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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol%20analysis | Protocol analysis is a psychological research method that elicits verbal reports from research participants. Protocol analysis is used to study thinking in cognitive psychology (Crutcher, 1994), cognitive science (Simon & Kaplan, 1989), and behavior analysis (Austin & Delaney, 1998). It has found further application in the design of surveys and interviews (Sudman, Bradburn & Schwarz, 1996), usability testing (Henderson, Smith, Podd, & Varela-Alvarez, 1995), educational psychology (Pressley & Afflerbach 1995; Renkl, 1997) and design research (Gero & McNeill 1998). With the introduction of video- and audio-based based surveys, the scale and scope of verbal report collection is increased dramatically compared to in-person verbal report recording (Byrd, Joseph, Gongora, & Sirota 2023).
See also
Content analysis
Partial concurrent thinking aloud
Think aloud protocol |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logparser | logparser is a flexible command line utility that was initially written by Gabriele Giuseppini, a Microsoft employee, to automate tests for IIS logging. It was intended for use with the Windows operating system, and was included with the IIS 6.0 Resource Kit Tools. The default behavior of logparser works like a "data processing pipeline", by taking an SQL expression on the command line, and outputting the lines containing matches for the SQL expression.
Microsoft describes Logparser as a powerful, versatile tool that provides universal query access to text-based data such as log files, XML files and CSV files, as well as key data sources on the Windows operating system such as the Event Log, the Registry, the file system, and Active Directory. The results of the input query can be custom-formatted in text based output, or they can be persisted to more specialty targets like SQL, SYSLOG, or a chart.
Common use:
$ logparser <options> <SQL expression>
Example: Selecting date, time and client username accessing ASPX-files, taken from all .log-files in the current directory.
$ logparser -i:IISW3C -q "SELECT date, time, cs-username FROM *.log WHERE cs-uri-stem LIKE '%.aspx' ORDER BY date, time;" |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segmental%20innervation | Segmental innervation refers to the distribution (innervation) of nerves within an organ or muscle. These nerves are attached to a segment of the spine.
Segmental innervation can be mapped through stimulation of the nerve at the spinal segment. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeluros | Aeluros Inc was a semiconductor company developing integrated circuits for wireline communications - for Ethernet operating at 10 Gigabits per second. The company was founded in 2001, and produced physical layer ICs used in 10GE line cards and optical modules (such as XENPAK, SFP, XFP).
Aeluros was the first to produce a XAUI transceiver dissipating less than 1 Watt of power, a transceiver that can drive directly a 10 Gbit/s VCSEL, and a transceiver with integrated Electronic Dispersion Compensation for 10GE using Multi-mode optical fiber.
Aeluros merged with NetLogic Microsystems in October 2007 in a deal exceeding $70M. Netlogic Microsystems was subsequently acquired by Broadcom in February 2012 for $3.7B.
External links
Official website
Technology description |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambique%20tilapia | The Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) is an oreochromine cichlid fish native to southeastern Africa. Dull colored, the Mozambique tilapia often lives up to a decade in its native habitats. It is a popular fish for aquaculture. Due to human introductions, it is now found in many tropical and subtropical habitats around the globe, where it can become an invasive species because of its robust nature. These same features make it a good species for aquaculture because it readily adapts to new situations. It is known as black tilapia in Colombia and as blue kurper in South Africa.
Description
The native Mozambique tilapia is laterally compressed, and has a deep body with long dorsal fins, the front part of which have spines. Native coloration is a dull greenish or yellowish, and weak banding may be seen. Adults reach up to in standard length and up to . Size and coloration may vary in captive and naturalized populations due to environmental and breeding pressures. It lives up to 11 years.
Distribution and habitat
The Mozambique tilapia is native to inland and coastal waters in southeastern Africa, from the Zambezi basin in Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe to Bushman River in South Africa's Eastern Cape province. It is threatened in its home range by the introduced Nile tilapia. In addition to competing for the same resources, the two readily hybridize. This has already been documented from the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, and it is expected that pure Mozambique tilapia eventually will disappear from both.
Otherwise it is a remarkably robust and fecund fish, readily adapting to available food sources and breeding under suboptimal conditions. Among others, it occurs in rivers, streams, canals, ponds, lakes, swamps and estuaries, although it typically avoids fast-flowing waters, waters at high altitudes and the open sea. It inhabits waters that range from .
Invasiveness
The Mozambique tilapia or hybrids involving this species and other tilapia are i |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10%E2%80%9320%20system%20%28EEG%29 | The 10–20 system or International 10–20 system is an internationally recognized method to describe and apply the location of scalp electrodes in the context of an EEG exam, polysomnograph sleep study, or voluntary lab research. This method was developed to maintain standardized testing methods ensuring that a subject's study outcomes (clinical or research) could be compiled, reproduced, and effectively analyzed and compared using the scientific method. The system is based on the relationship between the location of an electrode and the underlying area of the brain, specifically the cerebral cortex.
During sleep and wake cycles, the brain produces different, objectively recognized and distinguishable electrical patterns, which can be detected by electrodes on the skin. (These patterns might vary, and can be affected by multiple extrinsic factors, i.e. age, prescription drugs, somatic diagnoses, hx of neurologic insults/injury/trauma, and substance abuse)
The "10" and "20" refer to the fact that the actual distances between adjacent electrodes are either 10% or 20% of the total front–back or right–left distance of the skull. For example, a measurement is taken across the top of the head, from the nasion to inion. Most other common measurements ('landmarking methods') start at one ear and end at the other, normally over the top of the head. Specific anatomical locations of the ear used include the tragus, the auricle and the mastoid.
Electrode labeling
Each electrode placement site has a letter to identify the lobe, or area of the brain it is reading from: pre-frontal (Fp), frontal (F), temporal (T), parietal (P), occipital (O), and central (C). Note that there is no "central lobe"; due to their placement, and depending on the individual, the "C" electrodes can exhibit/represent EEG activity more typical of frontal, temporal, and some parietal-occipital activity, and are always utilized in polysomnography sleep studies for the purpose of determining stages of slee |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilution%20assay | The term dilution assay is generally used to designate a special type of bioassay in which one or more preparations (e.g. a drug) are administered to experimental units at different dose levels inducing a measurable biological response. The dose levels are prepared by dilution in a diluent that is inert in respect of the response. The experimental units can for example be cell-cultures, tissues, organs or living animals. The biological response may be quantal (e.g. positive/negative) or quantitative (e.g. growth). The goal is to relate the response to the dose, usually by interpolation techniques, and in many cases to express the potency/activity of the test preparation(s) relative to a standard of known potency/activity.
Dilution assays can be direct or indirect. In a direct dilution assay the amount of dose needed to produce a specific (fixed) response is measured, so that the dose is a stochastic variable defining the tolerance distribution. Conversely, in an indirect dilution assay the dose levels are administered at fixed dose levels, so that the response is a stochastic variable.
Statistical models
For a mathematical definition of a dilution assay an observation space is defined and a function so that the responses are mapped to the set of real numbers. It is now assumed that a function exists which relates the dose to the response
in which is an error term with expectation 0. is usually assumed to be continuous and monotone. In situations where a standard preparation is included it is furthermore assumed that the test preparation behaves like a dilution (or concentration) of the standard
, for all
where is the relative potency of . This is the fundamental assumption of similarity of dose-response curves which is necessary for a meaningful and unambiguous definition of the relative potency. In many cases it is convenient to apply a power transformation with or a logarithmic transformation . The latter can be shown to be a |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isogonal | Isogonal, a mathematical term meaning "having similar angles", may refer to:
Isogonal figure or polygon, polyhedron, polytope or tiling
Isogonal trajectory, in curve theory
Isogonal conjugate, in triangle geometry
See also
Isogonic line, in the study of Earth's magnetic field, a line of constant magnetic declination
Geometry |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snub%20%28geometry%29 | In geometry, a snub is an operation applied to a polyhedron. The term originates from Kepler's names of two Archimedean solids, for the snub cube () and snub dodecahedron (). In general, snubs have chiral symmetry with two forms: with clockwise or counterclockwise orientation. By Kepler's names, a snub can be seen as an expansion of a regular polyhedron: moving the faces apart, twisting them about their centers, adding new polygons centered on the original vertices, and adding pairs of triangles fitting between the original edges.
The terminology was generalized by Coxeter, with a slightly different definition, for a wider set of uniform polytopes.
Conway snubs
John Conway explored generalized polyhedron operators, defining what is now called Conway polyhedron notation, which can be applied to polyhedra and tilings. Conway calls Coxeter's operation a semi-snub.
In this notation, snub is defined by the dual and gyro operators, as s = dg, and it is equivalent to an alternation of a truncation of an ambo operator. Conway's notation itself avoids Coxeter's alternation (half) operation since it only applies for polyhedra with only even-sided faces.
In 4-dimensions, Conway suggests the snub 24-cell should be called a semi-snub 24-cell because, unlike 3-dimensional snub polyhedra are alternated omnitruncated forms, it is not an alternated omnitruncated 24-cell. It is instead actually an alternated truncated 24-cell.
Coxeter's snubs, regular and quasiregular
Coxeter's snub terminology is slightly different, meaning an alternated truncation, deriving the snub cube as a snub cuboctahedron, and the snub dodecahedron as a snub icosidodecahedron. This definition is used in the naming of two Johnson solids: the snub disphenoid and the snub square antiprism, and of higher dimensional polytopes, such as the 4-dimensional snub 24-cell, with extended Schläfli symbol s{3,4,3}, and Coxeter diagram .
A regular polyhedron (or tiling), with Schläfli symbol , and Coxeter diagram , |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chewiness | Chewiness is the mouthfeel sensation of labored chewing due to sustained, elastic resistance from the food. Foods typically considered chewy include caramel, rare steak, and chewing gum. Other foods where this is an important part of the experience of eating include springy cheeses and apples.
Chewiness is empirically measured by the metrics of chew count and chew rate. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphatidylethanolamine | Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) is a class of phospholipids found in biological membranes. They are synthesized by the addition of cytidine diphosphate-ethanolamine to diglycerides, releasing cytidine monophosphate. S-Adenosyl methionine can subsequently methylate the amine of phosphatidylethanolamines to yield phosphatidylcholines.
Function
In cells
Phosphatidylethanolamines are found in all living cells, composing 25% of all phospholipids. In human physiology, they are found particularly in nervous tissue such as the white matter of brain, nerves, neural tissue, and in spinal cord, where they make up 45% of all phospholipids.
Phosphatidylethanolamines play a role in membrane fusion and in disassembly of the contractile ring during cytokinesis in cell division. Additionally, it is thought that phosphatidylethanolamine regulates membrane curvature. Phosphatidylethanolamine is an important precursor, substrate, or donor in several biological pathways.
As a polar head group, phosphatidylethanolamine creates a more viscous lipid membrane compared to phosphatidylcholine. For example, the melting temperature of di-oleoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine is -16 °C while the melting temperature of di-oleoyl-phosphatidylcholine is -20 °C. If the lipids had two palmitoyl chains, phosphatidylethanolamine would melt at 63 °C while phosphatidylcholine would melt already at 41 °C. Lower melting temperatures correspond, in a simplistic view, to more fluid membranes.
In humans
In humans, metabolism of phosphatidylethanolamine is thought to be important in the heart. When blood flow to the heart is restricted, the asymmetrical distribution of phosphatidylethanolamine between membrane leaflets is disrupted, and as a result the membrane is disrupted. Additionally, phosphatidylethanolamine plays a role in the secretion of lipoproteins in the liver. This is because vesicles for secretion of very low-density lipoproteins coming off of the Golgi apparatus have a significantly higher phosphati |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mothers%20against%20decapentaplegic | Mothers against decapentaplegic is a protein from the SMAD family that was discovered in Drosophila. During Drosophila research, it was found that a mutation in the gene in the mother repressed the gene decapentaplegic in the embryo. The phrase "Mothers against" was added as a humorous take-off on organizations opposing various issues e.g. Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD); and based on a tradition of such unusual naming within the gene research community.
Several human homologues are known:
Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 1
Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 2
Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 3
Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 4
Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 5
Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 6
Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 7
Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 9 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA-induced%20transcriptional%20silencing | RNA-induced transcriptional silencing (RITS) is a form of RNA interference by which short RNA molecules – such as small interfering RNA (siRNA) – trigger the downregulation of transcription of a particular gene or genomic region. This is usually accomplished by posttranslational modification of histone tails (e.g. methylation of lysine 9 of histone H3) which target the genomic region for heterochromatin formation. The protein complex that binds to siRNAs and interacts with the methylated lysine 9 residue of histones H3 (H3K9me2) is the RITS complex.
RITS was discovered in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, and has been shown to be involved in the initiation and spreading of heterochromatin in the mating-type region and in centromere formation. The RITS complex in S. pombe contains at least a piwi domain-containing RNase H-like argonaute, a chromodomain protein Chp1, and an argonaute interacting protein Tas3 which can also bind to Chp1, while heterochromatin formation has been shown to require at least argonaute and an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Loss of these genes in S. pombe results in abnormal heterochromatin organization and impairment of centromere function, resulting in lagging chromosomes on anaphase during cell division.
Function and mechanisms
The maintenance of heterochromatin regions by RITS complexes has been described as a self-reinforcing feedback loop, in which RITS complexes stably bind the methylated histones of a heterochromatin region using the Chp1 protein and induce co-transcriptional degradation of any nascent messenger RNA (mRNA) transcripts, which are then used as RNA-dependent RNA polymerase substrates to replenish the complement of siRNA molecules to form more RITS complexes. The RITS complex localizes to heterochromatic regions through the base pairing of the nascent heterochromatic transcripts as well as through the Chp chromodomain which recognizes methylated histones found in heterochromatin. Once incorporated into the he |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marimokkori | is the yuru-chara mascot of Hokkaidō, Japan. The name "Marimokkori" is a portmanteau of marimo, green algae clusters that grow in some of Hokkaidō's lakes, and mokkori, a Japanese slang term for an erection.
Marimokkori's fame comes through merchandising, with a number of various souvenirs being sold in Hokkaidō and throughout Japan.
History
In 2005, the souvenir wholesaler Kyowa Co., Ltd. created a character based on the portmanteau of marimo, a green algae that grows in Lake Akan, and mokkori, a Japanese slang term for an erection. Kyowa started selling mobile phone accessories, which were initially rejected by some souvenir shops due to the vulgarity of the character's design.
The character was then featured in the STV Radio program "Tokimeki Wide" and has since gradually gained popularity in Hokkaido. The character has since been promoted by celebrities and featured in television media throughout Japan. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating-type%20locus | The mating-type locus is a specialized region in the genomes of some yeast and other fungi, usually organized into heterochromatin and possessing unique histone methylation patterns. The genes in this region regulate the mating type of the organism and therefore determine key events in its life cycle, such as whether it will reproduce sexually or asexually. In fission yeast such as S. pombe, the formation and maintenance of the heterochromatin organization is regulated by RNA-induced transcriptional silencing, a form of RNA interference responsible for genomic maintenance in many organisms. Mating type regions have also been well studied in budding yeast S. cerevisiae and in the fungus Neurospora crassa.
Mating-type switching
In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, mating-type is determined by two non-homologous alleles at the mating-type locus. S. cerevisiae has the capability of undergoing mating-type switching, that is conversion of some haploid cells in a colony from one mating-type to the other. Mating-type switching can occur as frequently as once every generation. Switching involves homologous recombinational repair of a site specific, programmed double-strand break, a highly organized process. This process replaces one mating type allelic DNA sequence with the sequence encoding the alternative mating-type allele. When two haploid cells of opposite mating type come into contact they can mate to form a diploid cell, a zygote, that may then undergo meiosis. Meiosis tends to occur under nutritionally limiting conditions associated with DNA damage.
