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112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9
rock, water, and soot Caroline Dorn1,⋆, Aaron Werlen1, 2, and Sean Jordan1 1 Institute for Particle Physics and Astrophysics, ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland 2 Department of Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA June 19, 2026
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0
Atmospheric diversity of sub-Neptunes from formation with
83
{}
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9
Recent JWST detections of CH4 and CO2 in sub-Neptune atmospheres point to a link between atmospheric composition and the nature of planetary building blocks – rock, water, or refractory carbon (“soot”) – yet this connection remains poorly understood. Here we investigate how different formation environments shape the co...
[ 0.0198139809, 0.0472618602, 0.0167059619, -0.0539582185, -0.0289999172, 0.0117209805, -0.0242987312, -0.0023695964, 0.0198495891, 0.0537308827, 0.0268723555, -0.0380113535, 0.01886563, -0.0695386454, 0.007473879, -0.0082433457, -0.019752834, 0.0415502265, -0.0518908463, -0.0006...
1
arXiv:2606.20464v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > ABSTRACT
321
{}
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9
capable of reproducing the observed M–R relationships of sub-Neptunes (Lin & Seager 2025). In early planet-forming disks, the main carriers of carbon are organic ices and macromolecular refractory carbonaceous dust. The final carbon budget of a planet may undergo substantial processing and volatile loss (Bergin et al. ...
[ 0.0089177722, 0.0321960002, 0.0187166929, -0.0366201848, -0.0279864669, 0.0162613131, -0.0259004086, -0.0167070217, 0.0122818081, 0.0582586415, 0.0210528336, -0.0233168714, 0.0137616526, -0.0690209121, -0.0103611536, -0.0038221045, -0.0095414296, 0.0449473448, -0.0395905823, -0...
2
arXiv:2606.20464v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > 1. Introduction
683
{}
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9
of Solar System comets. Soot, together with water ice, may therefore constitute viable components of the building blocks of sub-Neptunes. Because both soot and water have low intrinsic densities, and because bulk compositions inferred from M–R measurements are highly degenerate (Rogers & Seager 2010; Dorn et al. 2017),...
[ 0.0085277203, 0.0503314286, 0.0152231734, -0.0172371399, -0.0311133228, 0.0028662542, -0.0309262276, 0.0200987291, 0.0072308187, 0.0387463123, 0.0341836624, -0.027414009, 0.0055829315, -0.0732371807, 0.0136178648, 0.0028228499, -0.0131493006, 0.0377771854, -0.0541905686, -0.020...
3
arXiv:2606.20464v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > 1. Introduction
733
{}
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9
We adopt the definitions of planet bulk core composition cases as defined in Li et al. (2026), chemically equilibrate them globally, and investigate how the observable regions of their atmospheres differ between the different bulk compositions. The methodologies for chemical equilibration and atmospheric structure are ...
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4
arXiv:2606.20464v1 [astro-ph.EP] 18 Jun 2026 > 2. Methods
950
{}
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9
Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
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5
Case 1
11
{}
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9
76% 55% 24% 20% 25% 60% 40%
[ -0.0154037923, 0.0052241464, 0.0029224865, 0.0001212607, -0.0474321954, -0.0179564618, 0.0287254173, 0.0233940221, 0.000858899, 0.0437242314, 0.04920711, 0.0182179045, 0.013375164, -0.0560079776, -0.0242678728, 0.0190282259, -0.0372166373, -0.0664086044, -0.0465344042, 0.003269...
