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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Option%20symbol | In finance, an option symbol is a code by which options are identified on an options exchange or a futures exchange.
History
Before 2010, the ticker (trading) symbols for US options typically looked like this: IBMAF.
This consisted of a root symbol ('IBM') + month code ('A') + strike price code ('F'). The root symbol is the symbol of the stock on the stock exchange. After this comes the month code, A-L mean January–December calls, M-X mean January–December puts. The strike price code is a letter corresponding with a certain strike price (which letter corresponds with which strike price depends on the stock).
On February 12, 2010, the five-character ticker format stopped being used in the US and Canada.
The new standard is now fully in place, as in the first few months after February 12 the LEAP roots and additional roots needed to handle large numbers of options for a given issuer were consolidated into a single root ticker for a given underlying symbol. Options Clearing Corporation's (OCC) Options Symbology Initiative (OSI) mandated an industry-wide change to a new option symbol structure, resulting in option symbols 21 characters in length. March 2010 - May 2010 was the symbol consolidation period in which all outgoing option roots will be replaced with the underlying stock symbol.
On March 18, 2013, CBOE Mini Options became available for trading on a select group of securities (AMZN, AAPL, GOOG, GLD, and SPY). These options represent a deliverable of 10 shares of an underlying security, whereas standard equity options represent a deliverable of 100 shares. CBOE appended a "7" to the end of the security symbol to represent the mini option contracts.
The OCC Option Symbol
The OCC option symbol consists of four parts:
Root symbol of the underlying stock or ETF, padded with spaces to 6 characters
Expiration date, 6 digits in the format yymmdd
Option type, either P or C, for put or call
Strike price, as the price x 1000, front padded with 0s to 8 digits
Ex |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterstain | A counterstain is a stain with colour contrasting to the principal stain, making the stained structure easily visible using a microscope.
Examples include the malachite green counterstain to the fuchsine stain in the Gimenez staining technique and the eosin counterstain to haematoxylin in the H&E stain. In Gram staining, crystal violet stains only Gram-positive bacteria, and safranin counterstain is applied which stains all cells, allowing the identification of Gram-negative bacteria as well. An alternative method uses dilute carbofluozide. Counterstains are sometimes used to separate animals from organic detritus in microbiology studies. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikheyev%E2%80%93Smirnov%E2%80%93Wolfenstein%20effect | The Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect (often referred to as the matter effect) is a particle physics process which modifies neutrino oscillations in matter of varying density. The MSW effect is broadly analogous to the differential retardation of sound waves in density-variable media, however it also involves the propagation dynamics of three separate quantum fields which experience distortion.
In free space, the separate rates of neutrino eigenstates lead to standard neutrino flavor oscillation. Within matter – such as within the Sun – the analysis is more complicated, as shown by Mikheyev, Smirnov and Wolfenstein. It leads to a wide admixture of emanating neutrino flavors, which provides a compelling solution to the solar neutrino problem.
Works in 1978 and 1979 by American physicist Lincoln Wolfenstein led to understanding that the oscillation parameters of neutrinos are changed in matter. In 1985, the Soviet physicists Stanislav Mikheyev and Alexei Smirnov predicted that a slow decrease of the density of matter can resonantly enhance the neutrino mixing. Later in 1986, Stephen Parke of Fermilab, Hans Bethe of Cornell University, and S. Peter Rosen and James Gelb of Los Alamos National Laboratory provided analytic treatments of this effect.
Summary
The presence of electrons in matter changes the instantaneous Hamiltonian eigenstates (mass eigenstates) of neutrinos due to the charged current's elastic forward scattering of the electron neutrinos (i.e., weak interactions). This coherent forward scattering is analogous to the electromagnetic process leading to the refractive index of light in a medium and can be described either as the classical refractive index, or the electric potential, . The difference of potentials for different neutrinos and : induces the evolution of mixed neutrino flavors (either electron, muon, or tau).
In the presence of matter, the Hamiltonian of the system changes with respect to the potential: , where is the Hamiltonian in |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game%20testing | Game testing, also called quality assurance (QA) testing within the video game industry, is a subset of game development that involves a software testing process for quality control of video games. The primary function of game testing is the discovery and documentation of software defects. Interactive entertainment software testing is a highly technical field requiring computing expertise, analytic competence, critical evaluation skills, and endurance. In recent years the field of game testing has come under fire for being extremely strenuous and unrewarding, both financially and emotionally.
History
In the early days of computer and video games, the developer was in charge of all the testing. No more than one or two testers were required due to the limited scope of the games. In some cases, the programmers could handle all the testing.
As games become more complex, a larger pool of QA resources, called "Quality Assessment" or "Quality Assurance" is necessary. Most publishers employ a large QA staff for testing various games from different developers. Despite the large QA infrastructure most publishers have, many developers retain a small group of testers to provide on-the-spot QA.
Now most game developers rely on their highly technical and game savvy testers to find glitches and 'bugs' in either the programming code or graphic layers. Game testers usually have a background playing a variety of different games on a multitude of platforms. They must be able to notate and reference any problems they find in detailed reports, meet deadlines with assignments and have the skill level to complete the game titles on their most difficult settings. Most of the time the position of game tester is a highly stressful and competitive position with little pay yet is highly sought after for it serves as a doorway into the industry. Game testers are observant individuals and can spot minor defects in the game build.
A common misconception is that all game testers enjoy alpha |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wpa%20supplicant | wpa_supplicant is a free software implementation of an IEEE 802.11i supplicant for Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD, QNX, AROS, Microsoft Windows, Solaris, OS/2 (including ArcaOS and eComStation) and Haiku. In addition to being a WPA3 and WPA2 supplicant, it also implements WPA and older wireless LAN security protocols.
Features
Features include:
WPA-PSK and WPA2-PSK ("WPA-Personal", pre-shared key)
WPA3
WPA with EAP ("WPA-Enterprise", for example with RADIUS authentication server)
RSN: PMKSA caching, pre-authentication
IEEE 802.11r
IEEE 802.11w
Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS)
Included with the supplicant are a GUI and a command-line utility for interacting with the running supplicant. From either of these interfaces it is possible to review a list of currently visible networks, select one of them, provide any additional security information needed to authenticate with the network (for example, a passphrase, or username and password) and add it to the preference list to enable automatic reconnection in the future.
The graphical user interface is built on top of the Qt library.
wpa_supplicant can authenticate with any of the following EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol) methods: EAP-TLS, EAP-PEAP (both PEAPv0 and PEAPv1), EAP-TTLS, EAP-SIM, EAP-AKA, EAP-AKA', EAP-pwd, EAP-EKE, EAP-PSK (experimental), EAP-FAST, EAP-PAX, EAP-SAKE, EAP-GPSK, EAP-IKEv2, EAP-MD5, EAP-MSCHAPv2, and LEAP (requires special functions in the driver).
Vulnerability to KRACK
wpa_supplicant was especially susceptible to KRACK, as it can be manipulated to install an all-zeros encryption key, effectively nullifying WPA2 protection in a man-in-the-middle attack. Version 2.7 fixed KRACK and several other vulnerabilities.
See also
NetworkManager
Supplicant
Wireless supplicant
Xsupplicant |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinal%20implant | A retinal implant is a visual prosthesis for restoration of sight to patients blinded by retinal degeneration. The system is meant to partially restore useful vision to those who have lost their photoreceptors due to retinal diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP) or age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Retinal implants are being developed by a number of private companies and research institutions, and three types are in clinical trials: epiretinal (on the retina), subretinal (behind the retina), and suprachoroidal (between the choroid and the sclera). The implants introduce visual information into the retina by electrically stimulating the surviving retinal neurons. So far, elicited percepts had rather low resolution, and may be suitable for light perception and recognition of simple objects.
History
Foerster was the first to discover that electrical stimulation of the occipital cortex could be used to create visual percepts, phosphenes. The first application of an implantable stimulator for vision restoration was developed by Drs. Brindley and Lewin in 1968. This experiment demonstrated the viability of creating visual percepts using direct electrical stimulation, and it motivated the development of several other implantable devices for stimulation of the visual pathway, including retinal implants. Retinal stimulation devices, in particular, have become a focus of research as approximately half of all cases of blindness are caused by retinal damage. The development of retinal implants has also been motivated in part by the advancement and success of cochlear implants, which has demonstrated that humans can regain significant sensory function with limited input.
The Argus II retinal implant, manufactured by Second Sight Medical Products received market approval in the US in Feb 2013 and in Europe in Feb 2011, becoming the first approved implant. The device may help adults with RP who have lost the ability to perceive shapes and movement to be more m |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stieltjes%20moment%20problem | In mathematics, the Stieltjes moment problem, named after Thomas Joannes Stieltjes, seeks necessary and sufficient conditions for a sequence (m0, m1, m2, ...) to be of the form
for some measure μ. If such a function μ exists, one asks whether it is unique.
The essential difference between this and other well-known moment problems is that this is on a half-line [0, ∞), whereas in the Hausdorff moment problem one considers a bounded interval [0, 1], and in the Hamburger moment problem one considers the whole line (−∞, ∞).
Existence
Let
and
Then { mn : n = 1, 2, 3, ... } is a moment sequence of some measure on with infinite support if and only if for all n, both
{ mn : n = 1, 2, 3, ... } is a moment sequence of some measure on with finite support of size m if and only if for all , both
and for all larger
Uniqueness
There are several sufficient conditions for uniqueness, for example, Carleman's condition, which states that the solution is unique if |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasure%20MathStorm%21 | Treasure MathStorm! is an educational computer game intended to teach children ages five to nine mathematical problem solving. This sequel to Treasure Mountain! is the sixth installment of The Learning Company's Super Seekers games and the second in its "Treasure" series.
The objective of Treasure MathStorm! is to return all of the treasures hidden across the mountain to the treasure chest in the castle at the top of the mountain. Although it runs smoother and has better graphics, basic gameplay is very similar to that of its predecessor. In 1994, an enhanced and more Windows-friendly version was released on CD-ROM.
Gameplay
The game takes place in a magical realm called Treasure Mountain. As the game opens, the Master of Mischief, the common antagonist to the Super Seekers games, uses a weather machine to freeze the mountain in snow and ice and scatters the castle's treasures all over the mountain. The player takes on the role of the Super Seeker, whose job is to find the scattered treasures and return them to the castle's treasure chest in order to thaw out the mountain.
The mountain itself consists of three levels. The player cannot climb higher until he has gathered the supplies, like ice axes, ladders, or catapult parts, useful for scaling the mountain. To obtain these items, the players must help out the local inhabitants complete math-related tasks such as adjusting clocks to a given time, balancing scales, and counting crystals.
In order to find treasures, the player must place a specific amount of snowballs at a certain location. To find out how many snowballs are needed, the player must catch an elf carrying a scroll. If he answers the riddle correctly, he will be told how to find treasures on that particular level.
Once the player reaches the top of the castle on the highest level of the mountain, he deposits all treasures found into the castle's treasure chest and is given a prize as a reward for completing the three stages. This prize is kept on di |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev%20Berg | Lev Semyonovich Berg, also known as Leo S. Berg (; 14 March 1876 – 24 December 1950) was a leading Russian geographer, biologist and ichthyologist who served as President of the Soviet Geographical Society between 1940 and 1950.
He is known for his own evolutionary theory, nomogenesis (a form of orthogenesis incorporating mutationism) as opposed to the theories of Darwin and Lamarck.
Life
Lev Berg was born in Bessarabia in a Jewish family, the son of Simon Gregoryevich Berg, a notary, and Klara Lvovna Bernstein-Kogan. He graduated from the Second Kishinev Gymnasium in 1894. Like some of his relatives, Berg converted to Christianity in order to pursue his studies at Moscow State University.
At Moscow University, Berg studied hydrobiology and geography. He later studied ichthyology and in 1928 was awarded he was also a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Lev Berg graduated from the Moscow State University in 1898. Between 1903 and 1914, he worked in the Museum of Zoology in Saint Petersburg. He was one of the founders of the Geographical Institute, now a Faculty of Geography of the Saint Petersburg State University.
Berg studied and determined the depth of the lakes of Central Asia, including Balkhash and Issyk-Kul. He developed Dokuchaev's doctrine of natural zones, which became one of the foundations of the Soviet biology. Among his pioneering monographs on climatology were "Climate and Life" (1922) and "Foundations of Climatology" (1927).
During his lifetime, Berg was a towering presence in the science of ichthyology. In 1916, he published four volumes of the study of Fishes of Russia. The fourth edition was issued in 1949 as Freshwater Fishes of the Soviet Union and Adjacent Countries and won him the Stalin Prize. He was said to have discovered the symbiotic relationship between lampreys and salmon. Berg's name is featured in the Latin appellations of more than 60 species of plants and animals.
In 2001, the Central Bank of Transnistria minted a silv |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orcein | Orcein, also archil, orchil, lacmus and C.I. Natural Red 28, are names for dyes extracted from several species of lichen, commonly known as "orchella weeds", found in various parts of the world. A major source is the archil lichen, Roccella tinctoria. Orcinol is extracted from such lichens. It is then converted to orcein by ammonia and air. In traditional dye-making methods, urine was used as the ammonia source. If the conversion is carried out in the presence of potassium carbonate, calcium hydroxide, and calcium sulfate (in the form of potash, lime, and gypsum in traditional dye-making methods), the result is litmus, a more complex molecule. The manufacture was described by Cocq in 1812 and in the UK in 1874. Edmund Roberts noted orchilla as a principal export of the Cape Verde islands, superior to the same kind of "moss" found in Italy or the Canary Islands, that in 1832 was yielding an annual revenue of $200,000. Commercial archil is either a powder (called cudbear) or a paste. It is red in acidic pH and blue in alkaline pH.
History and uses
The chemical components of orcein were elucidated only in the 1950s by Hans Musso. The structures are shown below. A paper originally published in 1961, embodying most of Musso's work on components of orcein and litmus, was translated into English and published in 2003 in a special issue of the journal Biotechnic & Histochemistry (Vol 78, No. 6) devoted to the dye. A single alternative structural formula for orcein, possibly incorrect, is given by the National Library of Medicine and Emolecules.
Orcein is a reddish-brown dye, orchil is a purple-blue dye. Orcein is also used as a stain in microscopy to visualize chromosomes, elastic fibers, Hepatitis B surface antigens, and copper-associated proteins.
Orcein is not approved as a food dye (banned in Europe since January 1977), with E number E121 before 1977 and E182 after. Its CAS number is . Its chemical formula is C28H24N2O7. It forms dark brown crystals. It is a mi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comb%20generator | A comb generator is a signal generator that produces multiple harmonics of its input signal. The appearance of the output at the spectrum analyzer screen, resembling teeth of a comb, gave the device its name.
Comb generators find wide range of uses in microwave technology. E.g., synchronous signals in wide frequency bandwidth can be produced by a comb generator. The most common use is in broadband frequency synthesizers, where the high frequency signals act as stable references correlated to the lower energy references; the outputs can be used directly, or to synchronize phase-locked loop oscillators. It may be also used to generate a complete set of substitution channels for testing, each of which carries the same baseband audio and video signal.
Comb generators are also used in RFI testing of consumer electronics, where their output is used as a simulated RF emissions, as it is a stable broadband noise source with repeatable output. It is also used during compliance testing to various government requirements for products such as medical devices (FDA), military electronics (MIL-STD-461), commercial avionics (Federal Aviation Administration), digital electronics (Federal Communications Commission), in the USA.
An optical comb generator can be used as generators of terahertz radiation. Internally, it is a resonant electro-optic modulator, with the capability of generating hundreds of sidebands with total span of at least 3 terahertz (limited by the optical dispersion of the lithium niobate crystal) and frequency spacing of 17 GHz. Other construction can be based on erbium-doped fiber laser or Ti-sapphire laser often in combination with carrier envelope offset control.
See also
Comb filter
Frequency comb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20musical%20symbols | Musical symbols are marks and symbols in musical notation that indicate various aspects of how a piece of music is to be performed. There are symbols to communicate information about many musical elements, including pitch, duration, dynamics, or articulation of musical notes; tempo, metre, form (e.g., whether sections are repeated), and details about specific playing techniques (e.g., which fingers, keys, or pedals are to be used, whether a string instrument should be bowed or plucked, or whether the bow of a string instrument should move up or down).
Lines
Clefs
A clef assigns one particular pitch to one particular line of the staff on which it is placed. This also effectively defines the pitch range or tessitura of the music on that staff. A clef is usually the leftmost symbol on a staff, although a different clef may appear elsewhere to indicate a change in register. Historically, clefs could be placed on any line on a staff (or even on a space), but modern notation almost exclusively uses treble, bass, alto, and tenor clef.
Rhythmic values of notes and rests
In American usage, musical note and rest values have names that indicate their length relative to a whole note. A half note is half the length of a whole note, a quarter note is one quarter the length, etc.
Breaks
Accidentals and key signatures
Common accidentals
Accidentals modify the pitch of the notes that follow them on the same staff position within a measure, unless cancelled by an additional accidental.