See also
Mating of yeast |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scout%20%28operating%20system%29 | Scout is a research operating system developed at the University of Arizona. It is communication-oriented and designed around the constraints of network-connected devices like set-top boxes.
The Scout researchers had in mind a class of devices that they called "network appliances", which include cameras and disks attached to a network. They believed that these devices have in common the following three characteristics:
Communication-Oriented
Specialized/Diverse Functionality
Predictable Performance with Scarce Resources
To satisfy these three requirements, Scout was designed around an abstraction called a "path"; was highly configurable; and offered scheduling and resource allocation policies that provided predictable performance under load.
See also
Single address space operating system
External links
Scout Home Page
Embedded operating systems
University of Arizona |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-box%20protein | F-box proteins are proteins containing at least one F-box domain. The first identified F-box protein is one of three components of the SCF complex, which mediates ubiquitination of proteins targeted for degradation by the 26S proteasome.
Core components
F-box domain is a protein structural motif of about 50 amino acids that mediates protein–protein interactions. It has consensus sequence and varies in few positions. It was first identified in cyclin F. The F-box motif of Skp2, consisting of three alpha-helices, interacts directly with the SCF protein Skp1. F-box domains commonly exist in proteins in cancer with other protein–protein interaction motifs such as leucine-rich repeats (illustrated in the Figure) and WD repeats, which are thought to mediate interactions with SCF substrates.
Function
F-box proteins have also been associated with cellular functions such as signal transduction and regulation of the cell cycle. In plants, many F-box proteins are represented in gene networks broadly regulated by microRNA-mediated gene silencing via RNA interference. F-box proteins are involved in many plant vegetative and reproduction growth and development. For example, F-box protein-FOA1 involved in abscisic acid (ABA) signaling to affect the seed germination. ACRE189/ACIF1 can regulate cell death and defense when the pathogen is recognized in the Tobacco and Tomato plant.
In human cells, under high-iron conditions, two iron atoms stabilise the F-Box FBXL5 and then the complex mediates the ubiquitination of IRP2.
Regulation
F-box protein levels can be regulated by different mechanisms. The regulation can occur via protein degradation process and association with SCF complex . For example, in yeast, the F-box protein Met30 can be ubiquitinated in a cullin-dependent manner.[11] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linamarin | Linamarin is a cyanogenic glucoside found in the leaves and roots of plants such as cassava, lima beans, and flax. It is a glucoside of acetone cyanohydrin. Upon exposure to enzymes and gut flora in the human intestine, linamarin and its methylated relative lotaustralin can decompose to the toxic chemical hydrogen cyanide; hence food uses of plants that contain significant quantities of linamarin require extensive preparation and detoxification. Ingested and absorbed linamarin is rapidly excreted in the urine and the glucoside itself does not appear to be acutely toxic. Consumption of cassava products with low levels of linamarin is widespread in the low-land tropics. Ingestion of food prepared from insufficiently processed cassava roots with high linamarin levels has been associated with dietary toxicity, particularly with the upper motor neuron disease known as konzo to the African populations in which it was first described by Trolli and later through the research network initiated by Hans Rosling. However, the toxicity is believed to be induced by ingestion of acetone cyanohydrin, the breakdown product of linamarin. Dietary exposure to linamarin has also been reported as a risk factor in developing glucose intolerance and diabetes, although studies in experimental animals have been inconsistent in reproducing this effect and may indicate that the primary effect is in aggravating existing conditions rather than inducing diabetes on its own.
The generation of cyanide from linamarin is usually enzymatic and occurs when linamarin is exposed to linamarase, an enzyme normally expressed in the cell walls of cassava plants. Because the resulting cyanide derivatives are volatile, processing methods that induce such exposure are common traditional means of cassava preparation; foodstuffs are usually made from cassava after extended blanching, boiling, or fermentation. Food products made from cassava plants include garri (toasted cassava tubers), porridge-like fufu, the d |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative%20physiology | Comparative physiology is a subdiscipline of physiology that studies and exploits the diversity of functional characteristics of various kinds of organisms. It is closely related to evolutionary physiology and environmental physiology. Many universities offer undergraduate courses that cover comparative aspects of animal physiology. According to Clifford Ladd Prosser, "Comparative Physiology
is not so much a defined discipline as a viewpoint, a philosophy."
History
Originally, as narrated in a recent history of the field, physiology focused primarily on human beings, in large part from a desire to improve medical practices. When physiologists first began comparing different species it was sometimes out of simple curiosity to understand how organisms work but also stemmed from a desire to discover basic physiological principles. This use of specific organisms convenient to study specific questions is known as the Krogh Principle.
Methodology
C. Ladd Prosser, a founder of modern comparative physiology, outlined a broad agenda for comparative physiology in his 1950 edited volume (see summary and discussion in Garland and Carter):
1. To describe how different kinds of animals meet their needs.
This amounts to cataloging functional aspects of biological diversity, and has recently been criticized as "stamp collecting" with the suggestion that the field should move beyond that initial, exploratory phase.
2. The use of physiological information to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships of organisms.
In principle physiological information could be used just as morphological information or DNA sequence is used to measure evolutionary divergence of organisms. In practice, this has rarely been done, for at least four reasons:
physiology doesn't leave many fossil cues,
it can't be measured on museum specimens,
it is difficult to quantify as compared with morphology or DNA sequences, and
physiology is more likely to be adaptive than DNA, and so subject to parallel |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial%20binary%20adder | The serial binary adder or bit-serial adder is a digital circuit that performs binary addition bit by bit. The serial full adder has three single-bit inputs for the numbers to be added and the carry in. There are two single-bit outputs for the sum and carry out. The carry-in signal is the previously calculated carry-out signal. The addition is performed by adding each bit, lowest to highest, one per clock cycle.
Serial binary addition
Serial binary addition is done by a flip-flop and a full adder. The flip-flop takes the carry-out signal on each clock cycle and provides its value as the carry-in signal on the next clock cycle. After all of the bits of the input operands have arrived, all of the bits of the sum have come out of the sum output.
Serial binary subtracter
The serial binary subtracter operates the same as the serial binary adder, except the subtracted number is converted to its two's complement before being added. Alternatively, the number to be subtracted is converted to its ones' complement, by inverting its bits, and the carry flip-flop is initialized to a 1 instead of to 0 as in addition. The ones' complement plus the 1 is the two's complement.
Example of operation
Decimal 5+9=14
X=5, Y=9, Sum=14
Binary 0101+1001=1110
Addition of each step
*addition starts from lowest
Result=1110 or 14
See also
Parallel binary adder |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gideon%20Gartner | Gideon Isaiah Gartner (March 13, 1935 – December 12, 2020) was an American businessman, investor, and philanthropist. He was often referred to as the father of the modern analyst industry. He is best known as the founder of Gartner, Inc. (formerly Gartner Group Inc.) a Stamford, Connecticut information technology (IT) research and advisory company.
Early life and education
Gideon Isaiah Gartner was born on March 13, 1935, in Tel Aviv, to Eastern European Jewish émigrés. His father Abraham was an engineer, while his mother Pnina (née Bedri) was a musician and teacher. In 1938 the family moved to the United States and settled in Brooklyn, where Abraham became a civil engineer for New York City. Gartner attended the Yeshiva of Flatbush and then Midwood High School, graduating in 1952. A gifted musician who excelled at both piano and the French horn, he was offered a musical scholarship to the University of Miami, but was discouraged from pursuing music as a career choice. Instead, Gartner chose to attend the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, graduating in 1956 with a Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering. He went on to earn his Masters in Business Administration from the MIT Sloan School of Management in 1960. Speaking about his courses at MIT, he is noted to have said that most classes bored him except computer science and programming courses.
Career
Early career
Gartner began his career in operations research at System Development Corporation, a subcontractor to Philco Corporation. He worked in Paramus, New Jersey, for the U.S. military’s Strategic Air Command control system and then in Alexandria, Virginia, for the Defense Communications Agency. In 1961 Philco sold the first large-scale transistorized computer to Israel’s Ministry of Defense, and sent Gartner, with his background in Hebrew, to help program the computer and to market Philco to other Israel government agencies. While in Israel, Gartner was recruited by International Business Machi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieben%20Prize | The Ignaz Lieben Prize, named after the Austrian banker , is an annual Austrian award made by the Austrian Academy of Sciences to young scientists working in the fields of molecular biology, chemistry, or physics.
Biography
The Ignaz Lieben Prize has been called the Austrian Nobel Prize. It is similar in intent but somewhat older than the Nobel Prize. The Austrian merchant Ignaz L. Lieben, whose family supported many philanthropic activities, had stipulated in his testament that 6,000 florins should be used “for the common good”. In 1863 this money was given to the Austrian Imperial Academy of Sciences, and the Ignaz L. Lieben Prize was instituted. Every three years, the sum of 900 florins was to be given to an Austrian scientist in the field of chemistry, physics, or physiology. This sum corresponded to roughly 40 per cent of the annual income of a university professor.
From 1900 on, the prize was offered on a yearly basis. The endowment was twice increased by the Lieben family. When the endowment had lost its value due to inflation after World War I, the family transferred the necessary sum yearly to the Austrian Academy of Sciences. But since the family was persecuted by the National Socialists, the prize was discontinued after the German Anschluss of Austria in 1938.
Richard Lieben (1842–1919), the younger son of Ignaz Lieben, financed the Richard Lieben Prize in Mathematics, which was awarded every three years from 1912 to 1921, and one final time in 1928, before being discontinued.
In 2004 the Lieben prize was reinstated, with support from Isabel Bader and Alfred Bader (who was able to flee from Austria to Great Britain at the age of fourteen in 1938). Now, the award amounts to US Dollar 36,000, and it is offered yearly to young scientists who work in Austria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia or Slovenia (i.e., in one of the countries that were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire a hundred years ago), and who work in the |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GISAID | GISAID (), the Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza Data, previously the Global Initiative on Sharing Avian Influenza Data, is a global science initiative established in 2008 to provide access to genomic data of influenza viruses. The database was expanded to include the coronavirus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as other pathogens. The database has been described as "the world's largest repository of COVID-19 sequences". GISAID facilitates genomic epidemiology and real-time surveillance to monitor the emergence of new COVID-19 viral strains across the planet.
Since its establishment as an alternative to sharing avian influenza data via conventional public-domain archives, GISAID has facilitated the exchange of outbreak genome data during the H1N1 pandemic in 2009, the H7N9 epidemic in 2013, the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2022–2023 mpox outbreak.
History
Origin
Since 1952, influenza strains had been collected by National Influenza Centers (NICs) and distributed through the WHO's Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS). Countries provided samples to the WHO but the data was then shared with them for free with pharmaceutical companies who could patent vaccines produced from the samples. Beginning in January 2006, Italian researcher Ilaria Capua refused to upload her data to a closed database and called for genomic data on H5N1 avian influenza to be in the public domain. At a conference of the OIE/FAO Network of Expertise on Animal Influenza, Capua persuaded participants to agree to each sequence and release data on 20 strains of influenza. Some scientists had concerns about sharing their data in case others published scientific papers using the data before them, but Capua dismissed this telling Science "What is more important? Another paper for Ilaria Capua's team or addressing a major health threat? Let's get our priorities straight." Peter Bogner, a German in his 40s based in the USA and who previously had no experience in |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Pumphrey | William Pumphrey (1817 – 1905) was an early photographer based in York.
Pumphrey was a Quaker and started out as a science teacher at Bootham School, York. He bought his licence from Samuel Walker, York's first practising photographer, in July 1849, and ran his business there until 1854. Throughout this time he frequently lectured on scientific and kindred subjects; indeed, he continued to lecture - including to Bootham boys - even after taking up his post as superintendent of a private lunatic asylum in York. He was fond of travel, bringing home many photographs of the scenery of Switzerland and elsewhere, which he took pleasure in showing to his friends with the magic lantern.
In 1866, he organised an exhibition of Yorkshire Fine Art and Industry, in the grounds of Bootham Park Hospital, in which he entered two revolving stereoscopes, each containing 50 of his stereo views.
See also
Early photographers of York
Notes
External links
Imagine York: Historic Photographs Online Council Library Archive of historic photographs of York, searchable by keyword and photographer.
1817 births
1905 deaths
English Quakers
People educated at Bootham School
19th-century English photographers
Photographers from Yorkshire
Schoolteachers from Yorkshire |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational%20magnetohydrodynamics | Computational magnetohydrodynamics (CMHD) is a rapidly developing branch of magnetohydrodynamics that uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve electrically conducting fluids. Most of the methods used in CMHD are borrowed from the well established techniques employed in Computational fluid dynamics. The complexity mainly arises due to the presence of a magnetic field and its coupling with the fluid. One of the important issues is to numerically maintain the (conservation of magnetic flux) condition, from Maxwell's equations, to avoid the presence of unrealistic effects, namely magnetic monopoles, in the solutions.
Open-source MHD software
Pencil CodeCompressible resistive MHD, intrinsically divergence free, embedded particles module, finite-difference explicit scheme, high-order derivatives, Fortran95 and C, parallelized up to hundreds of thousands cores. Source code is available.
RAMSES RAMSES is an open source program to model astrophysical systems, featuring self-gravitating, magnetised, compressible, radiative fluid flows. It is based on the Adaptive Mesh Refinement (AMR) technique on a fully threaded graded octree. RAMSES is written in Fortran 90 and is making intensive use of the Message Passing Interface (MPI) library. Source code is available.
RamsesGPU RamsesGPU is an MHD program written in C++, based on the original RAMSES but only for regular grid (no AMR). The code has been designed to run on large clusters of GPU (NVIDIA graphics processors), so parallelization relies on MPI for distributed memory processing, as well as the programing language CUDA for efficient usage of GPU resources. Static Gravity Fields are supported. Different finite volume methods are implemented. Source code is available.
AthenaAthena is a grid-based program for astrophysical magnetohydrodynamics (MHD). It was developed primarily for studies of the interstellar medium, star formation, and accretion flows. Source code is available.
EOF-Libr |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache%20Axis2 | Apache Axis2 is a web service engine. It is a redesign and re-write of the widely used Apache Axis SOAP stack. Implementations of Axis2 are available in Java and C.
Axis2 provides the capability to add Web services interfaces to Web applications. It can also function as a standalone application server.
Why Apache Axis2
A new architecture for Axis2 was introduced during the August 2004 Axis2 Summit in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Some concepts from Axis 1.x, like handlers etc., have been preserved in the new architecture.
Apache Axis2 supports SOAP 1.1 and SOAP 1.2, and it has integrated support for the REST style of Web services. The same business-logic implementation can offer both a WS-* style interface as well as a REST/POX style interface simultaneously.
Axis2/Java has support for Spring Framework.
Axis2/C is a high-performance Web services implementation that has been implemented with portability and ability to be embedded or hosted in Apache Httpd, Microsoft IIS or Axis Http Server. See article about Apache Axis2/C Performance (2008) (latest release occurred in 2009).
Axis2 came with new features, enhancements and industry specification implementations. Key features include:
Axis2 Features
Apache Axis2 includes support for following standards:
WS-ReliableMessaging
WS-Coordination Via Apache Kandula2
WS-AtomicTransaction Via Apache Kandula2
WS-SecurityPolicy Via Apache Rampart
WS-Security Via Apache Rampart
WS-Trust Via Apache Rampart
WS-SecureConversation Via Apache Rampart
SAML 1.1 Via Apache Rampart
SAML 2.0 Via Apache Rampart
WS-Addressing Module included as part of Axis2 core
Below a list of features and selling points cited from the Apache axis site:
Speed Axis2 uses its own object model and StAX (Streaming API for XML) .
