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Animals and humans | In a tight spot, you’d probably intuit that a human life outweighs an animal’s. There are good arguments why that’s wrong | This January, a 57-year-old man in Baltimore received a heart transplant from a pig. Xenotransplantation involves using nonhuman animals as sources of organs for humans. While the idea of using nonhuman animals for this purpose might seem troubling, many humans think that the sacrifice is worth it, provided that we can... | Jeff Sebo | https://aeon.co//essays/human-exceptionalism-is-a-danger-to-all-human-and-nonhuman | |
Cities | To understand why early cities thrived, look not to the temples of kings but to their subjects’ bustling neighbourhoods | All cities have neighbourhoods. This may not sound like much of an observation, but it is in fact a powerful claim for archaeologists of early cities. We now know that neighbourhoods are the only true urban universal – a feature found in every city that has ever existed, past and present. Other seemingly ‘urban’ traits... | Michael E Smith | https://aeon.co//essays/life-in-early-cities-on-neighbourhoods-and-energised-crowding | |
Poverty and development | Last year, 200 million children did not get enough to eat, yet it would be cheap and easy for the world to feed them all | Swing both arms up and clap your hands. Arms down and up. Clap! Down and up! Clap! You are singing all the while or, in my case, humming as I move my hips to the beat of the song and the clapping and dancing. Every once in a while, the beautiful young Malawian woman next to me has to stop with laughter. Literally, she ... | Sharman Apt Russell | https://aeon.co//essays/how-we-could-end-child-hunger-by-making-different-choices | |
Love and friendship | Love is both a wonderful thing and a cunning evolutionary trick to control us. A dangerous cocktail in the wrong hands | We can all agree that, on balance, and taking everything into account, love is a wonderful thing. For many, it is the point of life. I have spent more than a decade researching the science behind human love and, rather than becoming immune to its charms, I am increasingly in awe of its complexity and its importance to ... | Anna Machin | https://aeon.co//essays/love-is-both-wonderful-and-a-dangerous-evolutionary-trick | |
Biology | Why we need to stop thinking about parents, offspring and sex when we try to understand how life reproduces itself | If you split yourself down the middle to become two people, would you survive the process? And, if you did, would your other half be your child, your clone or your sibling? Would this create two instances of the same you, existing simultaneously in two places at the same time; or would it create two entirely new people... | Gunnar O Babcock | https://aeon.co//essays/we-need-to-stop-thinking-about-sex-when-it-comes-to-reproduction | |
Virtues and vices | We must keep the flame of pessimism burning: it is a virtue for our deeply troubled times, when crude optimism is a vice | In the 17th and 18th centuries, a group of Western philosophers came to clashes, on the page at least, over the age-old problem of evil: the question of how a good God could allow the existence of evil and suffering in the world. Philosophers such as Pierre Bayle, Nicolas Malebranche and G W Leibniz, later followed by ... | Mara van der Lugt | https://aeon.co//essays/in-these-dark-times-the-virtue-we-need-is-hopeful-pessimism | |
The environment | Our excrement is a natural, renewable and sustainable resource – if only we can overcome our visceral disgust of it | Every fall when the grey sky over Kazan swelled with dark heavy clouds so full of water that the rain never stopped until it turned to snow, my grandfather prepped our small family farm for the long Soviet winter. He donned his sturdy overalls, heavy gloves and big boots – and headed over to our septic tank that held t... | Lina Zeldovich | https://aeon.co//essays/a-short-biography-of-human-excrement-and-its-value | |
Computing and artificial intelligence | Alan Turing was a pioneer of machine learning, whose work continues to shape the crucial question: can machines think? | When Alan Turing turned his attention to artificial intelligence, there was probably no one in the world better equipped for the task. His paper ‘Computing Machinery and Intelligence’ (1950) is still one of the most frequently cited in the field. Turing died young, however, and for a long time most of his work remained... | Sebastian Sunday Grève | https://aeon.co//essays/why-we-should-remember-alan-turing-as-a-philosopher | |
Anthropology | Marx’s idea that societies were naturally egalitarian and communal before farming is widely influential and quite wrong | Karl Marx died on 14 March 1883. At the funeral three days later, Friedrich Engels wasted little time on their 40-year friendship, focusing instead on Marx’s legacy. ‘Just as Darwin discovered the law of development of organic nature,’ Engels said, ‘so Marx discovered the law of development of human history.’ His frien... | Manvir Singh | https://aeon.co//essays/the-idea-of-primitive-communism-is-as-seductive-as-it-is-wrong | |
Thinkers and theories | The history of ideas still struggles to remember the names of notable women philosophers. Mary Hesse is a salient example | What was the name of the female scientist who pioneered the mRNA research behind the success of recent COVID-19 vaccines? Who was that 16th-century catholic nun from whom René Descartes stole the evil demon thought experiment that secured his place in public memory as the father of modern philosophy? I doubt you rememb... | Ann-Sophie Barwich | https://aeon.co//essays/why-are-women-philosophers-often-erased-from-collective-memory | |
Economics | If you really want decolonisation, go beyond cultural criticism to the deep structural insights of economist Samir Amin | With the publication of Orientalism in 1978, Edward Said would become one of the most influential scholars of our era. The book transformed the study of the history of the modern world, as it offered insights into how racist discourses created and maintained European empires. As much for his political activities, Said ... | Ingrid Harvold Kvangraven | https://aeon.co//essays/if-you-want-decolonisation-go-to-the-economics-of-samir-amin | |
Knowledge | For a century, the idea of truth has been deflated, becoming terrain from which philosophers fled. They must return – urgently | It is often said, rather casually, that truth is dissolving, that we live in the ‘post-truth era’. But truth is one of our central concepts – perhaps our most central concept – and I don’t think we can do without it. To believe that masks prevent the spread of COVID-19 is to take it to be true that they do. To assert i... | Crispin Sartwell | https://aeon.co//essays/truth-is-real-and-philosophers-must-return-their-attention-to-it | |
