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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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However, deviations from these exponent values and other variants of vascular scaling models have been widely reported.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Fig. 5Comparison of human kidney vascular architecture to a rodent model and Murray’s theoretical law of energy balance.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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A Normalised radius against Strahler order for our data and for previously published rat kidney vascular data derived from Nordsletten et al.. B The data are plotted for log(Radius), showing a similar pattern but with a significant statistical difference is found between the best fit for the two datasets.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Ci Plot of Parent vessel cubed against Sum of cubed child vessels, Murray’s Law is shown in orange hatched line, points from each Truncated Strahler order are differentiated for clarity.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Cii Plot of the log of the number of terminal downstream network ends against the radius for all segments in the network.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The purple line shows the fit from the Standard Major axis regression, with the intercept a which is the radial scaling exponent and the 95% confidence intervals shown on the plot.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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A Normalised radius against Strahler order for our data and for previously published rat kidney vascular data derived from Nordsletten et al.. B The data are plotted for log(Radius), showing a similar pattern but with a significant statistical difference is found between the best fit for the two datasets.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Ci Plot of Parent vessel cubed against Sum of cubed child vessels, Murray’s Law is shown in orange hatched line, points from each Truncated Strahler order are differentiated for clarity.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Cii Plot of the log of the number of terminal downstream network ends against the radius for all segments in the network.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The purple line shows the fit from the Standard Major axis regression, with the intercept a which is the radial scaling exponent and the 95% confidence intervals shown on the plot.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Previously in the rat kidney, Nordsletten et al. demonstrated a deviation from Murray’s law by ~1% for the rat kidney.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Figure 5Ci shows the cubed parent radius plotted against the cube sum of the child radii for our dataset, the theoretical Murray’s law is overlaid (orange hatched) to allow qualitative comparison to previous literature.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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To quantitatively evaluate whether our data are better represented by Murray’s law (expected radial scaling exponent 0.33) the WBE model (radial scaling exponent 0.33 in small and 0.5 in large vessels) or another model, we extracted the number of downstream terminal ends of the network for each vessel segment and the radius of that segment.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Through a log-log plot of the data (Fig. 5Cii), the theoretical value of the exponent a was found to be 0.55.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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This value is higher than Murray’s law and closer to the WEB model and the values found in ref.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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for the human pulmonary artery system.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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We then sought to compare heterogeneity in morphology of the human kidney vasculature according to anatomical regions within the human kidney, which may reflect specialised vascular functions.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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For example, the medulla of the kidney is predominantly vascularised by vasa recta; specialised capillaries which possess low oxygen tension.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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This configuration leads to physiological hypoxia that is inherent to the medulla’s urinary concentration mechanisms.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Further reflecting the importance of vascular morphology is the longstanding hypothesis, supported by blood oxygenation level-dependent MRI studies, that vascular rarefaction in CKD results in hypoxia within the kidney cortex.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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In turn, this stimulates neighbouring cells into a pro-fibrotic phenotype, manifesting in replacement of normal kidney tissue by fibrosis and heralding loss of organ function.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Thus, regional heterogeneity of vascular morphology is fundamental for sustaining local microenvironmental features, such as hypoxia, that influence specialised organ functions.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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However, regional heterogeneity in vascular structure has not been quantitatively explored in the human kidney.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Leveraging the contrast-free approach of HiP-CT, we were able to segment the kidney into known anatomical compartments, including hilum, medulla, intramedullary kidney columns and cortex (Fig. 6Ai).
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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We compartmentalised the vascular network according to these anatomical compartments (Fig. 6Aii).
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The total tissue volume of each compartment, in addition to the number of vessels, length, radius and volume of segmented vessels within each compartment, were quantified (Table 2).
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Most of the tissue volume of the human kidney was occupied by the cortex (63.7%) as compared with the medulla (23.5%), hilum (8.7%) or intermedullary pillars (4.1%).