Low memory foot print Axis2 was designed to consume a low amount of memory.
AXIOM Axis2 comes with its own light-weight object model, AXIOM
Hot Deployment Axis2 can deploy Web services and handlers while the system is runnin |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carleman%27s%20condition | In mathematics, particularly, in analysis, Carleman's condition gives a sufficient condition for the determinacy of the moment problem. That is, if a measure satisfies Carleman's condition, there is no other measure having the same moments as The condition was discovered by Torsten Carleman in 1922.
Hamburger moment problem
For the Hamburger moment problem (the moment problem on the whole real line), the theorem states the following:
Let be a measure on such that all the moments
are finite. If
then the moment problem for is determinate; that is, is the only measure on with as its sequence of moments.
Stieltjes moment problem
For the Stieltjes moment problem, the sufficient condition for determinacy is
Notes |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syracuse%20dish |
Introduction
A Syracuse dish or Syracuse watch glass is a shallow, circular, flat-bottomed dish of thick glass. Usually, it is 67 mm in outer diameter and 52 mm in inner diameter.
Background
Nathan Cobb, one of the pioneers of nematology in the United States,was the first who suggested using the Syracuse Dish for counting nematodes in 1918.
Uses
It is used as laboratory equipment in biology for either storage or culturing. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple%20comparisons%20problem | In statistics, the multiple comparisons, multiplicity or multiple testing problem occurs when one considers a set of statistical inferences simultaneously or infers a subset of parameters selected based on the observed values.
The more inferences are made, the more likely erroneous inferences become. Several statistical techniques have been developed to address that problem, typically by requiring a stricter significance threshold for individual comparisons, so as to compensate for the number of inferences being made.
History
The problem of multiple comparisons received increased attention in the 1950s with the work of statisticians such as Tukey and Scheffé. Over the ensuing decades, many procedures were developed to address the problem. In 1996, the first international conference on multiple comparison procedures took place in Tel Aviv.
Definition
Multiple comparisons arise when a statistical analysis involves multiple simultaneous statistical tests, each of which has a potential to produce a "discovery". A stated confidence level generally applies only to each test considered individually, but often it is desirable to have a confidence level for the whole family of simultaneous tests. Failure to compensate for multiple comparisons can have important real-world consequences, as illustrated by the following examples:
Suppose the treatment is a new way of teaching writing to students, and the control is the standard way of teaching writing. Students in the two groups can be compared in terms of grammar, spelling, organization, content, and so on. As more attributes are compared, it becomes increasingly likely that the treatment and control groups will appear to differ on at least one attribute due to random sampling error alone.
Suppose we consider the efficacy of a drug in terms of the reduction of any one of a number of disease symptoms. As more symptoms are considered, it becomes increasingly likely that the drug will appear to be an improvement over e |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity%20of%20Assam | The biodiversity of Assam (), a state in North-East India, makes it a biological hotspot with many rare and endemic plant and animal species. The greatest success in recent years has been the conservation of the Indian rhinoceros at the Kaziranga National Park, but a rapid increase in human population in Assam threatens many plants and animals and their natural habitats.
The rhinoceros, tiger, deer or chital / futukihorina (Axis axis), swamp deer or dolhorina (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli), clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), hoolock gibbon, pygmy hog or nol-gahori (Porcula salvania), hispid hare, golden langur (Trachypithecus geei), golden cat, giant civet, binturong, hog badger, porcupine, and civet are found in Assam. Moreover, there are abundant numbers of Gangetic dolphins, mongooses, giant squirrels and pythons. The largest population of wild water buffalo anywhere is in Assam.
The major birds in Assam include the blue-throated barbet or hetuluka (Megalaima asiatica), white-winged wood duck or deuhnah (Asarcornis scultulata), Pallas's fish eagle or kuruwa (Haliaeetus leucoryphus), great pied hornbill or rajdhonesh (Buceros bicornis homrai), Himalayan golden-backed three-toed wood-pecker or barhoituka (Dinopium shorii shorii), and migratory pelican.
Assam is also known for orchids and for valuable plant species and forest products.
Protected areas in Assam
There are several protections in Assam, including several national parks, in particular in the Brahmaputra Valley.
National parks
Manas National Park (560 km2)
Kaziranga National Park (320 km2)
Orang National Park (110 km2)
Nameri National Park (90 km2)
Dibru-Saikhowa National Park (490 km2)
Wildlife sanctuaries
Garampani Wildlife Sanctuary
Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary
Bornadi Wildlife Sanctuary
Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary
Bura Chapori Wildlife Sanctuary
Pani Dihing Wildlife Sanctuary
Hollongapar Wildlife Sanctuary
Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary
Sonai Rupai Wildlife Sanctuary
Bherjan-Bora |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrational%20rotation | In the mathematical theory of dynamical systems, an irrational rotation is a map
where is an irrational number. Under the identification of a circle with , or with the interval with the boundary points glued together, this map becomes a rotation of a circle by a proportion of a full revolution (i.e., an angle of radians). Since is irrational, the rotation has infinite order in the circle group and the map has no periodic orbits.
Alternatively, we can use multiplicative notation for an irrational rotation by introducing the map
The relationship between the additive and multiplicative notations is the group isomorphism
.
It can be shown that is an isometry.
There is a strong distinction in circle rotations that depends on whether is rational or irrational. Rational rotations are less interesting examples of dynamical systems because if and , then when . It can also be shown that
when .
Significance
Irrational rotations form a fundamental example in the theory of dynamical systems. According to the Denjoy theorem, every orientation-preserving -diffeomorphism of the circle with an irrational rotation number is topologically conjugate to . An irrational rotation is a measure-preserving ergodic transformation, but it is not mixing. The Poincaré map for the dynamical system associated with the Kronecker foliation on a torus with angle is the irrational rotation by . C*-algebras associated with irrational rotations, known as irrational rotation algebras, have been extensively studied.
Properties
If is irrational, then the orbit of any element of under the rotation is dense in . Therefore, irrational rotations are topologically transitive.
Irrational (and rational) rotations are not topologically mixing.
Irrational rotations are uniquely ergodic, with the Lebesgue measure serving as the unique invariant probability measure.
Suppose . Since is ergodic,.
Generalizations
Circle rotations are examples of group translations.
For a general ori |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromemco%20Octart | The Cromemco Octart was an expansion card made by Cromemco for their range of S-100 bus based computer systems. The card provided eight serial bus channels and a single bi-directional parallel port. The serial connections were often used to interface eight computer terminals to the host system. In combination with the Cromemco Cromix multi-user operating system, this allowed different users to concurrently work on the system. The parallel port was typically connected to an IEEE 1284-type printer.
Octart superseded Cromemco's TUART and QUADART and IOP boards. Unlike earlier boards, which merely formatted and exchanged individual data characters, the Octart featured a sophisticated DUART communications circuit plus an independent Z80A processor with 64 KB bytes of memory. This enabled the Octart to:
Perform all protocol and error-detection/recovery functions.
Buffer large amounts of serial data.
Pass only preprocessed data over the host bus using interrupt-driven I/O.
This reduced the processing load on the host computer's central processing unit and dramatically increased system throughput.
The Octart was a versatile serial subsystem. Under program control, it could switch its internal memory configuration from 16 KB bytes of ROM and 32 KB bytes of RAM to a full 64 KB bytes of RAM.
Thus the board can include a ROM bootstrap program which loads an application program, and then switches to 64 KB bytes of RAM for maximum buffer space. The eight serial channels could operate independently of one another in any of four modes: full duplex, auto echo, local loopback, and remote loopback.
Each channel could be programmed to automatic wake-up mode for multidrop applications.
The Octart required Z80 Cromix version 11.24 or later, or 68000 Cromix 20.61 or later.
External links
Cromemco Octart Asynchronous Communications Processor Instruction Manual
Octart
Serial buses |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abhyankar%27s%20lemma | In mathematics, Abhyankar's lemma (named after Shreeram Shankar Abhyankar) allows one to kill tame ramification by taking an extension of a base field.
More precisely, Abhyankar's lemma states that if A, B, C are local fields such that A and B are finite extensions of C, with ramification indices a and b, and B is tamely ramified over C and b divides a, then the compositum
AB is an unramified extension of A.
See also
Finite extensions of local fields |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlequin%20%28software%29 | Arlequin is a free population genetics software distributed as an integrated GUI data analysis software. It performs several types of tests and calculations, including Fixation index (Fst, also known as the "F-statistics"), computing genetic distance, Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, linkage disequilibrium, analysis of molecular variance, mismatch distribution, and pairwise difference tests. The software is designed to be able to handle different kinds of molecular, non-molecular, and/or frequency type data.
About
The Arlequin is a software package that integrates basic and advanced levels/methods for population genetics and data analysis.
Version 3.5.2.2 is available only on Microsoft Windows as zip archive and installation executables.
Mac OS X and Linux have only older 3.5.2 version but restricted on 64-bit environments and have only command-line interface as the "arlecore" program, "arlsumstat" program, as well as the example files.
In 2019, the new R functions were integrated into the Arlequin software. The new R functions are able to integrate the software into zip files for Windows, Mac and Linux versions. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meckel%E2%80%93Gruber%20syndrome | Meckel-Gruber syndrome is a rare, lethal ciliopathic genetic disorder, characterized by renal cystic dysplasia, central nervous system malformations (occipital encephalocele), polydactyly (postaxial), hepatic developmental defects, and pulmonary hypoplasia due to oligohydramnios.
Meckel–Gruber syndrome is named for Johann Meckel and Georg Gruber.
Pathophysiology
Meckel–Gruber syndrome (MKS) is an autosomal recessive lethal malformation. Recently, two MKS genes, MKS1 and MKS3, have been identified. A study done recently has described the cellular, sub-cellular and functional characterization of the novel proteins, MKS1 and meckelin, encoded by these genes. The malfunction of this protein production is mainly responsible for this lethal disorder.
Relation to other rare genetic disorders
Recent findings in genetic research have suggested that a large number of genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that were not previously identified in the medical literature as related, may be, in fact, highly related in the genetypical root cause of the widely varying, phenotypically-observed disorders. Thus, Meckel–Gruber syndrome is a ciliopathy. Other known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet–Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alström syndrome, and some forms of retinal degeneration.
The MKS1 gene has been identified as being associated with a ciliopathy.
Diagnosis
Dysplastic kidneys are prevalent in over 95% of all identified cases. When this occurs, microscopic cysts develop within the kidney and slowly destroy it, causing it to enlarge to 10 to 20 times its original size. The level of amniotic fluid within the womb may be significantly altered or remain normal, and a normal level of fluid should not be criteria for exclusion of diagnosis.
Occipital encephalocele is present in 60% to 80% of all cases, and post-axial polydactyly is present in 55% to 75% of the total number of identified case |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile%20%28astrogeology%29 | Volatiles are the group of chemical elements and chemical compounds that can be readily vaporized. In contrast with volatiles, elements and compounds that are not readily vaporized are known as refractory substances.
On planet Earth, the term 'volatiles' often refers to the volatile components of magma. In astrogeology volatiles are investigated in the crust or atmosphere of a planet or moon. Volatiles include nitrogen, carbon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen, methane, sulfur dioxide, water and others.
Planetary science
Planetary scientists often classify volatiles with exceptionally low melting points, such as hydrogen and helium, as gases, whereas those volatiles with melting points above about 100 K (–173 °C, –280 °F) are referred to as ices. The terms "gas" and "ice" in this context can apply to compounds that may be solids, liquids or gases. Thus, Jupiter and Saturn are gas giants, and Uranus and Neptune are ice giants, even though the vast majority of the "gas" and "ice" in their interiors is a hot, highly dense fluid that gets denser as the center of the planet is approached. Inside of Jupiter's orbit, cometary activity is driven by the sublimation of water ice. Supervolatiles such as CO and CO2 have generated cometary activity as far out as .
Igneous petrology
In igneous petrology the term more specifically refers to the volatile components of magma (mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide) that affect the appearance and explosivity of volcanoes. Volatiles in a magma with a high viscosity, generally felsic with a higher silica (SiO2) content, tend to produce eruptions that are explosive eruption. Volatiles in a magma with a low viscosity, generally mafic with a lower silica content, tend to vent as effusive eruption and can give rise to a lava fountain.
Volatiles in magma
Some volcanic eruptions are explosive because of the mixing between water and magma reaching the surface, which releases energy suddenly. However, in some cases, the eruption is caused by vola |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruciate%20ligament%20of%20atlas | The cruciate ligament of the atlas (cruciform ligament) is a cross-shaped (thus the name) ligament in the neck forming part of the atlanto-axial joint. It consists of the transverse ligament of atlas, a superior longitudinal band, and an inferior longitudinal band.
The cruciate ligament of the atlas prevents abnormal movement of the atlanto-axial joint.
It may be torn, such as by fractures of the atlas bone.
Structure
The cruciate ligament of the atlas consists of the transverse ligament of the atlas, a superior longitudinal band, and an inferior longitudinal band. The superior longitudinal band connects the transverse ligament to the anterior side of the foramen magnum (near the basilar part) in the occipital bone of the skull. The inferior longitudinal band connects the transverse ligament to the body of the axis bone (C2).
Variation
The inferior longitudinal band may be absent in some people; the rest of the ligament is invariably present.
Gerber's ligament
In about half of individuals, an additional band - Gerber's ligament - arises at the junction of the transverse ligament and superior band, and is situated deep to the superior band.
Function
The cruciate ligament of the atlas prevents abnormal movements of the atlanto-axial joint. The longitudinal bands prevent hyperflexion and hyperextension of the occipital bone, and hold the transverse ligament of the atlas in a normal position.
Clinical significance
Any part of the cruciate ligament of the atlas may tear, which is a significant injury. This may be caused by fractures of the atlas bone. Ligament tears may be imaged with radiography, a CT scan, or magnetic resonance imaging.
Ossification
Very rarely, the cruciate ligament of the atlas may ossify. This may lead to cervical myelopathy, a deficit in the spinal cord.
Etymology
The terms "cruciform" and "cruciate" refer to the cross shape of the ligament. Both terms are frequently used, although the term "cruciate" may be confusing due to confusi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational%20consequence%20relation | In logic, a rational consequence relation is a non-monotonic consequence relation satisfying certain properties listed below.
Properties
A rational consequence relation satisfies:
REF Reflexivity
and the so-called Gabbay–Makinson rules:
LLE Left logical equivalence
RWE Right-hand weakening
CMO Cautious monotonicity
DIS Logical or (i.e. disjunction) on left hand side
AND Logical and on right hand side
RMO Rational monotonicity
Uses
The rational consequence relation is non-monotonic, and the relation is intended to carry the meaning theta usually implies phi or phi usually follows from theta. In this sense it is more useful for modeling some everyday situations than a monotone consequence relation because the latter relation models facts in a more strict boolean fashion—something either follows under all circumstances or it does not.
Example: cake
The statement "If a cake contains sugar then it tastes good" implies under a monotone consequence relation the statement "If a cake contains sugar and soap then it tastes good." Clearly this doesn't match our own understanding of cakes. By asserting "If a cake contains sugar then it usually tastes good" a rational consequence relation allows for a more realistic model of the real world, and certainly it does not automatically follow that "If a cake contains sugar and soap then it usually tastes good."
