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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | rock, water, and soot
Caroline Dorn1,⋆, Aaron Werlen1, 2, and Sean Jordan1 1 Institute for Particle Physics and Astrophysics, ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland 2 Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA June 19, 2026 | [
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-0.00... | 0 | Atmospheric diversity of sub-Neptunes from formation with | 83 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | Recent JWST detections of CH4 and CO2 in sub-Neptune atmospheres point to a link between atmospheric composition and the nature of planetary building blocks – rock, water, or refractory carbon (“soot”) – yet this connection remains poorly understood. Here we investigate how different formation environments shape the co... | [
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-0.0006... | 1 | arXiv:2606.20464v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > ABSTRACT | 321 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | capable of reproducing the observed M–R relationships of sub-Neptunes (Lin & Seager 2025). In early planet-forming disks, the main carriers of carbon are organic ices and macromolecular refractory carbonaceous dust. The final carbon budget of a planet may undergo substantial processing and volatile loss (Bergin et al. ... | [
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-0... | 2 | arXiv:2606.20464v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > 1. Introduction | 683 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | of Solar System comets. Soot, together with water ice, may therefore constitute viable components of the building blocks of sub-Neptunes. Because both soot and water have low intrinsic densities, and because bulk compositions inferred from M–R measurements are highly degenerate (Rogers & Seager 2010; Dorn et al. 2017),... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | We adopt the definitions of planet bulk core composition cases as defined in Li et al. (2026), chemically equilibrate them globally, and investigate how the observable regions of their atmospheres differ between the different bulk compositions. The methodologies for chemical equilibration and atmospheric structure are ... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | Case 2
Case 3
Case 4 | [
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0.027... | 5 | Case 1 | 11 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | 76%
55%
24%
20%
25%
60%
40% | [
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0.003269... | 6 | 100% | 14 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | 24%
25% | [
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0... | 7 | 55% | 4 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | soot-rock core
water-rock core
soot-water-rock core
core
[Figure: Fig. 1. Considered bulk core compositions. Core material excludes priordial H-dominated gas and encompasses all planet building material that is accreted in condensed form. Figure is adapted from (Li et al. 2026).] | [
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-0.01... | 8 | 40% > ocky core | 68 | {
"has_figure": true
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | 1.0
17.5 | [
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0.03583806... | 9 | 40% > Atmospheric metal mass fraction Z | 7 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | 10 1
15.0
0.8 | [
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0.029... | 10 | 40% > Atmospheric mass fraction | 11 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | 10 1
12.5
0.6
10 2
10.0
7.5
0.4
10 3
10 2
5.0
10 4
0.2
2.5
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 | [
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0.01322... | 11 | 40% > Atmospheric C/O | 115 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | Case 2, Mp = 10M
Case 3, Mp = 10M
Case 4, Mp = 10M
Mp =10M w/ H2O condensation
[Figure: Fig. 2. Atmospheric properties of the four modeled planet cases after chemical equilibration: (a) atmospheric C/O ratio, (b) atmospheric mass fraction, (c) atmospheric metal mass fraction Z, and (d) mean molecular weight (MMW). Th... | [
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-0.... | 12 | 40% > Case 4, Mp = 6M Case 3, Mp = 10M > Case 1, Mp = 10M | 206 | {
"has_figure": true
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c4d705b0257c63e964f3c19a10bf065e315f61251f2ae880069001497e0acc19 | DRAFT VERSION JUNE 19, 2026 Typeset using LATEX twocolumn style in AASTeX62
Giant impact between high-viscosity Theia and low-viscosity proto-Earth: Origin of lunar isotopic crisis
WENSHUAI LIU1 1School of Physics, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
ABSTRACT | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | nents, along with the total number of moles in each phase,
by simultaneously enforcing chemical equilibrium, mass bal-
ance, and elemental conservation in each phase. Our nu-
merical scheme is (Grimm et al. 2026) has significantly im-
proved in computational efficiency upon the original imple-
mentation in (Schlichting... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | gaseous hydrogen and
We note, however, tha
tion using a fixed conc
of Schlichting & Young
in Grimm et al. (2026),
duce substantially diffe
dence suggesting that h
can reach wt% levels (M
Gilmore & Stixrude 202
this choice represents a | [
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0.03489... | 14 | silicate melt, following | 68 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | can reach wt% levels (Miozzi et al. 2025; Horn et al. 2025;
Gilmore & Stixrude 2026; Young & Werlen 2026), we have
this choice represents a key source of model uncertainty.