Nature and landscape | Too many nature writers descend into poetic self-absorption instead of the sharp-eyed realism the natural world deserves | I worry, sometimes, that knowledge is falling out of fashion – that in the field in which I work, nature writing, the multitudinous nonfictions of the more-than-human world, facts have been devalued; knowing stuff is no longer enough. Marc Hamer, a British writer on nature and gardening, said in his book Seed to Dust (... | Richard Smyth | https://aeon.co//essays/nature-writing-should-strive-for-clarity-not-sentimentality | |
History | You likely think of the American West as deeply conservative and rural. Yet history shows this politics is very new indeed | ‘If you’re running for president as a Republican, chances are good that you are wearing cowboy boots,’ noted Ryan Teague Beckwith in a photo essay published by Time magazine in 2015. Beckwith’s assertion came with receipts: photographs showing cowboy-booted Republicans from nearly every corner of the nation, from Sarah... | Daniel J Herman | https://aeon.co//essays/a-dissenting-view-on-the-origins-of-the-uss-right-wing | |
Stories and literature | When a writer stares down a blank page, the whole of literature stares back. Why, then, leave the empty page as it is? | In 1927, Virginia Woolf, perusing a dummy copy of her latest book To the Lighthouse – its pages utterly blank – pronounced it ‘the best novel I have ever written’. She was only half in jest, knowing very well that the dummy’s empty pages would be perfectly legible to Vita Sackville-West, to whom this inscription on the... | Andrew Gallix | https://aeon.co//essays/the-place-of-empty-space-in-the-literary-imagination | |
Evolution | Classic evolutionary theory holds that species separate over time. But it’s fuzzier than that – now we know they also merge | I remember standing at the front of a biology classroom at the University of Southern California sometime in the 1990s and placing an acetate film on an overhead projector. The words cast onto the white screen read something like: Species: a group of organisms that interbreed to produce fertile offspring.More than a ce... | Juli Berwald | https://aeon.co//essays/why-evolution-is-not-a-tree-of-life-but-a-fuzzy-network | |
Virtues and vices | Proclaiming one’s own goodness is deeply annoying. Yet signalling theory explains why it’s a peculiarly powerful manoeuvre | As a quick stroll on social media reveals, most people love showing that they are good. Whether by expressing compassion for disaster victims, sharing a post to support a social movement, or denouncing a celebrity’s racist comment, many people are eager to broadcast their high moral standing. Critics sometimes dismiss ... | Tadeg Quillien | https://aeon.co//essays/why-virtue-signalling-is-not-just-a-vice-but-an-evolved-tool | |
Technology and the self | As tasks mount up, our brain’s ability to juggle goes down. Neuroergonomic tactics can relieve the cognitive burden | Just about every parent will have a personal version of this scenario, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic: it is evening after a long workday. You are getting dinner started, but it’s like trying to cook in a blizzard. The children are crying, the spaghetti’s boiling over on the stove, your phone starts buzzing wi... | Emily Willingham | https://aeon.co//essays/how-might-neuroergonomics-help-us-deal-with-mental-overload | |
Ethics | Corruption is a truly global crisis and the wealth addiction that feeds it is hiding in plain sight | In Kandahar, Afghanistan, in late 2001, I watched a girl of about nine strip a Kalashnikov rifle, inspect the bullets and reload the sound ones in a matter of minutes. That child lived in a mud-brick house in the middle of a graveyard. I lived there, too. I was staying with her family as I covered the fall of the Talib... | Sarah Chayes | https://aeon.co//essays/corruption-has-shaped-history-why-do-we-still-ignore-it | |
Stories and literature | Franz Kafka believed illness was at the root of his writing yet he embraced wellness fads with hearty vigour | A few months before he died, Franz Kafka wrote one of his finest and saddest tales. In ‘The Burrow’, a solitary, mole-like creature has dedicated its life to building an elaborate underground home in order to protect itself from outsiders. ‘I have completed the construction of my burrow and it seems to be successful,’ ... | Will Rees | https://aeon.co//essays/the-role-of-hypochondria-in-the-life-and-work-of-franz-kafka | |
Thinkers and theories | The desire for certainty is often foolish and sometimes dangerous. Scepticism undermines it, both in oneself and in others | Think about a time when you changed your mind. Maybe you heard about a crime, and rushed to judgment about the guilt or innocence of the accused. Perhaps you wanted your country to go to war, and realise now that maybe that was a bad idea. Or possibly you grew up in a religious or partisan household, and switched alleg... | Nicholas Tampio | https://aeon.co//essays/scepticism-is-a-way-of-life-that-allows-democracy-to-flourish | |
Ecology and environmental sciences | Fire is a planetary feature, not a biotic bug. What can we learn from Yosemite’s experiment to restore natural fire? | Stand at Glacier Point and you’ll instantly understand why it is one of North America’s iconic overlooks. The great trough of Yosemite Valley in California fills the foreground below and, with almost gravitational pull, carries the eye eastward to the crestline of the Sierra Nevada mountains. With its sheer granite wal... | Stephen J Pyne | https://aeon.co//essays/what-yosemites-fire-history-says-about-life-in-the-pyrocene | |
Fairness and equality | Being on-call, out-of-sync and underslept is not just personal but a pervasive political injustice. Bold change is needed | For Uber drivers trying to make ends meet, it can be tempting to sleep in the car. It saves on a few journeys and helps make the most of peak-hour business. It keeps a driver readily available for work – and the apps favour those who can clock up the hours. There are carparks where the sleeping bags come out after dark... | Jonathan White | https://aeon.co//essays/being-underslept-and-out-of-sync-is-a-political-injustice | |
Stories and literature | How do ancient stories of talking elephants and singing birds encourage a life of truth, nonviolence and compassion? | As a child, for every summer vacation, my parents took me to Kerala in southern India to spend three months with my aunt in her large family-estate. It was an age before televisions were widely available and therefore at night-time she told us stories from the vast oeuvre of Indian mythologies called the ‘puranas’. The... | Keerthik Sasidharan | https://aeon.co//essays/how-ancient-dharma-stories-encourage-a-life-of-compassion | |
Film and visual culture | Korean culture is characterised by an untranslatably profound sorrow and regret. Or is that just another stereotype? | As a Korean resident of the United States, I have been both amazed and bewildered by the recent success of Korean popular culture in the country. When I first came to the US in the mid-1980s, despite South Korea’s significant economic advances of the previous decades, most Americans I met still had the impression of my... | Minsoo Kang | https://aeon.co//essays/against-han-or-why-koreans-are-not-defined-by-sadness | |