Note that if we also have the information "If a cake contains sugar then it usually contains butter" then we may legally conclude (under CMO) that "If a cake contains sugar and butter then it usually tastes good.". Equally in the absence of a statement such as "If a cake contains sugar then usually it contains no soap" then we may legally conclude from RMO that "If the cake contains sugar and soap then it usually tastes good."
If this latter conclusion seems ridiculous to you then it is likely that you are subconsciously asserting your own preconceived knowledge about cakes when evaluating the vali |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean%20network | A Boolean network consists of a discrete set of boolean variables each of which has a Boolean function (possibly different for each variable) assigned to it which takes inputs from a subset of those variables and output that determines the state of the variable it is assigned to. This set of functions in effect determines a topology (connectivity) on the set of variables, which then become nodes in a network. Usually, the dynamics of the system is taken as a discrete time series where the state of the entire network at time t+1 is determined by evaluating each variable's function on the state of the network at time t. This may be done synchronously or asynchronously.
Boolean networks have been used in biology to model regulatory networks. Although Boolean networks are a crude simplification of genetic reality where genes are not simple binary switches, there are several cases where they correctly convey the correct pattern of expressed and suppressed genes.
The seemingly mathematical easy (synchronous) model was only fully understood in the mid 2000s.
Classical model
A Boolean network is a particular kind of sequential dynamical system, where time and states are discrete, i.e. both the set of variables and the set of states in the time series each have a bijection onto an integer series.
A random Boolean network (RBN) is one that is randomly selected from the set of all possible boolean networks of a particular size, N. One then can study statistically, how the expected properties of such networks depend on various statistical properties of the ensemble of all possible networks. For example, one may study how the RBN behavior changes as the average connectivity is changed.
The first Boolean networks were proposed by Stuart A. Kauffman in 1969, as random models of genetic regulatory networks but their mathematical understanding only started in the 2000s.
Attractors
Since a Boolean network has only 2N possible states, a trajectory will sooner or later re |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-Wave%20Systems | D-Wave Quantum Systems Inc. is a Canadian quantum computing company, based in Burnaby, British Columbia. D-Wave was the world's first company to sell computers to exploit quantum effects in their operation. D-Wave's early customers include Lockheed Martin, University of Southern California, Google/NASA and Los Alamos National Lab.
In 2015, D-Wave's 2X Quantum Computer with more than 1,000 qubits was installed at the Quantum Artificial Intelligence Lab at NASA Ames Research Center. They have subsequently shipped systems with 2,048 qubits. In 2019, D-Wave announced a 5000-qubit system available mid-2020, using their new Pegasus chip with 15 connections per qubit. D-Wave does not implement a generic quantum computer; instead, their computers implement specialized quantum annealing. However, D-Wave announced plans in 2021 that they will work on universal gate-base quantum computers as well in the future.
History
D-Wave was founded by Haig Farris (former chair of board), Geordie Rose (former CEO/CTO), Bob Wiens (former CFO), and Alexandre Zagoskin (former VP Research and Chief Scientist). Farris taught a business course at the University of British Columbia (UBC), where Rose obtained his PhD, and Zagoskin was a postdoctoral fellow. The company name refers to their first qubit designs, which used d-wave superconductors.
D-Wave operated as an offshoot from UBC, while maintaining ties with the Department of Physics and Astronomy. It funded academic research in quantum computing, thus building a collaborative network of research scientists. The company collaborated with several universities and institutions, including UBC, IPHT Jena, Université de Sherbrooke, University of Toronto, University of Twente, Chalmers University of Technology, University of Erlangen, and Jet Propulsion Laboratory. These partnerships were listed on D-Wave's website until 2005. In June 2014, D-Wave announced a new quantum applications ecosystem with computational finance firm 1QB Information Te |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary%20of%20phytopathology | This is a glossary of some of the terms used in phytopathology.
Phytopathology is the study of plant diseases. It is a multi-disciplinary science since prerequisites for disease development are the presence of a susceptible host species, a pathogen and the appropriate environmental conditions. This is known as the disease triangle. Because of this interaction, the terminology used in phytopathology often comes from other disciplines including those dealing with the host species ( botany / plant science, plant physiology), the pathogen (bacteriology, mycology, nematology, virology), the environment and disease management practices (agronomy, soil science, meteorology, environmental science, ecology, plant breeding, pesticides, entomology), and areas of study that apply to both the host and pathogen (molecular biology, genetics, molecular genetics). The result is that most phytopathological glossary include terms from these other disciplines in addition to terms (disease incidence, horizontal resistance, gene-for-gene relationship, blast, scab and so on) that are specific to, or which have a unique meaning in phytopathology. This glossary is no exception. However, for the sake of brevity, it has, for the most part, restricted terms from other disciplines to those that pertain to the pathogen. At some point, these terms should be moved to other glossaries (e.g. glossary of mycology, glossary of nematology, and so on).
A
abiotic
Disease not caused by living organisms
acceptable daily intake
acervulus (pl. acervuli)
The acervulus is an erumpent, cushionlike fruiting body bearing conidiophores, conidia, and sometimes setae. It is distinguished from a stroma in not having a peridium or covering of fungal tissue of any kind.
acid precipitation
acid rain
acropetal
Actinomycetes
The Actinobacteria or Actinomycetes are a group of Gram-positive bacteria.
acute
acute toxicity
aeciospore
aecium
aflatoxin
agar
aggressiveness
air pollution
alkaloids
allele |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonary | A tonary is a liturgical book in the Western Christian Church which lists by incipit various items of Gregorian chant according to the Gregorian mode (tonus) of their melodies within the eight-mode system. Tonaries often include Office antiphons, the mode of which determines the recitation formula for the accompanying text (the psalm tone if the antiphon is sung with a psalm, or canticle tone if the antiphon is sung with a canticle), but a tonary may also or instead list responsories or Mass chants not associated with formulaic recitation. Although some tonaries are stand-alone works, they were frequently used as an appendix to other liturgical books such as antiphonaries, graduals, tropers, and prosers, and are often included in collections of musical treatises.
Function and form
Tonaries were particularly important as part of the written transmission of plainchant, although they already changed the oral chant transmission of Frankish cantors entirely before musical notation was used systematically in fully notated chant books. Since the Carolingian reform the ordering according to the Octoechos assisted the memorization of chant. The exact order was related to the elements of the "tetrachord of the finales" (D—E—F—G) which were called "Protus, Deuterus, Tritus", and "Tetrardus". Each of them served as the finalis of two toni—the "authentic" (ascending into the higher octave) and the "plagal" one (descending into the lower fourth). The eight tones were ordered in these pairs: "Autentus protus, Plagi Proti, Autentus Deuterus" etc. Since Hucbald of Saint-Amand the eight tones were simply numbered according to this order: Tonus I-VIII. Aquitanian cantors usually used both names for each section.
The earliest tonaries, written during the 8th century, were very short and simple without any visible reference to psalmody. Tonaries of the 9th century already ordered a huge repertoire of psalmodic chant into sections of psalmtone endings, even if their melody was not in |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk%20covering%20problem | The disk covering problem asks for the smallest real number such that disks of radius can be arranged in such a way as to cover the unit disk. Dually, for a given radius ε, one wishes to find the smallest integer n such that n disks of radius ε can cover the unit disk.
The best solutions known to date are as follows.
Method
The following picture shows an example of a dashed disk of radius 1 covered by six solid-line disks of radius ~0.6. One of the covering disks is placed central and the remaining five in a symmetrical way around it.
While this is not the best layout for r(6), similar arrangements of six, seven, eight, and nine disks around a central disk all having same radius result in the best layout strategies for r(7), r(8), r(9), and r(10), respectively. The corresponding angles θ are written in the "Symmetry" column in the above table. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on%20Croizat | Léon Camille Marius Croizat (July 16, 1894 – November 30, 1982) was a French-Italian scholar and botanist who developed an orthogenetic synthesis of evolution of biological form over space, in time, which he called panbiogeography.
Life
Croizat was born in Torino, Italy to Vittorio Croizat (aka Victor Croizat) and Maria (Marie) Chaley, who had emigrated to Turin from Chambéry, France. In spite of his great aptitude for the natural sciences, Leon studied and received a degree in law from the University of Turin.
Croizat and his family (wife Lucia and two children) emigrated to the United States in 1924; an avid artist, Leon worked selling his artwork for several years, but could not succeed economically as a working artist after the stock market crash of 1929. During the 1930s, Croizat found a job identifying plants as part of a topographic inventory performed in the public parks of New York City. During his visits to the Bronx Botanical Gardens, he became acquainted with Dr. E. D. Merrill. When Merrill was appointed director of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University in 1936, he hired Leon as a technical assistant (in 1937.)
Croizat became a prolific student and publisher, studying important aspects of the distribution and evolution of biological species. It was during this time that he began to formulate a novel current of thought in evolutionary theory, opposed in some respects to Darwinism, on the evolution and dispersal of biota over space, through time.
In 1947, Croizat moved to Venezuela after receiving an invitation from botanist Henri Pittier. Croizat then obtained a position in the Faculty of the Department of Agronomy at the Central University of Venezuela. In 1951 he was promoted and was awarded the title of Professor of Botany and Ecology at the University of the Andes, Venezuela. Between 1951 and 1952 he participated in the Franco-Venezuelan expedition to discover the sources of the Orinoco river. Croizat served with the expedition as a botanist |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vroman%20effect | The Vroman effect, named after Leo Vroman, describes the process of competitive protein adsorption to a surface by blood serum proteins. The highest mobility proteins generally arrive first and are later replaced by less mobile proteins that have a higher affinity for the surface. The order of protein adsorption also depends on the molecular weight of the species adsorbing. Typically, low molecular weight proteins are displaced by high molecular weight protein while the opposite, high molecular weight being displaced by low molecular weight, does not occur. A typical example of this occurs when fibrinogen displaces earlier adsorbed proteins on a biopolymer surface and is later replaced by high molecular weight kininogen. The process is delayed in narrow spaces and on hydrophobic surfaces, fibrinogen is usually not displaced. Under stagnant conditions initial protein deposition takes place in the sequence: albumin; globulin; fibrinogen; fibronectin; factor XII, and HMWK.
Molecular Mechanisms of Action
While the exact mechanism of action is still unknown many important protein physical properties play a part in the Vroman Effect. Proteins have many properties that are important to take into consideration when discussing protein adsorption. These properties include the protein size, charge, mobility, stability, and the structure and composition of the different protein domains that make up the protein's tertiary structure. Protein size determines the molecular weight. Protein charge determines whether preferentially or selective favorable interactions will exist between the protein and a biomaterial. Protein mobility plays a factor in adsorption kinetics.
Adsorption - Desorption Model
The simplest molecular explanation for the exchange of proteins on a surface is the adsorption/desorption model. Here, proteins interact with the surface of a biomaterial and "stick" on the material through interactions made with the protein and the biomaterial surface. Once a protei |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary%20isolate | Primary isolate is a pure microbial or viral sample that has been obtained from an infected individual, rather than grown in a laboratory. In chemistry and bacteriology, the verb isolate means to obtain a pure chemical, bacteriological or viral sample. The noun 'isolate' refers to the sample itself.
According to the 'Bulletin of Experimental Treatments for AIDS, Year-End, 1999' glossary, a primary isolate is "HIV taken from an infected individual, as opposed to that grown in a laboratory." |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotaustralin | Lotaustralin is a cyanogenic glucoside found in small amounts in Fabaceae austral trefoil (Lotus australis), cassava (Manihot esculenta), lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus), roseroot (Rhodiola rosea) and white clover (Trifolium repens), among other plants. Lotaustralin is the glucoside of methyl ethyl ketone cyanohydrin and is structurally related to linamarin, the acetone cyanohydrin glucoside also found in these plants. Both lotaustralin and linamarin may be hydrolyzed by the enzyme linamarase to form glucose and a precursor to the toxic compound hydrogen cyanide. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articular%20disk%20of%20the%20temporomandibular%20joint | The articular disk of the temporomandibular joint is a thin, oval plate made of non-vascular fibrous connective tissue located between the mandible's condyloid process and the cranium's mandibular fossa.
Its upper surface is concavo-convex from before backward, to accommodate itself to the form of the mandibular fossa and the articular tubercle. Its lower surface, in contact with the condyle, is concave. Its circumference is connected to the articular capsule, and in front to the tendon of the lateral pterygoid muscle. It is thicker at its periphery, especially behind, than at its center.
The fibers of which the disc is composed have a concentric arrangement, more apparent at the circumference than at the center. It divides the joint into two cavities, each of which is furnished with a synovial membrane.
It is attached as follows.
The anterior portion of the disc attaches inferiorly to the anterior condyle and superiorly to the eminence by bending with the joint capsule.
Posteriorly, the disc attaches superiorly to the temporal bone and inferiorly to the posterior condyle (the posterior attachments are frequently called the bilaminar zone).
Laterally and medially, the disc attachments blend into the joint capsule near its attachment to the condylar head.
The disc prevents the mandible from moving posteriorly.
See also
Temporomandibular joint#Articular disc |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerontology%20Research%20Group | The Gerontology Research Group (GRG) based in Los Angeles, California, USA, is a global non-profit scientific organization of researchers in various fields of gerontology, primarily concerned with validating the ages of, recording and researching supercentenarians (people who are at least 110 years old).
The group endeavors to further gerontology research with a goal of slowing and reversing aging. Many of its worldwide correspondents are respected scientists and PhD holders.
History
The GRG was founded in 1990 by L. Stephen Coles and Stephen M. Kaye. The original chapter of the LA-GRG holds meetings each month, though the organization has members worldwide who meet via online forums and video meetings.
The GRG's current director, upon the death of Dr L Stephen Coles, is John M Adams, known as Johnny. Lead in supercentenarian research for the GRG is Robert Douglas Young.
The GRG validates the ages of supercentenarians (people at least 110 years old or older) by finding proof-of-age documents. People that have attained supercentenarian status are required to supply the organization documents that prove the persons birth date, change of name (if applicable), and date of death (if applicable), along with another piece of official government identification. Researchers from the GRG then verify that these documents are true and correct and if they are, the claimant is included in the GRG's official tables of validated supercentenarians.
The GRG also conducts research on aging by interviewing supercentenarians and collecting blood and DNA samples.
To 2015, the Gerontology Research Group found proofs of supercentenarian age for more than 2,000 people.
See also
Longevity
New England Centenarian Study |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc%20transporter%208 | Zinc transporter 8 (ZNT8) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC30A8 gene. ZNT8 is a zinc transporter related to insulin secretion in humans. In particular, ZNT8 is critical for the accumulation of zinc into beta cell secretory granules and the maintenance of stored insulin as tightly packaged hexamers. Certain alleles of the SLC30A8 gene may increase the risk for developing type 2 diabetes, but a loss-of-function mutation appears to greatly reduce the risk of diabetes.
Clinical significance
Association with type 2 diabetes (T2D)
Twelve rare variants in SLC30A8 have been identified through the sequencing or genotyping of approximately 150,000 individuals from 5 different ancestry groups. SLC30A8 contains a common variant (p.Trp325Arg), which is associated with T2D risk and levels of glucose and proinsulin. Individuals carrying protein-truncating variants collectively had 65% reduced risk of T2D. Additionally, non-diabetic individuals from Iceland harboring a frameshift variant p. Lys34Serfs*50 demonstrated reduced glucose levels. Earlier functional studies of SLC30A8 suggested that reduced zinc transport increased T2D risk. Conversely, loss-of-function mutations in humans indicate that SLC30A8 haploinsufficiency protects against T2D. Therefore, ZnT8 inhibition can serve as a therapeutic strategy in preventing T2D.