2.2. Atmospheric profiles
We formally couple the deep atmosphere to the observ-
able upper layers of the atmosphere. The deep atmosphere
compositio... | [
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0.019... | 15 | dence suggesting that hydrogen solubility in silicate melts | 107 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | The deep atmosphere
by its chemical equi-
ose atmospheric con- | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | molar gas fractions
0.02 0.05 0.08 10
0.02 0.05 0.08
0.02 0.05 0.08
0.02 0.05 0.08
accreted mass fraction of primordial gas
Species H2 gas CH4 gas
CO2 gas CO gas
O2 gas H2O gas
Fe gas SiO gas
Mg gas
[Figure: Fig. 3. Molar mixing ratios of atmospheric species in equilibrium with the underlying magma ocean. Although the... | [
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"has_figure": true
} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | like stellar spectrum. For individual observed exoplanets,
however, the host star’s measured spectrum (if available) is
recommended, as assuming a solar analogue can underesti-
mate the incident XUV flux and consequently the formation
of photochemical products. | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | mospheric models: FastChem (Stock et al. 2018), HELIOS
(Malik et al. 2017, 2019), VULCAN (Tsai et al. 2017), and
HELIOS-K (Grimm et al. 2021). These models together en-
able the simulation of chemical equilibrium, photochem-
istry, and radiative transfer with species-dependent opaci-
ties over the pressure range of the... | [
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-0.01... | 19 | Article number, page 3 > straints are given as input to a suite of open source at- | 100 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | der local thermodynamic conditions. HELIOS is a one-
dimensional radiative-convective model used to compute
pressure-temperature (P–T) profiles. HELIOS-K calculates
wavelength-dependent opacities for given gas mixtures.
VULCAN is a solver for kinetic reaction networks that incor-
porates thermochemistry, photochemistry... | [
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-0... | 20 | Article number, page 3 > FastChem computes gas-phase chemical equilibrium un- | 104 | {} |
c4d705b0257c63e964f3c19a10bf065e315f61251f2ae880069001497e0acc19 | According to the giant impact theory, the Moon was formed by accretion of the debris disk that resulted from the collision between Theia and the proto-Earth. Although this theory accounts for most characteristics of the Earth-Moon system, numerical simulations of impacts between a planetary embryo and the accreting pro... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | core composition cases and investigate how the resulting
atmospheric properties depend on formation environment.
Figure 2 summarizes the bulk atmospheric properties (i.e.,
C/O ratio, atmospheric mass fraction, metal mass fraction,
and mean molecular weight) as a function of the accreted
primordial gas fraction.
Planeta... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | follow
the
workflow
previously
described
in
Werlen et al. (2025b): The calculated atmospheric composi-
tions output from the GCE model are input to FastChem for
the initial P-T conditions representing the atmospheric con-
ditions just above the magma ocean. This output is passed
to HELIOS-K to compute gas opacities, wh... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | 1, increasing from ∼10−7 to ∼10−5.
Despite this relative enhancement, both cases 1 and 2 remain strongly depleted in carbon-bearing species overall.
The soot–water–rock case (case 3) differs fundamentally: its atmosphere is methane-dominated at the magma ocean interface, with major species in decreasing order of CH4,... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | deep atmosphere between 10 and 1000 bar.
These dynamics are reflected directly in the mean molecular weight profiles (bottom panel).
Under strong mixing, the MMW remains nearly constant with pressure across all cases.