Key signatures
Key signatures indicate which notes are to be played as sharps or flats in the music that follows, showing up to seven sharps or flats. Notes that are shown as sharp or flat in a key signature will be played that way in every octave—e.g., a key signature with a B indicates that every B is played as a B. A key signature indicates the prevailing key of the music and eliminates the need to use accidentals for the notes that are always flat or sharp in that key. A key signature w |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective%20descriptive%20set%20theory | Effective descriptive set theory is the branch of descriptive set theory dealing with sets of reals having lightface definitions; that is, definitions that do not require an arbitrary real parameter (Moschovakis 1980). Thus effective descriptive set theory combines descriptive set theory with recursion theory.
Constructions
Effective Polish space
An effective Polish space is a complete separable metric space that has a computable presentation. Such spaces are studied in both effective descriptive set theory and in constructive analysis. In particular, standard examples of Polish spaces such as the real line, the Cantor set and the Baire space are all effective Polish spaces.
Arithmetical hierarchy
The arithmetical hierarchy, arithmetic hierarchy or Kleene–Mostowski hierarchy classifies certain sets based on the complexity of formulas that define them. Any set that receives a classification is called "arithmetical".
More formally, the arithmetical hierarchy assigns classifications to the formulas in the language of first-order arithmetic. The classifications are denoted and for natural numbers n (including 0). The Greek letters here are lightface symbols, which indicates that the formulas do not contain set parameters.
If a formula is logically equivalent to a formula with only bounded quantifiers then is assigned the classifications and .
The classifications and are defined inductively for every natural number n using the following rules:
If is logically equivalent to a formula of the form , where is , then is assigned the classification .
If is logically equivalent to a formula of the form , where is , then is assigned the classification . |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneration%20%28medicine%29 | Degeneration is deterioration in the medical sense. Generally, it is the change from a higher to a lower form. More specifically, it is the change of tissue to a lower or less functionally active form.
True degeneration: when there is actual chemical change of the tissue itself.
Infiltration: when the change consists of the deposit of abnormal matter in the tissues
Degenerative disease
See also
Macular degeneration
Neurodegenerative disease |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltration%20%28medical%29 | Infiltration is the diffusion or accumulation (in a tissue or cells) of foreign substances in amounts excess of the normal. The material collected in those tissues or cells is called infiltrate.
Definitions of infiltration
As part of a disease process, infiltration is sometimes used to define the invasion of cancer cells into the underlying matrix or the blood vessels. Similarly, the term may describe the deposition of amyloid protein. During leukocyte extravasation, white blood cells move in response to cytokines from within the blood, into the diseased or infected tissues, usually in the same direction as a chemical gradient, in a process called chemotaxis. The presence of lymphocytes in tissue in greater than normal numbers is likewise called infiltration.
As part of medical intervention, local anaesthetics may be injected at more than one point so as to infiltrate an area prior to a surgical procedure. However, the term may also apply to unintended iatrogenic leakage of fluids from phlebotomy or intravenous drug delivery procedures, a process also known as extravasation or "tissuing".
Causes
Infiltration may be caused by:
Puncture of distal vein wall during venipuncture
Puncture of any portion of the vein wall by mechanical friction from the catheter/needle cannula
Dislodgement of the catheter/needle cannula from the intima of the vein which may be a result of a poorly secured IV device or inappropriate choice of venous site to puncture.
Improper cannula size or excessive delivery rate of the fluid
Signs and symptoms
The signs and symptoms of infiltration include:
Inflammation at or near the insertion site with swollen, taut skin with pain
Blanching and coolness of skin around IV site
Damp or wet dressing
Slowed or stopped infusion
No backflow of blood into IV tubing on lowering the solution container.
Grading
Nursing treatment
The use of warm compresses to treat infiltration has become controversial. It has been found that cold compresses may b |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows%203.x | Windows 3.x means either of, or all of the following versions of Microsoft Windows:
Windows 3.0
Windows 3.1x
Windows NT
Windows NT 3.x
3.x |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camphene | Camphene is a bicyclic organic compound. It is one of the most pervasive monoterpenes. As for other terpenes, it is insoluble in water, flammable, colorless, and has a pungent smell. It is a minor constituent of many essential oils such as turpentine, cypress oil, camphor oil, citronella oil, neroli, ginger oil, valerian, and mango. It is produced industrially by isomerization of the more common alpha-pinene using a solid acid catalyst such as titanium dioxide.
Camphene is used in the preparation of fragrances and as a food additive for flavoring. These include isobornyl acetate.
Biosynthesis
Camphene is biosynthesized from linalyl pyrophosphate via a sequence of carbocationic intermediates. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced%20convection | Forced convection is a mechanism, or type of transport, in which fluid motion is generated by an external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.). Alongside natural convection, thermal radiation, and thermal conduction it is one of the methods of heat transfer and allows significant amounts of heat energy to be transported very efficiently.
Applications
This mechanism is found very commonly in everyday life, including central heating, air conditioning, steam turbines, and in many other machines. Forced convection is often encountered by engineers designing or analyzing heat exchangers, pipe flow, and flow over a plate at a different temperature than the stream (the case of a shuttle wing during re-entry, for example).
Mixed convection
In any forced convection situation, some amount of natural convection is always present whenever there are gravitational forces present (i.e., unless the system is in an inertial frame or free-fall). When the natural convection is not negligible, such flows are typically referred to as mixed convection.
Mathematical analysis
When analyzing potentially mixed convection, a parameter called the Archimedes number (Ar) parametrizes the relative strength of free and forced convection. The Archimedes number is the ratio of Grashof number and the square of Reynolds number, which represents the ratio of buoyancy force and inertia force, and which stands in for the contribution of natural convection. When Ar ≫ 1, natural convection dominates and when Ar ≪ 1, forced convection dominates.
When natural convection isn't a significant factor, mathematical analysis with forced convection theories typically yields accurate results. The parameter of importance in forced convection is the Péclet number, which is the ratio of advection (movement by currents) and diffusion (movement from high to low concentrations) of heat.
When the Peclet number is much greater than unity (1), advection dominates diffusion. Similarly, much smaller ratios i |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical%20ultracentrifugation | Analytical ultracentrifugation is an analytical technique which combines an ultracentrifuge with optical monitoring systems.
In an analytical ultracentrifuge (commonly abbreviated as AUC), a sample’s sedimentation profile is monitored in real time by an optical detection system. The sample is detected via ultraviolet light absorption and/or interference optical refractive index sensitive system, monitored by light-sensitive diode array or by film in the older machines. The operator can thus observe the change of sample concentration versus the axis of the rotation profile with time as a result of the applied centrifugal field. With modern instrumentation, these observations are electronically digitized and stored for further mathematical analysis.
The information that can be obtained from an analytical ultracentrifuge includes the gross shape of macromolecules, conformational changes in macromolecules, and size distributions of macromolecules. With AUC it is possible to gain information on the number and subunit stoichiometry of non-covalent complexes and equilibrium constants of macromolecules such as proteins, DNA, nanoparticles or other assemblies from different molecule classes. The simplest measurement to be obtained is the sedimentation coefficient, which depends upon the size of the molecules being sedimented. This is the ratio of a particle's sedimentation velocity to the applied acceleration causing the sedimentation.
Analytical ultracentrifugation has recently seen a rise in use because of increased ease of analysis with modern computers and the development of software, including a National Institutes of Health supported software package, SedFit.
History
Instrumentation
An analytical ultracentrifuge has a light source and optical detectors. To allow the light to pass through the analyte during the ultracentrifuge run, specialized cells are required which have to meet high optical standards as well as to resist the centrifugal forces. Each cell consi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission%20%28BitTorrent%20client%29 | Transmission is a BitTorrent client which features a variety of user interfaces on top of a cross-platform back-end. Transmission is free software licensed under the terms of the GNU General Public License, with parts under the MIT License.
Features
Transmission allows users to quickly download files from multiple peers on the Internet and to upload their own files. By adding torrent files via the user interface, users can create a queue of files to be downloaded and uploaded. Within the file selection menus, users can customise their downloads at the level of individual files. Transmission also seeds, that is, it will automatically share downloaded content.
Transmission allows the assigning of priorities to torrents and to files within torrents, thus potentially influencing which files download first. It supports the Magnet URI scheme and encrypted connections. It allows torrent-file creation and peer exchange compatible with Vuze and μTorrent. It includes a built-in web server so that users can control Transmission remotely via the web. It also supports automatic port-mapping using UPnP/NAT-PMP, peer caching, blocklists for bad peers, bandwidth limits dependent on time-of-day, globally or per-torrent, and has partial support for IPv6. It allows the use of multiple trackers simultaneously, Local Peer Discovery, Micro Transport Protocol (μTP), and UDP tracker.
It does not support directly subscribing to RSS feeds containing torrent files for automatic download, but third-party add-ons can supply this functionality.
macOS-specific features include Dock and Growl notifications, automatic updates using Sparkle and Universal Binary (up until version 2.22).
Transmission 4.0.0, released in February 2023, added support for version 2 of the BitTorrent protocol while maintaining backward compatibility with the older v1 torrents.
Development
Transmission 1.60 and later removed support for Mac OS X v10.4. Currently, Transmission 1.54 is the last version that runs on Ma |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing%20range | Hearing range describes the range of frequencies that can be heard by humans or other animals, though it can also refer to the range of levels. The human range is commonly given as 20 to 20,000 Hz, although there is considerable variation between individuals, especially at high frequencies, and a gradual loss of sensitivity to higher frequencies with age is considered normal. Sensitivity also varies with frequency, as shown by equal-loudness contours. Routine investigation for hearing loss usually involves an audiogram which shows threshold levels relative to a normal.
Several animal species are able to hear frequencies well beyond the human hearing range. Some dolphins and bats, for example, can hear frequencies over 100 kHz. Elephants can hear sounds at 14–16 Hz, while some whales can hear infrasonic sounds as low as 7 Hz.
Measurement
A basic measure of hearing is afforded by an audiogram, a graph of the absolute threshold of hearing (minimum discernible sound level) at various frequencies throughout an organism's nominal hearing range.
Behavioural hearing tests or physiological tests can be used to find hearing thresholds of humans and other animals. For humans, the test involves tones being presented at specific frequencies (pitch) and intensities (loudness). When the subject hears the sound, they indicate this by raising a hand or pressing a button. The lowest intensity they can hear is recorded. The test varies for children; their response to the sound can be indicated by a turn of the head or using a toy. The child learns what to do upon hearing the sound, such as placing a toy man in a boat. A similar technique can be used when testing animals, where food is used as a reward for responding to the sound. The information on different mammals hearing was obtained primarily by behavioural hearing tests.
Physiological tests do not need the patient to consciously respond.
Humans
In humans, sound waves funnel into the ear via the external ear canal and reach |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex%20beam%20parameter | In optics, the complex beam parameter is a complex number that specifies the properties of a Gaussian beam at a particular point z along the axis of the beam. It is usually denoted by q. It can be calculated from the beam's vacuum wavelength λ0, the radius of curvature R of the phase front, the index of refraction n (n=1 for air), and the beam radius w (defined at 1/e2 intensity), according to:
.
Alternatively, q can be calculated according to
where z is the location, relative to the location of the beam waist, at which q is calculated, zR is the Rayleigh range, and i is the imaginary unit.
Beam propagation
The complex beam parameter is usually used in ray transfer matrix analysis, which allows the calculation of the beam properties at any given point as it propagates through an optical system, if the ray matrix and the initial complex beam parameter is known. This same method can also be used to find the fundamental mode size of a stable optical resonator.
Given the initial beam parameter, qi, one can use the ray transfer matrix of an optical system, , to find the resulting beam parameter, qf, after the beam has traversed the system:
.
It is often convenient to express this equation in terms of the reciprocals of q:
.
Free-space propagation
The effect of propagation in free space is just that of adding the travelled axial distance to the complex beam parameter:
.
Interfaces
For simple astigmatic fundamental Gaussian beams, the q- parameters for the tangential and sagittal planes are independent. This is no longer true if those planes do not coincide with the principal direction of the surface on which the beam impinges; that case is called general astigmatism. Formulas for an incidence angle θi were derived in Massey and Siegman's 1969 paper.
For reflection, the matrices read:
The ones for refraction are:
Fundamental mode of an optical resonator
To find the complex beam parameter of a stable optical resonator, one needs to find the ray matrix of th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allura%20Red%20AC | Allura Red AC is a red azo dye that goes by several names, including FD&C Red 40. It is used as a food dye and has the E number E129.
It is usually supplied as its red sodium salt, but can also be used as the calcium and potassium salts. These salts are soluble in water. In solution, its maximum absorbance lies at about 504 nm.
Allura Red, FD&C Red No. 40 is manufactured by coupling diazotized 5-amino-4-methoxy-2-toluenesulfonic acid with 6-hydroxy-2-naphthalene sulfonic acid in an azo coupling reaction.
Use as a consumable coloring agent
Allura Red AC is a popular dye used worldwide. Annual production in 1980 was greater than 2.3 million kilograms. It was originally introduced as a replacement for amaranth in the United States.
The European Union approves Allura Red AC as a food colorant, but EU countries' local laws banning food colorants are preserved.
In the United States, Allura Red AC is approved by the FDA for use in cosmetics, drugs, and food. When prepared as a lake pigment it is disclosed as Red 40 Lake or Red 40 Aluminum Lake. It is used in some tattoo inks and is used in many products, such as cotton candy, soft drinks, cherry-flavored products, children's medications, and dairy products. It is occasionally used to dye medicinal pills, such as the antihistamine fexofenadine, for purely aesthetic reasons. It is by far the most commonly used red dye in the United States, completely replacing amaranth (Red 2) and also replacing erythrosine (Red 3) in most applications due to the negative health effects of those two dyes.
Studies on safety
Allura Red has been heavily studied by food safety groups in North America and Europe, and remains in wide use.
The UK's Food Standards Agency commissioned a study of six food dyes (tartrazine, Allura red, Ponceau 4R, Quinoline Yellow, sunset yellow, carmoisine (dubbed the "Southampton 6")), and sodium benzoate (a preservative) on children in the general population, who consumed them in beverages. The study found |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8250%20UART | The 8250 UART (universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter) is an integrated circuit designed for implementing the interface for serial communications. The part was originally manufactured by the National Semiconductor Corporation. It was commonly used in PCs and related equipment such as printers or modems. The 8250 included an on-chip programmable bit rate generator, allowing use for both common and special-purpose bit rates which could be accurately derived from an arbitrary crystal oscillator reference frequency.
The chip designations carry suffix letters for later versions of the same chip series. For example, the original 8250 was soon followed by the 8250A and 8250B versions that corrected some bugs. In particular, the original 8250 could repeat transmission of a character if the CTS line was asserted asynchronously during the first transmission attempt.
Due to the high demand, other manufacturers soon began offering compatible chips. Western Digital offered WD8250 chip under Async Communications Interface Adapter (ACIA) and Async Communications Element (ACE) names.
The 16450(A) UART, commonly used in IBM PC/AT-series computers, improved on the 8250 by permitting higher serial line speeds.
With the introduction of multitasking operating systems on PC hardware, such as OS/2, Windows NT or various flavours of UNIX, the short time available to serve character-by-character interrupt requests became a problem, therefore the IBM PS/2 serial ports introduced the 16550(A) UARTs that had a built-in 16 byte FIFO or buffer memory to collect incoming characters.
Later models added larger memories, supported higher speeds, combined multiple ports on one chip and finally became part of the now-common Super I/O circuits combining most input/output logic on a PC motherboard.
Blocks
The line interface consists of:
SOUT, SIN, /RTS, /DTR, DSR, /DCD, /CTS, /RI
Clock interface:
XIN, XOUT, /BAUDOUT, RCLK
Computer interface:
D0..D7, /RD, /WR, INTRPT, MR, A0, A1, A2 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast%20Green%20FCF | Fast Green FCF, also called Food green 3, FD&C Green No. 3, Green 1724, Solid Green FCF, and C.I. 42053, is a turquoise triarylmethane food dye. Its E number is E143.
Fast Green FCF is recommended as a replacement of Light Green SF yellowish in Masson's trichrome, as its color is more brilliant and less likely to fade. It is used as a quantitative stain for histones at alkaline pH after acid extraction of DNA. It is also used as a protein stain in electrophoresis. Its absorption maximum is at 625 nm.
Fast Green FCF is poorly absorbed by the intestines. Its use as a food dye is prohibited in the European Union and some other countries. It can be used for tinned green peas and other vegetables, jellies, sauces, fish, desserts, and dry bakery mixes at level of up to 100 mg/kg. In the United States, Fast Green FCF is the least used of the seven main FDA approved dyes.
Toxicology
A reevaluation of Fast Green FCF published by the World Health Organization in 2017 concluded that it has low toxicity and is not carcinogenic or genotoxic, and that there were no health concerns with consumption of Fast Green FCF at the previously established allowable daily intake (which itself is much higher than estimates of actual dietary exposure to Fast Green FCF).