History of ideas | To truly see black people in ancient art we need to look beyond the historically recent trope of ‘Blackness = inferiority’ | In their memo ‘On the Abolition of the English Department’ from 1968, the lecturers Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o (then known as James Ngũgĩ), Henry Owuor-Anyumba and Taban lo Liyong spearheaded an educational revolution at the University of Nairobi in Kenya. Eager to sweep out the vestiges of British colonialism from the universi... | Sarah Derbew | https://aeon.co//essays/how-does-an-ancient-greek-cup-challenge-anti-black-racism | |
Sleep and dreams | We’re not the only beings that dream. What visions might sleep bring to a cell, an insect, a mollusk, an ape? | How many times have you woken up from a dream that has deeply stirred your emotions? Terrifying dreams of chasing and fighting, grandiose experiences of free flight through space, moving or disturbing reunions with loved ones who have drifted away or died… A single dream that is particularly remarkable for its beauty, ... | Sidarta Ribeiro | https://aeon.co//essays/the-regenerative-visions-of-dreaming-across-time-and-species | |
Stories and literature | Kalila and Dimna’s ancient parables on power delight as much as they instruct. But their moral maxims are ethically murky | ‘There is not an animal that lives on the earth, nor a being that flies on its wings, but they form communities like you.’ So states the Quran in ‘The Cattle’, one of many chapters where God praises and even personifies nonhumans. No purer nor worthier than people, animals are also no less precious. Hence why the schol... | Kevin Blankinship | https://aeon.co//essays/kalila-and-dimnas-ethically-murky-ancient-parables-on-power | |
Philosophy of science | Laws of nature are impossible to break, and nearly as difficult to define. Just what kind of necessity do they possess? | In the original Star Trek, with the Starship Enterprise hurtling rapidly downward into the outer atmosphere of a star, Captain James T Kirk orders Lt Commander Montgomery Scott to restart the engines immediately and get the ship to safety. Scotty replies that he can’t do it. It’s not that he refuses to obey the Captain... | Marc Lange | https://aeon.co//essays/natural-laws-cant-be-broken-but-can-they-be-defined | |
Cognition and intelligence | Powerful tricks from computer science and cybernetics show how evolution ‘hacked’ its way to intelligence from the bottom up | Intelligent decision-making doesn’t require a brain. You were capable of it before you even had one. Beginning life as a single fertilised egg, you divided and became a mass of genetically identical cells. They chattered among themselves to fashion a complex anatomical structure – your body. Even more remarkably, if yo... | Michael Levin & Rafael Yuste | https://aeon.co//essays/how-evolution-hacked-its-way-to-intelligence-from-the-bottom-up | |
History of ideas | Academic philosophy can indeed make sense of our interdependent world. But only if it transforms by becoming truly diverse | Philosophy undergraduates typically learn the history of their subject through two core classes: ‘ancient philosophy’ and ‘modern philosophy’. The tale begins in the Athenian city-state with Socrates (c470-399 BCE), philosophy’s veritable mascot – an endearing curmudgeon, a speaker of truth to power, and a martyr execu... | Monika Kirloskar-Steinbach & Leah Kalmanson | https://aeon.co//essays/how-academic-philosophy-can-become-truly-diverse-and-global | |
Childhood and adolescence | When parents cast a child into the role of mediator, friend and carer, the wounds are profound. But recovery is possible | I came to research the emotional neglect of children by accident. More than a decade ago, I wrote my Master’s thesis on the relationship between the personal and professional lives of psychotherapists. How did they manage to keep the distress they heard in their clinics from affecting their own emotional balance? And h... | Nivida Chandra | https://aeon.co//essays/how-can-adults-undo-the-harm-of-being-parentified-as-children | |
Travel | D H Lawrence’s restless travels in Sardinia were a quest for self-knowledge. The real island slipped beneath his notice | One way to avoid disillusionment is to stay at home, another is to fortify your illusions until they are unassailable. When D H Lawrence went to Sardinia in 1921 it was ostensibly ‘to see if I should like to live there’. The idea had come to him the previous year: to travel from one Italian island – Sicily, where he wa... | William Atkins | https://aeon.co//essays/d-h-lawrence-and-the-impertinence-of-the-travel-writer | |
Ethics | We will never truly advance our ethical relationship with other animals until we stop treating them as chattels for use | What’s wrong with eating meat and other animal products, such as dairy or eggs? The usual answer appears to be simple: these products involve a great deal of animal suffering, particularly as most of them are produced on ‘factory farms’, where animals are raised in terribly cramped conditions that exacerbate their suff... | Gary L Francione | https://aeon.co//essays/why-morality-requires-veganism-the-case-against-owning-animals | |
Neuroscience | Energy flow between brain and environment drives the non-equilibrium that sustains life. Could turbulence help us thrive? | According to thermodynamics, any living organism is constantly exchanging a flux of matter and energy with its environment. As such, the system is in non-equilibrium. In his book What Is Life? (1944), the Austrian physicist and Nobel Laureate Erwin Schrödinger proposed that sustaining life is exactly predicated on avoi... | Morten L Kringelbach & Gustavo Deco | https://aeon.co//essays/what-can-a-thermodynamics-of-mind-say-about-how-to-thrive | |
Environmental history | If your hometown were beset with toxic dust, like Australia’s Broken Hill, would you feel any less connected to it? | The ecology of arid Australia is patient. The crust of this island continent, moving ever so slowly, consists of soils that are ancient, dry and nutrient-poor. Inland, water is elusive. Often exposed to soaring temperatures, the earth bakes. The forms of life that thrive here – thrifty, tough, strident, brittle, and fr... | Lilian Pearce | https://aeon.co//essays/home-among-the-toxic-dust-and-soil-of-australias-mining-towns | |
Human rights and justice | We are suspended between the inescapable facts of our lives and what we do to contest them, nowhere more than in prison | My uncle Frank used to be locked up in one of the prisons where I teach philosophy. A couple of years ago, I asked him which cell he was in because I was excited at the thought of seeing it. He closed one eye as he tried to remember, and said he was on B Wing, on the third landing, and told me the number on his door. T... | Andy West | https://aeon.co//essays/reading-simone-de-beauvoirs-ethics-of-ambiguity-in-prison | |