Under weak mixing, the MMW can vary by up to one order of magnitude in case 3, while changes are mo... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | the generally unconstrained strength of vertical mixing is a
degeneracy between cases 3 and 4. At low mixing strength,
spite this caveat, the four considered cases occupy suffi-
ciently distinct regions of chemical space that their bulk
and the MMW, remain meaningful diagnostics of forma-
tion environment. We now test ... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | b and GJ3470 b can be explained by a formation scenario inside the water ice line.
K2-18 b and TOI-732 c also have relatively low mean molecular weight atmospheres, however there are robust detections of CH4 between ∼1 – 10% volume mixing ratio, and non-detections of H2O (Madhusudhan et al. 2023; Hu et al.
2025).
Thi... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | tentatively ruling out case 3 for each planet, unless the atmospheric vertical mixing is low (Figure 4).
TOI-776 c additionally has a lower limit on mean molecular weight of > 6 – 8 g mol−1 if high altitude aerosols are not responsible for the featureless spectrum (Teske et al. 2025), which could suggest case 3 with a... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | log(CO2) and log(CH4) typically falling between −3 and −1.
C/O ratios are generally approximately solar to super-solar, with individual retrieval cases reaching values as high as 3.21+6.1 −1.9 (Felix et al. 2025b), and atmospheric metal mass fractions are consistently high, with representative values around Zatm ∼0.6.... | [
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"has_table": true
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | 00 00 0 K K | | | | | |
| | Case 3 3000 K 2000 K Case 4 3000 K 2000 K | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
| | K2-18 b | | | | | |
| | TOI-836 c (if aer | | | osols) TOI-776 c (if | TOI clear) (if | -836 c clear) |
| | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | | TO... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | magma ocean ceases to exist below approximately 2000 K.
We therefore consider our tested cases with 2000 and 3000
K to be a physically reasonable and representative temper-
ature range for the AMOI conditions of sub-Neptunes. | [
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9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | Context. The long-term evolution of planetary systems around solar-type stars is governed by the interplay between stellar expansion, tidal interactions, and mass loss during the red giant branch (RGB) and asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phases. However, tidal dissipation efficiencies and AGB mass-loss rates both remain ... | [
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0.0010... | 3 | arXiv:2606.19575v1 [astro-ph.EP] 17 Jun 2026 > ABSTRACT | 458 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | 0.00 | [
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0.0078... | 38 | 10 > South Auroral | 3 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | sumptions.
The most fundamental is complete interior–atmosphere
chemical equilibration. Convective inhibition and mean
molecular weight gradients may restrict chemical exchange
on a global scale (e.g., Leconte et al. 2017; Spaargaren et al.
2020; Misener & Schlichting 2022; Markham et al. 2022;
Leconte et al. 2024). In... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | Neptunes carry a direct imprint of their formation environ-
ment, and that global chemical equilibration between plan-
etary interiors and atmospheres is essential for correctly
interpreting this imprint. By modeling four end-member
core compositions — rock, soot–rock, soot–water–rock, and
water–rock — spanning the ran... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | tios, and atmospheric metal mass fractions of TOI-270 d as well as K2-18 b within the correct order of magnitude.
CO2 further serves as a useful discriminant between soot-bearing (case 3) and soot-free water-rich (case 4) formation: case 4 predicts log(CO2) between roughly -5 and -2, whereas case 3 tends to yield lower... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | C.D acknowledges support from the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant TMSGI2_211313. This work has been carried out within the framework of the NCCR PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant 51NF40_205606. We acknowledge the use of large language models (LLMs), including ChatGPT, ... | [
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... | 34 | We have shown that the atmospheric compositions of sub- > Article number, page 9 > Acknowledgements | 127 | {} |
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | Caroline Dorn 0000-0001-6110-4610 Aaron Werlen 0009-0005-1133-7586 Sean Jordan 0000-0002-2828-0396 | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | The GCE model from (Grimm et al. 2026) is adapted from the original model in Schlichting & Young (2022) with the addition of carbon following Werlen et al. (2025b,a).
