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are found in the Andes alone, mainly in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Colombia. They belong to eight or nine species, depending on the taxonomic school. Apart from the five |
thousand cultivated varieties, there are about 200 wild species and subspecies, many of which can be cross-bred with cultivated varieties, which has been done repeatedly to transfer resistances to certain |
pests and diseases from the gene pool of wild species to the gene pool of cultivated potato species. Genetically modified varieties have met public resistance in the United States and |
in the European Union. The major species grown worldwide is Solanum tuberosum (a tetraploid with 48 chromosomes), and modern varieties of this species are the most widely cultivated. There are |
also four diploid species (with 24 chromosomes): S. stenotomum, S. phureja, S. goniocalyx, and S. ajanhuiri. There are two triploid species (with 36 chromosomes): S. chaucha and S. juzepczukii. There |
is one pentaploid cultivated species (with 60 chromosomes): S. curtilobum. There are two major subspecies of Solanum tuberosum: andigena, or Andean; and tuberosum, or Chilean. The Andean potato is adapted |
to the short-day conditions prevalent in the mountainous equatorial and tropical regions where it originated. The Chilean potato, native to the Chiloé Archipelago, is adapted to the long-day conditions prevalent |
in the higher latitude region of southern Chile. The International Potato Center, based in Lima, Peru, holds an ISO-accredited collection of potato germplasm. The international Potato Genome Sequencing Consortium announced |
in 2009 that they had achieved a draft sequence of the potato genome. The potato genome contains 12 chromosomes and 860 million base pairs making it a medium-sized plant genome. |
Above 99 percent of all current varietiesof potatoes currently grown are direct descendants of a subspecies that once grew in the lowlands of south-central Chile. Nonetheless, genetic testing of the |
wide variety of cultivars and wild species affirms that all potato subspecies derive from a single origin in the area of present-day southern Peru (from a species in the Solanum |
brevicaule complex) Most modern potatoes grown in North America arrived through European settlement and not independently from the South American sources. However, at least one wild potato species, Solanum fendleri, |
is found as far north as Texas and used in breeding for resistance to a nematode species that attacks cultivated potatoes. A secondary center of genetic variability of the potato |
is Mexico, where important wild species that have been used extensively in modern breeding are found, such as the hexaploid Solanum demissum, as a source of resistance to the devastating |
late blight disease. Another relative native to this region, Solanum bulbocastanum, has been used to genetically engineer the potato to resist potato blight. Potatoes yield abundantly with little effort, and |
adapt readily to diverse climates as long as the climate is cool and moist enough for the plants to gather sufficient water from the soil to form the starchy tubers. |
Potatoes do not keep very well in storage and are vulnerable to molds that feed on the stored tubers, quickly turning them rotten. By contrast, grain can be stored for |
several years without much risk of rotting. If you require a high quality printout of this article, just click on the printer symbol next to ’Share and enjoy’, and we |
will do the rest. This site is hosted by (click on the graphic for more information) Return from potato to Home Page If you want to increase your site popularity |
According to news reports, the recent heat wave in California resulted in about 150 deaths. The United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that global warming will exacerbate the problem dramatically, doubling or tripling the number of heat-related fatalities in North American cities in the next... |
is dead wrong, because it assumes what climate researchers call the “Stupid People Hypothesis”: that people will simply sit around and fry to death without doing anything to beat the heat. Global warming or not, our cities are warming, and will continue to do so. Sprawling masonry and blacktop retain |
heat, and the density of urban construction prevents wind from cooling it off. (Here in D.C., there’s an additional warming effect: waste heat from all the money changing hands.) But heat and heat-related deaths are not synonymous. In fact, in several refereed papers published in recent years, my Virginia colleague |
Robert Davis and I demonstrated that heat-related deaths have, in aggregate, declined significantly as our cities have warmed. In fact, in a statistical sense, we have completely engineered heat-related mortality out of several of our urban cores, particularly in eastern cities like Philadelphia. Considering every deca... |
once is misleading; examining it decade-by-decade is more informative. When looked at sequentially, the data reveals a remarkable adaptation: as cities have warmed, the “threshold” temperatures at which mortality begins to increase have also risen — more than the temperatures of the cities. For example, in Philadelphia... |
mortality began to increase once the high temperature exceeded 83 degrees. In the 1970s, the mortality threshold rose to the low 90s. In the last decade, there has been little evidence for any threshold at which mortality increases. In other words, people have adapted to their changing climate. How? Instead |
of simmering, people buy air conditioning. Every level of government warns of the danger of excessive exposure to heat, and people seek out cooler places. Social adaptation can take place very quickly. In mid-July 1995, over 500 people died from an intense weekend heat wave in Chicago. Research by University |
of Illinois climatologist Michael Palecki, published in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society in 2001, shows that a 1999 Chicago heat wave of comparable intensity resulted in only 15 percent as many deaths. This summer’s heat is a bit unusual. Usually, when it’s very hot in the eastern U.S., |
temperatures are normal or below average in the West, or vice-versa. This year it’s hot everywhere. Is history repeating itself, or is global warming at work? It’s hard to say. Several summers in the 1930s were known for intense heat across the nation. Nineteen-thirty was a scorcher: in rural Virginia, |