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The number of segments of the vascular network within each compartment followed this trend.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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We then quantified (Fig. 6Aiii) and mapped (Fig. 6Bi–Biii) the inter-vessel distance, compartmentalised by hilum, medulla, cortex, and intermedullary pillars.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Mean inter-vessel distances were calculated for each compartment, assessing the distribution of inter-vessel distance from the renal artery down to interlobular arteries (Table 2).
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The medulla had the highest inter-vessel distance.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Whilst the cortex had a comparatively smaller inter-vessel distance than medulla and hilum, a large standard deviation for this value was noted within the cortex.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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This is illustrated by the heatmap in Fig. 6Bi, Bii, which identified small areas with inter-vessel distance >4.5 mm localised towards the kidney capsule.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Fig. 6Analysis of compartmental heterogeneity in vascular branching metrics within the human kidney.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Ai 3D surface masks of the kidney cortex (green), medulla (yellow) and hilum (pink), inter-medullar pillars (dark blue).
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Aii 3D reconstruction vasculature colour according to anatomical compartment within the human kidney cortex (green), medulla (yellow) and hilum (pink), inter-medullar pillars (dark blue).
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Aiii Inter-vessel distances are plotted against the total number of vessel voxels for each kidney compartment.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Bi Visual heatmap of inter-vessel distance for the entire human kidney, where pink represents the largest inter-vessel distance (>4.5 mm) and white (0 mm) the smallest.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Bii A digital zoomed region within cortex and medulla.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Biii The 2D slice of the associated HiP-CT raw image with the compartments overlaid.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Table 2Human kidney vascular branching metrics compartmentalised by spatial zone with the organCortexMedullaHilumIntermedullary pillarsOrganVolume of tissue, ×10 µm (% of total)8.70 (63.7%)3.21 (23.5%)1.18 (8.66%)0.57 (4.14%)13.7 (100%)Number of segments* (% of total)6141 (60.27%)554 (5.4%)151 (1.5%)727 (7.1%)10,190 (100%)Mean segment length, µm ± STD1999 ± 13741493 ± 11133993 ± 35681720 ± 13862260 ± 1720Mean segment radius, µm ± STD48 ± 12.695 ± 49496 ± 335136 ± 8071 ± 87Mean inter-vessel distances, ×10 µm ± STD1.10 ± 0.6771.55 ± 0.8811.55 ± 1.3120.664 ± 0.5431.2 ± 0.833Mean segment volume, ×10 µm ± STD0.148 ± 0.1160.623 ± 1.1269.0 ± 1471.73 ± 4.481.65 ± 20.6Mean segment tortuosity ± STD1.14 ± 0.171.08 ± 0.131.08 ± 0.11.1 ± 0.121.15 ± 0.18*Segments that crossed over two regions were excluded.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Ai 3D surface masks of the kidney cortex (green), medulla (yellow) and hilum (pink), inter-medullar pillars (dark blue).
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Aii 3D reconstruction vasculature colour according to anatomical compartment within the human kidney cortex (green), medulla (yellow) and hilum (pink), inter-medullar pillars (dark blue).
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Aiii Inter-vessel distances are plotted against the total number of vessel voxels for each kidney compartment.