See also
Solute carrier family |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median%20thyrohyoid%20ligament | The median thyrohyoid ligament (also middle hyothyroid ligament or middle thyrohyoid ligament) is the thicker, middle part of the thyrohyoid membrane. Its lateral thinner portions are pierced by the superior laryngeal vessels and the internal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve. Its anterior surface is in relation with the thyrohyoideus, sternohyoideus, and omohyoideus muscles, and with the body of the hyoid bone. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricotracheal%20ligament | The cricotracheal ligament connects (the inferior border of) the cricoid cartilage superiorly, and the first tracheal cartilage ring inferiorly. It is continuous with the tracheal perichondrium and resembles the fibrous membrane which connects the cartilaginous rings of the trachea to each other. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyoepiglottic%20ligament | The hyoepiglottic ligament is an extrinsic ligament of the larynx connecting the epiglottis and the thyroid cartilage.
Anatomy
The hyoepiglottic ligament is an elastic band connecting the anterior surface of the epiglottis, and the superior border of the body of the hyoid bone.
Clinical significance
It is clinically important in performing direct laryngoscopy with a Macintosh laryngoscope blade; the blade tip is placed in the vallecula and moved anteriorly, which causes the hyoepiglottic ligament to pull the epiglottis anteriorly as well and thus expose the glottis. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA%20silencing | RNA silencing or RNA interference refers to a family of gene silencing effects by which gene expression is negatively regulated by non-coding RNAs such as microRNAs. RNA silencing may also be defined as sequence-specific regulation of gene expression triggered by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). RNA silencing mechanisms are conserved among most eukaryotes. The most common and well-studied example is RNA interference (RNAi), in which endogenously expressed microRNA (miRNA) or exogenously derived small interfering RNA (siRNA) induces the degradation of complementary messenger RNA. Other classes of small RNA have been identified, including piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) and its subspecies repeat associated small interfering RNA (rasiRNA).
Background
RNA silencing describes several mechanistically related pathways which are involved in controlling and regulating gene expression. RNA silencing pathways are associated with the regulatory activity of small non-coding RNAs (approximately 20–30 nucleotides in length) that function as factors involved in inactivating homologous sequences, promoting endonuclease activity, translational arrest, and/or chromatic or DNA modification. In the context in which the phenomenon was first studied, small RNA was found to play an important role in defending plants against viruses. For example, these studies demonstrated that enzymes detect double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) not normally found in cells and digest it into small pieces that are not able to cause disease.
While some functions of RNA silencing and its machinery are understood, many are not. For example, RNA silencing has been shown to be important in the regulation of development and in the control of transposition events. RNA silencing has been shown to play a role in antiviral protection in plants as well as insects. Also in yeast, RNA silencing has been shown to maintain heterochromatin structure. However, the varied and nuanced role of RNA silencing in the regulation of gene express |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngobasilar%20fascia | The pharyngobasilar fascia is a fascia of the pharynx. It is situated between the mucous and muscular layers of the pharynx. It is formed as a thickening of the pharyngeal mucosa superior to the superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle. It attaches to the basilar part of occipital bone, the petrous part of the temporal bone (medial to the pharyngotympanic tube), the (posterior border of the) medial pterygoid plate, and the pterygomandibular raphe. It diminishes in thickness inferiorly. Posteriorly, it is reinforced by the pharyngeal raphe. It reinforces the pharyngeal wall where muscle is deficient.
Additional images
See also
Buccopharyngeal fascia |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyman-alpha%20emitter | A Lyman-alpha emitter (LAE) is a type of distant galaxy that emits Lyman-alpha radiation from neutral hydrogen.
Most known LAEs are extremely distant, and because of the finite travel time of light they provide glimpses into the history of the universe. They are thought to be the progenitors of most modern Milky Way type galaxies. These galaxies can be found nowadays rather easily in narrow-band searches by an excess of their narrow-band flux at a wavelength which may be interpreted from their redshift
where z is the redshift, is the observed wavelength, and 1215.67 Å is the wavelength of Lyman-alpha emission. The Lyman-alpha line in most LAEs is thought to be caused by recombination of interstellar hydrogen that is ionized by an ongoing burst of star formation. Such Lyman alpha emission was first suggested as a signature of young galaxies by Bruce Partridge and P. J. E. Peebles in 1967. Experimental observations of the redshift of LAEs are important in cosmology because they trace dark matter halos and subsequently the evolution of matter distribution in the universe.
Properties
Lyman-alpha emitters are typically low mass galaxies of 108 to 1010 solar masses. They are typically young galaxies that are 200 to 600 million years old, and they have the highest specific star formation rate of any galaxies known. All of these properties indicate that Lyman-alpha emitters are important clues as to the progenitors of modern Milky Way type galaxies.
Lyman-alpha emitters have many unknown properties. The Lyman-alpha photon escape fraction varies greatly in these galaxies. This is what portion of the light emitted at the Lyman-alpha line wavelength inside the galaxy actually escapes and will be visible to distant observers. There is much evidence that the dust content of these galaxies could be significant and therefore is obscuring the brightness of these galaxies. It is also possible that anisotropic distribution of hydrogen density and velocity play a significa |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventec | Inventec Corporation (; ) is a Taiwan-based Original Design Manufacturer (ODM) making notebook computers, servers and mobile devices. Originally established in 1975 to develop and manufacture electronic calculators, major customers include Hewlett-Packard, Toshiba, Acer, and Fujitsu-Siemens.
Inventec Corporation has major development and manufacturing facilities in China and is one of their largest exporters. The company opened its first development center in China in 1991 and its first manufacturing facility in Shanghai in 1995. In addition, the company has configuration, and service centers in the United States, Europe, and Mexico.
The company has a workforce of over 23,000 employees, including over 3,000 engineers. It partially owns a Japan-based mini notebook brand vendor, Kohjinsha (KJS), which was established in Yokohama.
Group information
Inventec Group comprises five companies:
Inventec Corporation
Noted above
Inventec BESTA
BESTA is an independent subsidiary company of the Inventec Group first launched in Taipei in 1989 to produce compact English/Chinese electronic dictionaries. BESTA has expanded its product line to PDAs, tablet computers and translators in multiple languages (including Korean and Japanese).
BESTA currently produces over 30 models on the market in Taiwan, China, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore. The Thai distributor CyberDict offers customized products with additional Thai dictionaries.
BESTA also manufactures a line of language products designed specifically for the North American market, where it has become the leading provider of English/Chinese and English/Korean electronic dictionaries. In the US, BESTA products are sold under the BESTA (Chinese) or OPTIMEC (South Korean) labels and are exclusively distributed and serviced by Moy Sam Corporation (New York) and Maxmile Corporation (Los Angeles). In Canada, BESTA products are found in Toronto and Markham.
Several BESTA models come with slots for inserting S |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation%20and%20restoration%20of%20new%20media%20art | The conservation and restoration of new media art is the study and practice of techniques for sustaining new media art created using from materials such as digital, biological, performative, and other variable media.
New media art runs a unique risk when it comes to longevity that has resulted in the development of new and different preservation and restoration strategies and tools.
To preserve and restore these pieces of new media art, there are a variety of strategies including storage, migration, emulation, and reinterpretation. There are even more tools used to implement these strategies including Archivematica, BitCurator, Conifer, Media Info, PRONOM, QC Tools, and the Variable Media Questionnaire. The common metadata schema used for new media art is Media Art Notation System (MANS). Despite the name "new media art", there is a diverse history of preservation and restoration efforts including both individual efforts and consortium efforts.
Preservation strategies
Storage
The acquisition and storage of the physical media-equipment, such as DVD players or computers, used in multi-media or digital artworks has proven a short-term tactic at best, as hardware can quickly become obsolete or can 'stale' in storage. Storage is also notoriously bad at capturing the contextual and live aspects of works such as Internet art, performance art and live electronic music.
Storage involves keeping documents in their original formats whenever possible to maintain authenticity; keeping metadata updated to aid in finding and understanding the preservation strategies taken so far; keeping documents on reliable, non-proprietary software that users would be the most likely to already have or easily get access to; storing multiple copies of bitstreams; replacing the carriers when new, more widely used ones become available.
Migration
To migrate a work of art is to upgrade its format from an aged medium to a more current one, such as from VHS to DVD, accepting that some changes i |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann%20problem | A Riemann problem, named after Bernhard Riemann, is a specific initial value problem composed of a conservation equation together with piecewise constant initial data which has a single discontinuity in the domain of interest. The Riemann problem is very useful for the understanding of equations like Euler conservation equations because all properties, such as shocks and rarefaction waves, appear as characteristics in the solution. It also gives an exact solution to some complex nonlinear equations, such as the Euler equations.
In numerical analysis, Riemann problems appear in a natural way in finite volume methods for the solution of conservation law equations due to the discreteness of the grid. For that it is widely used in computational fluid dynamics and in computational magnetohydrodynamics simulations. In these fields, Riemann problems are calculated using Riemann solvers.
The Riemann problem in linearized gas dynamics
As a simple example, we investigate the properties of the one-dimensional Riemann problem
in gas dynamics
(Toro, Eleuterio F. (1999). Riemann Solvers and Numerical Methods for Fluid Dynamics, Pg 44, Example 2.5)
The initial conditions are given by
where x = 0 separates two different states, together with the linearised gas dynamic equations (see gas dynamics for derivation).
where we can assume without loss of generality .
We can now rewrite the above equations in a conservative form:
:
where
and the index denotes the partial derivative with respect to the corresponding variable (i.e. x or t).
The eigenvalues of the system are the characteristics of the system
. They give the propagation speed of the medium, including that of any discontinuity, which is the speed of sound here. The corresponding eigenvectors are
By decomposing the left state in terms of the eigenvectors, we get for some
Now we can solve for and :
Analogously
for
Using this, in the domain in between the two characteristics ,
we get the fin |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann%20solver | A Riemann solver is a numerical method used to solve a Riemann problem. They are heavily used in computational fluid dynamics and computational magnetohydrodynamics.
Definition
Generally speaking, Riemann solvers are specific methods for computing the numerical flux across a discontinuity in the Riemann problem. They form an important part of high-resolution schemes; typically the right and left states for the Riemann problem are calculated using some form of nonlinear reconstruction, such as a flux limiter or a WENO method, and then used as the input for the Riemann solver.
Exact solvers
Sergei K. Godunov is credited with introducing the first exact Riemann solver for the Euler equations, by extending the previous CIR (Courant-Isaacson-Rees) method to non-linear systems of hyperbolic conservation laws. Modern solvers are able to simulate relativistic effects and magnetic fields.
More recent research shows that an exact series solution to the Riemann problem exists, which may converge fast enough in some cases to avoid the iterative methods required in Godunov's scheme.
Approximate solvers
As iterative solutions are too costly, especially in magnetohydrodynamics, some approximations have to be made. Some popular solvers are:
Roe solver
Philip L. Roe used the linearisation of the Jacobian, which he then solves exactly.
HLLE solver
The HLLE solver (developed by Ami Harten, Peter Lax, Bram van Leer and Einfeldt) is an approximate solution to the Riemann problem, which is only based on the integral form of the conservation laws and the largest and smallest signal velocities at the interface. The stability and robustness of the HLLE solver is closely related to the signal velocities and a single central average state, as proposed by Einfeldt in the original paper
HLLC solver
The HLLC (Harten-Lax-van Leer-Contact) solver was introduced by Toro. It restores the missing rarefaction wave by using an estimation technique, such as linearisation. More advanced techn |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelmy%20plate | A Wilhelmy plate is a thin plate that is used to measure equilibrium surface or interfacial tension at an air–liquid or liquid–liquid interface. In this method, the plate is oriented perpendicular to the interface, and the force exerted on it is measured. Based on the work of Ludwig Wilhelmy, this method finds wide use in the preparation and monitoring of Langmuir films.
Detailed description
The Wilhelmy plate consists of a thin plate usually on the order of a few square centimeters in area. The plate is often made from filter paper, glass or platinum which may be roughened to ensure complete wetting. In fact, the results of the experiment do not depend on the material used, as long as the material is wetted by the liquid. The plate is cleaned thoroughly and attached to a balance with a thin metal wire. The force on the plate due to wetting is measured using a tensiometer or microbalance and used to calculate the surface tension () using the Wilhelmy equation:
where is the wetted perimeter (), is the plate width, is the plate thickness, and is the contact angle between the liquid phase and the plate. In practice the contact angle is rarely measured; instead, either literature values are used or complete wetting () is assumed.
Advantages and short brief
If complete wetting is assumed (contact angle = 0), no correction factors are required to calculate surface tensions when using the Wilhelmy plate, unlike for a du Noüy ring. In addition, because the plate is not moved during measurements, the Wilhelmy plate allows accurate determination of surface kinetics on a wide range of timescales, and it displays low operator variance. In a typical plate experiment, the plate is lowered to the surface being analyzed until a meniscus is formed, and then raised so that the bottom edge of the plate lies on the plane of the undisturbed surface. If measuring a buried interface, the second (less dense) phase is then added on top of the undisturbed primary (denser) phase in s |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FURPS | FURPS is an acronym representing a model for classifying software quality attributes (functional and non-functional requirements):
Functionality - Capability (Size & Generality of Feature Set), Reusability (Compatibility, Interoperability, Portability), Security (Safety & Exploitability)
Usability (UX) - Human Factors, Aesthetics, Consistency, Documentation, Responsiveness
Reliability - Availability (Failure Frequency (Robustness/Durability/Resilience), Failure Extent & Time-Length (Recoverability/Survivability)), Predictability (Stability), Accuracy (Frequency/Severity of Error)
Performance - Speed, Efficiency, Resource Consumption (power, ram, cache, etc.), Throughput, Capacity, Scalability
Supportability (Serviceability, Maintainability, Sustainability, Repair Speed) - Testability, Flexibility (Modifiability, Configurability, Adaptability, Extensibility, Modularity), Installability, Localizability
The model, developed at Hewlett-Packard was first publicly elaborated by Grady and Caswell. FURPS+ is now widely used in the software industry. The + was later added to the model after various campaigns at HP to extend the acronym to emphasize various attributes.
See also
Types of requirements
Expanded list of types of requirements
Further reading
External links
IBM on Furps+
Software requirements
Mnemonics |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen%20darkening | Hydrogen darkening is a physical degradation of the optical properties of glass. Free hydrogen atoms are able to bind to the SiO2 silica glass compound forming hydroxyl (OH)—a chemical compound that interferes with the passage of light through the glass.
The problem is particularly relevant to fiber optic cables—particularly in oil and gas wells where fiber optic cables are used for distributed temperature sensing (DTS). Hydrogen can be present due to the cracking of hydrocarbons in the well. The darkening of the fiber can distort the DTS reading and possibly render the DTS system inoperable due to the optical loss budget being exceeded.
To prevent this, coatings such as carbon are applied to the fiber, and hydrogen capturing gels are used to buffer the fiber, and other proprietary techniques may be used to prevent hydrogen atoms from reaching the glass fiber via the cable sheath. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scan%20conversion | Scan conversion or scan converting rate is a video processing technique for changing the vertical / horizontal scan frequency of video signal for different purposes and applications. The device which performs this conversion is called a scan converter.
The application of scan conversion is wide and covers video projectors, cinema equipment, TV and video capture cards, standard and HDTV televisions, LCD monitors, radar displays and many different aspects of picture processing.