Notes
Biochemistry detection methods
Triarylmethane dyes
Staining dyes
Food colorings
Anilines
Phenols
Benzenesulfonates |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blog%20fiction | Blog fiction is an online literary genre that tells a fictional story in the style of a weblog or blog. In the early years of weblogs, blog fictions were described as an exciting new genres creating new opportunities for emerging authors, but were also described as "notorious" in part because they often uneasily tread the line between fiction and hoax. Sometimes blog fictions are republished as print books, and in other cases conventional novels are written in the style of a blog without having been published as an online blog. Blog fiction is a genre of Electronic literature.
History
One of the first online stories to include blog-like elements is the online drama Online Caroline (2000). By 2004 blogging had become very popular, and blog fictions were the subject of several news articles that list a range of examples of the genre. Angela Thomas wrote a book chapter on blog fictions in 2006. A chapter of the book Blogging discusses fictional blogs in a chapter on blogs as narratives. In 2017, Emma Segar argued that "social and transmedia storytelling owe much to the narrative conventions established by the practice of blogging, but blog fiction itself has been a much overlooked form of digital literature".
Segar argues that a main feature of blog fiction is relationity between readers and fiction.
Blog fictions have been a particularly popular genre of electronic literature in Africa. The literary orality of blogs has also been analysed as a feature of African American blogs.
Fiction, truth or hoax
Blog fictions are often presented as though they are true, much as early novels were often presented as a "real" diary or letters that had been found by the author. The uncertainty can be part of their attraction to readers. For example, the first blog described in a 2004 article in The Guardian about fiction blogs is Belle de Jour, a blog that turned out not to be fiction but a real diary by Brooke Magnanti. The blog was adapted into a print book, The Intimate Adve |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponceau%202R | Ponceau 2R, Xylidine ponceau, Ponceau G, Red R, Acid Red 26, Food Red 5, or C.I. 16150 is a red azo dye used in histology for staining. It is easily soluble in water and slightly in ethanol. It usually comes as a disodium salt.
Xylidine ponceau is mostly used only in the Masson's trichrome stain as a red counterstain, where it imparts orange hue to the red-stained cytoplasmic structures.
Its other names are:
Acetacid red J,
Acidal ponceau G,
Acid leather red KPR,
Acid leather red P2R,
Acid leather scarlet IRW,
Acid ponceau R,
Acid ponceau 2RL,
Acid ponceau special,
Acid scarlet,
Acid scarlet 2RL,
Acid scarlet 2RN,
Acilan ponceau RRL,
Ahcocid fast scarlet R,
Aizen ponceau RH,
Amacid lake scarlet 2R,
Amacid scarlet 2R,
Brilliant ponceau G,
Calcocid 2RIL,
Calcocid scarlet 2R,
Calcocid scarlet 2RIL,
Calcolake scarlet 2R,
Certicol ponceau MXS,
C.I. Acid red 26,
C.I. Food red 5,
Colacid ponceau special,
Comacid scarlet 2R
D and C red No. 5,
Edicol supra ponceau R,
Fenazo scarlet 2R,
Hexacol ponceau MX,
Hexacol ponceau 2R,
Hidacid scarlet 2R,
Hispacid ponceau R,
Java ponceau 2R,
Kiton ponceau R,
Kiton scarlet 2RC,
Lake ponceau,
Lake scarlet R,
Lake scarlet 2RBN,
Naphthalene lake scarlet R,
Naphthalene scarlet R,
Naphthazine scarlet 2R,
Neklacid red RR,
New ponceau 4R,
Paper red HRR,
Pigment ponceau R,
Ponceau BNA,
Ponceau de xylidine,
Ponceau R,
Ponceau red,
Ponceau RG,
Ponceau xylidine,
1695 Red,
Red for lakes J,
Red R,
Tertracid ponceau 2R,
Xylidine ponceau 3RS,
Xylidine red. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20College%20of%20Pathologists | The Royal College of Pathologists (RCPath) is a professional membership organisation.
Its main function is the overseeing of postgraduate training, and its Fellowship Examination (FRCPath) is recognised as the standard assessment of fitness to practise in this branch of medicine.
Constitution
The Royal College of Pathologists is a professional membership organisation, to maintain the standards and reputation of British pathology, through training, assessments, examinations and professional development. It is a registered charity and is not a trades union. Its 11,000 members work in hospital laboratories, universities and industry worldwide.
History
The College of Pathologists was founded in 1962, to optimise postgraduate training in the relatively young science of pathology, with its high importance in the diagnostic process, and the increasing range of specialist studies within it. The college received its royal charter in 1970 and its Patron is Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.
Training and examinations
The Fellowship Examination of the Royal College of Pathologists (FRCPath) is the main method of assessment for UK pathology training - evaluation of a candidate's training programme, indicating fitness to practise, whilst also marking the entry into independent practice and the beginning of continuing professional development. Upon successful completion, trainees are awarded Fellowship status of the Royal College of Pathologists.
Fellowship may also be awarded on the basis of submitted published works, though this does not contribute to the award of the Certificate of Completion of Training and is not a mark of eligibility for appointment to a Consultant post or unsupervised practice.
The college runs a national scheme for overseeing of continued education of pathologists in clinical practice, as well as sponsoring workshops, lectures and courses.
Disciplines
The following are disciplines of pathology which the college oversees:
Histopathology
Neuropatholog |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deubiquitinating%20enzyme | Deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs), also known as deubiquitinating peptidases, deubiquitinating isopeptidases, deubiquitinases, ubiquitin proteases, ubiquitin hydrolases, or ubiquitin isopeptidases, are a large group of proteases that cleave ubiquitin from proteins. Ubiquitin is attached to proteins in order to regulate the degradation of proteins via the proteasome and lysosome; coordinate the cellular localisation of proteins; activate and inactivate proteins; and modulate protein-protein interactions. DUBs can reverse these effects by cleaving the peptide or isopeptide bond between ubiquitin and its substrate protein. In humans there are nearly 100 DUB genes, which can be classified into two main classes: cysteine proteases and metalloproteases. The cysteine proteases comprise ubiquitin-specific proteases (USPs), ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolases (UCHs), Machado-Josephin domain proteases (MJDs) and ovarian tumour proteases (OTU). The metalloprotease group contains only the Jab1/Mov34/Mpr1 Pad1 N-terminal+ (MPN+) (JAMM) domain proteases.
Classes
In humans there are 102 putative DUB genes, which can be classified into two main classes: cysteine proteases and metalloproteases, consisting of 58 ubiquitin-specific proteases (USPs), 4 ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolases (UCHs), 5 Machado-Josephin domain proteases (MJDs), 14 ovarian tumour proteases (OTU), and 14 Jab1/Mov34/Mpr1 Pad1 N-terminal+ (MPN+) (JAMM) domain-containing genes. 11 of these proteins are predicted to be non-functional, leaving 79 functional enzymes. In yeast, the USPs are known as ubiquitin-specific-processing proteases (UBPs).
Cysteine proteases
There are six main superfamilies of cysteine protease DUBs:
the ubiquitin-specific protease (USP/UBP) superfamily; (USP1, USP2, USP3, USP4, USP5, USP6, USP7, USP8, USP9X, USP9Y, USP10, USP11, USP12, USP13, USP14, USP15, USP16, USP17, USP17L2, USP17L3, USP17L4, USP17L5, USP17L7, USP17L8, USP18, USP19, USP20, USP21, USP22, USP23, USP24, USP25, USP26, USP27X, US |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/405-line%20television%20system | The 405-line monochrome analogue television broadcasting system was the first fully electronic television system to be used in regular broadcasting. The number of television lines influences the image resolution, or quality of the picture.
It was introduced with the BBC Television Service in 1936, suspended for the duration of World War II, and remained in operation in the UK until 1985. It was also used between 1961 and 1982 in Ireland, as well as from 1957 to 1973 for the Rediffusion Television cable service in Hong Kong. 405-line was approved as System A in the CCIR assignment of broadcast systems.
Sometimes called the Marconi-EMI system, it was developed in 1934 by the EMI Research Team led by Isaac Shoenberg. The figure of 405 lines had been chosen following discussions over Sunday lunch at the home of Alan Blumlein. The system used interlacing; EMI had been experimenting with a 243-line all-electronic interlaced system since 1933. In the 405 system the scanning lines were broadcast in two complementary fields, 50 times per second, creating 25 frames per second. The actual image was 376 lines high and interlaced, with additional unused lines making the frame up to 405 lines to give the slow circuitry time to prepare for the next frame; in modern terms it would be described as "376i".
At the time of its introduction the 405-line system was referred to as "high definition" – which it was, compared to earlier systems, although of lower definition than 625-line and later standards.
On the United States the FCC had briefly approved a 405-line color television standard in October 1950, which was developed by CBS. The CBS system was incompatible with existing black-and-white receivers. It used a rotating color wheel, reduced the number of scan lines from 525 to 405, and increased the field rate from 60 to 144, but had an effective frame rate of only 24 frames per second.
History
United Kingdom
Development
In 1934, the British government set up a committee (th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibered%20manifold | In differential geometry, in the category of differentiable manifolds, a fibered manifold is a surjective submersion
that is, a surjective differentiable mapping such that at each point the tangent mapping
is surjective, or, equivalently, its rank equals
History
In topology, the words fiber (Faser in German) and fiber space (gefaserter Raum) appeared for the first time in a paper by Herbert Seifert in 1932, but his definitions are limited to a very special case. The main difference from the present day conception of a fiber space, however, was that for Seifert what is now called the base space (topological space) of a fiber (topological) space was not part of the structure, but derived from it as a quotient space of The first definition of fiber space is given by Hassler Whitney in 1935 under the name sphere space, but in 1940 Whitney changed the name to sphere bundle.
The theory of fibered spaces, of which vector bundles, principal bundles, topological fibrations and fibered manifolds are a special case, is attributed to Seifert, Hopf, Feldbau, Whitney, Steenrod, Ehresmann, Serre, and others.
Formal definition
A triple where and are differentiable manifolds and is a surjective submersion, is called a fibered manifold. is called the total space, is called the base.
Examples
Every differentiable fiber bundle is a fibered manifold.
Every differentiable covering space is a fibered manifold with discrete fiber.
In general, a fibered manifold need not be a fiber bundle: different fibers may have different topologies. An example of this phenomenon may be constructed by taking the trivial bundle and deleting two points in two different fibers over the base manifold The result is a new fibered manifold where all the fibers except two are connected.
Properties
Any surjective submersion is open: for each open the set is open in
Each fiber is a closed embedded submanifold of of dimension
A fibered manifold admits local sections: For each the |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project%204.1 | Project 4.1 was the designation for a medical study and experimentation conducted by the United States of those residents of the Marshall Islands exposed to radioactive fallout from the March 1, 1954 Castle Bravo nuclear test at Bikini Atoll, which had an unexpectedly large yield. Government and mainstream historical sources point to the study being organized on March 6 or March 7, 1954, six days after the Bravo shot.
Establishment and secrecy
In the wake of the Castle Bravo detonation, a new research section was added to the Castle Bravo Weapons Effects research section. Program 4, "Biomedical effects," was to include one project, Project 4.1, titled "Study of Response of Human Beings exposed to Significant Beta and Gamma Radiation due to Fall-out from High-Yield Weapons." Eugene P. Cronkite of the National Naval Medical Center was designated as Project Officer. Cronkite's instructions stressed the importance of secrecy surrounding the project:
The purpose of the project, as a 1982 Defense Nuclear Agency report explained, was both medical as well as for research purposes:
Preparation
As a Department of Energy Committee writing on the human radiation experiments wrote, "It appears to have been almost immediately apparent to the AEC and the Joint Task Force running the Castle series that research on radiation effects could be done in conjunction with the medical treatment of the exposed populations." The DOE report also concluded that "The dual purpose of what is now a DOE medical program has led to a view by the Marshallese that they were being used as 'guinea pigs' in a 'radiation experiment.'"
Organizations involved in the project included the Naval Medical Research Institute, the Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory, Patrol Squadron 29, the Naval Air Station, Kwajalein, Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Applied Fisheries Laboratory at the University of Washington, and Hanford Atomic Power Operations. Three U.S. Navy ships were used in the project: USS N |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarizing%20filter%20%28photography%29 | A polarizing filter or polarising filter (see spelling differences) is often placed in front of the camera lens in photography in order to darken skies, manage reflections, or suppress glare from the surface of lakes or the sea. Since reflections (and sky-light) tend to be at least partially linearly-polarized, a linear polarizer can be used to change the balance of the light in the photograph. The rotational orientation of the filter is adjusted for the preferred artistic effect. For modern cameras, a circular polarizer (CPL) is typically used; this comprises firstly a linear polarizer which performs the artistic function just described, followed by a quarter-wave plate which further transforms the now-linearly polarized light into circularly-polarized light before entering the camera. This additional step avoids problems with autofocus and light-metering sensors within some cameras, which otherwise may not function reliably with a simple linear polarizer.
Use
Light reflected from a non-metallic surface becomes polarized; this effect is maximum at Brewster's angle, about 56° from the vertical for common glass. A polarizer rotated to pass only light polarized in the direction perpendicular to the reflected light will absorb much of it. This absorption allows glare reflected from, for example, a body of water or a road to be reduced. Reflections from shiny surfaces (e.g. vegetation, sweaty skin, water surfaces, glass) are also reduced. This allows the natural color and detail of what is beneath to come through. Reflections from a window into a dark interior can be much reduced, allowing it to be seen through. (The same effects are available for vision by using polarizing sunglasses.)
Some of the light coming from the sky is polarized (bees use this phenomenon for navigation).
The electrons in the air molecules cause a scattering of sunlight in all directions. This explains why the sky is not dark during the day. But when looked at from the sides, the light emitt |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copy%20number%20variation | Copy number variation (CNV) is a phenomenon in which sections of the genome are repeated and the number of repeats in the genome varies between individuals. Copy number variation is a type of structural variation: specifically, it is a type of duplication or deletion event that affects a considerable number of base pairs. Approximately two-thirds of the entire human genome may be composed of repeats and 4.8–9.5% of the human genome can be classified as copy number variations. In mammals, copy number variations play an important role in generating necessary variation in the population as well as disease phenotype.
Copy number variations can be generally categorized into two main groups: short repeats and long repeats. However, there are no clear boundaries between the two groups and the classification depends on the nature of the loci of interest. Short repeats include mainly dinucleotide repeats (two repeating nucleotides e.g. A-C-A-C-A-C...) and trinucleotide repeats. Long repeats include repeats of entire genes. This classification based on size of the repeat is the most obvious type of classification as size is an important factor in examining the types of mechanisms that most likely gave rise to the repeats, hence the likely effects of these repeats on phenotype.
Types and chromosomal rearrangements
One of the most well known examples of a short copy number variation is the trinucleotide repeat of the CAG base pairs in the huntingtin gene responsible for the neurological disorder Huntington's disease. For this particular case, once the CAG trinucleotide repeats more than 36 times in a trinucleotide repeat expansion, Huntington's disease will likely develop in the individual and it will likely be inherited by his or her offspring. The number of repeats of the CAG trinucleotide is inversely correlated with the age of onset of Huntington's disease. These types of short repeats are often thought to be due to errors in polymerase activity during replication includi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange%20B | Orange B is a food dye from the azo dye group. It is approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use only in hot dog and sausage casings or surfaces, only up to 150 parts per million of the finished food weight. It is typically prepared as a disodium salt.
Orange B was first listed as an approved food dye by the FDA in 1966. In 1978, the FDA proposed removing it from the list due to concerns about the presence of carcinogenic contaminants (specifically 2-naphthylamine). The only supplier in the United States, the William J. Stange Company, subsequently stopped manufacturing it but it was not removed from the list. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrus%20Red%202 | Citrus Red 2, Citrus Red No. 2, C.I. Solvent Red 80, or C.I. 12156 is an artificial dye. As a food dye, it has been permitted by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) since 1956 to color the skin of oranges. Citrus Red 2 is listed by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a group 2B carcinogen, a substance "possibly carcinogenic to humans".
Properties
Citrus Red 2 is an orange to yellow solid or a dark red powder with a melting point of 156 °C. It is not soluble in water, but is readily soluble in many organic solvents.
Use
In the United States, Citrus Red 2 is sometimes used to color oranges. It is only permitted to be used on the peel. It is permitted when the fruit is intended to be eaten, but is not permitted when the fruit is intended or used for processing, for example to manufacture orange juice. It is used on some oranges from the US state of Florida but is banned in the US states of California and Arizona. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meristics | Meristics is an area of zoology and botany which relates to counting quantitative features of animals and plants, such as the number of fins or scales in fish. A meristic (countable trait) can be used to describe a particular species, or used to identify an unknown species. Meristic traits are often described in a shorthand notation called a meristic formula.