In total, the chemical network is defined with 19 linearly independent reactions involving 26 phase components.
Chemical reactions are allowed within t... | [
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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9 | the chemical reaction network are adopted from the compilation presented in Schlichting & Young (2022).
In addition to their framework, we explicitly account for carbon dissolution into the metallic phase by implementing metal–silicate partition coefficients from Blanchard et al. (2022).
Hydrogen solubility in silica... | [
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9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | Letter to the Editor | [
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9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | M. Esseldeurs1⋆, S. Mathis2, and L. Decin1 1 Instituut voor Sterrenkunde, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200D, 3001 Leuven, Belgium 2 Université Paris-Saclay, Université Paris Cité, CEA, CNRS, AIM, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France | [
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-0.05... | 1 | The fate of Earth during the Sun’s giant phases > New constraints from ab initio tidal modelling and AGB mass loss | 91 | {} |
9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | Received; accepted | [
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9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | though they did not take the structural evolution of the Sun into account. Observationally, there is evidence of Earth-like planets around white dwarfs (e.g. Zhang et al. 2024), which favours the survival of planets like Earth during the RGB and AGB phases. However, the exact fate of the Earth and the inner Solar Syste... | [
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9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | der & Smith 2008 and survival for Nordhaus et al. 2010). The difference in the conclusions of these studies can be attributed to the different assumptions made about the mass-loss rates during the RGB, where Nordhaus et al. (2010) assumed a higher RGB mass-loss rate than Schröder & Smith (2008). This dependence was fur... | [
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9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | To model the orbital evolution of the inner Solar System, we used the tools developed in Esseldeurs et al. (2026). To follow changes in planetary orbital parameters, we considered tidal interactions in the Sun as well as stellar winds, 1 a da
�����wind
�����tides
+ 1
dt = 1
. (1)
a da dt
a da dt For all simulations, th... | [
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9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | We used the stellar evolutionary code MESA (Paxton et al. 2011, 2013, 2015, 2018, 2019; Jermyn et al. 2023) to compute the evolution of the Sun from the pre-main sequence to the white dwarf phase. We used the same input physics as in Esseldeurs et al. (2024), which were based on Cinquegrana & Joyce (2022) to be consist... | [
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9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | for their constructive comments which helped to improve the quality of the
paper. M. Esseldeurs, S. Mathis and L. Decin acknowledge support from the
FWO grant G0B3823N. M. Esseldeurs and L. Decin acknowledge support from
the FWO grant G099720N, the KU Leuven C1 excellence grant MAESTRO
C16/17/007, the KU Leuven IDN gra... | [
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9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | Using the stellar and orbital evolution models described in the previous section, we predicted the orbital evolution of the inner Solar System planets from the PMS until the end of the WD phase. The results are shown in Fig. 1, where we show the evolution of the orbital separation of the planets as a function of time u... | [
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9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | (2023) are less important for Earth.
Observationally, the tidal dissipation was tested in evolved
stars using the circularisation of binary systems. In the RGB
phase, Beck et al. (2018, 2022, 2024), and Dewberry & Wu
(2025) have shown that the equilibrium tide dominates the tidal
dissipation, but that the observed circ... | [
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0.0... | 9 | arXiv:2606.19575v1 [astro-ph.EP] 17 Jun 2026 > Earth is expected to move farther outward compared to previ- | 358 | {
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9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | In the past, the importance of mass loss during the RGB
and AGB phases was highlighted by several studies (e.g.
Sackmann et al. 1993; Guo et al. 2016). Guo et al. (2016) inves-
mass-loss rate during the RGB phase) on the orbital evolution
during the RGB phase, and vice versa. As our tidal dissipation
is weaker, this va... | [
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9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | To understand the effect of the different tidal dissipation pre-
scriptions on the orbital evolution, we compared the results us-
ing the tidal prescriptions of Esseldeurs et al. (2024) to a Zahn
(1966)-based prescription as used by Mustill & Villaver (2012)
(see Appendix C for a comparisson). The main difference be-
t... | [
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9753ec94664256e898ee48effa5f86c37e7e15082b022427c88f2f71855b2444 | to better constrain AGB mass-loss rates and hence the fate of the
inner Solar System. Additionally, the number of detected plan-
ets around red giants is expected to increase substantially in the
coming years, particularly with the PLATO mission (Rauer et al.