far from Washington’s sprawl, people suffered a total of 21 triple-digit days. Even with the excess heat contributed by the growth of the city, Washington currently averages only one 100 degree day per year. The fact is that we cannot completely discriminate between repetitive history and prospective warming when it |
comes to a single summer. The better place to look for warming is in the winter. Greenhouse-effect theory predicts that the coldest temperatures of winter will rise much more sharply than the hottest ones of summer. And indeed, for the last several decades, winter’s lows have warmed out of proportion |
to summer’s highs. All of which illustrates the complexity of global warming. Would people accept — even welcome? — climate change that greatly alleviated winter discomfort at the cost of slightly higher summer temperatures? Clearly, people have adapted to the heat. The evidence shows that, the warmer the city, the |
more quickly its residents adapt. Heat-related deaths are increasing in only one major American city: chilly Seattle. San Francisco and Los Angeles, two other cities that are relatively cool in the summer compared to those to their east, show no change in mortality. As the UN’s climatologists should recognize, heat |
waves are dangerous when they are rare and unexpected, because people are unfamiliar with them and slow to take appropriate actions to minimize their exposure. As heat waves become more common, we will simply be better prepared for them and incorporate them into our daily lives and routines — just |
Britain has, at least going by ministerial statements, apparently grasped the difference between arranged marriages, which are part of the Indian cultural tradition, and forced marriages, unjustifiable from any standpoint. |
Yet it is a challenging task to tackle the problem of forced marriages. According to the British reckoning, the figures for this sordid practice are around 3,000 per year. Unofficial |
estimates suggest that the tally may be even higher. Most victims are known to be women aged between 15 and 24. Another 15-20 per cent of cases involve young men. |
About 65 per cent of known cases involve those of Pakistani origin, another 25 per cent are of Bangladeshi origin, and the rest are of Indian or various African and |
Eastern European origins. Individual stories are heart-rending, with many of the ‘husbands’ extraordinarily violent and abusive to the victims. The British government and Parliament have now begun taking this issue |
seriously. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) has put up a website on this problem of forced marriages, giving links to groups and helplines run by people, including former victims, |
who have specific experience in the field. Annually, the FCO’s Forced Marriage Unit website receives about 5,000 inquiries and currently helps about 400 victims; some British diplomatic missions abroad have |
taken victims into safe custody for repatriation to the United Kingdom. Legislation raises awkward issues. Although forced marriage itself is not a British criminal offence, the violent actions that often |
ensue are criminal offences, and any non-consensual sex is of course rape. Many victims have pointed out that they would not have been forced into marriage by their parents had |
forcible marriage been made a criminal offence. Yet there is the concern that if the practice is made a criminal offence, it would not be eliminated but only go underground, |
preventing legal action against this abhorrent trend. Hence the British government has proceeded cautiously in this regard. The English Forced Marriages (Civil Protection) Act 2007 is only a civil measure. |
But the pressure to take firm action is building. Visa regulations for young married people from abroad joining British spouses have been tightened. The British Parliament’s Home Affairs Select Committee |
has suggested that the subjects of forced marriages and honour killings be made a compulsory part of the sex and relationships curriculum in schools. Other agencies in the U.K. are |
now becoming aware of this problem. But this awareness must translate into concerted efforts to stop forced marriages, which are nothing but the criminal abuse of hapless women. 6 months |
Tooth decay prevalent among Alaska native children Sep 23, 2011, 7:36 a.m. By Yereth Rosen ANCHORAGE, Alaska (Reuters) - Native Alaskan children living in remote villages have rates of tooth decay about four times the national average, a government study showed. Lack of fluoridated water and an abundance of sugary, |
carbonated soda pop were the major reasons cited in the research that tracked dental health of children in the mostly Yupik Eskimo region of southwestern Alaska. Dr. Brad Whistler, Alaska state oral health director and a co-author of the study, said children need major dental work. "When they smile, you |
see a lot of silver teeth," he said. Such severe decay sets up children to have serious dental problems as adults, Whistler said. One reason for the high level of tooth decay is poor water-system infrastructure in many Alaska Native villages, which prevents the fluoridation of drinking water that has |
helped lower rates of tooth decay. In some villages that were part of the study, residents must haul water home from central pumps, he said. Even those places with more sophisticated systems are likely to lack fluoride in drinking water, because few qualified technicians are available to work in such |
far-flung locations and install the necessary equipment. The other major problem is the erosion of the traditional Native diet with the introduction of food laden with sugar, Whistler said. The study, by the federal Centers for Disease Control and the Alaska Department of Health and Social Services, analyzed 2008 denta... |
How to do just that particularly in the Virgin Islands was on display Tuesday at Good Hope School as the St. Croix Environmental Association sponsored its second Environmental Science Career Expo in partnership with the V.I. Network of Environmental Educators. The goal of the event was to enable middle school and high ... |
choices, work experience and skills required to attain jobs in science and technological fields with representatives from private enterprises, government and nonprofit agencies participated. “We want to get kids excited about science. We live on a small piece of land and are surrounded by the ocean and we have to take ... |
