby Bayes Centre of the University of Edinburgh.
See also
Edinburgh Mathematical Society
Isaac Newton Institute, Cambridge |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet%20Protocol%20Device%20Control | Internet Protocol Device Control (IPDC) is a 1998 specification of a communications protocol for voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) telephony, developed by Level 3 Communications.
IPDC divides the operation of telephony gateways between intelligent call routers in an Internet Protocol (IP) network and simple media gateways at the edge of the IP network and the public switched telephone network (PSTN).
Internet Protocol Device Control was fused with the Simple Gateway Control Protocol (SGCP), a project independently in progress at Bellcore, to form the Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP). This group of protocols employs the media gateway control protocol architecture that is also the foundation of MEGACO/H.248, a similar protocol which became a standards-track protocol at the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
See also
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
RTP audio video profile |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septin | Septins are a group of GTP-binding proteins expressed in all eukaryotic cells except plants. Different septins form protein complexes with each other. These complexes can further assemble into filaments, rings and gauzes. Assembled as such, septins function in cells by localizing other proteins, either by providing a scaffold to which proteins can attach, or by forming a barrier preventing the diffusion of molecules from one compartment of the cell to another, or in the cell cortex as a barrier to the diffusion of membrane-bound proteins.
Septins have been implicated in the localization of cellular processes at the site of cell division, and at the cell membrane at sites where specialized structures like cilia or flagella are attached to the cell body. In yeast cells, they compartmentalize parts of the cell and build scaffolding to provide structural support during cell division at the septum, from which they derive their name. Research in human cells suggests that septins build cages around pathogenic bacteria, that immobilize and prevent them from invading other cells.
As filament forming proteins, septins can be considered part of the cytoskeleton. Apart from forming non-polar filaments, septins associate with cell membranes, the cell cortex, actin filaments and microtubules.
Structure
Septins are P-Loop-NTPase proteins that range in weight from 30-65 kDa. Septins are highly conserved between different eukaryotic species. They are composed of a variable-length proline rich N-terminus with a basic phosphoinositide binding motif important for membrane association, a GTP-binding domain, a highly conserved Septin Unique Element domain, and a C-terminal extension including a coiled coil domain of varying length.
Septins interact either via their respective GTP-binding domains, or via both their N- and C-termini. Different organisms express a different number of septins, and from those symmetric oligomers are formed. For example, in yeast the octameric complex fo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobe%20%28anatomy%29 | In anatomy, a lobe is a clear anatomical division or extension of an organ (as seen for example in the brain, lung, liver, or kidney) that can be determined without the use of a microscope at the gross anatomy level. This is in contrast to the much smaller lobule, which is a clear division only visible under the microscope.
Interlobar ducts connect lobes and interlobular ducts connect lobules.
Examples of lobes
The four main lobes of the brain
the frontal lobe
the parietal lobe
the occipital lobe
the temporal lobe
The three lobes of the human cerebellum
the flocculonodular lobe
the anterior lobe
the posterior lobe
The two lobes of the thymus
The two and three lobes of the lungs
Left lung: superior and inferior
Right lung: superior, middle, and inferior
The four lobes of the liver
Left lobe of liver
Right lobe of liver
Quadrate lobe of liver
Caudate lobe of liver
The renal lobes of the kidney
Earlobes
Examples of lobules
the cortical lobules of the kidney
the testicular lobules of the testis
the lobules of the mammary gland
the pulmonary lobules of the lung
the lobules of the thymus |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Austrian%20flags | This is a list of flags used in Austria. For more information about the national flag, visit the article flag of Austria.
National and state flag
Standards
Personal standards of emperors
Austria under National Socialism
Military flags
Austro-Hungarian Armed Forces
Naval flags
Austro-Hungarian Navy
Police
State flags
Political flags
Ethnic groups flags
Historical flags
Flag of subdivisions of Austria-Hungary
House flags of austrian freight companies
Yacht clubs of Austria
Flags
Austria |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20flag%20theorem | In Euclidean geometry, the British flag theorem says that if a point P is chosen inside a rectangle ABCD then the sum of the squares of the Euclidean distances from P to two opposite corners of the rectangle equals the sum to the other two opposite corners.
As an equation:
The theorem also applies to points outside the rectangle, and more generally to the distances from a point in Euclidean space to the corners of a rectangle embedded into the space. Even more generally, if the sums of squares of distances from a point P to the two pairs of opposite corners of a parallelogram are compared, the two sums will not in general be equal, but the difference between the two sums will depend only on the shape of the parallelogram and not on the choice of P.
The theorem can also be thought of as a generalisation of the Pythagorean theorem. Placing the point P on any of the four vertices of the rectangle yields the square of the diagonal of the rectangle being equal to the sum of the squares of the width and length of the rectangle, which is the Pythagorean theorem.
Proof
Drop perpendicular lines from the point P to the sides of the rectangle, meeting sides AB, BC, CD, and AD at points W, X, Y and Z respectively, as shown in the figure. These four points WXYZ form the vertices of an orthodiagonal quadrilateral.
By applying the Pythagorean theorem to the right triangle AWP, and observing that WP = AZ, it follows that
and by a similar argument the squares of the lengths of the distances from P to the other three corners can be calculated as
and
Therefore:
Isosceles trapezoid
The British flag theorem can be generalized into a statement about (convex) isosceles trapezoids. More precisely for a trapezoid with parallel sides and and interior point the following equation holds:
In the case of a rectangle the fraction evaluates to 1 and hence yields the original theorem.
Naming
This theorem takes its name from the fact that, when the line segments from P to th |
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