History of ideas | Neither psychology nor anthropology fully understand love: only history sees that it’s all about the time and the telling | The top song on Billboard’s Rhythm & Blues chart in 1967 was Jackie Wilson’s (Your Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and Higher. Once (he sang), he had been ‘down-hearted’. Then he found a special girl. Now he’s flying high. Next, compare the feeling of love in Wilson’s song with that of Odysseus in Homer’s epic th... | Barbara H Rosenwein | https://aeon.co//essays/to-understand-what-love-is-read-the-stories-that-history-tells | |
Politics and government | The official definition of corruption – the abuse of public office for private gain – does little to capture the reality | In the 1970s, international development professionals settled on the following definition of corruption: the abuse of public power for private gain. For economic modellers and political sciences, this focus provided clear parameters to describe the institutional conditions that motivate government officials to make mon... | Sudhir Chella Rajan | https://aeon.co//essays/grand-corruption-as-a-systemic-parasite-upon-society | |
Global history | Far more potent than oil or gold, water is a stream of geopolitical force that runs deep, feeding crops and building nations | A great river encircles the world. It rises in the heartland of the United States and carries more water than the Mississippi and Yangtze rivers combined. One branch, its oldest, streams over the Atlantic, heading for Europe and the Middle East. Another crosses the Pacific, flowing towards China. Countless tributaries ... | Giulio Boccaletti | https://aeon.co//essays/water-is-a-stream-of-geopolitical-force-through-history | |
Biology | Tokyo’s imperial archives advise what science now confirms: the secret of longevity lies in the gentle arts of the bedroom | For more than 1,000 years, the Imperial Family of Japan and its physicians have preserved a treasure of oriental medicine: the complete 30 scrolls of the Ishinhō, or the ‘heart of medical prescription’. This compendium was derived from sources in India, China, Korea and elsewhere, though many of the original documents ... | Denis Noble | https://aeon.co//essays/lovemaking-for-longevity-a-recipe-from-tokyos-imperial-archives | |
History of science | Believe in the Loch Ness monster and you’re more likely to believe the Apollo missions were fake. How do weird beliefs work? | Almost nobody holds to just one strange idea. By ‘strange’ here, I mean unconventional, unorthodox, contrary to conventional wisdom. (To attenuate some of the hostile judgment implied in those descriptions, from now on I will use the term ‘fringe’.) There is a whole gamut of examples to choose from, ranging from the id... | Michael D Gordin | https://aeon.co//essays/the-different-lives-of-fringe-and-strange-scientific-ideas | |
Archaeology | How did this ancient and enigmatic sculpture of a beautiful Egyptian queen end up as fortune’s hostage in Germany? | Almost 3,400 years ago, the sculptor Thutmose said goodbye to the extensive compound – a warren of workshops, courtyards and living accommodation for artists and apprentices – that had been both his home and his workplace for more than a decade. He had once managed a highly prestigious business, creating many of the st... | Joyce Tyldesley | https://aeon.co//essays/how-the-enigmatic-nefertiti-came-to-be-locked-away-in-germany | |
Ecology and environmental sciences | Massive tree-planting programmes have come to substitute for the tradeoffs and complexity of restoring real ecosystems | ‘A farm is not beautiful unless it is productive.’– from The Conservationist (1974) by Nadine GordimerWith a pocket-full of blazing stars and assorted other wildflower seeds, I’m ready to spend another hour restoring the several acres of longleaf pine savanna that surrounds my home in north Florida. When we purchased t... | Francis E (‘Jack’) Putz | https://aeon.co//essays/the-tradeoffs-of-savanna-restoration-in-a-tree-crazed-world | |
Philosophy of mind | The infamous thought experiment, flawed as it is, does demonstrate one thing: physics alone can’t explain consciousness | In his book Until the End of Time (2020), the physicist Brian Greene sums up the standard physicalist view of reality: ‘Particles and fields. Physical laws and initial conditions. To the depth of reality we have so far plumbed, there is no evidence for anything else.’ This physicalist approach has a heck of a track rec... | Dan Falk | https://aeon.co//essays/what-can-the-zombie-argument-say-about-human-consciousness | |
Subcultures | The dropout was not just a hippy-trippy hedonist but a paranoid soul, who feared brainwashing and societal control | In November 1967, Robin Farquharson ‘dropped out’. After losing his job as a computer programmer along with the flat he’d been renting, he decided to forgo the dwindling funds in his bank account and live on London’s streets. In his short memoir Drop Out! (1968), Farquharson recounted his homeless wanderings and loose ... | Charlie Williams | https://aeon.co//essays/the-dropout-a-history-from-postwar-paranoia-to-a-summer-of-love | |
Economics | Financial markets are entangled and uncertain. When will economists let go of physics envy to embrace the quantum revolution? | In her book Mother of Invention: How Good Ideas Get Ignored in an Economy Built for Men (2021), the writer Katrine Marçal argues that many useful innovations have failed to catch on because they are deemed ‘too feminine’ by marketers. A classic example is the wheeled suitcase. The wheel was invented in ancient Mesopota... | David Orrell | https://aeon.co//essays/when-will-economists-embrace-the-quantum-revolution | |
Consciousness and altered states | Spiritual highs and mental breakdowns are both products of the same evolved brain system granting us the power to transform | Now as he was going along and approaching Damascus, suddenly a light from heaven flashed around him. He fell to the ground and heard a voice saying to him: ‘Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?’ He asked: ‘Who are you, Lord?’ The reply came: ‘I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting. But get up and enter the city, and you ... | Ari Brouwer | https://aeon.co//essays/what-a-spiritual-high-shares-with-a-mental-breakdown | |
History | Let your imagination take flight to the hunting, riding, adventurous lives of Scythia’s warrior women, the real Amazons | The year is 700 BCE, the place is the Black Sea. You find yourself in land east of ancient Greece. To your right lies the tumultuous sea, to your left a mountain range. In between: fertile lands where hazelnuts grow, berries, wild sage and oregano. You are riding through the shallow marshes along the coast, with no mor... | Christine Lehnen | https://aeon.co//essays/imagine-scythias-fierce-warrior-women-the-real-amazons | |
History | How does a nation begin to take responsibility for its past wrongs? The German case suggests courage comes locally | On 8 May 1985, West Germany’s president Richard von Weizsäcker delivered something akin to the Gettysburg Address – not for a nation in the midst of war, as was the case for the United States’ president Abraham Lincoln in 1863, but for a country working through the memory and the meaning of a lost war 40 years after it... | Helmut Walser Smith | https://aeon.co//essays/a-thousand-local-activists-helped-germany-reckon-with-nazism | |