Meristic characters are the countable structures occurring in series (e.g. myomeres, vertebrae, fin rays). These characters are among the characters most commonly used for differentiation of species and populations. In the salmonids, scale counts have been most widely used for the differentiation of populations within species. In rainbow and steelhead trout the most notable differences among populations occur in counts of scales. Meristic comparison is used in phenetic and cladistic analysis.
Meristic analysis
A meristic study is often a difficult task. For example, counting the features of a fish is not as easy as it may appear. Many meristic analyses are performed on dead fish that have been preserved in alcohol. Meristic traits are less easily observed on living fish, though it is possible. On very small fish, a microscope may be required.
Ichthyologists follow a basic set of rules when performing a meristic analysis, to remove as much ambiguity as possible. The specific practice, however, may vary depending on the type of fish. The methodology for counting meristic traits should be described by the specialist who performs the analysis.
Meristic formula
A meristic formula is a shorthand method of describing the way the bones (rays) of a bony fish's fins are arranged. It is comparable to the floral formula for flowers.
Spine counts are given in Roman numerals, e.g. XI-XIV. Ray counts are given in Arabic numerals, e.g. 11–14.
The meristic formula of the dusky spinefoot (Siganus luridus) is: D, XIV+10; A, VII+8-9; P, 16–17; V, I+3+I; GR, 18-22
This means the fish has 14 spiny rays (bones) in the first p |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azorubine | Azorubine is an azo dye consisting of two naphthalene subunits. It is a red solid. It is mainly used in foods that are heat-treated after fermentation. It has E number E122.
Uses
In the US, this color was listed in 1939 as FD&C Red No. 10 for use in externally applied drugs and cosmetics. It was delisted in 1963 because no party was interested in supporting the studies needed to establish safety. It was not used in food in the US.
In the EU, azorubine is known as E number E122, and is authorized for use in certain foods and beverages, such as cheeses, dried fruit, and some alcoholic beverages, and is permitted for use as an excipient in medications.
There are no provisions for azorubine in the Codex Alimentarius.
Safety
Azorubine has shown no evidence of mutagenic or carcinogenic properties and an acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 0–4 mg/kg was established in 1983 by the WHO. In rare instances, it may cause skin and respiratory allergic reactions even to FDA approved dosages.
No evidence supports broad claims that food coloring causes food intolerance and ADHD-like behavior in children. It is possible that certain food coloring may act as a trigger in those who are genetically predisposed, but the evidence is weak. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth%20%28dye%29 | Amaranth, FD&C Red No. 2, E123, C.I. Food Red 9, Acid Red 27, Azorubin S, or C.I. 16185 is a modified red azo dye used as a food dye and to color cosmetics. The name was taken from amaranth grain, a plant distinguished by its red color and edible protein-rich seeds.
Amaranth is an anionic dye. It can be applied to natural and synthetic fibers, leather, paper, and phenol-formaldehyde resins. As a food additive it has E number E123. Amaranth usually comes as a trisodium salt. It has the appearance of reddish-brown, dark red to purple water-soluble powder that decomposes at 120 °C without melting. Its water solution has an absorption maximum of about 520 nm. Like all azo dyes, Amaranth was, during the middle of the 20th century, made from coal tar; modern synthetics are more likely to be made from petroleum byproducts.
Since 1976, amaranth dye has been banned in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a suspected carcinogen. Its use is still legal in some countries, notably in the United Kingdom where it is most commonly used to give glacé cherries their distinctive color.
History and health effects
After an incident in the 1950s involving Orange 1, the FDA retested food colors. Later, in 1960, the FDA was given jurisdiction over color additives, limiting the amounts that could be added to foods and requiring producers of food color to ensure the safety and proper labeling of colors. Permission to use food additives was given on a provisional basis, which could be withdrawn should safety issues arise. The FDA gave "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) provisional status to substances already in use, and extended Red No. 2's provisional status 14 times.
In 1971, a Soviet study linked the dye to cancer. By 1976, over of the dye worth $5 million was used as a colorant in $10 billion worth of foods, drugs and cosmetics. Consumer activists in the United States, perturbed by what they perceived as collusion between the FDA and food conglomerates, |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monitor%20mode | Monitor mode, or RFMON (Radio Frequency MONitor) mode, allows a computer with a wireless network interface controller (WNIC) to monitor all traffic received on a wireless channel. Unlike promiscuous mode, which is also used for packet sniffing, monitor mode allows packets to be captured without having to associate with an access point or ad hoc network first. Monitor mode only applies to wireless networks, while promiscuous mode can be used on both wired and wireless networks. Monitor mode is one of the eight modes that 802.11 wireless adapter can operate in: Master (acting as an access point), Managed (client, also known as station), Ad hoc, Repeater, Mesh, Wi-Fi Direct, TDLS and Monitor mode.
Uses
Uses for monitor mode include: geographical packet analysis, observing of widespread traffic and acquiring knowledge of Wi-Fi technology through hands-on experience. It is especially useful for auditing unsecure channels (such as those protected with WEP). Monitor mode can also be used to help design Wi-Fi networks. For a given area and channel, the number of Wi-Fi devices currently being used can be discovered. This helps to create a better Wi-Fi network that reduces interference with other Wi-Fi devices by choosing the least used Wi-Fi channels.
Software such as KisMAC or Kismet, in combination with packet analyzers that can read pcap files, provide a user interface for passive wireless network monitoring.
Limitations
Usually the wireless adapter is unable to transmit in monitor mode and is restricted to a single wireless channel, though this is dependent on the wireless adapter's driver, its firmware, and features of its chipset. Also, in monitor mode the adapter does not check to see if the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) values are correct for packets captured, so some captured packets may be corrupted.
Operating system support
The Microsoft Windows Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS) API has supported extensions for monitor mode since NDIS version |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarlet%20GN | Scarlet GN, or C.I. Food Red 2, FD&C Red No. 4, or C.I. 14815 is a red azo dye once used as a food dye. As a food additive, it has the E number E125. It is usually used as a disodium salt.
In the United States, it is not permitted for use in food or ingested drugs and may only be used in externally applied drugs and cosmetics, due to potential carcinogenic effects from ingesting it. An exception was added in 1965 to allow its use in the coloring of maraschino cherries, which were considered mainly decorative and not a foodstuff. This exception was repealed in 1976 due to mounting safety concerns. In the European Union, it is not permitted as a food additive. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenital%20afibrinogenemia | Congenital afibrinogenemia is a rare, genetically inherited blood fibrinogen disorder in which the blood does not clot normally due to the lack of fibrinogen, a blood protein necessary for coagulation. This disorder is autosomal recessive, meaning that two unaffected parents can have a child with the disorder. The lack of fibrinogen expresses itself with excessive and, at times, uncontrollable bleeding.
Signs and symptoms
As this is a disorder that is present in an individual from birth, there are no warning signs to look for. The first symptom usually seen is hemorrhage from the umbilical cord that is difficult to stop.
Other symptoms include:
Nasal and oral mucosa bleeds
Gastrointestinal bleeding
Excessive/spontaneous bleeding or bruising from minor injury
Prolonged menstruation in women
Spontaneous abortion during pregnancy
CNS hemorrhaging
Spontaneous bleeding of the mouth, nose, and gastrointestinal tract are common. Since blood clots can not be formed, minor injuries tend to lead to excessive bleeding or bruising. The biggest concern for individuals with afibrinogenemia is CNS hemorrhage, bleeding in the brain, which can be fatal.
Many of these symptoms are chronic, and will continue to occur for the entirety of the affected individual's life.
Causes
A missense or nonsense mutation to the genes that code for the fibrinogen protein are affected. Usually the mutation leads to an early stop in the production of the protein. Due to the problem being genetically based, there is no way to prevent the disease. Individuals can get genetic testing done to see if they are a carrier of the trait, and if so may choose to complete genetic counseling to better understand the disorder and help manage family planning. Parents can choose to do prenatal genetic testing for the disorder to determine if their child will have the disease. The only risk factor is if both parents of a child carry the recessive allele linked to the disorder.
Mechanism
Individuals with th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponceau%206R | Ponceau 6R, or Crystal ponceau 6R, Crystal scarlet, Brilliant crystal scarlet 6R, Acid Red 44, or C.I. 16250, is a red azo dye. It is soluble in water and slightly soluble in ethanol. It was used as a food dye, formerly having E number E126. It is also used in histology, for staining fibrin with the MSB Trichrome stain. It usually comes as disodium salt.
Amaranth is a closely related azo dye, also usable in trichrome staining. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefly%20%28key%20exchange%20protocol%29 | Firefly is a U.S. National Security Agency public-key key exchange protocol, used in EKMS, the STU-III secure telephone, and several other U.S. cryptographic systems. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precompiled%20header | In computer programming, a precompiled header (PCH) is a (C or C++) header file that is compiled into an intermediate form that is faster to process for the compiler. Usage of precompiled headers may significantly reduce compilation time, especially when applied to large header files, header files that include many other header files, or header files that are included in many translation units.
Rationale
In the C and C++ programming languages, a header file is a file whose text may be automatically included in another source file by the C preprocessor by the use of a preprocessor directive in the source file.
Header files can sometimes contain very large amounts of source code (for instance, the header files windows.h and Cocoa/Cocoa.h on Microsoft Windows and OS X, respectively). This is especially true with the advent of large "header" libraries that make extensive use of templates, like the Eigen math library and Boost C++ libraries. They are written almost entirely as header files that the user #includes, rather than being linked at runtime. Thus, each time the user compiles their program, the user is essentially recompiling numerous header libraries as well. (These would be precompiled into shared objects or dynamic link libraries in non "header" libraries.)
To reduce compilation times, some compilers allow header files to be compiled into a form that is faster for the compiler to process. This intermediate form is known as a precompiled header, and is commonly held in a file named with the extension .pch or similar, such as .gch under the GNU Compiler Collection.
Usage
For example, given a C++ file source.cpp that includes header.hpp:
//header.hpp
...
//source.cpp
#include "header.hpp"
...
When compiling source.cpp for the first time with the precompiled header feature turned on, the compiler will generate a precompiled header, header.pch. The next time, if the timestamp of this header did not change, the compiler can skip the compilation phase relat |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%202G | Red 2G is a synthetic red azo dye. It is soluble in water and slightly soluble in glycerol. It usually comes as a disodium salt of 8-acetamido-1-hydroxy-2-phenylazonaphthalene-3,6 disulfonate.
Preparation
Red 2G is produced by azo coupling of Acetyl-H acid and diazonium derivative of Aniline under basic conditions:
Uses
Food dye
In the European Union, Red 2G was used as a food dye (E number E128). However, it was only permitted for use in breakfast sausages with a minimum cereal content of 6% and burger meat with a minimum vegetable and/or cereal content of 4%.
Following safety concerns raised by EFSA in its opinion of 5 July 2007, the European Commission has prepared a draft Regulation to suspend use of E128 as a food colouring. This proposed course of action was unanimously approved by European Union Member States at a meeting of the Standing Committee of the Food Chain and Animal Health (Section Toxicological Safety of the Food Chain) on 20 July 2007. and Commission Regulation (EC) No 884/2007 on emergency measures suspending the use of E 128 Red 2G as food colour was published in the Official Journal of the European Union on 27 July 2007.
Red 2G is also banned in Australia, Canada, Japan, Norway, and Malaysia. It was banned in Israel in July 2007 .
It is relatively insensitive to the bleaching effect of sulfur dioxide (E220) and sodium metabisulfite (E223). In the intestines, Red 2G can be converted to the toxic compound aniline, so there are concerns Red 2G may ultimately interfere with blood haemoglobin, as well as cause cancer.
Inks
It is also used as a dye for coatings, inks, paper, crepe paper, and fine tissue.
Histology
Red 2G can be also used for staining in histology, though rarely, e.g. as a component of Masson's trichrome.
Potential health risks
In July 2007, the EFSA established that E128 is potentially carcinogenic because it forms aniline in the body when consumed. The pressure group, The Food Commission, said there had been concer |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20S | Green S is a green synthetic coal tar triarylmethane dye with the molecular formula C27H25N2O7S2Na.
As a food dye, it has E number E142. It can be used in mint sauce, desserts, gravy granules, sweets, ice creams, and tinned peas. Green S is prohibited as a food additive in Canada, United States, Japan, and Norway. It is approved for use as a food additive in the EU and Australia and New Zealand.
Green S is a vital dye, meaning it can be used to stain living cells. It is used in ophthalmology, along with fluorescein and rose bengal, to diagnose various disorders of the eye's surface, dry eyes for example. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body%20donation | Body donation, anatomical donation, or body bequest is the donation of a whole body after death for research and education. There is usually no cost to donate a body to science; donation programs will often provide a stipend and/or cover the cost of cremation or burial once a donated cadaver has served its purpose and is returned to the family for interment.
For years, only medical schools accepted bodies for donation, but starting in the early 2000 private programs (either for- or non-profits) also accept donors. Depending on the program's need for body donation, some programs accept donors with different specifications.
Any person wishing to donate their body may do so through a willed body program. The donor may be required, but not always, to make prior arrangements with the local medical school, university, or body donation program before death. Individuals may request a consent form, and will be supplied information about policies and procedures that will take place after the potential donor is deceased.
The practice is still relatively rare, and in attempts to increase these donations, many countries have instituted programs and regulations surrounding the donation of cadavers or body parts. For example, in some states within the United States and for academic-based programs, a person must make the decision to donate their remains themselves prior to death; the decision cannot be made by a power of attorney. If a person decides not to donate their whole body, or they are unable to, there are other forms of donation via which one can contribute their body to science after death, such as organ donation and tissue donation.
Motives for donors
Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity and Sikhism all support the idea of body donation and/or organ donation for the betterment of the world.
The decision to become a body donor is influenced by factors such as: social awareness, cultural attitudes and perceptions of body donation, cultural attitudes and perception |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunsite | SunSITE (Sun Software, Information & Technology Exchange) is a network of Internet servers providing archives of information, software and other publicly available resources. The project, started in the early 1990s, is run by a number of universities worldwide and was initially co-sponsored by Sun Microsystems.
The more notable SunSITEs include:
SunSITE Canada, operated by University of British Columbia = Found Without Content - 2022.04.28
SunSITE Central Europe, operated by RWTH Aachen, Germany
Sun SITE Central Europe Workshop Proceedings (CEUR-WS.org) Free Open-Access
SunSITE Poland, operated by ICM, University of Warsaw
Some former SunSITEs:
SunSITE Chile
SunSITE Czech Republic, operated by School of Computer Science, Charles University, Prague = Server Not Found - 2022.04.28
SunSITE Denmark, now running as dotsrc.org Open Source Hosting
SunSITE Mexico = Blank Page - 2022.04.28
SunSITE North Carolina, operated by University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, now running as Ibiblio
SunSITE RedIris (Spain), operated by Spanish National Research Network = Server Not Found - 2022.04.28
SunSITE Singapore, operated by National University of Singapore = Blank Page - 2022.04.28
SunSITE Switzerland, operated by SWITCH Information Technology Services, now running as SWITCHmirror
SunSITE Tennessee operated by University of Tennessee, Knoxville = Server Not Found - 2022.04.28
SunSITE Thailand operated by Assumption University, Bangkok = Server Not Found - 2022.04.28
University of Alberta SunSITE, now running as the University of Alberta Digital Object Repository (UADORe)
No longer in operation:
SunSITE Austria , operated by University of Vienna
SunSITE Argentina, operated by Universidad de Buenos Aires.
Berkeley Digital Library SunSITE, University of California, Berkeley Libraries
SunSITE Hungary, run by Institute of Mathematics, University of Debrecen
SunSITE Indonesia, operated by Faculty of Computer Science, University of Indonesia, Jakarta
SunSIT |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorandom%20generator%20theorem | In computational complexity theory and cryptography, the existence of pseudorandom generators is related to the existence of one-way functions through a number of theorems, collectively referred to as the pseudorandom generator theorem.
Introduction
Pseudorandomness
A distribution is considered pseudorandom if no efficient computation can distinguish it from the true uniform distribution by a non-negligible advantage. Formally, a family of distributions Dn is pseudorandom if for any polynomial size circuit C, and any ε inversely polynomial in n
|Probx∈U [C(x)=1] − Probx∈D [C(x)=1] | ≤ ε.
Pseudorandom generators
A function Gl: {0,1}l → {0,1}m, where l < m is a pseudorandom generator if:
Gl can be computed in time polynomial in l
Gl(x) is pseudorandom, when x is uniformly random.
One additional pseudorandom bit implies polynomially more pseudorandom bits
It can be shown that if there is a pseudorandom generator Gl: {0,1}l → {0,1}l+1, i.e. a generator that adds only one pseudorandom bit, then for any m = poly(l), there is a pseudorandom generator G'l: {0,1}l → {0,1}m.
The idea of the proof is as follows: first s bits from uniform distribution Ul are picked and used as the seed to the first instance of Gl, which is known to be a pseudorandom generator. Next, the output of the first instance of Gl is divided into two parts: first l bits are fed into the second instance of Gl as a seed, while the last bit becomes the first bit of the output. Repeating this process for m times yields an output of m pseudorandom bits.