Mechanisms and methods
Scan conversion involves changing the picture information data rate and wrapping the new picture in appropriate synchronization signals.
There are two distinct methods for changing a picture's data rate:
Analog Methods (Non retentive, memory-less or real time method)
This conversion is done using large numbers of delay cells and is appropriate for analog video. It may also be performed using a specialized scan converter vacuum tube. In this case polar coordinates (angle and distance) data from a source such as a radar receiver, so that it can be displayed on a raster scan (TV type) display.
Digital methods (Retentive or buffered method)
In this method, a picture is stored in a line or frame buffer with n1 speed (data rate) and is read with n2 speed, several picture processing techniques are applicable when the picture is stored in buffer memory including kinds of interpolation from simple to smart high order comparisons, motion detection and … to improve the picture quality and prevent the conversion artifacts.
How to realize
The process in practice is applicable only using integrated circuits in LSI and VLSI scales. Timing, interference between digital and analog signals, clocks, noise and exact synchronization have important roles in the circuit.
Digital conversion method needs the analog video signal to be converted to digital data at the first step.
A scan converter can be made in its basic structure using some high speed integrated circuits as a circuit board |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CTCF | Transcriptional repressor CTCF also known as 11-zinc finger protein or CCCTC-binding factor is a transcription factor that in humans is encoded by the CTCF gene. CTCF is involved in many cellular processes, including transcriptional regulation, insulator activity, V(D)J recombination and regulation of chromatin architecture.
Discovery
CCCTC-Binding factor or CTCF was initially discovered as a negative regulator of the chicken c-myc gene. This protein was found to be binding to three regularly spaced repeats of the core sequence CCCTC and thus was named CCCTC binding factor.
Function
The primary role of CTCF is thought to be in regulating the 3D structure of chromatin. CTCF binds together strands of DNA, thus forming chromatin loops, and anchors DNA to cellular structures like the nuclear lamina. It also defines the boundaries between active and heterochromatic DNA.
Since the 3D structure of DNA influences the regulation of genes, CTCF's activity influences the expression of genes. CTCF is thought to be a primary part of the activity of insulators, sequences that block the interaction between enhancers and promoters. CTCF binding has also been both shown to promote and repress gene expression. It is unknown whether CTCF affects gene expression solely through its looping activity, or if it has some other, unknown, activity. In a recent study, it has been shown that, in addition to demarcating TADs, CTCF mediates promoter–enhancer loops, often located in promoter-proximal regions, to facilitate the promoter–enhancer interactions within one TAD. This is in line with the concept that a subpopulation of CTCF associates with the RNA polymerase II (Pol II) protein complex to activate transcription. It is likely that CTCF helps to bridge the transcription factor-bound enhancers to transcription start site-proximal regulatory elements and to initiate transcription by interacting with Pol II, thus supporting a role of CTCF in facilitating contacts between transcription r |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delbr%C3%BCck%20scattering | Delbrück scattering, the deflection of high-energy photons in the Coulomb field of nuclei as a consequence of vacuum polarization, was observed in 1975. The related process of the scattering of light by light, also a consequence of vacuum polarization, was not observed until 1998. In both cases, it is a process described by quantum electrodynamics.
Discovery
From 1932 to 1937, Max Delbrück worked in Berlin as an assistant to Lise Meitner, who was collaborating with Otto Hahn on the results of irradiating uranium with neutrons. During this period he wrote a few papers, one of which turned out to be an important contribution on the scattering of gamma rays by a Coulomb field due to polarization of the vacuum produced by that field (1933). His conclusion proved to be theoretically sound but inapplicable to the case in point, but 20 years later Hans Bethe confirmed the phenomenon and named it "Delbrück scattering".
In 1953, Robert Wilson observed Delbrück scattering of 1.33 MeV gamma-rays by the electric fields of lead nuclei.
Description
Delbrück scattering is the coherent elastic scattering of photons in the Coulomb field of heavy nuclei. It is one of the two nonlinear effects of quantum electrodynamics (QED) in the Coulomb field investigated experimentally. The other is the splitting of a photon into two photons. Delbrück scattering was introduced by Max Delbrück in order to explain discrepancies between experimental and predicted data in a Compton scattering experiment on heavy atoms carried out by Meitner and Kösters. Delbrück's arguments were based on the relativistic quantum mechanics of Dirac according to which the QED vacuum is filled with electrons of negative energy or – in modern terms – with electron-positron pairs. These electrons of negative energy should be capable of producing coherent-elastic photon scattering because the recoil momentum during absorption and emission of the photon is transferred to the total atom while the electrons remain in th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic%20modeling%20language | Algebraic modeling languages (AML) are high-level computer programming languages for describing and solving high complexity problems for large scale mathematical computation (i.e. large scale optimization type problems). One particular advantage of some algebraic modeling languages like AIMMS, AMPL, GAMS,
Gekko,
MathProg,
Mosel,
and
OPL
is the similarity of their syntax to the mathematical notation of optimization problems. This allows for a very concise and readable definition of problems in the domain of optimization, which is supported by certain language elements like sets, indices, algebraic expressions, powerful sparse index and data handling variables, constraints with arbitrary names. The algebraic formulation of a model does not contain any hints how to process it.
An AML does not solve those problems directly; instead, it calls appropriate external algorithms to obtain a solution. These algorithms are called solvers and can handle certain kind of mathematical problems like:
linear problems
integer problems
(mixed integer) quadratic problems
mixed complementarity problems
mathematical programs with equilibrium constraints
constrained nonlinear systems
general nonlinear problems
non-linear programs with discontinuous derivatives
nonlinear integer problems
global optimization problems
stochastic optimization problems
Core elements
The core elements of an AML are:
a modeling language interpreter (the AML itself)
solver links
user interfaces (UI)
data exchange facilities
Design principles
Most AML follow certain design principles:
a balanced mix of declarative and procedural elements
open architecture and interfaces to other systems
different layers with separation of:
model and data
model and solution methods
model and operating system
model and interface
Data driven model generation
Most modeling languages exploit the similarities between structured models and relational databases by providing a database access layer, whic |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilson%E2%80%93Bappu%20effect | The Ca II K line in cool stars is among the strongest emission lines which originates in the star's chromosphere. In 1957, Olin C. Wilson and M. K. Vainu Bappu reported on the remarkable correlation between the measured width of the aforementioned emission line and the absolute visual magnitude of the star. This is known as the Wilson–Bappu effect. The correlation is independent of spectral type and is applicable to stellar classification main sequence types G, K, and Red giant type M. The greater the emission band, the brighter the star, which is correlated with distance empirically.
The main interest of the Wilson–Bappu effect is in its use for determining the distance of stars too remote for direct measurements. It can be studied using nearby stars, for which independent distance measurements are possible, and it can be expressed in a simple analytical form. In other words, the Wilson–Bappu effect can be calibrated with stars within 100 parsecs from the Sun. The width of the emission core of the K line () can be measured in distant stars, so, knowing W0 and the analytical form expressing the Wilson–Bappu effect, we can determine the absolute magnitude of a star. The distance of a star follows immediately from the knowledge of both absolute and apparent magnitude, provided that the interstellar reddening of the star is either negligible or well known.
The first calibration of the Wilson–Bappu effect using distance from Hipparcos parallaxes was made in 1999 by Wallerstein et al. A later work also used W0 measurements on high-resolution spectra taken with CCD, but a smaller sample.
According to the latest calibration, the relation between absolute visual magnitude (Mv) expressed in magnitudes and W0, transformed in km/s, is the following:
The data error, however, is quite large: about 0.5 mag, rendering the effect too imprecise to significantly improve the cosmic distance ladder. Another limitation comes from the fact that the measurement of W0 in di |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidophil%20cell | In the anterior pituitary, the term "acidophil" is used to describe two different types of cells which stain well with acidic dyes.
somatotrophs, which secrete growth hormone (a peptide hormone)
lactotrophs, which secrete prolactin (a peptide hormone)
When using standard staining techniques, they cannot be distinguished from each other (though they can be distinguished from basophils and chromophobes), and are therefore identified simply as "acidophils".
See also
Eosinophilic
Acidophile (histology)
Basophilic
Chromophobe cell
Melanotroph
Chromophil
Basophil cell
Oxyphil cell
Oxyphil cell (parathyroid)
Pituitary gland
Neuroendocrine cell |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guard%20tour%20patrol%20system | A guard tour patrol system is a system for logging the rounds of employees in a variety of situations such as security guards patrolling property, technicians monitoring climate-controlled environments, and correctional officers checking prisoner living areas. It helps ensure that the employee makes their appointed rounds at the correct intervals and can offer a record for legal or insurance reasons. Such systems have existed for many years using mechanical watchclock-based systems (watchman clocks/guard tour clocks/patrol clocks). Computerized systems were first introduced in Europe in the early 1980s, and in North America in 1986. Modern systems are based on handheld data loggers and RFID sensors.
The system provides a means to record the time when the employee reaches certain points on their tour. Checkpoints or watchstations are commonly placed at the extreme ends of the tour route and at critical points such as vaults, specimen refrigerators, vital equipment, and access points. Some systems are set so that the interval between stations is timed so if the employee fails to reach each point within a set time, other staff are dispatched to ensure the employee's well-being.
An example of a modern set-up might work as follows: the employee carries a portable electronic sensor (PES) or electronic data collector which is activated at each checkpoint. Checkpoints can consist of iButton semiconductors, magnetic strips, proximity microchips such as RFIDs or NFC- or optical barcodes. The data collector stores the serial number of the checkpoint with the date and time. Later, the information is downloaded from the collector into a computer where the checkpoint's serial number will have an assigned location (i.e. North Perimeter Fence, Cell Number 1, etc.). Data collectors can also be programmed to ignore duplicate checkpoint activations that occur sequentially or within a certain time period. Computer software used to compile the data from the collector can print out summa |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycotoxicology | Mycotoxicology is the branch of mycology that focuses on analyzing and studying the toxins produced by fungi, known as mycotoxins. In the food industry it is important to adopt measures that keep mycotoxin levels as low as practicable, especially those that are heat-stable. These chemical compounds are the result of secondary metabolism initiated in response to specific developmental or environmental signals. This includes biological stress from the environment, such as lower nutrients or competition for those available. Under this secondary path the fungus produces a wide array of compounds in order to gain some level of advantage, such as incrementing the efficiency of metabolic processes to gain more energy from less food, or attacking other microorganisms and being able to use their remains as a food source.
Mycotoxins are made by fungi and are toxic to vertebrates and other animal groups in low concentrations. Low-molecular-weight fungal metabolites such as ethanol that are toxic only in high concentrations are not considered mycotoxins. Mushroom poisons are fungal metabolites that can cause disease and death in humans and other animals; they are rather arbitrarily excluded from discussions of mycotoxicology. Molds make mycotoxins; mushrooms and other macroscopic fungi make mushroom poisons. The distinction between a mycotoxin and a mushroom poison is based not only on the size of the producing fungus, but also on human intention. Mycotoxin exposure is almost always accidental. In contrast, with the exception of the victims of a few mycologically accomplished murderers, mushroom poisons are usually ingested by amateur mushroom hunters who have collected, cooked, and eaten what was misidentified as a harmless, edible species.
Mycotoxins are hard to define and are also very difficult to classify. Mycotoxins have diverse chemical structures, biosynthetic origins, myriad biological effects, and produce numerous different fungal species. Classification generally |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7-Dehydrositosterol | 7-Dehydrositosterol is a sterol which serves as a precursor for sitocalciferol (vitamin D5).
External links
Sterols
Vitamin D |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero%20one%20infinity%20rule | The Zero one infinity (ZOI) rule is a rule of thumb in software design proposed by early computing pioneer Willem van der Poel. It argues that arbitrary limits on the number of instances of a particular type of data or structure should not be allowed. Instead, an entity should either be forbidden entirely, only one should be allowed, or any number of them should be allowed. Although various factors outside that particular software could limit this number in practice, it should not be the software itself that puts a hard limit on the number of instances of the entity.
Examples of this rule may be found in the structure of many file systems' directories (also known as folders):
0 – The topmost directory has zero parent directories; that is, there is no directory that contains the topmost directory.
1 – Each subdirectory has exactly one parent directory (not including shortcuts to the directory's location; while such files may have similar icons to the icons of the destination directories, they are not directories at all).
Infinity – Each directory, whether the topmost directory or any of its subdirectories, according to the file system's rules, may contain any number of files or subdirectories. Practical limits to this number are caused by other factors, such as space available on storage media and how well the computer's operating system is maintained.
In real-world software design, violations of this rule of thumb are common. For example, the FAT16 file system imposes a limit of 65,536 files to a directory.
Authorship
Van der Poel confirmed that he was the originator of the rule, but Bruce MacLennan has also claimed authorship (in the form "The only reasonable numbers are zero, one and infinity."), writing in 2015 that: |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial%20statistics | Spatial statistics is a field of applied statistics dealing with spatial data.
It involves stochastic processes (random fields, point processes), sampling, smoothing and interpolation, regional (areal unit) and lattice (gridded) data, point patterns, as well as image analysis and stereology.
See also
Geostatistics
Modifiable areal unit problem
Spatial analysis
Spatial econometrics
Statistical geography
Spatial epidemiology
Spatial network
Statistical shape analysis |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20in%20the%20Bible | Alcoholic beverages appear in the Hebrew Bible, after Noah planted a vineyard and became inebriated. In the New Testament, Jesus miraculously made copious amounts of wine at the wedding at Cana (John 2). Wine is the most common alcoholic beverage mentioned in biblical literature, where it is a source of symbolism, and was an important part of daily life in biblical times. Additionally, the inhabitants of ancient Israel drank beer, and wines made from fruits other than grapes, and references to these appear in scripture. However, the alcoholic content of ancient alcoholic beverages were significantly lower than modern alcoholic beverages. The low alcoholic content was due to the limitations of fermentation and nonexistence of distillation methods in the ancient world. Rabbinic teachers wrote acceptance criteria on consumability of ancient alcoholic beverages after significant dilution with water, but prohibited undiluted wine.
Many Christians abstain from alcohol, Others think biblical literature displays an ambivalence toward drinks that can be intoxicating, considering them both a blessing from God that brings joy and merriment and potentially dangerous beverages that can be sinfully abused. The relationships between Judaism and alcohol and Christianity and alcohol have generally maintained this same tension, though some modern Christian sects, particularly American Protestant groups around the time of Prohibition, have rejected alcohol as evil. The original versions of the books of the Bible use several different words for alcoholic beverages: at least 10 in Hebrew, and five in Greek. Drunkenness is discouraged and not infrequently portrayed, and some biblical persons abstained from alcohol. Wine is used symbolically, in both positive and negative terms. Its consumption is prescribed for religious rites or medicinal uses in some places.
Lexigraphy
Biblical literature uses several words in its original languages to refer to different types of alcoholic beverages |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac%20index | Cardiac index (CI) is a haemodynamic parameter that relates the cardiac output (CO) from left ventricle in one minute to body surface area (BSA), thus relating heart performance to the size of the individual. The unit of measurement is litres per minute per square metre (L/min/m2).
Calculation
The index is usually calculated using the following formula:
where
CI Cardiac index
BSA Body surface area
SV Stroke volume
HR Heart rate
CO Cardiac output
Clinical significance
The normal range of cardiac index at rest is 2.6–4.2 L/min/m2.
The cardiac index is frequently measured and used in both intensive care medicine and cardiac intensive care. The CI is a useful marker of how well the heart is functioning as a pump by directly correlating the volume of blood pumped by the heart with an individual's body surface area.