Ethics | Not eating animals is wrong. If you care about animals, then the right thing to do is breed them, kill them and eat them | If you care about animals, you should eat them. It is not just that you may do so, but you should do so. In fact, you owe it to animals to eat them. It is your duty. Why? Because eating animals benefits them and has benefitted them for a long time. Breeding and eating animals is a very long-standing cultural institutio... | Nick Zangwill | https://aeon.co//essays/if-you-care-about-animals-it-is-your-moral-duty-to-eat-them | |
Stories and literature | Read with love, rather than critical distance, the classics can provide tools to subvert oppressive hierarchies | As a high-school student with still-shaky English proficiency, I found a collection of Plato’s dialogues in a garbage pile near my house in Corona, Queens. I had grown up in a mountain town in the Dominican Republic and emigrated to New York City just before my 12th birthday. My mother had left the Dominican Republic a... | Roosevelt Montás | https://aeon.co//essays/why-the-great-books-still-speak-for-themselves-and-for-us | |
Mood and emotion | Even when you know that prospects are grim, hope can help. It’s not just a feeling, but a way to step into the future | Melanie, a 47-year-old partner at a top civil engineering firm in Boston, could not accept the fact that she was staring at tacky art in a physician’s waiting room. Sitting there, her thoughts drifted back to her advisor in college, who cautioned her that it would not be easy to succeed in a male-dominated field. But s... | David B Feldman & Benjamin W Corn | https://aeon.co//essays/true-hope-takes-a-hard-look-at-reality-then-makes-a-plan | |
Food and drink | The humble cocoa bean’s journey from its Amerindian origins to worldwide dominance is a lesson in the power of trade | At the end of the 17th century, Madrid started to be populated, especially around Calle de Postas and Plaza Mayor, by kiosks, stores and street vendors selling chocolate. Individual licences were granted every year, but several street vendors profited from the curiosity towards the exotic drink by selling a dark bevera... | Irene Fattacciu | https://aeon.co//essays/how-chocolate-went-from-exotic-curiosity-to-worldwide-commodity | |
Animals and humans | The horse is a prey animal, the human a predator. Our shared trust and athleticism is a neurobiological miracle | Horse-and-human teams perform complex manoeuvres in competitions of all sorts. Together, we can gallop up to obstacles standing 8 feet (2.4 metres) high, leave the ground, and fly blind – neither party able to see over the top until after the leap has been initiated. Adopting a flatter trajectory with greater speed, ho... | Janet Jones | https://aeon.co//essays/horse-human-cooperation-is-a-neurobiological-miracle | |
Economics | After generations of ‘blackboard economics’, Berkeley and MIT are leading a return to economics that studies the real world | For the workers who are curious why their wages have not increased in the past decade – while the incomes of some, such as footballers, have soared – the Bank of England’s website has a reassuring message: ‘There is a method to this madness: the economic theory of supply and demand’. The bank’s website provides an ‘idi... | Tom Bergin | https://aeon.co//essays/economics-is-once-again-becoming-a-worldly-science | |
Logic and probability | When logic fails to make sense of a world noisy with inconsistency, paraconsistent logics hold out (im)possible solutions | Here is a dilemma you may find familiar. On the one hand, a life well lived requires security, safety and regularity. That might mean a family, a partner, a steady job. On the other hand, a life well lived requires new experiences, risk and authentic independence, in ways incompatible with a family or partner or job. D... | Zach Weber | https://aeon.co//essays/paraconsistent-logics-find-structure-in-our-inconsistent-world | |
The ancient world | Mythological home of Helen, war-making polis of Leonidas and now a modest municipality: the city is a palimpsest | ‘You take delight not in a city’s seven or 70 wonders, but in the answer it gives to a question of yours.’– from Invisible Cities (1972) by Italo CalvinoUnlike other great cities of ancient fame such as Rome, Athens or Jerusalem, Sparta seems to have disappeared off the map. What remains of the legendary town? A name? ... | Daphne D. Martin | https://aeon.co//essays/theres-more-to-sparta-than-martial-valour-and-austerity | |
Art | Dig into the voids, pin-pricks and cut-outs of art and history, and those absences speak volumes about what’s been missed | Holes are full of potential. We can only imagine what was in them before they were emptied out, why they became nothing instead of something. Like a kaleidoscope, the picture made by holes is always changing. Like history or art itself, holes are never finished. Archaeologists use soil analysis to identify postholes, t... | Kim Beil | https://aeon.co//essays/the-history-of-holes-tells-a-story-of-power-and-potential | |
Mood and emotion | Is anger like energy, forever changing form but never dissipating, or part of our repertoire of desires, the cry of a need unmet? | A psychoanalytic consulting room is a crucible for a rich array of emotions. But perhaps none appears more insistently as anger, nor in so many guises. For example, a woman finds her apparently inexplicable rage against her partner manifesting in asthmatic attacks so severe she becomes fearful of being in the same room... | Josh Cohen | https://aeon.co//essays/anger-is-a-state-of-agitated-enervation-that-moves-the-world | |
Design and fashion | Recognising that waste is central, not peripheral, to everything we design, make and do is key to transforming the future | The opposition between ‘nature’ and ‘culture’ is problematic for many reasons, but there’s one that we rarely discuss. The ‘nature vs culture’ dualism leaves out an entire domain that properly belongs to neither: the world of waste. The mountains of waste that we produce every year, the torrents of polluting effluent, ... | Justin McGuirk | https://aeon.co//essays/ours-is-the-waste-age-thats-the-key-to-tranforming-the-future | |
Travel | Driven by the need for a storied life, I relished the opportunity for endless travel. Is that a moment in time, now over? | I am a clown … and I collect moments.– Heinrich Böll, The Clown (1963)The first thing I linger over, when I upturn the box onto my bedsheet, is an overexposed photograph of two skinny boys. It depicts me, aged 19, with a collegial arm slung over the shoulders of Ed, an old friend from school. The pair of us are crouche... | Henry Wismayer | https://aeon.co//essays/a-dispatch-from-the-end-of-travels-brief-troubled-golden-age | |
History | Major disruptions in world history follow a clear pattern. What can upheavals of the past tell us about our own future? | On 3 April 1917, a crowd gathered to meet a train arriving from Helsinki at Petrograd’s Finland Station. The train carried Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. He greeted his audience with a speech calling for the overthrow of Russia’s government – and, six months later, he made this happen. The world changed. Lenin, who had been li... | David Potter | https://aeon.co//essays/a-history-of-disruption-from-fringe-ideas-to-social-change | |