2025). This will enable us to conduct population studies of ... | [
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c4d705b0257c63e964f3c19a10bf065e315f61251f2ae880069001497e0acc19 | Other high-energy, high-angular momentum models, such as the Synestia model (Lock & Stewart 2017; Lock et al. 2018) and the collision of two comparably massive bodies (Canup 2012) also produce excessive angular momentum, which would need to be reduced by some feasible mechanism, still a matter of debate. The high-energ... | [
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c4d705b0257c63e964f3c19a10bf065e315f61251f2ae880069001497e0acc19 | high viscosity of Theia is taken to be 1014Pa ∗s here, the composition of the debris disk will be totally made of materials of proto-Earth if Theia’s viscosity is taken to be extremely large value of 1021Pa ∗s. It’s like throwing a stone into water, the stuff that splashes out is all just water.
[Figure: Figure 1. The... | [
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c4d705b0257c63e964f3c19a10bf065e315f61251f2ae880069001497e0acc19 | 30% of the mass, respectively. In reality, the outer portion of the proto-Earth may have existed as a magma ocean due to planetesimal accretion and multiple giant impacts. Here, we adopt the ANEOS equations of state for Fe85Si15 and forsterite (Stewart et al. 2020)
[Figure: Figure 2. Up and bottom panel represent the ... | [
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c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | MNRAS 000, 1–17 (2026) Preprint 19 June 2026 Compiled using MNRAS LATEX style file v3.0 | [
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c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Ultraviolet response to solar activity | [
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c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | 1 Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Kandi, Sangareddy 502285, India 2 Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, The University of Arizona, 1629 E. University Blvd., Tucson, 85721, AZ, USA | [
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-0.017... | 2 | A long-term spectro-temporal study of Jovian X-ray and > Megha Tomer1, Mayukh Pahari1, Anurag Baruah1, Renu Malhotra2 | 53 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | 19 June 2026 | [
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c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | We present results from a multi-decade investigation of solar activity-driven variability in Jupiter’s emissions, using solar X-ray flux and sunspot numbers as activity indicators and ultraviolet (UV) and X-ray observations from the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE 1978-1996) and the Chandra X-ray Observatory (2... | [
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0.0... | 4 | arXiv:2606.20355v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > ABSTRACT | 675 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Introduction
Jupiter emits the most intense auroral emissions in the Solar System, powered by its rapid rotation and strong magnetic field interaction with trapped charged particles (either from Solar origin or internal plasma activities). These auroral emissions have been observed across multi-wavelength regimes incl... | [
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c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Tomer et al.
processes and external solar wind activities (Clarke et al. 2002; Yoshikawa et al. 2014).
While the solar irradiation of the upper Jovian atmosphere causes primary UV emission, X-ray aurorae, on the other hand, provide complex diagnostics by probing the composition of the magnetospheric plasma and its co... | [
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c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | aki have each provided valuable insights into energetic activities of the Jovian surface and poles.