If the CI falls acutely below 2.2 L/min/m2, the patient may be in cardiogenic shock. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Room%20box | A room box is a display box used for three-dimensional miniature scale environments, or scale models. Although the name would suggest room boxes generally only represent typical rooms such as those found in houses or other buildings (bedrooms, kitchens, offices, etc.), room boxes are used for all sorts of environments – exterior views as well as interior ones, realistic ones as well as fantastical ones. While some miniaturists concentrate their efforts specifically on room boxes, many use them to take a break from larger projects, such as dollhouses or miniature villages, to create a smaller environment on a different theme. A room box can be tailored to one’s interests or mirror an important step in life - for example, a bakery or restaurant scene might be created by or for a baker or cook, and a wedding dress storefront might be created for a bride to be or as a reminiscence of one's wedding. Making a room box is often a first step to learning new techniques in miniature making; such projects are popular at miniaturists' events where attendees have only 1–2 days to make and finish a project. Once techniques are perfected in these smaller settings, craftspersons and hobbyists often reapply them to larger projects.
Room boxes are a cost- and time-effective way to make miniature settings without attempting larger setups such as a dollhouse or train set. Commercially bought room boxes tend to be made of wood, pressed wood products or plywood, with the top and front window made of removable clear acrylic that lets in light and enables access and viewing from two perspectives. Dimensions usually meet standard dollhouse proportions ("1:12 scale" in dollhouse speak means that 1" in the dollhouse world represents 1' in the real world), but anyone can make a room box from a leftover shoebox, orange crate, etc. and adapt an idea to suit the box's scale. Since any material can be used, whether leftover or new, people of all economic classes express themselves through |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptococcus%20gattii | Cryptococcus gattii, formerly known as Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii, is an encapsulated yeast found primarily in tropical and subtropical climates. Its teleomorph is Filobasidiella bacillispora, a filamentous fungus belonging to the class Tremellomycetes.
Cryptococcus gattii causes the human diseases of pulmonary cryptococcosis (lung infection), basal meningitis, and cerebral cryptococcomas. Occasionally, the fungus is associated with skin, soft tissue, lymph node, bone, and joint infections. In recent years, it has appeared in British Columbia, Canada and the Pacific Northwest. It has been suggested that global warming may have been a factor in its emergence in British Columbia. It has also been suggested that tsunamis, such as the 1964 Alaska earthquake and tsunami, might have been responsible for carrying the fungus to North America and its subsequent spread there. From 1999 through to early 2008, 216 people in British Columbia have been infected with C. gattii, and eight died from complications related to it. The fungus also infects animals, such as dogs, koalas, and dolphins. In 2007, the fungus appeared for the first time in the United States, in Whatcom County, Washington and in April 2010 had spread to Oregon. The most recently identified strain, designated VGIIc, is particularly virulent, having proved fatal in 19 of 218 known cases.
Nomenclature
Cryptococcus gattii has recently been divided into five species. These are C. gattii, C. bacillisporus, C. deuterogattii, C. tetragattii, and C. decagattii.
Disease summary
Cryptococcal disease is an uncommon disease that can affect the lungs (pneumonia) and nervous system (causing meningitis and focal brain lesions called cryptococcomas) in humans. The main complication of lung infection is respiratory failure. Central nervous system infection may lead to hydrocephalus, seizures, and focal neurological deficit.
Environmental occurrence
Soil debris associated with certain tree species has been found fr |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotobiology | Scotobiology is the study of biology as directly and specifically affected by darkness, as opposed to photobiology, which describes the biological effects of light.
Overview
The science of scotobiology gathers together under a single descriptive heading a wide range of approaches to the study of the biology of darkness. This includes work on the effects of darkness on the behavior and metabolism of animals, plants, and microbes. Some of this work has been going on for over a century, and lays the foundation for understanding the importance of dark night skies, not only for humans but for all biological species.
The great majority of biological systems have evolved in a world of alternating day and night and have become irrevocably adapted to and dependent on the daily and seasonally changing patterns of light and darkness. Light is essential for many biological activities such as sight and photosynthesis. These are the focus of the science of photobiology. But the presence of uninterrupted periods of darkness, as well as their alternation with light, is just as important to biological behaviour. Scotobiology studies the positive responses of biological systems to the presence of darkness, and not merely the negative effects caused by the absence of light.
Effects of darkness
Many of the biological and behavioural activities of plants, animals (including birds and amphibians), insects, and microorganisms are either adversely affected by light pollution at night or can only function effectively either during or as the consequence of nightly darkness. Such activities include foraging, breeding and social behavior in higher animals, amphibians, and insects, which are all affected in various ways if light pollution occurs in their environment. These are not merely photobiological phenomena; light pollution acts by interrupting critical dark-requiring processes.
But perhaps the most important scotobiological phenomena relate to the regular periodic alternation of |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam%20Spade%20%28software%29 | Sam Spade was the name of a Windows software tool designed to assist in tracking down sources of e-mail spam. It was also the name of a free web service that provides access to similar online tools. The Sam Spade utility was authored by Steve Atkins in 1997. It is named after the fictional character Sam Spade.
Query tools
The main features (query tools) were:
Zone Transfer – ask a DNS server for all it knows about a domain
SMTP Relay Check – check whether a mail server allows third party relaying
Scan Addresses – scan a range of IP addresses looking for open ports
Crawl website – search a website, looking for email addresses, offsite links, etc.
Browse web – browse the web in a raw http format
Check cancels – search your news server for cancel messages
Fast and Slow Traceroute – find the route packets take between you and a remote system
S-Lang command – issue a scripting command; useful for debugging scripts
Decode URL – decipher an obfuscated URL
Parse email headers – read email headers and make a guess about the origin of the email
Website history
The last fully functional version of the website was available 2004-02-26.
Since then it experienced various outage problems due to "blackholing of SamSpade.org by several RIRs and general heavy usage.", and is no longer online. The URL currently redirects to https://tools.wordtothewise.com/ which contains a similar set of web tools under the brand name "wiseTools" and hosted by Atkins's email software business Word to The Wise |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everyday%20Mathematics | Everyday Mathematics is a pre-K and elementary school mathematics curriculum, developed by the University of Chicago School Mathematics Project (not to be confused with the University of Chicago School of Mathematics). The program, now published by McGraw-Hill Education, has sparked debate.
History
Everyday Mathematics curriculum was developed by the University of Chicago School Math Project (or UCSMP ) which was founded in 1983. Work on it started in the summer of 1985. The 1st edition was released in 1998 and the 2nd in 2002. A third edition was released in 2007 and a fourth in 2014-2015.
Curriculum structure
Below is an outline of the components of EM as they are generally seen throughout the curriculum.
Lessons
A typical lesson outlined in one of the teacher’s manuals includes three parts
Teaching the Lesson—Provides main instructional activities for the lesson.
Ongoing Learning and Practice—Supports previously introduced concepts and skills; essential for maintaining skills.
Differentiation Options—Includes options for supporting the needs of all students; usually an extension of Part 1, Teaching the Lesson.
Daily Routines
Every day, there are certain things that each EM lesson requires the student to do routinely. These components can be dispersed throughout the day or they can be part of the main math lesson.
Math Messages—These are problems, displayed in a manner chosen by the teacher, that students complete before the lesson and then discuss as an opener to the main lesson.
Mental Math and Reflexes—These are brief (no longer than 5 min) sessions “…designed to strengthen children's number sense and to review and advance essential basic skills…” (Program Components 2003).
Math Boxes—These are pages intended to have students routinely practice problems independently.
Home Links/Study Links—Everyday homework is sent home. Grades K-3 they are called Home Links and 4-6 they are Study Links. They are meant to reinforce instruction as well as conne |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abhyankar%E2%80%93Moh%20theorem | In mathematics, the Abhyankar–Moh theorem states that if is a complex line in the complex affine plane , then every embedding of into extends to an automorphism of the plane. It is named after Shreeram Shankar Abhyankar and Tzuong-Tsieng Moh, who published it in 1975. More generally, the same theorem applies to lines and planes over any algebraically closed field of characteristic zero, and to certain well-behaved subsets of higher-dimensional complex affine spaces. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Orrell | David John Orrell is a Canadian writer and mathematician. He received his doctorate in mathematics from the University of Oxford. His work in the prediction of complex systems such as the weather, genetics and the economy has been featured in New Scientist, the Financial Times, The Economist, Adbusters, BBC Radio, Russia-1, and CBC TV. He now conducts research and writes in the areas of systems biology and economics, and runs a mathematical consultancy Systems Forecasting. He is the son of theatre historian and English professor John Orrell.
His books have been translated into over ten languages. Apollo's Arrow: The Science of Prediction and the Future of Everything was a national bestseller and finalist for the 2007 Canadian Science Writers' Award. Economyths: Ten Ways Economics Gets It Wrong was a finalist for the 2011 National Business Book Award.
Criticism of use of mathematical models
A consistent topic in Orrell’s work is the limitations of mathematical models, and the need to acknowledge these limitations if we are to understand the causes of forecast error. He argues for example that errors in weather prediction are caused primarily by model error, rather than the butterfly effect. Economic models are seen as particularly unrealistic. In Truth or Beauty: Science and the Quest for Order, he suggests that many such theories, along with areas of physics such as string theory, are motivated largely by the desire to conform with a traditional scientific aesthetic, that is currently being subverted by developments in complexity science.
Quantum theory of money and value
Orrell is considered a leading proponent of quantum finance and quantum economics. In The Evolution of Money (coauthored with journalist Roman Chlupatý) and a series of articles he proposed a quantum theory of money and value, which states that money has dualistic properties because it combines the properties of an owned and valued thing, with those of abstract number. The fact that these two si |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell-penetrating%20peptide | Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are short peptides that facilitate cellular intake and uptake of molecules ranging from nanosize particles to small chemical compounds to large fragments of DNA. The "cargo" is associated with the peptides either through chemical linkage via covalent bonds or through non-covalent interactions.
CPPs deliver the cargo into cells, commonly through endocytosis, for use in research and medicine. Current use is limited by a lack of cell specificity in CPP-mediated cargo delivery and insufficient understanding of the modes of their uptake. Other delivery mechanisms that have been developed include CellSqueeze and electroporation.
CPPs typically have an amino acid composition that either contains a high relative abundance of positively charged amino acids such as lysine or arginine or has sequences that contain an alternating pattern of polar, charged amino acids and non-polar, hydrophobic amino acids. These two types of structures are referred to as polycationic or amphipathic, respectively. A third class of CPPs are the hydrophobic peptides, containing only apolar residues with low net charge
or hydrophobic amino acid groups that are crucial for cellular uptake.
Transactivating transcriptional activator (TAT), from human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1), was the first CPP discovered. In 1988, two laboratories independently found that TAT could be efficiently taken up from the surrounding media by numerous cell types in culture. Since then, the number of known CPPs has expanded considerably, and small molecule synthetic analogues with more effective protein transduction properties have been generated.
A recent discovery found that Papillomaviridae, such as the human papillomavirus, use CPPs to penetrate the intracellular membrane to trigger retrograde trafficking of the viral unit to the nucleus.
Mechanisms of membrane translocation
Cell-penetrating peptides are of different sizes, amino acid sequences, and charges, but all CPPs have |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritchie%20Boys | The Ritchie Boys were a special collection of soldiers, with sizable numbers of German-Austrian recruits, of the U.S. Military Intelligence Service officers and enlisted men of World War II who were used primarily for interrogation of prisoners on the front lines and counter-intelligence in Europe because of their knowledge of the German language and culture. Trained at secret Camp Ritchie in Washington County, Maryland, many of the total 22,000 service men and women were German-speaking immigrants to the United States, often Jews, who fled Nazi persecution. In addition to interrogation and counter-intelligence they were also trained in psychological warfare in order to study and demoralize the enemy, and served as prosecutors and translators in the Nuremberg trials.
Camp Ritchie
The Ritchie Boys consisted of approximately 20,000 servicemen, and 200 Women's Army Corps members who were trained for U.S. Army Intelligence during WWII at the secret Camp Ritchie training facility. Most of the men sent to Camp Ritchie for training were assigned there because of fluency in German, French, Italian, Polish, or other languages needed by the US Army during WWII. They had been drafted into or volunteered to join the United States Army and when their ability to speak the language of an enemy was discovered Some of the Jewish refugees who were part of this program had originally arrived in the US as children, many without their parents, and were also among the One Thousand Children.
They were trained at the Military Intelligence Training Center at Camp Ritchie in Maryland, later officially known as Fort Ritchie, and closed in 1998 under the 1995 Base Realignment and Closure Commission. They were specially trained in methods of intelligence, counterintelligence, interrogation, investigation and psychological warfare. Nine hundred of these men also attended special training at Camp Sharpe, Pennsylvania. The Jewish refugees were qualified for these tasks because they knew |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected%20Mathematics | Connected Mathematics is a comprehensive mathematics program intended for U.S. students in grades 6–8. The curriculum design, text materials for students, and supporting resources for teachers were created and have been progressively refined by the Connected Mathematics Project (CMP) at Michigan State University with advice and contributions from many mathematics teachers, curriculum developers, mathematicians, and mathematics education researchers.
The current third edition of Connected Mathematics is a major revision of the program to reflect new expectations of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics and what the authors have learned from over twenty years of field experience by thousands of teachers working with millions of middle grades students. This CMP3 program is now published in paper and electronic form by Pearson Education.
Core principles
The first edition of Connected Mathematics, developed with financial support from the National Science Foundation, was designed to provide instructional materials for middle grades mathematics based on the 1989 Curriculum and Evaluation Standards and the 1991 Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics from the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. These Standards implied four core features of the curriculum.
Comprehensive coverage of mathematical concepts and skills in four content strands—number, algebra, geometry and measurement, and probability and statistics;
connections between concepts and methods of the four major content strands and between the abstractions of mathematics and their embodiment in real-world problem contexts;
Instructional materials that make classrooms lively places where students learn by solving problems and sharing their thinking with others and where teachers encourage and support students to wonder, to ask questions, and to enjoy learning and using mathematics;
Developing students' understanding of mathematical concepts, principles, procedures, and habits of min |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemesthesis | Chemesthesis is the chemical sensitivity of the skin and mucous membranes. Chemesthetic sensations arise when chemical compounds activate receptors associated with other senses that mediate pain, touch, and thermal perception. These chemical-induced reactions do not fit into the traditional sense categories of taste and smell.
Examples of chemesthetic sensations include the burn-like irritation from capsaicin and related compounds in foods like chili peppers; the coolness of menthol in mouthwashes and topical analgesic creams; the stinging or tingling of carbonated beverages in the nose and mouth; the tear-induction of cut onions; and the pungent, cough-inducing sensation in the back of the throat elicited by the oleocanthal in high-quality extra virgin olive oil. Some of these sensations may be referred to as spiciness, pungency, or piquancy.
Chemesthetic sensations sometimes arise by direct chemical activation of ion channels on sensory nerve fibers, for example of transient receptor potential channels including those of the TRPV, TRPA or TRPM subtypes. Alternatively, irritant chemicals may activate cells of the epithelium to release substances that indirectly activate the nerve fibers. The respiratory passages, including the nose and trachea, possess specialized cells called solitary chemosensory cells which release acetylcholine or other activators to excite nearby nerve fibers.
Because chemoresponsive nerve fibers are present in all types of skin, chemesthetic sensations can be stimulated from anywhere on the body's surface as well as from mucosal surfaces in the nose, mouth, eyes, etc. Mucus membranes are generally more sensitive to chemesthetic stimuli because they lack the barrier function of cornified skin.