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PMC12408821
|
Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Bi Visual heatmap of inter-vessel distance for the entire human kidney, where pink represents the largest inter-vessel distance (>4.5 mm) and white (0 mm) the smallest.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Bii A digital zoomed region within cortex and medulla.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Biii The 2D slice of the associated HiP-CT raw image with the compartments overlaid.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Human kidney vascular branching metrics compartmentalised by spatial zone with the organ *Segments that crossed over two regions were excluded.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Owing to the limited volume of tissue that can be imaged at high resolution using ex vivo 3D imaging modalities, such as μCT and lightsheet microscopy, and insufficient resolution of technologies routinely used in clinical practice, such as CT and MRI; it had previously been impractical to capture the vascular network of the intact adult human kidney beyond the very largest arteries.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Here, using a synchrotron-phase contrast tomography technique, termed HiP-CT, we were able to image, segment and quantify the human kidney arterial network within an intact human kidney from renal artery to down to the level of interlobular arteries, without the need for exogenous contrast agents.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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With HiP-CT, we show that vessels which have not been imaged in the intact human kidney previously, namely the interlobar to interlobular arteries, occupy approximately 20% of the arterial vascular volume of the organ.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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By imaging VOIs in the intact kidney at higher resolution, and aligning this with our lower resolution scans, we further demonstrate that, akin to rat, and varying from the traditional hierarchy of the kidney vasculature observed in nephrology and anatomical textbooks, glomeruli in humans can originate from non-terminal arterioles.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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In further comparisons with the rat kidney vasculature, we found that although similar trends in vascular radius were seen, there was a significant difference in the change in radius with vessel order between species.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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This may be explained by the larger radii range in the human kidney between renal artery and afferent arterioles, relative to the volume of the human kidney; but could also be dependent on the difference in approach to calculation of the Strahler order for each study.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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We also found that the exponent for radial scaling is closer to the WBE model (0.5) than Murray’s law value of 0.33.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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This is broadly in alignment with previous work, where exponents of 0.47–0.58 were found for trees with vascular diameters ≥200 µm and 70–20≥ µm, respectively.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Wide variation between theoretical exponents and those derived from real imaging data is widely accepted and often attributed to the complexity of real vessels including factors such as mechanical strain, the elastic nature of arteries during pulsatile flow and turbulent flow patterns.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Specific to the kidney, while Murray’s law or the WBE model assume idealised flow-optimised network, or ideal fractal scaling, kidneys likely exhibit non-optimal but functional scaling due to their high-resistance, low-compliance vascular network which is needed to support hemodynamic fluctuations due to changes in glomerular filtration and autoregulation.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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However, it should also be noted that due to the ex vivo nature of HiP-CT, and the consequent lack of vascular tone, extracting such radial scaling laws from these data may have additional sources of error compared to in vivo imaging techniques.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Deviations from theoretical laws support the idea that vascular systems adapt based on tissue-specific demands rather than universal optimisation principles.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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This idea can be further supported by examining regional heterogeneity of vascular morphology in different anatomical zones of the kidney.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The segmentation of hilar, medullary, intramedullary and cortical zones of HiP-CT images from the same kidney support this hypothesis.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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For example, the increased inter-vessel distance observed within the medulla, as compared to the cortex, is pertinent.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The medulla experiences physiological hypoxia, and increased inter-vessel distance, paired with the oxygen diffusion limit, provides a potential anatomical rational for this phenomenon, in addition to the unique solute and gas exchange mechanisms that take part in this region of the kidney.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The data provided in this study, and resultant insights into how morphology of the kidney vasculature varies by different renal compartments, could shed light on the mechanisms underpinning the unique cellular and molecular adaptations of specialised endothelia across the kidney vascular network.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Our pipeline and the HiP-CT data provide a framework to potentially study how the vasculature within each anatomical compartments is differentially affected by kidney disease, with potential for understanding the basis of vascular rarefaction and pathological hypoxia.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Further studies with higher resolution HiP-CT or with microfill of the human kidney could potentially preserve vessel radius more accurately and resolve capillaries allowing extension of the work.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Such information is important to acquire in human samples, as it could potentially influence simulations of haemodynamics, oxygenation or drug delivery; and generation of synthetic vessel trees for in silico experiments.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The human kidney vasculature is exquisitely specialised to meet the physiological demands of the kidney.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Underpinning this specialisation is the cellular and molecular heterogeneity of endothelial beds within the renal vasculature, of which we are gaining an increasing understanding due to the advent of improved techniques such as single-cell and spatially-resolved transcriptomics.