For example, Dunn et al. (2022) analysed 14 simultaneous Chandra and HST observations of Jupiter’s northern aurora (2016-2019) and found that the dark polar region (DPR), already known to be UV-faint, also produces almo... | [
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c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Observations and data reductions | [
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c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Region
0.02
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 Time (minutes; 0 min = 01 April,2014 00:00 AM) | [
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7.0
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09165810826227a0861ac1c75d1b01f61619e442634e78690784fd6b66655d42 | Ho 0.0115 154.7 | [
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c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Solar Activity Proxies and Observations
Solar activity was characterised using contemporaneous solar X-ray flux measurements together with the sunspot number, both of which serve as widely used diagnostics of solar variability and solar-cycle evolution. Solar X-ray flux data obtained from the GOES satellites⋆, operate... | [
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... | 9 | arXiv:2606.20355v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > 2.1 | 424 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | The IUE obtained a substantial number of low-resolution short-wavelength spectra of Jupiter between September 13, 1978, and September 25, 1996, covering the 1150–1978 ˚A wavelength range. For data reduction and analysis, we follow the methodology of Wanders et al. (1997). The raw spectral images are processed using bot... | [
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c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | cases with high noise levels, saturation, or inadequate exposure. After applying these quality checks and taking into account the availability of concurrent solar data, 51 spectra are selected for subsequent analysis, which are listed in Table 1. Example UV spectra during solar maxima and solar minima are shown in the ... | [
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c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Chandra
Jupiter has been observed extensively with Chandra using the Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer (ACIS) and the High Resolution Camera (HRC). The Chandra/ACIS observations were carried out in ACIS-S mode using the backilluminated ACIS-S3 chip having 1024 × 1024 pixels with a pixel size of approximately 0.492 arc... | [
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0... | 12 | arXiv:2606.20355v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > 2.3 | 207 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | ACIS data reduction
Data reduction was performed with the Chandra Interactive Analysis of Observations (ciao) software version 4.17.0 using Calibration Database (caldb) version 4.12.0 (Fruscione et al. 2006). The chandra repro pipeline was executed for each ObsID with the sso freeze option enabled to correct for any a... | [
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-0.0126145398,
-0.0307031721,
0.0... | 13 | arXiv:2606.20355v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > 2.3.1 | 569 | {
"has_table": true,
"has_figure": true
} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | HRC data comparison with solar activity | [
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-0.0... | 48 | Jovian UV-X-ray > 4.2 | 7 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | [Table: Table 2.
Chandra/ACIS Observations of Jupiter, where NP and SP are the north pole and south pole, respectively.
The revised count rates are obtained after distance (dEJ) normalisation
No Obs ID Obs Date Start time Exposure time dEJ Revised NP Revised SP (ksec) (AU) count rate(x10−3) count rate(x10−3)
obs1 123... | [
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0.0168402288,
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-0.0025824911,
-0.0365655087,
0.00087... | 14 | arXiv:2606.20355v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > Jovian UV-X-ray | 173 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | isation
No Obs ID Obs Date Start time Exposure time dEJ Revised NP Revised SP (ksec) (AU) count rate(x10−3) count rate(x10−3)
obs1 12315 2011-10-02 21:54:26 39.25 4.06 10.17±0.66 2.23±0.64 obs2 12316 2011-10-04 14:33:08 39.61 4.05 5.99±0.54 1.78±0.49
Table 3.
Chandra/HRC Observations of Jupiter with distance-normalise... | [
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-0.0335254855,
0.01... | 15 | arXiv:2606.20355v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > Jovian UV-X-ray | 1,152 | {
"is_oversized": true
} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | .53 ± 4.22 obs22 22147 2019-07-13 21:08:30 22.66 14 ± 3 4.43 19.59 ± 4.20 obs23 22148 2019-07-15 12:58:56 24.73 6 ± 4 4.44 8.37 ± 5.58 obs24 22149 2019-07-16 08:44:51 24.80 18 ± 3 4.45 25.02 ± 4.17 obs
25 22150 2019-07-18 20:17:53 24.75 18 ± 3 4.47 24.69 ± 4.11 obs26 22151 2019-09-08 22:58:16 24.33 11 ± 2 5.18 11.29 ±... | [
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-0.0086137801,
-0.0222929586,
-0.0... | 16 | arXiv:2606.20355v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > Jovian UV-X-ray | 680 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | HRC data reduction
Similar to the Chandra/ACIS data, the initial steps of reduction for Chandra/HRC observations were carried out with the ciao software using caldb, and for each observation, the chandra repro pipeline was executed to produce Level 2 event files. These event files were subsequently examined in ds9 to ... | [
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0.0101753213,
-0.0116967354,
-0.007933748,
0.0156... | 17 | arXiv:2606.20355v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > Jovian UV-X-ray > 2.3.2 | 108 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | | | ratio 101 model powerlaw to 100 Data 1200 1400 | 4 May 1991 (Solar Maxima) 2 August 1987 (Solar Minima) 1600 1800 |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Wavelength (Å) R.A. (deg) Background region North Auroral Region Declination (deg) South Auroral Region Counts per pixel | Wavele | |
| | 10−11 L y -α Å−1 s−1 cm−2 10−12 ergs... | [
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0.0030399149,
0.0100102238,
-0.0126983477,
-0.0332007185,
0.01... | 18 | arXiv:2606.20355v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > Jovian UV-X-ray > 6 | 395 | {
"has_table": true,
"has_figure": true
} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | relation to solar activity (Figure 13) for the Chandra/HRC
observations. The top panel of Figure 13 shows the compar-
ison of average Chandra/HRC-derived count rates with the
monthly-averaged sunspot number, thereby placing the au-
roral variability within the broader framework of solar cycle
evolution. No apparent lon... | [
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0.0... | 49 | Jovian UV-X-ray > We examine the variability of Jupiter’s auroral emission in | 186 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Data analysis and Results
To illustrate the energy-dependent morphology of Jupiter’s X-ray emission, we present a Chandra/HRC image of Jupiter (top left panel of Figure 7), in which the northern and southern auroral zones have been explicitly marked to indicate the regions selected for subsequent analysis. This image ... | [
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0.020... | 19 | arXiv:2606.20355v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > Jovian UV-X-ray > 3 | 314 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Spectral analysis | [
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-0.0... | 20 | arXiv:2606.20355v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > Jovian UV-X-ray > 3.1 | 3 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | IUE spectral analysis
In Jupiter’s IUE/SWP data, we see clear variability in both the UV continuum and the emission lines. We may note that due to the non-imaging capabilities of IUE, both disk and auroral regions will contribute to the observed flux in the UV spectra. The top panel of Figure 2 shows the UV datato-mod... | [
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-0.014983139,
-0.0382240079,
-0.011... | 21 | arXiv:2606.20355v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > Jovian UV-X-ray > 3.1.1 | 120 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Fitted Jovian spectra excluding 0.94 keV feature (04 October 2011)
10−4
10−4
keV (Photons cm−2 s−1 keV−1)
keV (Photons cm−2 s−1 keV−1)
10−5
10−5
10−6
10−7
(data−model)/error
(data−model)/error
−2
1 0.5 2
1 0.5 2 −2
Energy (keV)
Energy (keV)
Bestfit Chandra spectra on 02 Oct, 2011
Bestfit Chandra spectra on 04 Oct, 2011... | [
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0.0027198021,
0.0043250043,
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-0.0094107594,
0.... | 22 | Jovian UV-X-ray | 414 | {
"has_figure": true
} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | exchange interaction of hydrogen ions. Therefore, both com-
ponents of Lyα lines may originate from different geograph-
ical locations of Jupiter: the broader one may come from
the aurora, where UV-emitting gas has strong dynamics,
while the narrow component may originate from the disc,
dominated by resonantly scattere... | [
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-0.0022515974,
0.0018416796,
-0.0155865801,
-0.0439993031,
0.019... | 23 | Jovian UV-X-ray > case, the broad component corresponds to Doppler velocities | 266 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | continuum, thereby highlighting systematic deviations as-