Much of the chemesthetic flavor sensations are mediated by the trigeminal nerves, which are relatively large and important nerves. Flavors that stimulate the trigeminal nerves are therefore important - for example, carbon dioxide is the trigemin |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Y-DNA%20single-nucleotide%20polymorphisms |
See also
Single-nucleotide polymorphism
Unique-event polymorphism
Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups
List of Y-STR markers
External links
Sequence information for 218 M series markers published by 2001
ISOGG Y-DNA SNP Index - 2007
Karafet et al. (2008) Supplemental Research Data
DNA
Y DNA
Human evolution
Human population genetics
Genetic genealogy
Phylogenetics
Bioinformatics
Evolutionary biology
Molecular genetics |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast%20chilling | Blast chilling is a method of cooling food quickly to a low temperature that is relatively safe from bacterial growth. Bacteria multiply fastest between . By reducing the temperature of cooked food from or below within 90 minutes, the food is rendered safe for storage and later consumption. This method of preserving food is commonly used in food catering and, recently, in the preparation of "instant" foods, as it ensures the safety and the quality of the food product.
The blast chiller is a cousin of the refrigerator, another appliance designed to store food between , but the blast chiller is a higher grade and more expensive appliance and is usually only found in commercial kitchens. in the UK, blast chillers are typically priced from £2,000 to £8,000 excluding value-added tax.
Use of blast chillers is prescribed for the restaurants of the European Union, e.g. in the regulations 852/2004 or 853/2004.
See also
Flash freezing
Snap freezing
Food storage
Food preservation
Pumpable ice technology |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral%20element | In commutative algebra, an element b of a commutative ring B is said to be integral over A, a subring of B, if there are n ≥ 1 and aj in A such that
That is to say, b is a root of a monic polynomial over A. The set of elements of B that are integral over A is called the integral closure of A in B. It is a subring of B containing A. If every element of B is integral over A, then we say that B is integral over A, or equivalently B is an integral extension of A.
If A, B are fields, then the notions of "integral over" and of an "integral extension" are precisely "algebraic over" and "algebraic extensions" in field theory (since the root of any polynomial is the root of a monic polynomial).
The case of greatest interest in number theory is that of complex numbers integral over Z (e.g., or ); in this context, the integral elements are usually called algebraic integers. The algebraic integers in a finite extension field k of the rationals Q form a subring of k, called the ring of integers of k, a central object of study in algebraic number theory.
In this article, the term ring will be understood to mean commutative ring with a multiplicative identity.
Examples
Integral closure in algebraic number theory
There are many examples of integral closure which can be found in algebraic number theory since it is fundamental for defining the ring of integers for an algebraic field extension (or ).
Integral closure of integers in rationals
Integers are the only elements of Q that are integral over Z. In other words, Z is the integral closure of Z in Q.
Quadratic extensions
The Gaussian integers are the complex numbers of the form , and are integral over Z. is then the integral closure of Z in . Typically this ring is denoted .
The integral closure of Z in is the ring
This example and the previous one are examples of quadratic integers. The integral closure of a quadratic extension can be found by constructing the minimal polynomial of an arbitrary element and fin |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild%20Fermentation | Wild Fermentation: The Flavor, Nutrition, and Craft of Live-Culture Foods is a 2003 book by Sandor Katz that discusses the ancient practice of fermentation. While most of the conventional literature assumes the use of modern technology, Wild Fermentation focuses more on the practice and culture of fermenting food.
The term "wild fermentation" refers to the reliance on naturally occurring bacteria and yeast to ferment food. For example, conventional bread making requires the use of a commercial, highly specialized yeast, while wild-fermented bread relies on naturally occurring cultures that are found on the flour, in the air, and so on. Similarly, the book's instructions on sauerkraut require only cabbage and salt, relying on the cultures that naturally exist on the vegetable to perform the fermentation.
The book also discusses some foods that are not, strictly speaking, wild ferments such as miso, yogurt, kefir, and nattō.
Beyond food, the book includes some discussion of social, personal, and political issues, such as the legality of raw milk cheeses in the United States.
Newsweek has referred to Wild Fermentation as the "fermentation bible". |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFL%20on%20ABC | Nationally television broadcasts of National Football League (NFL) games first aired on ABC from 1948 to 1951. Between 1970 and 2005, Monday Night Football aired exclusively on ABC. In 2006, ESPN took over as the exclusive rights holder to Monday Night Football, and the ABC Sports division was merged into ESPN Inc. by parent company Disney. Afterward, ABC did not broadcast any game from the NFL, whether exclusive or a simulcast from ESPN, until they simulcasted an NFL Wild Card playoff game in 2016. ABC would then return to Monday Night Football in 2020, when they aired three games as simulcasts from ESPN.
Since 2021, ABC simulcasts or exclusively airs selected Monday Night Football games, two Saturday games during Week 18, one Wild Card playoff game, and the Pro Bowl with ESPN. Beginning in 2023, ABC and ESPN will simulcast one divisional playoff game, and both networks will air the Super Bowl in 2027 and 2031. All games since 2020, whether a simulcast or an exclusive broadcast, have used ESPN branding and graphics.
History
Prior to Monday Night Football
ABC began television professional football in 1948, where the network used a "game of the week" format to broadcast the NFL. Later that year, the network broadcast the NFL Championship Game between the Chicago Cardinals at Philadelphia Eagles with Harry Wismer providing commentary. The 1949 NFL Championship Game between the Eagles and Los Angeles Rams in Los Angeles was only made available to viewers on the West Coast because at the time, there was no way to send live TV programs from the West Coast to the East Coast and vice versa. ABC the following year, would broadcast the playoff game between the New York Giants and Cleveland Browns. For the 1950 NFL Championship Game between the Browns and Rams, the game was not televised to Chicago, but it was so in Los Angeles.
Beginning in 1951, the DuMont network for all intents and purposes, replaced ABC as the NFL's prime network telecaster. However, come 1953, ABC |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zolt%C3%A1n%20Szab%C3%B3%20%28mathematician%29 | Zoltán Szabó (born November 24, 1965) is a professor of mathematics at Princeton University known for his work on Heegaard Floer homology.
Education and career
Szabó received his B.A. from Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest, Hungary in 1990, and he received his Ph.D. from Rutgers University in 1994.
Together with Peter Ozsváth, Szabó created Heegaard Floer homology, a homology theory for 3-manifolds. For this contribution to the field of topology, Ozsváth and Szabó were awarded the 2007 Oswald Veblen Prize in Geometry. In 2010, he was elected honorary member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
Selected publications
.
.
Grid Homology for Knots and Links, American Mathematical Society, (2015) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebeloma%20crustuliniforme | Hebeloma crustuliniforme, commonly known as poison pie or fairy cakes, is a gilled mushroom of the genus Hebeloma found in Europe and North America, and has been introduced into Australia. Its specific name derives from the Latin crustulum or little biscuit. It is moderately poisonous.
Description
The buff to pale tan cap is 3–10 cm in diameter, convex then umbonate with an inrolled cap margin until old. The gills are pale grey-brown, with orange to brown spores and exude droplets in moist conditions. The stipe is 4–9 cm high and .5–1.5 cm thick, with a wider base. It bears no ring, while the thick flesh is white. The fungus has a radish-like smell and bitter taste.
The spores are brown, elliptical, and somewhat rough.
Similar species
Similar species include Hebeloma sinapizans and Hebeloma insigne.
Distribution and habitat
A common mushroom, Hebeloma crustuliniforme can be found in open woodland and heathland in summer and autumn, though may also be found in winter in places with milder climates such as California. As of December 2022, hebeloma.org lists collections from 18 countries including most parts of Europe, from both coasts of Northern America and a small number of collections in Victoria, Australia.
Toxicity
This fungus is poisonous, the symptoms being those of a severe gastrointestinal nature, namely vomiting, diarrhea and colicky abdominal pain several hours after consumption. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marburg%20acute%20multiple%20sclerosis | Marburg acute multiple sclerosis, also known as Marburg multiple sclerosis or acute fulminant multiple sclerosis, is considered one of the multiple sclerosis borderline diseases, which is a collection of diseases classified by some as MS variants and by others as different diseases. Other diseases in this group are neuromyelitis optica (NMO), Balo concentric sclerosis, and Schilder's disease. The graver course is one form of malignant multiple sclerosis, with patients reaching a significant level of disability in less than five years from their first symptoms, often in a matter of months.
Sometimes Marburg MS is considered a synonym for tumefactive MS, but not for all authors.
Pathogenesis
Marburg MS has been reported to be closer to anti-MOG associated ADEM than to standard MS It has been reported to appear sometimes post-partum
MOG antibody‐associated demyelinating pseudotumor
Some anti-MOG cases satisfy the MS requirements (lesions disseminated in time and space) and are therefore traditionally considered MS cases. After the discovery of the anti-MOG disease this classification is into revision.
Diagnosis
It took its name from Otto Marburg. It can be diagnosed in vivo with an MRI scan.
If Marburg disease occurs in the form of a single large lesion, it can be radiologically indistinguishable from a brain tumor or abscess. It is usually lethal, but it has been found to be responsive to Mitoxantrone and Alemtuzumab, and it has also been responsive to autologous stem cell transplantation. Recent evidence shows that Marburg's presents a heterogeneous response to medication, as does standard MS.
Treatment
Historically, acute MS was a fatal disease, with death occurring within a year of onset, often secondary to extensive brainstem demyelination. Treatments include plasma exchange and/or high-dose glucocorticoids(e.g., 1 g/day of methylprednisolone for 3-5 days). Patients that satisfy criteria for MS will be treated with immunomodulatory therapies, often favoring |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control%20of%20chaos | In lab experiments that study chaos theory, approaches designed to control chaos are based on certain observed system behaviors. Any chaotic attractor contains an infinite number of unstable, periodic orbits. Chaotic dynamics, then, consists of a motion where the system state moves in the neighborhood of one of these orbits for a while, then falls close to a different unstable, periodic orbit where it remains for a limited time and so forth. This results in a complicated and unpredictable wandering over longer periods of time.
Control of chaos is the stabilization, by means of small system perturbations, of one of these unstable periodic orbits. The result is to render an otherwise chaotic motion more stable and predictable, which is often an advantage. The perturbation must be tiny compared to the overall size of the attractor of the system to avoid significant modification of the system's natural dynamics.
Several techniques have been devised for chaos control, but most are developments of two basic approaches: the Ott–Grebogi–Yorke (OGY) method and Pyragas continuous control. Both methods require a previous determination of the unstable periodic orbits of the chaotic system before the controlling algorithm can be designed.
OGY method
Edward Ott, Celso Grebogi and James A. Yorke were the first to make the key observation that the infinite number of unstable periodic orbits typically embedded in a chaotic attractor could be taken advantage of for the purpose of achieving control by means of applying only very small perturbations. After making this general point, they illustrated it with a specific method, since called the Ott–Grebogi–Yorke (OGY) method of achieving stabilization of a chosen unstable periodic orbit. In the OGY method, small, wisely chosen, kicks are applied to the system once per cycle, to maintain it near the desired unstable periodic orbit.
To start, one obtains information about the chaotic system by analyzing a slice of the chaotic attractor |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photo%2051 | Photo 51 is an X-ray based fiber diffraction image of a paracrystalline gel composed of DNA fiber taken by Raymond Gosling, a graduate student working under the supervision of Rosalind Franklin in May 1952 at King's College London, while working in Sir John Randall's group. The image was tagged "photo 51" because it was the 51st diffraction photograph that Franklin had taken. It was critical evidence in identifying the structure of DNA.
Use in discovering structure of DNA
According to Raymond Gosling's later account, although photo 51 was an exceptionally clear diffraction pattern of the "B" form of DNA, Franklin was more interested in solving the diffraction pattern of the "A" form of DNA, so she put Gosling's photo 51 to the side. When it had been decided that Franklin would leave King's College, Gosling showed the photograph to Maurice Wilkins (who would become Gosling's advisor after Franklin left).
A few days later, Wilkins showed the photo to James Watson after Gosling had returned to working under Wilkins' supervision. Rosalind Franklin did not know this at the time because she was leaving King's College London. Randall, the head of the group, had asked Gosling to share all his data with Wilkins. Watson recognized the pattern as a helix because his co-worker Francis Crick had previously published a paper of what the diffraction pattern of a helix would be. Watson and Crick used characteristics and features of Photo 51, together with evidence from multiple other sources, to develop the chemical model of the DNA molecule. Their model, along with papers by Wilkins both and colleagues, and by Gosling and Franklin, were first published, together, in 1953, in the same issue of Nature.
In 1962, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Watson, Crick and Wilkins. The prize was not awarded to Franklin; she had died four years earlier, and although there was not yet a rule against posthumous awards, the Nobel Committee generally does not make posthum |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dose%20profile | In external beam Radiotherapy, transverse and longitudinal dose measurements are taken by a radiation detector in order to characterise the radiation beams from medical linear accelerators. Typically, an ionisation chamber and water phantom are used to create these radiation dose profiles. Water is used due to its tissue equivalence.
Transverse dose measurements are performed in the x (crossplane) or y (inplane) directions perpendicular to the radiation beam, and at a given depth (z) in the phantom. These are known as dose profiles.
Dose measurements taken along the z direction create radiation dose distribution known as a depth-dose curve.
See also
Dosimetry
Percentage depth dose curve |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liouville%27s%20theorem%20%28differential%20algebra%29 | In mathematics, Liouville's theorem, originally formulated by Joseph Liouville in 1833 to 1841, places an important restriction on antiderivatives that can be expressed as elementary functions.
The antiderivatives of certain elementary functions cannot themselves be expressed as elementary functions. These are called nonelementary antiderivatives. A standard example of such a function is whose antiderivative is (with a multiplier of a constant) the error function, familiar from statistics. Other examples include the functions and
Liouville's theorem states that elementary antiderivatives, if they exist, are in the same differential field as the function, plus possibly a finite number of applications of the logarithm function.
Definitions
For any differential field the of is the subfield
Given two differential fields and is called a of if is a simple transcendental extension of (that is, for some transcendental ) such that
This has the form of a logarithmic derivative. Intuitively, one may think of as the logarithm of some element of in which case, this condition is analogous to the ordinary chain rule. However, is not necessarily equipped with a unique logarithm; one might adjoin many "logarithm-like" extensions to Similarly, an is a simple transcendental extension that satisfies
With the above caveat in mind, this element may be thought of as an exponential of an element of Finally, is called an of if there is a finite chain of subfields from to where each extension in the chain is either algebraic, logarithmic, or exponential.
Basic theorem
Suppose and are differential fields with and that is an elementary differential extension of Suppose and satisfy (in words, suppose that contains an antiderivative of ).
Then there exist and such that
In other words, the only functions that have "elementary antiderivatives" (that is, antiderivatives living in, at worst, an elementary differential extension of ) are those wit |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCP-1%20cells | BCP-1 cells are a clonal lymphoma cell line. They were derived from the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of an HIV seronegative patient with a body cavity based primary effusion lymphoma (PEL). BCP-1 cells are positive for KSHV, but negative for EBV. The cell line is used extensively for KSHV serologic assays and epidemiologic studies as well as other KSHV laboratory studies such as KSHV reactivation from latency with TPA or ectopic expression of KSHV ORF 50. BCP-1 has been deposited to ATCC by the creators for public use in research: https://web.archive.org/web/20070929090610/http://www.atcc.org/common/catalog/numSearch/numResults.cfm?atccNum=CRL-2294. |
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