It can be shown that such G'l, that consists of m instances of Gl, is indeed a pseudorandom generator by using a hybrid approach and proof by contradiction as follows:
Consider m+1 intermediate distributions Hi: 0 ≤ i ≤ m, where first i bits are chosen from the uniform distribution, and last m − i bits are chosen from the output of G'l. Thus, H0 is the full output of G'l and Hm is a true uniform distribution Um. Therefore, distributions Hi and H |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brilliant%20Black%20BN | Brilliant Black BN, Brilliant Black PN, Brilliant Black A, Black PN, Food Black 1, Naphthol Black, C.I. Food Black 1, or C.I. 28440, is a synthetic black diazo dye. It is soluble in water. It usually comes as tetrasodium salt. It has the appearance of solid, fine powder or granules. Calcium and potassium salts are allowed as well.
When used as a food dye, its E number is E151. It is used in food decorations and coatings, desserts, sweets, ice cream, mustard, red fruit jams, soft drinks, flavored milk drinks, fish paste, lumpfish caviar and other foods.
E151 has been banned in the United States, Japan. It is approved in the European Union. It was banned in Norway until 2001 when it was unbanned due to trade relationships with other countries.
It is used for staining animal by-products in category 2. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%207984 | Black 7984, Food Black 2, or C.I. 27755, is a brown-to-black synthetic diazo dye. It is often used as the tetrasodium salt.
When used as a food dye, it has E number E152. Its use in food has not been permitted in the United States and in the European Union since 1984. It is also not permitted in Australia and Japan.
Black 7984 is also used in cosmetics.
See also
Carbon black |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithol%20Rubine%20BK | Lithol Rubine BK is a reddish synthetic azo dye. It has the appearance of a red powder and is magenta when printed. It is slightly soluble in hot water, insoluble in cold water, and insoluble in ethanol. When dissolved in dimethylformamide, its absorption maximum lies at about 442 nm. It is usually supplied as a calcium salt. It is prepared by azo coupling with 3-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid.
It is used to dye plastics, paints, printing inks, and for textile printing. It is normally used as a standard magenta in the three and four color printing processes.
When used as a food dye, it has E number E180. It is used to color cheese rind, and it is a component in some lip balms. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlebox | A middlebox is a computer networking device that transforms, inspects, filters, and manipulates traffic for purposes other than packet forwarding. Examples of middleboxes include firewalls, network address translators (NATs), load balancers, and deep packet inspection (DPI) devices.
UCLA computer science professor Lixia Zhang coined the term middlebox in 1999.
Usage
Middleboxes are widely deployed across both private and public networks. Dedicated middlebox hardware is widely deployed in enterprise networks to improve network security and performance, however, even home network routers often have integrated firewall, NAT, or other middlebox functionality. One 2017 study counting more than 1,000 deployments in autonomous systems, in both directions of traffic flows, and across a wide range networks, including mobile operators and data center networks.
Examples
The following are examples of commonly deployed middleboxes:
Firewalls filter traffic based on a set of predefined security rules defined by a network administrator. IP firewalls reject packets "based purely on fields in the IP and transport headers (e.g., disallow incoming traffic to certain port numbers, disallow any traffic to certain subnets etc.)" Other types of firewalls may use more complex rulesets, including those that inspect traffic at the session or application layer.
Intrusion detection systems (IDSs) monitor traffic and collect data for offline analysis for security anomalies. Unlike firewalls, IDSs do not filter packets in real time, as they are capable of more complex inspection and must decide whether to accept or reject each packet as it arrives.
Network address translators (NATs) replace the source and/or destination IP addresses of packets that traverse them. Typically, NATs are deployed to allow multiple end hosts to share a single IP address: hosts "behind" the NAT are assigned a private IP address and their packets destined to the public Internet traverse a NAT, which replaces th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems%20ecology | Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field of ecology, a subset of Earth system science, that takes a holistic approach to the study of ecological systems, especially ecosystems. Systems ecology can be seen as an application of general systems theory to ecology. Central to the systems ecology approach is the idea that an ecosystem is a complex system exhibiting emergent properties. Systems ecology focuses on interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems, and is especially concerned with the way the functioning of ecosystems can be influenced by human interventions. It uses and extends concepts from thermodynamics and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems.
Overview
Systems ecology seeks a holistic view of the interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems. Systems ecologists realise that the function of any ecosystem can be influenced by human economics in fundamental ways. They have therefore taken an additional transdisciplinary step by including economics in the consideration of ecological-economic systems. In the words of R.L. Kitching:
Systems ecology can be defined as the approach to the study of ecology of organisms using the techniques and philosophy of systems analysis: that is, the methods and tools developed, largely in engineering, for studying, characterizing and making predictions about complex entities, that is, systems..
In any study of an ecological system, an essential early procedure is to draw a diagram of the system of interest ... diagrams indicate the system's boundaries by a solid line. Within these boundaries, series of components are isolated which have been chosen to represent that portion of the world in which the systems analyst is interested ... If there are no connections across the systems' boundaries with the surrounding systems environments, the systems are described as closed. Ecological work, however, deals almost exclusively w |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced%20Programmable%20Interrupt%20Controller | In computing, Intel's Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller (APIC) is a family of interrupt controllers. As its name suggests, the APIC is more advanced than Intel's 8259 Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC), particularly enabling the construction of multiprocessor systems. It is one of several architectural designs intended to solve interrupt routing efficiency issues in multiprocessor computer systems.
The APIC is a split architecture design, with a local component (LAPIC) usually integrated into the processor itself, and an optional I/O APIC on a system bus. The first APIC was the 82489DX it was a discrete chip that functioned both as local and I/O APIC. The 82489DX enabled construction of symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) systems with the Intel 486 and early Pentium processors; for example, the reference two-way 486 SMP system used three 82489DX chips, two as local APICs and one as I/O APIC. Starting with the P54C processor, the local APIC functionality was integrated into the Intel processors' silicon. The first dedicated I/O APIC was the Intel 82093AA, which was intended for PIIX3-based systems.
Overview
There are two components in the Intel APIC system, the local APIC (LAPIC) and the I/O APIC. There is one LAPIC in each CPU in the system. In the very first implementation (82489DX), the LAPIC was a discrete circuit, as opposed to its later implementation in Intel processors' silicon. There is typically one I/O APIC for each peripheral bus in the system. In original system designs, LAPICs and I/O APICs were connected by a dedicated APIC bus. Newer systems use the system bus for communication between all APIC components.
Each APIC, whether a discrete chip or integrated in a CPU, has a version register containing a four-bit version number for its specific APIC implementation. For example, the 82489DX has an APIC version number of 0, while version 1 was assigned to the first generation of local APICs integrated in the Pentium 90 and 100 processors.
In s |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE%20854-1987 | The IEEE Standard for Radix-Independent Floating-Point Arithmetic (IEEE 854), was the first Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) international standard for floating-point arithmetic with radices other than 2, including radix 10. IEEE 854 did not specify any data formats, whereas IEEE 754-1985 did specify formats for binary (radix 2) floating point. IEEE 754-1985 and IEEE 854-1987 were both superseded in 2008 by IEEE 754-2008, which specifies floating-point arithmetic for both radix 2 (binary) and radix 10 (decimal), and specifies two alternative formats for radix 10 floating-point values, and even more so with IEEE 754-2019. IEEE 754-2008 also had many other updates to the IEEE floating-point standardisation.
IEEE 854 arithmetic was first commercially implemented in the HP-71B handheld computer, which used decimal floating point with 12 digits of significand, and an exponent range of ±499, with a 15 digit significand used for intermediate results. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam%20Fisher%20%28Splinter%20Cell%29 | Sam Fisher is a fictional character and the protagonist of the Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell series of video games developed by Ubisoft as well as a series of tie-in novels. He was created by the writer JT Petty and designed by artist Martin Caya.
Fisher was originally voiced by veteran actor Michael Ironside in the first five installments of the series. In 2013, Eric Johnson provided the voice and motion capture for the character in Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Blacklist. Ironside later returned to the role in 2018, participating in a crossover downloadable content for Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon: Wildlands and again in 2020 for Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon: Breakpoint. He was also added as a playable character in Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege, voiced by Jeff Teravainen, and as a supporting character in Captain Laserhawk: A Blood Dragon Remix, voiced by Nigel Barber.
Conception and design
Sam is 178 cm (5 ft 10 in) tall, weighs 77 kg (170 pounds).
Appearances
Sam Fisher (LCDR, USN-Ret.) is a former employee of Third Echelon, a top-secret black bag operation sub-branch within the National Security Agency (NSA) and a former member of its subsequent "Splinter Cell" program. Sam is currently the commander/head field operative of Fourth Echelon, a newly created covert special operations/counter-terrorism group that reports only to the President of the United States.
Samuel Leo Fisher was born on August 8, 1957, in the Baltimore suburb of Towson, Maryland. While not much is known of his childhood, it is known that Sam was raised by his paternal grandmother and attended a military boarding school after the death of his parents when he was a child until being accepted into the United States Naval Academy, where he graduated with a bachelor's degree in Political Science and was commissioned as an ensign in the U.S. Navy. Soon after, his personnel file was flagged for recruitment by the Navy SEALs, which he joined after passing their grueling selection process and training progra |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitemark | The Kitemark is a UK product and service quality trade mark which is owned and operated by the British Standards Institution (BSI Group).
According to BSI, Kitemark certification confirms that a product or service's claim has been independently and repeatedly tested by experts, meaning that purchasers can have trust and confidence in products and services that are BSI Kitemark certified.
The Kitemark is most frequently used to identify products where safety is paramount, such as crash helmets, smoke alarms and flood defences. In recent years, the Kitemark has also been applied to a range of services, such as electrical installations; inclusive service provision; car servicing and accident repair; and window installations. The term kite mark is sometimes used colloquially as a level of quality that can be used as a standard against which something of a similar type can be measured or judged, i.e. as a benchmark.
Common household or consumer products that are often Kitemark certified include EV chargers; domestic furniture (such as sofas and mattresses); IoT/ smart connected products such as doorbells and security cameras. A full list can be seen on BSI's Kitemark product testing webpage.
History
The Kitemark was originally conceived in 1903 as a symbol to identify products manufactured to meet British Standards' specifications. "Kitemark" came from the kite shape of the graphic device which was drawn up – an uppercase B (for British) on its back, over an S (for standard), enclosed by a V (for verification).
The Kitemark was subsequently registered as a trademark on 12 June 1903 and as such is among the oldest product quality marks in the world still in regular use.
The Kitemark was initially used as a trade mark on tramway rails in 1903 and was instrumental in reducing the number of specifications for rails from 75 to 5. The first full Kitemark scheme – equivalent to today’s Kitemark – came into being in 1926, when the General Electric Company was awarded a Ki |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%20quality | Energy quality is a measure of the ease with which a form of energy can be converted to useful work or to another form of energy: i.e. its content of thermodynamic free energy. A high quality form of energy has a high content of thermodynamic free energy, and therefore a high proportion of it can be converted to work; whereas with low quality forms of energy, only a small proportion can be converted to work, and the remainder is dissipated as heat. The concept of energy quality is also used in ecology, where it is used to track the flow of energy between different trophic levels in a food chain and in thermoeconomics, where it is used as a measure of economic output per unit of energy. Methods of evaluating energy quality often involve developing a ranking of energy qualities in hierarchical order.
Examples: Industrialization, Biology
The consideration of energy quality was a fundamental driver of industrialization from the 18th through 20th centuries. Consider for example the industrialization of New England in the 18th century. This refers to the construction of textile mills containing power looms for weaving cloth. The simplest, most economical and straightforward source of energy was provided by water wheels, extracting energy from a millpond behind a dam on a local creek. If another nearby landowner also decided to build a mill on the same creek, the construction of their dam would lower the overall hydraulic head to power the existing waterwheel, thus hurting power generation and efficiency. This eventually became an issue endemic to the entire region, reducing the overall profitability of older mills as newer ones were built. The search for higher quality energy was a major impetus throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. For example, burning coal to make steam to generate mechanical energy would not have been imaginable in the 18th century; by the end of the 19th century, the use of water wheels was long outmoded. Similarly, the quality of energy from elec |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Cambridge%20mathematicians | A list of mathematicians, past and present, with associations with the University of Cambridge.
A - F
Rediet Abebe, graduate student at Pembroke College, Cambridge
Frank Adams, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry 1970-1989
John Couch Adams, fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge 1843–1852; fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge 1853–1892; Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry 1859-1891
Michael Atiyah, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge 1954–1957; fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge 1958–1961; Master of Trinity College, Cambridge 1990-1997
Charles Babbage, Lucasian Professor of Mathematics 1828-1839
Christopher Budd, Gresham Professor of Geometry, student at St John's College 1979-1983
Alan Baker, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge 1964-
H. F. Baker, fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge
Dennis Barden, fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge
Isaac Barrow, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge 1649–1655, Lucasian Professor of Mathematics
Bryan John Birch, undergraduate and research student at Trinity College, Cambridge, fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge
Béla Bollobás, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge
Richard Ewen Borcherds
Henry Briggs, Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge
Dame Mary Cartwright, fellow and Mistress of Girton College, Cambridge
J. W. S. Cassels, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge 1949–1984; Sadleirian Professor of Pure Mathematics 1967-1986
Arthur Cayley, student at Trinity College, Cambridge
D. G. Champernowne
Sydney Chapman, student at and later lecturer and fellow (1914–1919) of Trinity College, Cambridge
William Kingdon Clifford
John Coates, fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge 1975–1977; Sadleirian Professor of Pure Mathematics 1986–2012
John Horton Conway, fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge 1964–1970; fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge 1970-1986
Roger Cotes
Percy John Daniell
Philip Dawid
Harold Davenport
James Davenport, undergraduate and research stud |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculty%20of%20Mathematics%2C%20University%20of%20Cambridge | The Faculty of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge comprises the Department of Pure Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics (DPMMS) and the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics (DAMTP). It is housed in the Centre for Mathematical Sciences site in West Cambridge, alongside the Isaac Newton Institute. Many distinguished mathematicians have been members of the faculty.
Some current members
DPMMS
Béla Bollobás
John Coates
Thomas Forster
Timothy Gowers
Peter Johnstone
Imre Leader
Gabriel Paternain
Statistical Laboratory
John Aston
Geoffrey Grimmett
Frank Kelly
Ioannis Kontoyiannis
Richard Nickl
James Norris
Richard Samworth
David Spiegelhalter
Richard Weber
DAMTP
Gary Gibbons
Julia Gog, professor of mathematical biology
Raymond E. Goldstein
Rich Kerswell
Paul Linden
Michael Green
Peter Haynes, fluid dynamicist
John Hinch, fluid dynamicist, retired 2014
Richard Jozsa
Hugh Osborn
John Papaloizou
Malcolm Perry
David Tong, theoretical physicist
Paul Townsend
Grae Worster, editor for the Journal of Fluid Mechanics
Mihaela van der Schaar
Carola-Bibiane Schönlieb
Pure Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics
The Department of Pure Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics (DPMMS) was created in 1964 under the headship of Sir William Hodge. It was housed in a converted warehouse at 16 Mill Lane, adjacent to its sister department DAMTP, until its move around 2000 to the present Centre for Mathematical Sciences where it occupies Pavilions C, D, and E.
Heads of department
1964–1969 W. V. D. Hodge
1969–1984 J. W. S. Cassels
1984–1991 D. J. H. Garling
1991–1997 John H. Coates
1997–2002 W. B. R. Lickorish
2002–2007 Geoffrey Grimmett
2007–2014 Martin Hyland
2014–2018 Gabriel Paternain
2018–2023 James Norris
2023- Ivan Smith
Statistical Laboratory
The Statistical Laboratory is a Sub-Department of DPMMS. It was created in 1947 with accommodation in a "temporary hut", and was established on 21 March 1953 within the Faculty of Mathematics. It moved in 19 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerolidol | Nerolidol, also known as peruviol and penetrol , is a naturally occurring sesquiterpene alcohol. A colorless liquid, it is found in the essential oils of many types of plants and flowers. There are four isomers of nerolidol', which differ in the geometry about the central double bond and configuration of the hydroxyl-bearing carbon, but most applications use such a mixture. The aroma of nerolidol is woody and reminiscent of fresh bark. It is used as a flavoring agent and in perfumery as well as in non-cosmetic products such as detergents and cleansers. Nerolidyl derivatives include nerolidyl diphosphate and the fragrance nerolidyl acetate.
Synthesis and occurrence
Nerolidol is produced commercially from geranylacetone by the addition of vinyl Grignard reagent. It is used as a source of farnesol, vitamin E, and vitamin K1.
Significant sources of natural nerolidol is Cabreuva oil and the oil of Dalbergia parviflora. It is also present in neroli, ginger, jasmine, lavender, tea tree, Cannabis sativa, and lemon grass, and is a dominant scent compound in Brassavola nodosa.