Ethics | You might think of it as a philosophy for turning away from the world, but ancient Stoics took a stand against tyranny | The year is 133 BCE. The place Rome. Tiberius Gracchus, a tribune of the plebes, is killed in the streets, together with 300 of his supporters. He had angered many in the Senate by sponsoring anti-aristocratic legislation, in particular redistribution of land, a shortened military service, and broadened access to the p... | Massimo Pigliucci | https://aeon.co//essays/when-stoicism-is-a-political-not-just-a-personal-virtue | |
Information and communication | Anonymous users generate most toxic abuse and conspiracy theories online. The right to be anonymous should be curtailed | We have come a long way from the optimism that surrounded the internet in the early 1990s. As Tim Berners-Lee has remarked several times, there was a ‘utopian’ view of its potential to democratise news and reinforce social cohesion. Indeed, only 10 years ago, we were celebrating the role that online communications play... | Stephen Kinsella | https://aeon.co//essays/curtailing-anonymity-is-a-first-step-to-reducing-online-abuse | |
Philosophy of religion | The modern world is disenchanted. God remains dead. But our need for transcendence lives on. How should we fulfil it? | On an evening in 1851, a mutton-chopped 28-year-old English poet and critic looked out at the English Channel with his new bride. Walking along the white chalk cliffs of Dover, jagged and streaked black with flint as if the coast had just been ripped from the Continent, he would recall that: The sea is calm to-night.Th... | Ed Simon | https://aeon.co//essays/how-to-fulfil-the-need-for-transcendence-after-the-death-of-god | |
Global history | Sweeping the human story into a cosmic tale is a thrill but we should be wary about what is overlooked in the grandeur | Big History burst on to the scene 30 years ago, promising to reinvigorate a stale and overspecialised academic discipline by situating the human past within a holistic account at a cosmic scale. The goal was to produce a story of life that could be discerned by synthesising cosmology, geology, evolutionary biology, arc... | Ian Hesketh | https://aeon.co//essays/we-should-be-wary-about-what-big-history-overlooks-in-its-myth | |
Stories and literature | Some twists infuriate; others are brilliant. But they both use the surprise story as a self-exploding confidence game | The thrill of a genuinely unanticipated plot twist that snaps satisfyingly into place is hard to match. Critics are protective of the good ones, to preserve their magic: ‘Because the film depends so much on the exquisite unravelling of its plot, it would be unfair to describe much more,’ as the film critic Roger Ebert ... | Vera Tobin | https://aeon.co//essays/a-surprise-story-is-a-self-exploding-confidence-game | |
Ecology and environmental sciences | Human roads have utterly fragmented the world of wild animals but the engineering to reconnect the pieces is in our grasp | It is almost certain that you recently interacted closely with an invisible giant, as the Harvard landscape ecologist Richard T T Forman has described it. Others have called roads ‘the single most destructive element in the process of habitat fragmentation’, declaring that ‘Few forces have been more influential in modi... | Darryl Jones | https://aeon.co//essays/how-to-fix-the-disaster-of-human-roads-to-benefit-wildlife | |
Archaeology | Archaeologist Eilat Mazar dug with a spade in one hand and a Bible in the other. Should her theories be taken seriously? | One day in 2017, the archaeologist Eilat Mazar asked her colleague Haggai Misgav to stop by her office at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. ‘She closed the door, opened a locker, and said: “Read this!”’ Mazar handed him a tiny piece of rounded and flattened clay, broken on one side and no larger than his thumbnail; h... | Andrew Lawler | https://aeon.co//essays/eilat-mazar-dug-with-a-bible-in-one-hand-and-a-spade-in-the-other | |
Sex and sexuality | How did certain French intellectuals get away with preying upon young girls, shamelessly, in public and over decades? | In January 2020, Le consentement (Consent) by Vanessa Springora was published, a memoir exposé of Gabriel Matzneff, a well-known and much-respected French writer, but also a shameless predator of teen girls and preteen boys. Springora charts her two-year relationship with Matzneff, which began in 1986, when she was 14 ... | Lily Dunn | https://aeon.co//essays/how-the-french-bohemian-elite-celebrated-predatory-behaviour | |
Music | From Tallis’s choral beauty to the unnerving bells of Mexico City, early modern power created a whole new world of sound | Dover Priory, 16 November 1535: at a modest monastic establishment on the edge of one of England’s main working ports, the nearest to the continent of Europe, the abbot signs a ‘deed of surrender’, turning over the establishment and all its property from the Church to the king. For centuries, since its foundation in th... | Thomas Irvine & Christopher J Smith | https://aeon.co//essays/songs-of-conquest-from-tallis-to-the-bells-of-mexico-city | |
History of science | The cliché has it that the Copenhagen interpretation demands adherence without deep enquiry. That does physics a disservice | Physics is important. We rely on it to provide us with valid conceptions of the nature of the physical world and how it works, conceptions that underpin almost every aspect of our technologically advanced society. At root, physics as a discipline relies on foundational theories of space and time, and of matter and ligh... | Jim Baggott | https://aeon.co//essays/shut-up-and-calculate-does-a-disservice-to-quantum-mechanics | |
Nations and empires | In 1900 my grandfather’s generation imagined a modernising Arab world, multireligious and progressive. What happened? | My paternal grandfather Anis was born an Ottoman subject in 1885 but died an Arab citizen. He passed away in 1977 at the age of 92, two years into Lebanon’s civil war. Raised in Tripoli when all the Arab East lay under Ottoman sovereignty, and educated in American mission schools that dotted the Empire in its last cent... | Ussama Makdisi | https://aeon.co//essays/what-happened-to-the-ideal-of-multireligious-arab-modernity | |
Philosophy of science | Science has become extraordinarily technocratic and complex. Is the simple and decisive experiment still a worthy ideal? | There is a long tradition among scientists of comparing scientific models, images, theories and experiments to works of art. We are told that Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity, the double helix structure of DNA molecules, and images of colliding particles are beautiful, and that, just like works of art, they evoke... | Milena Ivanova | https://aeon.co//essays/when-is-a-scientific-experiment-like-a-beautiful-work-of-art | |