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The rapid and recent advances in our understanding of cellular and molecular heterogeneity of the kidney vasculature has not been matched by structural insights, likely because of limitations in imaging technologies.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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We have overcome many of these limitations using HiP-CT, where the exceptional contrast, coupled with appreciable spatial resolution at scale, allows us to capture and segment the 3D vascular architecture of an intact human kidney.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Furthermore, within high-resolution VOIs, HiP-CT allows glomeruli and afferent arterioles to be segmented and, in selected cases, be connected back to the vascular tree of the intact whole organ.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Robust and reproducible analysis of vascular networks relies on the careful application of a multi-stage image processing pipeline, which we have outlined in this paper.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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We have developed an approach which utilises multiple annotators and comparison to higher resolution scans to validate segmentation accuracy as a crucial first step.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Following segmentation, we have developed a skeletonisation approach, which can be scaled to large datasets, and also provides corrections for radius estimation when portions of the vasculature have collapsed.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Finally, we applied a truncated Strahler ordering to the vessel spatial graph, providing a meaningful ordering system with respect to known anatomical vessel descriptions, as well as facilitating quantification of individual vessels within the vascular hierarchy.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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By developing and applying this pipeline, we have produced quantitative vascular branching metrics from an intact human organ for the first time.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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These metrics exceed other studies on cadaveric human kidney cast and dye injections, which report arterial branches corresponding to truncated Strahler orders 7–9.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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We provide quantitative comparison between the human kidney vasculature and that of the rat, the latter of which has been key for inputs to generate biophysical models of kidney haemodynamics.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The quantitative analysis pipeline performed in this paper serves multiple purposes.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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First, it allows the whole kidney vasculature dataset to be represented in a single spatial graph, comprising only kilobytes of data.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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This spatial graph, which is provided as Supplementary Data, is readily quantifiable.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Whereas prior simulations of kidney haemodynamics and perfusion have relied on seminal μCT studies performed in rat, we provide, for the first time, a map of the kidney arterial network from renal artery to interlobular arteries.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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We demonstrated our segmentation approach to be accurate, with 97% of vessels of >50 µm radius captured across the intact human kidney.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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These data thus provide vital inputs for biophysical modelling of kidney physiology.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The data also serves as a reference to study kidney diseases, in which vascular rarefaction is a pathophysiological hallmark.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The pipeline described could be used to generate vascular maps from multiple kidneys, or other human organs, potentiating spatial ‘atlases’ of human organ vasculature across healthy and pathological contexts.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Beyond these, our openly available dataset has immediate practical applications, such as providing inputs for bioprinting and tissue engineering of artificial kidneys or planning surgical resection of kidney tumours whilst preserving kidney function.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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These datasets can also be used as a tool for medical education and training, as well as for the creation and advancement of surgical methods.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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There are several limitations of this work.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Firstly, the low throughput of HiP-CT vascular segmentation warrants discussion.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Here, we present the complete analysis from a single kidney as a framework for future studies of kidneys in health and disease or other intact human organs.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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The accuracy of the segmentation, however, lays a foundation for tools such as machine learning methods for automated segmentation of blood vasculature from imaging data.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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HiP-CT imaging still cannot resolve afferent arteriole or capillary resolution across the whole organ, meaning that the contributions of peritubular capillaries or vasa recta are not incorporated.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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This also creates challenges for applying ordering schemes such as the Strahler order, where the true 0th order is the capillary bed.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Previous approaches to estimating the distance of a terminal end in a truncated network from the capillary bed have relied on utilising diameter measurements of vessels to iteratively update the Strahler order of terminal ends.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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This facilitates the creation of a connectivity matrix to estimate the downstream network.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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However, diameter estimation is less accurate for HiP-CT, where vascular collapse makes radius estimates less consistent than, for example, when using microfill techniques.
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PMC12408821
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Mapping the arterial vascular network in an intact human kidney using hierarchical phase-contrast tomography.
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Using the high-resolution VOIs, we also demonstrated that glomeruli frequently emanate from non-terminal arterioles.
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