Further reading
See also
Linalool
Farnesol |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium%20Medical%20Research%20Centre | The Uranium Medical Research Centre (UMRC) is an independent non-profit organization founded in 1997 to provide objective and expert scientific and medical research into the effects of uranium, transuranium elements, and radionuclides produced by the process of radioactive decay and fission. UMRC is also a registered charity in the United States and Canada. The founder of UMRC, Asaf Durakovic, claimed on CNN that: "Inhalation of uranium dust is harmful.... Even in the amount of one atom".
Vision
UMRC states at its website that its vision for the world, "is a full awareness of the risks of using nuclear products and by-products AND to contain the still reversible alterations of the earth's biosphere since the advent of nuclear events and the resulting contamination".
They go on to state further that: "There needs to be an appreciation of the enormous effects and damage of uranium on the environment and human health. Governments, scientific communities, and the general public need to understand the many forms of contamination and specific effects. Continued abuses of uranium and radioisotopes will only lead to the steady degradation and eventual end of meaningful life on earth." www.UMRC.net |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scala%20%28programming%20language%29 | Scala ( ) is a strong statically typed high-level general-purpose programming language that is supporting both object-oriented programming and functional programming. Designed to be concise, many of Scala's design decisions are aimed to address criticisms of Java.
Scala source code can be compiled to Java bytecode and run on a Java virtual machine (JVM). Scala can also be compiled to JavaScript to run in a browser, or directly to a native executable. On the JVM Scala provides language interoperability with Java so that libraries written in either language may be referenced directly in Scala or Java code. Like Java, Scala is object-oriented, and uses a syntax termed curly-brace which is similar to the language C. Since Scala 3, there is also an option to use the off-side rule (indenting) to structure blocks, and its use is advised. Martin Odersky has said that this turned out to be the most productive change introduced in Scala 3.
Unlike Java, Scala has many features of functional programming languages (like Scheme, Standard ML, and Haskell), including currying, immutability, lazy evaluation, and pattern matching. It also has an advanced type system supporting algebraic data types, covariance and contravariance, higher-order types (but not higher-rank types), anonymous types, operator overloading, optional parameters, named parameters, raw strings, and an experimental exception-only version of algebraic effects that can be seen as a more powerful version of Java's checked exceptions.
The name Scala is a portmanteau of scalable and language, signifying that it is designed to grow with the demands of its users.
History
The design of Scala started in 2001 at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) (in Lausanne, Switzerland) by Martin Odersky. It followed on from work on Funnel, a programming language combining ideas from functional programming and Petri nets. Odersky formerly worked on Generic Java, and javac, Sun's Java compiler.
After an internal rel |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irma%20board | Irma board, originally spelled IRMA board, refers to a brand of coaxial interface cards for PCs and Macintosh computers used to enable 3270 emulator programs to connect to IBM mainframe computers. IRMA boards were used to connect PCs and Macs to IBM 3274 terminal controllers.
IRMA boards supported both Control Unit Terminal (CUT) and Distributed Function Terminal (DFT) mode, although the later required additional software–DFT mode supported multiple simultaneous mainframe sessions.
IRMA boards were invented by Technical Analysis Corp. (TAC), acquired by Digital Communications Associates, Inc. (DCA) who manufactured and marketed the Irma products from 1982 on. DCA of Alpharetta, Georgia, was acquired in 1994 by Attachmate of Bellevue, Washington.
A board with all the capabilities of that which would eventually be called IRMA was originally developed in-house by Amdahl Corp in 1977, but it was not actively marketed by Amdahl.
See also
IBM 3270 PC
Avatar Technologies, Inc. (née 3R Computers), makers of the Mac Mainframe line of products allowing IBM 3270 emulation on the Macintosh SE and II
Terminal emulator |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstack | In the C programming language, Obstack is a memory-management GNU extension to the C standard library. An "obstack" is a "stack" of "objects" (data items) which is dynamically managed. It implements a region-based memory management scheme.
Obstack code typically provides C macros which take care of memory allocation and management for the user. Basically, obstacks are used as a form of memory management which can be more efficient and less difficult to implement than malloc/free in several situations. For example, say one needs to set up a stack for handling data items whose number grows for a while and then reach a final form; such a stack could be defined in obstack.h.
Freeing allocated objects
Once the object is allocated a new chunk of memory in obstack it must be freed after its use.
Functions and macros
The interfaces for using obstacks may be defined either as functions or as macros, depending on the compiler. The obstack facility works with all C compilers.
In an old-fashioned non-ISO C compiler, all the obstack functions are actually defined only as macros. You can call these macros like functions, but you cannot use them in any other way. For example, you cannot take their address.
Calling the macros requires a special precaution: namely, the first operand (the obstack pointer) should not contain any side effects, because it may be computed more than once.
In ISO C, each obstack function has both a macro definition and a function definition. The function definition is used if the macro substitution fails. An ordinary call uses the macro definition by default, but you can request the function definition instead by writing the function name in parentheses, as shown here:
char *x;
void *(*funcp)();
x = obstack_alloc(obptr, size); /* Use the macro. */
x = (obstack_alloc) (obptr, size); /* Call the function. */
funcp = obstack_alloc; /* Take the address of the function. */
This is the same situation that exists in ISO C for the standard library functio |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontal%20sinus | The frontal sinuses are one of the four pairs of paranasal sinuses that are situated behind the brow ridges. Sinuses are mucosa-lined airspaces within the bones of the face and skull. Each opens into the anterior part of the corresponding middle nasal meatus of the nose through the frontonasal duct which traverses the anterior part of the labyrinth of the ethmoid. These structures then open into the semilunar hiatus in the middle meatus.
Structure
Each frontal sinus is situated between the external and internal plates of the frontal bone. Their average measurements are as follows: height 28 mm, breadth 24 mm, depth 20 mm, creating a space of 6-7 ml.
Each frontal sinus extends into the squamous part of the frontal bone superiorly, and into the orbital part of frontal bone posteriorly to come to occupy the medial part of the roof of the orbit.
Each sinus drains through an opening in its inferomedial part into the frontonasal duct.
Vasculature
The mucous membrane of the frontal sinus receives arterial supply from the supraorbital artery, and anterior ethmoidal artery.
Venous drainage is provided by the superior ophthalmic vein.
Lymph is drained into the submandibular lymph nodes.
Innervation
The mucous membrane of the sinus is innervated by the supraorbital nerve, which contains the postganglionic parasympathetic nerve fibers for mucous secretion from the ophthalmic nerve.
Anatomical variation
Frontal sinuses are rarely symmetrical as the septum between them frequently deviates to either side of the midline. The two sinuses also vary in extent compared to one another.
Their size of the frontal sinuses is highly variable. Rarely, one or both sinuses is hypoplastic or even absent.
Sexual dimorphism
Prominence of frontal sinuses is sexual dimorphic; they are more prominent in males, whereas less so in children and in females, resulting in an oblique forehead in males that is a male sexual characteristic.
Development
The frontal sinuses are the only sinuses |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papanicolaou%20stain | Papanicolaou stain (also Papanicolaou's stain and Pap stain) is a multichromatic (multicolored) cytological staining technique developed by George Papanicolaou in 1942. The Papanicolaou stain is one of the most widely used stains in cytology, where it is used to aid pathologists in making a diagnosis. Although most notable for its use in the detection of cervical cancer in the Pap test or Pap smear, it is also used to stain non-gynecological specimen preparations from a variety of bodily secretions and from small needle biopsies of organs and tissues. Papanicolaou published three formulations of this stain in 1942, 1954, and 1960.
Usage
Pap staining is used to differentiate cells in smear preparations (in which samples are spread or smeared onto a glass microscope slide) from various bodily secretions and needle biopsies; the specimens may include gynecological smears (Pap smears), sputum, brushings, washings, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, abdominal fluid, pleural fluid, synovial fluid, seminal fluid, fine needle aspirations, tumor touch samples, or other materials containing loose cells.
The pap stain is not fully standardized and comes in several formulations, differing in the exact dyes used, their ratios, and timing of the process. Pap staining is usually associated with cytopathology in which loose cells are examined, but the stain has also been modified and used on tissue slices.
Pap test
Pap staining is used in the Pap smear (or Pap test) and is a reliable technique in cervical cancer screening in gynecology.
Generalized staining method
The classic form of the Papanicolaou stain involves five stains in three solutions.
The first staining solution contains haematoxylin which stains cell nuclei. Papanicolaou used Harris's hematoxylin in all three formulations of the stain he published.
The second staining solution (designated OG-6), contains Orange G in 95% ethyl alcohol with a small amount of phosphotungstic acid. In the OG-6, the OG signifies Orange |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Tebby | Tony Tebby is a computer programmer and the designer of Qdos, the computer operating system used in the Sinclair QL personal computer, while working as an engineer at Sinclair Research in the early 1980s.
He left Sinclair Research in 1984 in protest at the premature launch of the QL, and formed QJUMP Ltd., a software house specializing in system software and utilities for the QL, based in Rampton, Cambridgeshire, England.
Prior to this, he worked at the Philips Research Laboratories in Redhill, Surrey where he worked on realtime image processing, using electronic hardware rather than software. At that time, software would have been either a batch program on the PRL mainframe computer or, within the departmental laboratory, the Commodore PET.
Among the software developed by QJUMP was SuperToolkit II, a collection of extensions to Qdos and SuperBASIC; a Qdos floppy disk driver which became the de facto standard for the various third-party floppy disk interfaces sold for the QL; and the QJUMP Pointer Environment, which extended the primitive display windowing facility of Qdos into something approaching a full GUI. Tebby also received a commission to write a Qdos-like operating system for the Atari ST; this was called SMS2.
Tebby later moved to Le Grand-Pressigny, France, but continued his involvement in the QL user community. In the early 1990s, he developed SMSQ, a new Qdos-compatible OS, based on SMS2, for the Miracle Systems QXL, a QL emulator card for PCs. An enhanced version of SMSQ was ported to the Atari ST and various other QL emulators, being renamed SMSQ/E. He has also worked on Stella, an embedded operating system for 68000-series and ColdFire processors. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colegio%20de%20Bi%C3%B3logos%20del%20Per%C3%BA | Colegio de Biólogos del Perú or College of Biologists of Peru is a professional association in Peru. This college accepts only graduates in biology that have opted to be licensed through a special inter-university procedure called Licenciatura. It was founded in 1972 and its creation was sanctioned by Law.
According to Peruvian law, in order to work as a professional biologist one must be registered and be a dues-paying active member of the Colegio de Biólogos del Perú. It is governed by a National Dean or President, who is elected every two years by general elections, and presided over a National Council. The National Council is constituted by 18 Regional Councils. As of 2007 it had over 7,000 registered members nationwide; who must be active dues-paying members to exercise their right to vote. Regional Councils are headed by regional deans elected ( by popular vote in their respective circumscriptions) by biologists registered in those regions.
In 2006, Peruvian Congress passed Law 28847 that regulates the work of biologists and requires them to be duly registered in the Colegio de Biólogos del Perú in order to work for government, academia or the private world.
Past National Deans are Isabel Martos, Soledad Osorio, Sandro Chavez, Magdalena Pavlich, and Damisela Coz. The present National Dean is Ernesto Bustamante elected in April 2007 to serve the term 2007 - 2009.
See also
Education in Peru |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyto-Stain | Cyto-Stain, or CytoStain, is commercially available mix of staining dyes for polychromatic staining in histology. It provides results comparable to Papanicolaou staining, but in fewer operations and in shorter time. It is used in ultrafast Papanicolaou staining.
Cyto-Stain G is a modification of Cyto-Stain, producing greener cyanophilic hues in intermediate and basal cells.
Staining |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gain%E2%80%93bandwidth%20product | The gain–bandwidth product (designated as GBWP, GBW, GBP, or GB) for an amplifier is the product of the amplifier's bandwidth and the gain at which the bandwidth is measured.
For devices such as operational amplifiers that are designed to have a simple one-pole frequency response, the gain–bandwidth product is nearly independent of the gain at which it is measured; in such devices the gain–bandwidth product will also be equal to the unity-gain bandwidth of the amplifier (the bandwidth within which the amplifier gain is at least 1).
For an amplifier in which negative feedback reduces the gain to below the open-loop gain, the gain–bandwidth product of the closed-loop amplifier will be approximately equal to that of the open-loop amplifier.
According to S. Srinivasan, "The parameter characterizing the frequency dependence of the operational amplifier gain is the finite gain–bandwidth product (GB)."
Relevance to design
This quantity is commonly specified for operational amplifiers, and allows circuit designers to determine the maximum gain that can be extracted from the device for a given frequency (or bandwidth) and vice versa.
When adding LC circuits to the input and output of an amplifier the gain rises and the bandwidth decreases, but the product is generally bounded by the gain–bandwidth product.
Examples
If the GBWP of an operational amplifier is 1 MHz, it means that the gain of the device falls to unity at 1 MHz. Hence, when the device is wired for unity gain, it will work up to 1 MHz (GBWP = gain × bandwidth, therefore if BW = 1 MHz, then gain = 1) without excessively distorting the signal. The same device when wired for a gain of 10 will work only up to 100 kHz, in accordance with the GBW product formula. Further, if the maximum frequency of operation is 1 Hz, then the maximum gain that can be extracted from the device is 1.
We can also analytically show that for frequencies GBWP is constant.
Let be a first-order transfer function given by:
We will |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%26E%20stain | Hematoxylin and eosin stain (or haematoxylin and eosin stain or hematoxylin-eosin stain; often abbreviated as H&E stain or HE stain) is one of the principal tissue stains used in histology. It is the most widely used stain in medical diagnosis and is often the gold standard. For example, when a pathologist looks at a biopsy of a suspected cancer, the histological section is likely to be stained with H&E.
H&E is the combination of two histological stains: hematoxylin and eosin. The hematoxylin stains cell nuclei a purplish blue, and eosin stains the extracellular matrix and cytoplasm pink, with other structures taking on different shades, hues, and combinations of these colors. Hence a pathologist can easily differentiate between the nuclear and cytoplasmic parts of a cell, and additionally, the overall patterns of coloration from the stain show the general layout and distribution of cells and provides a general overview of a tissue sample's structure. Thus, pattern recognition, both by expert humans themselves and by software that aids those experts (in digital pathology), provides histologic information.
This stain combination was introduced in 1877 by chemist N. Wissozky at the Kasan Imperial University in Russia.
Uses
The H&E staining procedure is the principal stain in histology in part because it can be done quickly, is not expensive, and stains tissues in such a way that a considerable amount of microscopic anatomy is revealed, and can be used to diagnose a wide range of histopathologic conditions. The results from H&E staining are not overly dependent on the chemical used to fix the tissue or slight inconsistencies in laboratory protocol, and these factors contribute to its routine use in histology.
H&E staining does not always provide enough contrast to differentiate all tissues, cellular structures, or the distribution of chemical substances, and in these cases more specific stains and methods are used.
Method of application
There are many ways to pr |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health%20technology | Health technology is defined by the World Health Organization as the "application of organized knowledge and skills in the form of devices, medicines, vaccines, procedures, and systems developed to solve a health problem and improve quality of lives". This includes pharmaceuticals, devices, procedures, and organizational systems used in the healthcare industry, as well as computer-supported information systems. In the United States, these technologies involve standardized physical objects, as well as traditional and designed social means and methods to treat or care for patients.
Development
Pre-digital Era
During a pre-digital era, patients suffered from inefficient and faulty clinical systems, processes, and conditions. Many medical errors happened in the past due to undeveloped health technologies. Some examples of these medical errors included adverse drug events and alarm fatigue. Alarm fatigue is caused when an alarm is repeatedly triggered or activated and one becomes desensitized to them. As the alarms were sometimes triggered by unimportant events in the past, nurses thought the alarm was not significant. Alarm fatigue is dangerous because it could lead to death and dangerous situations. With technological development, an intelligent program of integration and physiologic sense-making was developed and helped reduce the number of false alarms.
Also, with greater investment in health technologies, fewer medical errors happened. Outdated paper records were replaced in many healthcare organizations by electronic health records (EHR). According to studies, this change has brought a lot of changes to healthcare. Drug administration has improved, healthcare providers can now access medical information easier, provide better treatments and faster results, and save more costs.
Improvement
To help promote and expand the adoption of health information technology, Congress passed the HITECH act as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. HITEC |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-speed%20multimedia%20radio | High-speed multimedia radio (HSMM) is the implementation of high-speed wireless TCP/IP data networks over amateur radio frequency allocations using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) hardware such as 802.11 Wi-Fi access points. This is possible because the 802.11 unlicensed frequency bands partially overlap with amateur radio bands and ISM bands in many countries. Only licensed amateur radio operators may legally use amplifiers and high-gain antennas within amateur radio frequencies to increase the power and coverage of an 802.11 signal.