6
100%
14
{}
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9
24% 25%
[ -0.0116355903, -0.0052904263, -0.0235148054, 0.0240245424, -0.0516613647, -0.0047972244, 0.0298157912, 0.0253981911, 0.0095764296, 0.0305370521, 0.0273449346, -0.0139457416, -0.0007949783, 0.0099852681, -0.0408814363, 0.0635919347, -0.0326487683, -0.0096398639, -0.0229650214, 0...
7
55%
4
{}
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9
soot-rock core water-rock core soot-water-rock core core [Figure: Fig. 1. Considered bulk core compositions. Core material excludes priordial H-dominated gas and encompasses all planet building material that is accreted in condensed form. Figure is adapted from (Li et al. 2026).]
[ 0.0038102015, 0.0151994331, 0.0394927673, -0.0344759077, -0.0188984107, 0.0405196846, 0.0033008712, -0.0009125552, 0.020161882, 0.0707767606, 0.0525539629, -0.0300614405, 0.0348131359, -0.0553270131, 0.0012654496, -0.0018800147, -0.0310565401, 0.0199792907, -0.0438835956, -0.01...
8
40% > ocky core
68
{ "has_figure": true }
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9
1.0 17.5
[ 0.0199321955, 0.0046619209, 0.0188748818, 0.020070944, -0.0397182591, -0.017329501, 0.0112016108, -0.00057287, 0.0211308114, 0.0624383166, -0.003432028, 0.0268184375, 0.0224420801, -0.0054010409, -0.017519353, 0.023965992, -0.0419588052, -0.0387685783, -0.0359977297, 0.03583806...
9
40% > Atmospheric metal mass fraction Z
7
{}
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9
10 1 15.0 0.8
[ 0.0444630906, 0.0144994911, 0.0229682624, -0.0043387557, -0.055739902, -0.0194157455, 0.0253275167, 0.0073769195, 0.0043108515, 0.065432936, 0.0037475121, 0.0352190956, -0.0110073593, -0.0170662329, -0.0271043945, 0.0086686369, -0.0351076722, -0.0121736797, -0.0548419356, 0.029...
10
40% > Atmospheric mass fraction
11
{}
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9
10 1 12.5 0.6 10 2 10.0 7.5 0.4 10 3 10 2 5.0 10 4 0.2 2.5 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
[ 0.0345905721, 0.0126410928, 0.0284520984, -0.0045738588, -0.0281519722, -0.0160616543, 0.0352221988, 0.0260845348, -0.0186680071, 0.0480898358, 0.0577073172, 0.0257973485, 0.014159563, -0.022676656, -0.032643415, 0.030229684, -0.0140248127, -0.0523951538, -0.0411839634, 0.01322...
11
40% > Atmospheric C/O
115
{}
112c895e4969a7e7627a1261002eeb988e8c581b9379b567c699553c1758efe9
Case 2, Mp = 10M Case 3, Mp = 10M Case 4, Mp = 10M Mp =10M w/ H2O condensation [Figure: Fig. 2. Atmospheric properties of the four modeled planet cases after chemical equilibration: (a) atmospheric C/O ratio, (b) atmospheric mass fraction, (c) atmospheric metal mass fraction Z, and (d) mean molecular weight (MMW). Th...
[ 0.0043258532, 0.0282481443, 0.0415220149, -0.0086063491, -0.0376248136, -0.0017586744, -0.0061681685, -0.0175538436, 0.006084404, 0.0326815918, 0.0529464446, -0.0201401487, 0.0326603614, -0.0603157692, -0.0252053775, 0.0275050644, -0.0117012979, -0.008712234, -0.0275870971, -0....
12
40% > Case 4, Mp = 6M Case 3, Mp = 10M > Case 1, Mp = 10M
206
{ "has_figure": true }
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Space Mission Intelligence Data

Seed data for the Space Mission Intelligence Agent RAG pipeline.

Configurations

  • documents — 40 documents (NASA technical reports, ESA mission papers, arXiv preprints)
  • chunks — 2,590 text chunks with 1024-dim embeddings (sentence-transformers)
  • satellites — satellite orbital data (TLE-derived)

Usage

from datasets import load_dataset

docs = load_dataset("JuanCastillo29/space-mission-intelligence-data", "documents")
chunks = load_dataset("JuanCastillo29/space-mission-intelligence-data", "chunks")
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