Economic history | The week is the most artificial and recent of our time counts yet it’s impossible to imagine our shared lives without it | Among many collective discoveries during the pandemic confinement of 2020, Americans learned just how attached we are to our seven weekdays. As complaints about temporal disorientation mounted that April, we focused not on the clock – the classic metonym for the power and experience of time – but rather on the calendar... | David Henkin | https://aeon.co//essays/how-we-came-to-depend-on-the-week-despite-its-artificiality | |
Gender | Diagnosing men as violent and oversexed beasts is tempting but it’s a regressive idea built on dubious analogies | Someday, people with penises will gestate foetuses. I am speculating, of course, but not wildly. If babies can be conceived in a test tube, that is, if we can amend the erstwhile rules of reproductive biology this way, why can’t people with penises gestate foetuses, lactate, and do other things associated exclusively w... | Matthew Gutmann | https://aeon.co//essays/are-men-animals-yes-but-not-in-the-way-you-might-think | |
Architecture | One of the great buildings of the Renaissance reminds us that buildings are made to be explored, smelled and even tasted | The 16th-century Tempietto designed by Donato Bramante in Rome stands at the heart of Western architectural history. Its iconic bull’s eye plan, with concentric circles radiating outward from a single point, coincides perfectly with the central status assumed within the architectural canon by this ‘little temple’. Arch... | David Karmon | https://aeon.co//essays/the-tempietto-in-rome-should-be-a-full-body-experience | |
Evolution | Far from being hardwired to flee fire, some animals use it to their own ends, helping us understand our own pyrocognition | In the beginning, there was no fire. People were cold, lean and hungry. Like baboons, they gathered food and ate it raw. But one day, a group of children began playing with arrows by twirling them against a log, and were surprised to find that the tips became hot and smoke appeared. Sparks jumped and landed on the dry ... | Ivo Jacobs | https://aeon.co//essays/how-animal-uses-of-fire-help-to-illuminate-human-pyrocognition | |
Psychiatry and psychotherapy | As a society we are failing people with severe, persistent mental illness. It’s time to reimagine institutional care | Myra hears violent and upsetting voices that nobody else can hear; she struggles with hygiene and remembering to change her clothing. Unable to achieve employment, she receives a paltry monthly welfare payment that she spends almost entirely on rent. For that, Myra has access to a lice-ridden shared room in a private-m... | Madeleine Ritts & Daniel Rosenbaum | https://aeon.co//essays/we-are-failing-people-with-severe-mental-illness-what-can-we-do | |
Gender and identity | How the rebellious novelist left behind her provincial self to learn about life, charging around Paris dressed as a man | Does a writer, in changing names, change persona, assume a different personality, a disguise, whether consciously or unconsciously? When Amandine-Aurore-Lucile Dupin (or simply Aurore to her friends) married Casimir, she became a ‘Dudevant’ and acutely aware of her identity as his wife. When she adopted the pseudonym ‘... | Belinda Jack | https://aeon.co//essays/how-aurore-dudevant-put-on-mens-boots-to-become-george-sand | |
Sleep and dreams | Dream-hacking techniques can help us create, heal and have fun. They could also become tools of commercial manipulation | Advertisers have begun invading our sleep in an attempt to place their products in our dreams. This is neither metaphor nor fiction; it’s a fact. The night before Super Bowl LV, the beverage company Molson Coors ran what they called the ‘world’s largest dream study’. They explicitly aimed to place images of Coors beer,... | Adam Haar Horowitz, Robert Stickgold & Antonio Zadra | https://aeon.co//essays/dreams-are-a-precious-resource-dont-let-advertisers-hack-them | |
Palaeontology | There’s no rhythm to mass extinctions, no pattern to evolutionary recovery. Life bursts forth, in cacophonous adaptation | Of all the species that have ever lived on our planet, more than 99 per cent are extinct. Most of these organisms disappeared through the constant shuffle of ecological and evolutionary change. But not all. Many species have vanished in a geological snap during mass extinctions – truly catastrophic events where the rat... | Riley Black | https://aeon.co//essays/mass-extinctions-dont-drive-evolutionary-change-life-does | |
Bioethics | We should be able to acknowledge that disabilities can cause pain and suffering without disabled people feeling dehumanised | Can the disadvantages that disabled people often experience be attributed to intrinsic vulnerability, or do they result from social arrangements? This is a pressing question, both because of the global disability rights movement, and also because of the current COVID-19 pandemic. It’s also a very personal question for ... | Tom Shakespeare | https://aeon.co//essays/i-hurt-therefore-i-am-a-new-approach-to-our-shared-vulnerability | |
Future of technology | The world is a black box full of extreme specificity: it might be predictable but that doesn’t mean it is understandable | On good days, the world seems like a well-run railway: things happen according to principles, laws, rules and generalisations that we humans understand and can apply to particulars. We forgive the occasional late trains as exceptions that prove the rule. But other times we experience the world as a multi-car pile-up on... | David Weinberger | https://aeon.co//essays/our-world-is-a-black-box-predictable-but-not-understandable | |
Space exploration | Instead of treating Mars and the Moon as sites of conquest and settlement, we need a radical new ethics of space exploration | Within four years, American astronauts will once again plant their feet and flags on the Moon’s dusty surface. They won’t be alone: Chinese, European and Russian space agencies have their sights on our nearest celestial body too, as do space companies such as Moon Express and Jeff Bezos’s Blue Origin. If their plans co... | Ramin Skibba | https://aeon.co//essays/we-need-a-more-egalitarian-approach-to-space-exploration | |
Medicine | Modern biomedicine sees the body as a closed mechanistic system. But illness shows us to be permeable, ecological beings | Ms Smith is a 40-year-old woman who comes to see me in clinic, having suffered for years with nausea, bloating and irregular stools. She’s been to two gastroenterologists before me, and nothing they recommended was any help. All her tests came back normal – but something’s wrong, no question, and getting worse. There’s... | Nitin K Ahuja | https://aeon.co//essays/how-ecological-thinking-fills-the-gaps-in-biomedicine | |
Cities | They are spreading like branching plants across the globe. Should we rein cities in or embrace their biomorphic potential? | In 1996, one in three inhabitants of China lived in an urban setting. In 2021, the figure was close to two in three. In the United States, in comparison, the figure is four in five. The construction boom in China tracks a moment of transition of geological significance in Earth’s history: humans are now a modally urban... | Josh Berson | https://aeon.co//essays/should-we-rein-cities-in-or-embrace-their-biomorphic-growth | |