Basics
The idea behind this implementation is to modify commercial 802.11 equipment for use on licensed Amateur Radio frequencies. The main frequency bands being used for these networks are: 900 MHz (33 cm), 2.4 GHz (13 cm), 3.4 GHz (9 cm), and 5.8 GHz (5 cm). Since the unlicensed 802.11 or Wi-Fi frequency bands overlap with amateur frequencies, only custom firmware is needed to access these licensed frequencies.
Such networks can be used for emergency communications for disaster relief operations as well as in everyday amateur radio communications (hobby/social).
Capabilities
HSMM can support most of the traffic that the Internet currently does, including video chat, voice, instant messaging, email, the Web (HTTP), file transfer (FTP), and forums. The only differences being that with HSMM, such services are community instead of commercially implemented and it is mostly wireless. HSMM can even be connected to the Internet and used for web surfing, although because of the FCC regulations on permitted content, this is done only when directly used for ham radio activities (under Part 97). Using high gain directional antennas and amplifiers, reliable long-distance wireless links over many miles are possible and only limited by propagation and the radio horizon.
Bandwidths and Speeds
HSMM networks most-often use professional hardware with narrower channel bandwidths such as 5 or 10 MHz to help increase range. It is common for network |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double%20descent | In statistics and machine learning, double descent is the phenomenon where a statistical model with a small number of parameters and a model with an extremely large number of parameters have a small error, but a model whose number of parameters is about the same as the number of data points used to train the model will have a large error. It was discovered around 2018 when researchers were trying to reconcile the bias-variance tradeoff in classical statistics, which states that having too many parameters will yield an extremely large error, with the 2010s empirical observation of machine learning practitioners that the larger models are, the better they work. The scaling behavior of double descent has been found to follow a broken neural scaling law functional form. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIATRA | VIATRA
is an open-source model transformation framework based on the Eclipse Modeling Framework (EMF) and hosted by the Eclipse Foundation.
VIATRA supports the development of model transformations with specific focus on event-driven,
reactive transformations, i.e., rule-based scenarios where transformations occur as reactions to
certain external changes in the model.
Building upon an incremental query support for locating patterns
and changes in the model,
VIATRA offers a language (the VIATRA Query Language, VQL) to define transformations and a reactive transformation
engine to execute certain transformations upon changes in the underlying model.
Application domains
VIATRA, as an open-source framework offering, serves as a central
integration point and enabler engine in various applications, both in an industrial and in an academic context. Earlier versions of the framework have been intensively used for providing tool support for developing and verifying critical embedded systems in numerous European research projects such as DECOS, MOGENTES, INDEXYS and SecureChange.
As a major industrial application of VIATRA, it is utilized as the underlying model querying and transformation engine of the IncQuery Suite. Thus, VIATRA is a key technical component in several industrial collaborations around model-based systems engineering (MBSE), fostering innovative systems engineering practices in domains like aerospace, manufacturing, industrial automation and automotive. Furthermore, via the applications of the IncQuery Suite, VIATRA serves as the foundation for model-based endeavors of ongoing, large-scale European industrial digitalization endeavors, such as the Arrowhead Tools and the Embrace projects.
VIATRA is well integrated with Eclipse Modeling tools. However, VIATRA works outside the Eclipse environment as well, as demonstrated by the IncA project using the JetBrains MPS platform.
Functionality
VIATRA provides the following main services:
An increme |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-FEN | X-FEN (formerly FRC-FEN) is an extension of Forsyth–Edwards Notation (FEN) introduced by Reinhard Scharnagl in 2003. It was designed to be able to represent all possible positions in Fischer random chess (FRC) and Capablanca random chess (CRC). It is fully backward compatible with FEN.
X-FEN definition
X-FEN is based on traditional FEN. It differs only in the way that castling and en passant tags are used. Moreover, 10×8 positions which use princess (knight+bishop) and empress (knight+rook) compound pieces are supported.
X-FEN inside of PGN
Games are translated into Portable Game Notation (PGN) format. Each game's starting position must be stored in the PGN for FRC and CRC (but not for traditional chess). Storing the starting position is accomplished with a SetUp tag and an FEN string using the definitions for traditional chess games.
Encoding en-passant
The specification of a target square for an en passant capture differs slightly from standard FEN. FEN records the square just behind any pawn that has made a two-square push forward in the latest move. As such, whenever a pawn makes a two-square move, the en passant square is recorded. For example, in the sample game, FEN includes the square e3 as an en passant square after White makes the first move of the game 1. e4. This is somewhat misleading, as no en passant captures can be made by Black from the position.
X-FEN, on the other hand, includes only true en passant squares. That is, X-FEN records a value in the field for an en passant square only if there are one or more enemy pawns on the same rank on an adjacent file. Thus, after 1.e4, the field for the en passant square is left blank, as Black cannot make an en passant capture. However, it is possible that even if an X-FEN records an en passant square, making that capture would be illegal, because after the capture the king of the capturing player would be in check.
Encoding castling rights
"Kk" identifies the ability of g-castling (or i-castlin |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetApp%20FAS | A NetApp FAS is a computer storage product by NetApp running the ONTAP operating system; the terms ONTAP, AFF, ASA, FAS are often used as synonyms. "Filer" is also used as a synonym although this is not an official name. There are three types of FAS systems: Hybrid, All-Flash, and All SAN Array:
NetApp proprietary custom-build hardware appliances with HDD or SSD drives called hybrid Fabric-Attached Storage (or simply FAS)
NetApp proprietary custom-build hardware appliances with only SSD drives and optimized ONTAP for low latency called ALL-Flash FAS (or simply AFF)
All SAN Array build on top of AFF platform, and provide only SAN-based data protocol connectivity.
ONTAP can serve storage over a network using file-based protocols such as NFS and SMB, also block-based protocols, such as the SCSI over the Fibre Channel Protocol on a Fibre Channel network, Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE), iSCSI, and FC-NVMe transport layer. ONTAP-based systems that can serve both SAN and NAS protocols called Unified ONTAP, AFF systems with ASA identity called All-SAN.
NetApp storage systems running ONTAP implement their physical storage in large disk arrays.
While most large-storage systems are implemented with commodity computers with an operating system such as Microsoft Windows Server, VxWorks or tuned Linux, ONTAP-based hardware appliances use highly customized hardware and the proprietary Data ONTAP operating system with WAFL file system, all originally designed by NetApp founders David Hitz and James Lau specifically for storage-serving purposes. ONTAP is NetApp's internal operating system, specially optimized for storage functions at high and low levels. It boots from FreeBSD as a stand-alone kernel-space module and uses some functions of FreeBSD (command interpreter and drivers stack, for example).
All NetApp ONTAP-based hardware appliances have battery-backed non-volatile random access memory or NVDIMM, referred to as NVRAM or NVDIMM, which allows them to commit writes |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl%20maltol | Ethyl maltol is an organic compound that is a common flavourant in some confectioneries. It is related to the more common flavorant maltol by replacement of the methyl group by an ethyl group. It is a white solid with a sweet smell that can be described as caramelized sugar or as caramelized fruit.
The conjugate base derived from ethylmaltol, again like maltol, has a high affinity for iron, forming a red coordination complex. In such compounds, the heterocycle is a bidentate ligand.
Original patent: |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetWare%20Loadable%20Module | A NetWare Loadable Module (NLM) is a loadable kernel module (a binary code module) that can be loaded into Novell's NetWare operating system. NLMs can implement hardware drivers, server functions (e.g. clustering), applications (e.g. GroupWise), system libraries or utilities.
NLMs were supported beginning with the Intel 80386-based NetWare version 3.x. Prior versions of NetWare had a monolithic kernel, and significant hardware or functionality changes required re-linking the kernel from object modules.
Due to stability issues with early third-party NLMs, they never became popular for server application programming, with few exceptions like antivirus programs, backup programs and certain database products.
Functionality
Upon loading, a NLM requests resources, such as memory and process threads, from the NetWare kernel. The NetWare kernel tracks such requests, and can identify memory and other resources assigned to a specific NLM. NLMs may auto-load other NLMs upon which they themselves depend.
NLMs may register commands with the NetWare kernel, extending the command vocabulary available at the NetWare console prompt.
When properly coded, NLMs can be re-entrant, allowing multiple instances of the same code to be loaded and run.
Programming issues
Initially, Novell published a development toolkit for NLM programming including kernel API documentation and a C compiler (Watcom), but third-party support for the NLM executable function was very limited.
In early NetWare versions (prior to v4.x), all processes were executed in the kernel address space, without specific memory protection. It was therefore possible for bugs in NLMs to overwrite the kernel's or other NLM's address space and ultimately crash the server — in the mainframe-derived Novell terminology, this was known as an ABEND or ABnormal END.
Moreover, NetWare used a non-preemptive, or cooperative, multitasking model, meaning that an NLM was required to yield to the kernel regularly. An NLM executing a |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphyodont | A polyphyodont is any animal whose teeth are continually replaced. In contrast, diphyodonts are characterized by having only two successive sets of teeth.
Polyphyodonts include most toothed fishes, many reptiles such as crocodiles and geckos, and most other vertebrates, mammals being the main exception.
Growth
New, permanent teeth grow in the jaws, usually under or just behind the old tooth, from stem cells in the dental lamina. Young animals typically have a full set of teeth when they hatch; there is no tooth change in the egg. Within days, tooth replacement begins, usually in the back of the jaw continuing forward like a wave. On average a tooth is replaced every few months.
Crocodilia
Crocodilia are the only non-mammalian vertebrates with tooth sockets. Alligators grow a successional tooth (a small replacement tooth) under each mature functional tooth for replacement once a year, each tooth being replaced up to 50 times in the alligator's life. Crocodilia are researched for tooth regeneration in humans.
Evolution in mammals
Manatees, elephants and kangaroos are unusual among mammals because they are polyphyodonts, in contrast to most other mammals which replace their teeth only once in their lives (diphyodont). Although most other extant mammals are not polyphyodont, mammalian ancestors were. During the evolution of Therapsida, there was a period during which mammals were so small and short-lived that wear on the teeth yielded no significant selection pressure to constantly replace them. Instead, mammals evolved different types of teeth which formed a unit able to crack the exoskeleton of arthropods. Molars came later in their evolution (as earlier in cerapods and Diplodocus). Mammals chew (masticate) their food which requires a set of firmly attached, strong teeth and a "full" tooth row without gaps.
The manatees have no incisor or canine teeth, just a set of cheek teeth, which are not clearly differentiated into molars and premolars. These teeth are |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diphyodont | A diphyodont is any animal with two sets of teeth, initially the deciduous set and consecutively the permanent set. Most mammals are diphyodonts—as to chew their food they need a strong, durable and complete set of teeth.
Diphyodonts contrast with polyphyodonts, whose teeth are constantly replaced. Diphyodonts also differ from monophyodonts, which are animals who have only one set of teeth that do not change over a long period of growth.
In diphyodonts, the number of teeth that are replaced varies from species to species. In humans, a set of twenty deciduous teeth, or "milk teeth", are replaced by a completely new set of thirty-two adult teeth. In some cases hypodontia or hyperdontia occurs, the latter in cleidocranial dysostosis and Gardner's syndrome. In the hare the anterior incisors are not replaced but the posterior smaller incisors are replaced.
Not much is known about the developmental mechanisms regulating diphyodont replacement. The house shrew, Suncus murinus, and the Chinese miniature pig are currently being used to study the diphyodont replacement of the deciduous dentition by replacements and additional permanent teeth.
Manatees, elephants and kangaroos differ from most other mammals because they are polyphyodonts.
See also
Heterodont
Polyphyodont
Schultz's rule
Thecodont dentition
Monophyodont |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable%20interval%20timer | In computing and in embedded systems, a programmable interval timer (PIT) is a counter that generates an output signal when it reaches a programmed count. The output signal may trigger an interrupt.
Common features
PITs may be one-shot or periodic. One-shot timers will signal only once and then stop counting. Periodic timers signal every time they reach a specific value and then restart, thus producing a signal at periodic intervals. Periodic timers are typically used to invoke activities that must be performed at regular intervals.
Counters are usually programmed with fixed intervals that determine how long the counter will count before it will output a signal.
IBM PC compatible
The Intel 8253 PIT was the original timing device used on IBM PC compatibles. It used a 1.193182 MHz clock signal (one third of the color burst frequency used by NTSC, one twelfth of the system clock crystal oscillator, therefore one quarter of the 4.77 MHz CPU clock) and contains three timers. Timer 0 is used by Microsoft Windows (uniprocessor) and Linux as a system timer, timer 1 was historically used for dynamic random access memory refreshes and timer 2 for the PC speaker.
The LAPIC in newer Intel systems offers a higher-resolution (one microsecond) timer. This is used in preference to the PIT timer in Linux kernels starting with 2.6.18.
See also
High Precision Event Timer
Monostable multivibrator
NE555 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarimeter | A polarimeter is a scientific instrument used to measure the angle of rotation caused by passing polarized light through an optically active substance.
Some chemical substances are optically active, and polarized (uni-directional) light will rotate either to the left (counter-clockwise) or right (clockwise) when passed through these substances. The amount by which the light is rotated is known as the angle of rotation. The direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) and magnitude of the rotation reveals information about the sample's chiral properties such as the relative concentration of enantiomers present in the sample.
History
Polarization by reflection was discovered in 1808 by Étienne-Louis Malus (1775–1812).
Measuring principle
The ratio, the purity, and the concentration of two enantiomers can be measured via polarimetry. Enantiomers are characterized by their property to rotate the plane of linear polarized light. Therefore, those compounds are called optically active and their property is referred to as optical rotation. Light sources such as a light bulb, Tungsten Halogen, or the sun emit electromagnetic waves at the frequency of visible light. Their electric field oscillates in all possible planes relative to their direction of propagation. In contrast to that, the waves of linear-polarized light oscillate in parallel planes.
If light encounters a polarizer, only the part of the light that oscillates in the defined plane of the polarizer may pass through. That plane is called the plane of polarization. The plane of polarization is turned by optically active compounds. According to the direction in which the light is rotated, the enantiomer is referred to as dextro-rotatory or levo-rotatory.
The optical activity of enantiomers is additive. If different enantiomers exist together in one solution, their optical activity adds up. That is why racemates are optically inactive, as they nullify their clockwise and counter clockwise optical activities. The o |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast%20folding%20algorithm | In signal processing, the fast folding algorithm (Staelin, 1969) is an efficient algorithm for the detection of approximately-periodic events within time series data. It computes superpositions of the signal modulo various window sizes simultaneously.
The FFA is best known for its use in the detection of pulsars, as popularised by SETI@home and Astropulse.
It was also used by the Breakthrough Listen Initiative during their 2023 Investigation for Periodic Spectral Signals campaign.
See also
Pulsar |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear%20thinning | In rheology, shear thinning is the non-Newtonian behavior of fluids whose viscosity decreases under shear strain. It is sometimes considered synonymous for pseudo-plastic behaviour, and is usually defined as excluding time-dependent effects, such as thixotropy.
Shear thinning is the most common type of non-Newtonian behavior of fluids and is seen in many industrial and everyday applications. Although shear thinning is generally not observed in pure liquids with low molecular mass or ideal solutions of small molecules like sucrose or sodium chloride, it is often observed in polymer solutions and molten polymers, as well as complex fluids and suspensions like ketchup, whipped cream, blood, paint, and nail polish.
Theories behind shear-thinning behaviour
Though the exact cause of shear thinning is not fully understood, it is widely regarded to be the effect of small structural changes within the fluid, such that microscale geometries within the fluid rearrange to facilitate shearing. In colloid systems, phase separation during flow leads to shear thinning. In polymer systems such as polymer melts and solutions, shear thinning is caused by the disentanglement of polymer chains during flow. At rest, high molecular weight polymers are entangled and randomly oriented. However, when undergoing agitation at a high enough rate, these highly anisotropic polymer chains start to disentangle and align along the direction of the shear force. This leads to less molecular/particle interaction and a larger amount of free space, decreasing the viscosity.
Power law model
At both sufficiently high and very low shear rates, viscosity of a polymer system is independent of the shear rate. At high shear rates, polymers are entirely disentangled and the viscosity value of the system plateaus at η∞, or the infinite shear viscosity plateau. At low shear rates, the shear is too low to be impeded by entanglements and the viscosity value of the system is η0, or the zero shear rate viscosity. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Bogomolny | Alexander Bogomolny (January 4, 1948 July 7, 2018) was a Soviet-born Israeli-American mathematician. He was Professor Emeritus of Mathematics at the University of Iowa, and formerly research fellow at the Moscow Institute of Electronics and Mathematics, senior instructor at Hebrew University and software consultant at Ben Gurion University. He wrote extensively about arithmetic, probability, algebra, geometry, trigonometry and mathematical games.
He was known for his contribution to heuristics and mathematics education, creating and maintaining the mathematically themed educational website Cut-the-Knot for the Mathematical Association of America (MAA) Online. He was a pioneer in mathematical education on the internet, having started Cut-the-Knot in October 1996.