sociated with distinct spectral features. Ratio plots clearly
show that there are two Feii line complexes near 1600 ˚A dur-
ing solar minima, which are missing from the other spec-
trum, raising the possibility that the UV spectral lines be-
tween the Solar mini... | [
0.0027936574,
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-0.0156073784,
-0.0083725192,
-0.0327719525,
-0.0599167272,
0.01... | 24 | Jovian UV-X-ray > (1991), obtained by fitting each spectrum with a power-law | 308 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | improves the KS to −2.58, inclusion of the second Gaussian
near 0.96–0.98 keV results in a total KS value of −3.91, in-
dicating a substantially improved fit. A similar trend is seen
for the 2011 Chandra/ACIS obsID 12316: fitting with only
the bremsstrahlung model gives a KS value of −1.64. Adding
the first Gaussian at... | [
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0.0213803835,
0.0066272034,
-0.0286270492,
-0.0187517852,
0.00989... | 25 | 8 > a KS value of −1.73. Adding the first Gaussian at 0.7 keV | 983 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Chandra/ACIS image | [
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0.0218891725,
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-0.0359444432,
-... | 26 | 8 > a KS value of −1.73. Adding the first Gaussian at 0.7 keV > 0.8 - 1.2 keV | 6 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | netospheric or internally driven source. In the X-ray regime,
significant auroral flares are detected 7–15 days after ma-
jor CMEs, along with a ⩾ 3σ detection of highly ionised
evidence for CME-driven auroral excitation and large-scale
magnetospheric response to solar events. | [
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-0.0411313921,
-0.0187928639,
0... | 50 | Jovian UV-X-ray > Feii emissions show no such correlation, suggesting a mag- | 73 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | with solar activity | [
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-0.0466302261,
-0.0330895521,
0.0... | 51 | Jovian UV-X-ray > 5.1 | 3 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | [Figure: Figure 5. Top panel shows 1, 2 and 3σ integrated contours from the marginal probability distribution of Ne8+ emission line energy near 0.94 keV versus line normalisation as obtained from the bestfit X-ray spectral parameters shown in the bottom left panel of Figure 4. Bottom panel shows Chandra/ACIS image extr... | [
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0.0034478214,
0.0234411601,
-0.0233828239,
-0.024108354,
0.0268893... | 27 | 8 > Counts per pixel | 110 | {
"has_figure": true
} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Chandra spectral analysis | [
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-0... | 28 | 8 > 3.1.2 | 4 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | dra/ACIS were modelled using the spectral fitting package
XSPEC v12. Owing to the small number of spectral bins
(10–15), the Kolmogorov–Smirnov (KS) statistic was pre-
Due to the red light leakage in soft X-ray bands and op-
tical loading effect, the soft X-ray flux below 0.5 keV is
contaminated beyond corrections in C... | [
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... | 29 | 8 > The spectra near both auroral regions obtained with Chan- | 252 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | 0.06
0.08
Solar X−ray flux (x10−8 W m−2) | [
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0.0109974397,
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0.02... | 30 | Jovian UV-X-ray > ACIS X−ray count rate (c | 23 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | . | [
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-0.0087652607,
0.0062033623,
-0.0274832938,
0.013881037,
0.0... | 31 | Jovian UV-X-ray > 20200 | 1 | {} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Time (minutes; 0 min = 22 September, 2011 07:40 AM)
[Figure: Figure 6. The Solar X-ray activities, including a CME event, are shown along with the subsequent Chandra/ACIS flaring lightcurves of Jupiter on 2nd October 2011 (red) and 4th October 2011 (blue). For clarity, the zoomed plot of the X-ray flare as observed on... | [
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0.0037621583,
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-0.0027937766,
-0.0114406087,
-0.0384046324,
-0.0139271878,
0.02... | 32 | Jovian UV-X-ray > 5000 | 571 | {
"has_figure": true
} |
c5bca71e08b71b93a7c19f6e69760a5edb2b28da2aa1d1dcb8ff357c6bc6df8c | Chandra Timing analysis | [
0.0281393938,
0.03976449,
0.0179034434,
-0.0389613174,
-0.0104213422,
0.0002631351,
-0.0204681177,
-0.0320100076,
-0.0054852702,
0.0579342768,
0.0176417138,
0.0207474977,
0.0011821658,
-0.0698347166,
-0.0150434757,
-0.0011543994,
0.0119366944,
-0.0158593226,
-0.0462903455,
0.00... | 33 | Jovian UV-X-ray > 3.2 | 4 | {} |
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