Thinkers and theories | Some see Plato as a pure rationalist, others as a fantastical mythmaker. His deft use of stories tells a more complex tale | In 1872, at the age of 28, Friedrich Nietzsche announced himself to the world with The Birth of Tragedy, an elegiac account of the alienation of Western culture from its spiritual foundations. According to Nietzsche, the ancient Greeks had once mastered a healthy cultural balance between the ‘Apollonian’ impulse toward... | Tae-Yeoun Keum | https://aeon.co//essays/was-plato-a-mythmaker-or-the-mythbuster-of-western-thought | |
Stories and literature | Strange entanglements of politics and romantic love marked England’s conquest of Ireland and still haunt the Irish today | When William Shakespeare wrote there ‘never was a story of more woe / than this of Juliet and her Romeo’, he had no idea of the uses and abuses his play would face in the coming centuries. Shakespeare’s tale of star-crossed lovers has been woefully misappropriated for wildly different scenarios, from selling us balconi... | Alison Garden | https://aeon.co//essays/when-england-met-ireland-a-tale-of-colonialism-not-romance | |
Economics | No wonder we cannot agree on how globalisation works and whether it’s a good thing. All the stories we have are flawed | Isaiah Berlin understood the parable of the fox and the hedgehog – ‘the fox knows many things, but the hedgehog knows one big thing’ – to illustrate two styles of thinking. Hedgehogs relate everything to a single vision, a universally applicable organising principle for understanding the world. Foxes, on the other hand... | Anthea Roberts & Nicholas Lamp | https://aeon.co//essays/there-are-six-main-narratives-of-globalisation-all-flawed | |
Knowledge | Correct information doesn’t always come with its own bright halo of truth. What makes something worth believing? | You can’t be wrong on purpose. To see this, try one of my favourite philosophical parlour tricks. Right now, believe something you think is false: that the Sun is just a big lightbulb, for instance. Don’t imagine you believe it – really believe it. Become so confident in it that you’d bet good money that it’s true. Whe... | Nate Sheff | https://aeon.co//essays/what-were-doing-when-were-doing-epistemology | |
Animals and humans | If humans were to disappear from the face of the Earth, what might dogs become? And would they be better off without us? | If you share your home with a dog, you may have found yourself rolling your eyes or clicking your tongue at your furry friend in response to some outrageously un-wild behaviour. Your dog might daintily tiptoe around puddles, run away from squirrels, or refuse to go outside in the snow without a coat and booties. ‘You’d... | Jessica Pierce | https://aeon.co//essays/who-could-dogs-become-without-humans-in-their-lives | |
Human evolution | Imagination isn’t just a spillover from our problem-solving prowess. It might be the core of what human brains evolved to do | ‘To me,’ wrote William Blake in 1799, ‘this world is all one continued vision of fancy or imagination.’ The imagination, he later added, ‘is not a state: it is the human existence itself.’ Blake, a painter as well as a poet, created images that acquire their power not only from a certain naive artistic technique, but b... | Philip Ball | https://aeon.co//essays/imagination-isnt-the-icing-on-the-cake-of-human-cognition | |
Architecture | Must we simply accept the loss of beloved buildings and cities to the floods and rising seas of the climate crisis? | As an Amsterdam-born art historian, for the past three decades I’ve enjoyed guiding students and other visitors along the concentric canals that cup the city’s 17th-century historic centre (now a UNESCO World Heritage site). With its tall gabled houses, arched bridges and stately municipal buildings, old Amsterdam has ... | Thijs Weststeijn | https://aeon.co//essays/must-we-accept-the-loss-of-beloved-heritage-to-the-climate-crisis | |
Thinkers and theories | Too dense, too abstract, too suspect, Hegel was outside the Anglophone canon for a century. Why is his star rising again? | To an unusual degree among the great philosophers, G W F Hegel’s influence has waxed and waned. At his death in 1831, he was the reigning voice in German philosophy. His followers, however, soon split into opposed camps: the Right Hegelians, a conservative and religious group, and the Left Hegelians, a socially radical... | Willem deVries | https://aeon.co//essays/how-the-anglophone-world-is-rediscovering-hegels-philosophy | |
Cosmology | There’s a new plan to find extraterrestrial civilisations by the way they live. But if we can see them, can they see us? | Are we alone in the Universe? And if not, should we be excited – or afraid? These questions are as immediate as the latest Netflix hit and as primal as the ancient myths that associated the planets with spirits and gods. In 1686, Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle, the long-term secretary to the French Academy of Sciences... | Corey S Powell | https://aeon.co//essays/technosignatures-are-a-sea-change-in-the-search-for-alien-life | |
Nations and empires | The British Empire was first built on slavery and then on the moral and economic self-confidence of antislavery | Britain ended its slave trade in 1807, and abolished slavery in much of its colonial empire in 1834. Four years later, Queen Victoria was crowned. For British liberals, the timing was auspicious, and the lessons were obvious. The 18th-century empire of enslaved labour, rebellious colonies and benighted protectionism ha... | Padraic Scanlan | https://aeon.co//essays/the-british-empire-was-built-on-slavery-then-grew-by-antislavery | |
Cognition and intelligence | Cognition did not appear out of nowhere in ‘higher’ animals but goes back millions, perhaps billions, of years | In On the Origin of Species (1859), Charles Darwin draws a picture of the long sweep of evolution, from the beginning of life, playing out along two fundamental axes: physical and mental. Body and mind. All living beings, not just some, evolve by natural selection in both ‘corporeal and mental endowments’, he writes. W... | Pamela Lyon | https://aeon.co//essays/the-study-of-the-mind-needs-a-copernican-shift-in-perspective | |
Thinkers and theories | It started as a fringe philosophical theory about humanity’s future. It’s now richly funded and increasingly dangerous | There seems to be a growing recognition that humanity might be approaching the ‘end times’. Dire predictions of catastrophe clutter the news. Social media videos of hellish wildfires, devastating floods and hospitals overflowing with COVID-19 patients dominate our timelines. Extinction Rebellion activists are shutting ... | Émile P Torres | https://aeon.co//essays/why-longtermism-is-the-worlds-most-dangerous-secular-credo |
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