Education and academic career
Bogomolny attended Moscow school No. 444, for gifted children, then entered Moscow State University, where he graduated with a master's degree in mathematics in 1971. From 1971 to 1974 he was a junior research fellow at the Moscow Institute of Electronic Machine Building (MIEM). He emigrated to Israel and became a senior programmer at Lake Kinneret Research Laboratory in Tiberias, Israel (19741977) and a software consultant at Ben Gurion University in Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel (19761977). From 1976 to 1983 he was a senior instructor and researcher at Hebrew University in Jerusalem. He received his Ph.D. in mathematics at Hebrew University in 1981. His dissertation is titled, A New Numerical Solution for the Stamp Problem and his thesis advisor was Gregory I. Eskin. From 1981 to 1982 he was also a visiting professor at Ohio State University, where he taught mathematics.
From 1982 to 1987 he was professor of mathematics at the University of Iowa. From August 1987 to August 1991 he was vice president of software development at CompuDoc, Inc.
Cut-the-Knot
Cut-the-Knot (CTK) is a free, advertisement-funded educational website which Bogomolny maintained from 1996 to 2018. It |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abel%27s%20identity | In mathematics, Abel's identity (also called Abel's formula or Abel's differential equation identity) is an equation that expresses the Wronskian of two solutions of a homogeneous second-order linear ordinary differential equation in terms of a coefficient of the original differential equation.
The relation can be generalised to nth-order linear ordinary differential equations. The identity is named after the Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.
Since Abel's identity relates to the different linearly independent solutions of the differential equation, it can be used to find one solution from the other. It provides useful identities relating the solutions, and is also useful as a part of other techniques such as the method of variation of parameters. It is especially useful for equations such as Bessel's equation where the solutions do not have a simple analytical form, because in such cases the Wronskian is difficult to compute directly.
A generalisation of first-order systems of homogeneous linear differential equations is given by Liouville's formula.
Statement
Consider a homogeneous linear second-order ordinary differential equation
on an interval I of the real line with real- or complex-valued continuous functions p and q. Abel's identity states that the Wronskian of two real- or complex-valued solutions and of this differential equation, that is the function defined by the determinant
satisfies the relation
for each point .
Remarks
In particular, when the differential equation is real-valued, the Wronskian is always either identically zero, always positive, or always negative at every point in (see proof below). The latter cases imply the two solutions and are linearly independent (see Wronskian for a proof).
It is not necessary to assume that the second derivatives of the solutions and are continuous.
Abel's theorem is particularly useful if , because it implies that is constant.
Proof
Differentiating the Wronskian using th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular%20communication%20systems | Vehicular communication systems are computer networks in which vehicles and roadside units are the communicating nodes, providing each other with information, such as safety warnings and traffic information. They can be effective in avoiding accidents and traffic congestion. Both types of nodes are dedicated short-range communications (DSRC) devices. DSRC works in 5.9 GHz band with bandwidth of 75 MHz and approximate range of . Vehicular communications is usually developed as a part of intelligent transportation systems (ITS).
History
The beginnings of vehicular communications go back to the 1970s. Work began on projects such as Electronic Route Guidance System (ERGS) and CACS in the United States and Japan respectively. While the term Inter-Vehicle Communications (IVC) began to circulate in the early 1980s. Various media were used before the standardization activities began, such as lasers, infrared, and radio waves.
The PATH project in the United States between 1986 and 1997 was an important breakthrough in vehicular communications projects. Projects related to vehicular communications in Europe were launched with the PROMETHEUS project between 1986 and 1995. Numerous subsequent projects have been implemented all over the world such as the Advanced Safety Vehicle (ASV) program, CHAUFFEUR I and II, FleetNet, CarTALK 2000, etc.
In the early 2000s, the term Vehicular Ad Hoc Network (VANET) was introduced as an application of the principles of Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (MANETs) to the vehicular field. The terms VANET and IVC do not differ and are used interchangeably to refer to communications between vehicles with or without reliance on roadside infrastructure, although some have argued that IVC refers to direct V2V connections only. Many projects have appeared in EU, Japan, USA and other parts of the world for example, ETC, SAFESPOT, PReVENT, COMeSafety, NoW, IVI.
Several terms have been used to refer to vehicular communications. These acronyms differ from each ot |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate%20Equality%20Index | The Corporate Equality Index is a report published by the Human Rights Campaign Foundation as a tool to rate American businesses on their treatment of gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender employees, consumers and investors. Its primary source of data are surveys but researchers cross-check business policy and their implications for LGBT workers and public records independently. The index has been published annually since 2002. Additionally, the CEI focuses on the positive associations of equality promoting policies and LGBT supporting businesses which has developed to reflect a positive correlation between the promotion of LGBT equality and successful organizations. Following the top 100 corporations that are publicly ranked under the CEI, participating organizations remain anonymous. For businesses looking to enforce and expand LGBT diverse and inclusive policies, the CEI provides a framework that allows businesses to recognize and address issues and policies that restrict equality for LGBT people in the workplace.
Criteria
The CEI criteria are established by four main pillars: "non-discrimination policies across business entities, equitable benefits for LGBTQ workers and their families, internal education and accountability metrics to promote LGBTQ inclusion competency, [and] public commitment to LGBTQ equality". In the most recent modified CEI criteria, a fifth pillar is considered, where "businesses must not have any kind of involvement with anti-LGBT organizations or activity".
The HRC Foundation lists the scoring criteria as follows, stating however that "The criteria have always been intended to evolve as more employers adopt existing criteria and new best practices emerge."
Workforce Protections (30 points total). The company has a written policy of nondiscrimination that includes
sexual orientation (15)
gender identity and gender expression (15)
Inclusive Benefits (30 points total). To all benefits-eligible U.S. employees, the company must provid |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovah%27s%20Witnesses%20and%20blood%20transfusions | Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible prohibits Christians from accepting blood transfusions. Their literature states that, "'abstaining from ... blood' means not accepting blood transfusions and not donating or storing their own blood for transfusion." The belief is based on an interpretation of scripture that differs from other Christian denominations. It is one of the doctrines for which Jehovah's Witnesses are best known.
Jehovah's Witnesses' literature teaches that their refusal of transfusions of whole blood or its four primary components—red cells, white cells, platelets and plasma—is a non-negotiable religious stand and that those who respect life as a gift from God do not try to sustain life by taking in blood, even in an emergency. Witnesses are taught that the use of fractions such as albumin, immunoglobulins and hemophiliac preparations are not absolutely prohibited and are instead a matter of personal choice.
The doctrine was introduced in 1945, and has undergone some changes since then. Members of the group who voluntarily accept a transfusion and are not deemed repentant are regarded as having disassociated themselves from the group by abandoning its doctrines and are subsequently shunned by members of the organization. Although the majority of Jehovah's Witnesses accept the doctrine, a minority do not.
The Watch Tower Society has established Hospital Information Services to provide education and facilitate bloodless surgery. This service also maintains Hospital Liaison Committees.
Doctrine
On the basis of various biblical texts, including , , and , Jehovah's Witnesses believe:
Blood represents life and is sacred to God. After it has been removed from a creature, the only use of blood that God has authorized is for the atonement of sins. When a Christian abstains from blood, they are in effect expressing faith that only the shed blood of Jesus Christ can truly redeem them and save their life.
Blood must not be eaten or transfused, even in |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20B.%20Conway | John Bligh Conway (born September 22, 1939) is an American mathematician. He is currently a professor emeritus at the George Washington University. His specialty is functional analysis, particularly bounded operators on a Hilbert space.
Conway earned his B.S. from Loyola University and Ph.D. from Louisiana State University under the direction of Heron Collins in 1965, with a dissertation on The Strict Topology and Compactness in the Space of Measures. He has had 20 students who obtained doctorates under his supervision, most of them at Indiana University, where he was a close friend of mathematician Max Zorn. He served on the faculty there from 1965 to 1990, when he became head of the mathematics department at the University of Tennessee.
He is the author of a two-volume series on Functions of One Complex Variable (Springer-Verlag), which is a standard graduate text.
Selected publications |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Map%20at%20Lake%20Klejtrup | The World Map at Lake Klejtrup () is a miniature world map built of stones and grass in Klejtrup Sø near the village of Klejtrup, Viborg Municipality, Denmark.
History
In 1943, Søren Poulsen, a local farmer, was working on the drainage of the surrounding meadows when he found a stone shaped like the Jutland peninsula. This inspired him to create a small world of his own. During the winter months, with the use of primitive tools, he placed big stones carefully on the ice. When spring arrived, the stones could easily be tilted into place, and in this way the World Map took shape. Some of the stones used weighted more than 2 tonnes.
Poulsen created the World Map between 1944 and 1969. It measures 45 by 90 metres (49 by 98 yards), covering an area of over 4000 square meters (1 acre). One 111-kilometre (69 mi) degree of latitude corresponds to 27 centimetres (11 inches) on the map. On Poulsen's map, Antarctica is not present and the Northern Hemisphere is marked in two places, ensuring a better impression of the correct distances between the countries to avoid the difficulties of spreading out our planet's globular shape. Red poles mark the equator, and each country is represented by miniature flags, which are updated yearly. State borders in the United States of America are marked with yellow bricks; Poulsen lived 20 years in America.
The map is the epicenter of a park, which has, among other attractions, a picnic area, a coffee shop and a playground.
The World Map is an important attraction in the area, and attracts about 40,000 visitors per year, most of them Danish.
Gallery
See also
Great Polish Map of Scotland
Relief map of Guatemala |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-regular%20language | The ω-regular languages are a class of ω-languages that generalize the definition of regular languages to infinite words.
Formal definition
An ω-language L is ω-regular if it has the form
Aω where A is a regular language not containing the empty string
AB, the concatenation of a regular language A and an ω-regular language B (Note that BA is not well-defined)
A ∪ B where A and B are ω-regular languages (this rule can only be applied finitely many times)
The elements of Aω are obtained by concatenating words from A infinitely many times.
Note that if A is regular, Aω is not necessarily ω-regular, since A could be for example {ε}, the set containing only the empty string, in which case Aω=A, which is not an ω-language and therefore not an ω-regular language.
It is a straightforward consequence of the definition that the ω-regular languages are precisely the ω-languages of the form A1B1ω ∪ ... ∪ AnBnω for some n, where the Ais and Bis are regular languages and the Bis do not contain the empty string.
Equivalence to Büchi automaton
Theorem: An ω-language is recognized by a Büchi automaton if and only if it is an ω-regular language.
Proof: Every ω-regular language is recognized by a nondeterministic Büchi automaton; the translation is constructive. Using the closure properties of Büchi automata and structural induction over the definition of ω-regular language, it can be easily shown that a Büchi automaton can be constructed for any given ω-regular language.
Conversely, for a given Büchi automaton , we construct an ω-regular language and then we will show that this language is recognized by A. For an ω-word w = a1a2... let w(i,j) be the finite segment ai+1...aj-1aj of w.
For every , we define a regular language Lq,q' that is accepted by the finite automaton .
Lemma: We claim that the Büchi automaton A recognizes the language
Proof: Let's suppose word and q0,q1,q2,... is an accepting run of A on w. Therefore, q0 is in and there must be a state in F such |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallome | In biochemistry, the metallome is the distribution of metal ions in a cellular compartment. The term was coined in analogy with proteome as metallomics is the study of metallome: the "comprehensive analysis of the entirety of metal and metalloid species within a cell or tissue type". Therefore, metallomics can be considered a branch of metabolomics, even though the metals are not typically considered as metabolites.
An alternative definition of "metallomes" as metalloproteins or any other metal-containing biomolecules, and "metallomics" as a study of such biomolecules.
Metallointeractome
In the study of metallomes the transcriptome, proteome and the metabolome constitutes the whole metallome. A study of the metallome is done to arrive at the metallointeractome.
Metallotranscriptome
The metallotranscriptome can be defined as the map of the entire transcriptome in the presence of biologically or environmentally relevant concentrations of an essential or toxic metal, respectively. The metallometabolome constitutes the complete pool of small metabolites in a cell at any given time. This gives rise to the whole metallointeractome and knowledge of this is important in comparative metallomics dealing with toxicity and drug discovery.
See also
Bioinorganic chemistry
-omics |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistant%20starch | Resistant starch (RS) is starch, including its degradation products, that escapes from digestion in the small intestine of healthy individuals. Resistant starch occurs naturally in foods, but it can also be added as part of dried raw foods, or used as an additive in manufactured foods.
Some types of resistant starch (RS1, RS2 and RS3) are fermented by the large intestinal microbiota, conferring benefits to human health through the production of short-chain fatty acids, increased bacterial mass, and promotion of butyrate-producing bacteria.
Resistant starch has similar physiological effects as dietary fiber, behaving as a mild laxative and possibly causing flatulence.
Origin and history
The concept of resistant starch arose from research in the 1970s and is currently considered to be one of three starch types: rapidly digested starch, slowly digested starch and resistant starch, each of which may affect levels of blood glucose.
The European Commission-supported-research eventually led to a definition of resistant starch.
Health effects
Resistant starch does not release glucose within the small intestine, but rather reaches the large intestine where it is consumed or fermented by colonic bacteria (gut microbiota). On a daily basis, human intestinal microbiota encounter more carbohydrates than any other dietary component. This includes resistant starch, non-starch polysaccharide fibers, oligosaccharides, and simple sugars which have significance in colon health.
The fermentation of resistant starch produces short-chain fatty acids, including acetate, propionate, and butyrate and increased bacterial cell mass. The short-chain fatty acids are produced in the large intestine where they are rapidly absorbed from the colon, then are metabolized in colonic epithelial cells, liver or other tissues. The fermentation of resistant starch produces more butyrate than other types of dietary fibers.
Studies have shown that resistant starch supplementation was well tolerated |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPK%20coloring | In chemistry, the CPK coloring (for Corey–Pauling–Koltun) is a popular color convention for distinguishing atoms of different chemical elements in molecular models.
History
August Wilhelm von Hofmann was apparently the first to introduce molecular models into organic chemistry, following August Kekule's introduction of the theory of chemical structure in 1858, and Alexander Crum Brown's introduction of printed structural formulas in 1861. At a Friday Evening Discourse at London's Royal Institution on April 7, 1865, he displayed molecular models of simple organic substances such as methane, ethane, and methyl chloride, which he had had constructed from differently colored table croquet balls connected together with thin brass tubes. Hofmann's original colour scheme (carbon = black, hydrogen = white, nitrogen = blue, oxygen = red, chlorine = green, and sulphur = yellow) has evolved into the later color schemes.
In 1952, Corey and Pauling published a description of space-filling models of proteins and other biomolecules that they had been building at Caltech. Their models represented atoms by faceted hardwood balls, painted in different bright colors to indicate the respective chemical elements. Their color schema included
White for hydrogen
Black for carbon
Sky blue for nitrogen
Red for oxygen
They also built smaller models using plastic balls with the same color schema.
In 1965 Koltun patented an improved version of the Corey and Pauling modeling technique. In his patent he mentions the following colors:
White for hydrogen
Black for carbon
Blue for nitrogen
Red for oxygen
Deep yellow for sulfur
Purple for phosphorus
Light, medium, medium dark, and dark green for the halogens (F, Cl, Br, I)
Silver for metals (Co, Fe, Ni, Cu)
Typical assignments
Typical CPK color assignments include:
Several of the CPK colors refer mnemonically to colors of the pure elements or notable compound. For example, hydrogen is a colorless gas, carbon as charcoal, graphit |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diameter%20Credit-Control%20Application | Diameter Credit-Control Application is a networking protocol for Diameter application used to
implement real-time credit-control for a variety of end user services.
It is an IETF standard first defined in RFC 4006, and updated in RFC 8506.
Purpose
The purpose of the diameter credit control application is to provide a framework for real-time charging, primarily meant for the communication between gateways/control-points and the back-end account/balance systems (typically an Online Charging System).
The application specifies methods for:
Quota management (Reserve, Reauthorize, Abandon)
Simple Debit/Credit
Balance checks
Price inquiries
The diameter credit control application does not specify which type units are bought/used and which items are charged. This is left to the service context that has to be specified separately, as is some of the semantics.
Examples of units used/bought:
Time
Upload/Download bytes
SMS (Text Messages)
Examples of items charged:
Money
Points
Units (e.g. if the balance is kept in the same units as what is being used)
Diameter credit control also specifies how to handle the fairly complex issue of multiple unit types used/charged against a single user balance. For instance, a user may pay for both online time and download bytes but has only a single account balance.
Session-based charging
A session-based credit control process uses several interrogations which may include first, intermediate and last interrogation. During interrogation money is reserved from the user account. Session-based charging is typically used for scenarios where the charged units are continuously consumed, e.g. charging for bytes upload/download.
Event-based charging
An event-based credit control process uses events as charging mechanism. Event-based charging is typically used when units are not continuously consumed, e.g. a user sending an MMS.
Command Codes
In order to support Credit Control via Diameter, there are two Diameter messages, the CCR |
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