Lynnea Roberts. “Beyond that, we want kids to be excited about college and going to study science,” she said. “There is a lot of science going on around the island that is sort of undercover and a lot of people don’t know about it.” Roberts said she hopes to put on two more of these career fairs later this year |
at both Central and Complex High Schools. Marcia Taylor of the University of the Virgin Islands’ Center for Marine and Environmental Studies said she was there to recruit the future. “We want more young people going into careers related to the marine environment,” Taylor said. “We want to get more local students traine... |
in their home.” “There are a lot of opportunities down here and it would be great if people that lived here could benefit from that,” Taylor said. She said graduates of the program, if they’ve wanted to stay and work in the territory, have had success in finding careers here. She also noted the same marine issues Rober... |
overfishing and ocean acidification. She said future job prospects in these fields would be plentiful for those interested in learning how to manage those problems and mitigate the effects of them, especially as they pertain to the V.I. coral reef systems. “There are more federal dollars being spent down here because w... |
incredible resource. There’s more grants related to that, more people studying it and that’s an area where there’s more money being pumped in all the time.” As students wandered from booth to booth learning about the work of those participating organizations, some teachers were even collaborating with agency representa... |
at a later date. Leila Muller of the V.I. Energy Office and teacher Sarah Christiansen of AZ Academy were just one example as they were planning renewable energy demonstrations for Christiansen’s fifth- and eighth-grade science students. “This is the future, right here,” Christiansen said, pointing at some solar energy... |
Elements | Blogs Wednesday, September 7, 2011 Is There Oxygen in Space? Yes, this summer astronomers using the Herschel Telescope identified oxygen molecules in space. They found these molecules in |
the Orion nebula, 1,344 light years away. Oxygen is the third most abundant element in the universe. Until now, scientists have only seen individual oxygen atoms in space. We do |
not breathe individual oxygen atoms, but rather oxygen molecules. (A molecule is a group of atoms banded together and it is the smallest unit of chemical compound that can take |
part in a chemical reaction.) Oxygen molecules make up 20% of the air we breathe. Scientists theorize that the oxygen molecules were locked up in water ice that... Thursday, March |
10, 2011 I'm Atoms (Scientific Cover of Jason Mraz's I'm Yours) Here in Chicago it has been gray for the last three weeks – no sun, just melting snow and |
rain. This song made our day. It has sunshine, great music and atoms! The lyrics include fabulous lines such as: “Atoms bond together to form molecules Most of what’s surrounding |
Here at SuperSmart Carbon, we love learning about carbon. Apparently, we are not alone. There is a project being launched called the Deep Carbon Observatory that is being funded by |
the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. The purpose of this group is to study carbon deep inside the earth. Carbon makes up somewhere from 0.7% to 3.2% of the earth’s elements. |
We know that there is carbon trapped under the earth’s crust, but we don’t know how much. The Deep Carbon Observatory is going to study how much carbon there is |
in the earth and what happens to it. Another question is what form is the... Friday, February 25, 2011 Where does gas come from? Carbon! (We always love it when |
the answer is carbon.) The gas we use to power our cars comes from decomposing organic matter. What does that mean? All life has carbon in it -- this includes |
everything living from you and me to zebras, tapeworms, tulips and seaweed. Since all living things have carbon in them, they are referred to as organic matter. Non-organic matter includes |
things like rocks, water and metals. When something organic dies, it goes into the earth’s surface. For example, when a leaf falls off a tree, it settles on the ground. |
Over the next months, it slowly rots and... Friday, February 11, 2011 How to Name an Element After Yourself Here on the SuperSmart Carbon blog, I will talk about the |
elements a lot because "Carbon" is an element. SuperSmart Carbon is a blue guy with a green hat and in this blog, he looks like he is 1 1/2 inches |
high. He has two rings around him with six yellow spheres. Although cute, SuperSmart Carbon does not exactly look like elements in the real world. Elements are really, really, small. |
You cannot see them with the naked eye, or even with a microscope. Although you can't see elements, they are all around you. Everything is made up of elements: the |
Politically incorrect? What does this mean? Definitions can include something that is potentially offensive to a particular group of people or disregarding political correctness. Should elected officals be held to at least an equal if not higher standard? This is my story. It began in a crowded room at a political even... |
elected offical, "What items can be voted on by paper ballot? It sure seems like that would not be a form of transparent, representative government." That discussion struck a nerve with the elected official. It seemed like hell unleashed its fury on me that night. "F" bombs spewed from the elected official's mouth like... |
asked the volcano to quit spewing its fury. Only after a second elected official enouraged the volcano to stop, did the "F" bombs cease. If my objective question illicits that type of response, it begs the larger question of this elected official's integrity and respect for common sense and decency. |
At NIDA's last Drug Facts Chat Day, Razorfang asked this question: "can you get viruses from drugs?" The answer to this might surprise you. Although you can't get viruses directly from drugs, using drugs can increase your chances of catching |
a virus like HIV (the virus that causes AIDS). In fact, behaviors associated with drug abuse are one of the biggest factors in the spread of HIV across the US. That's because drugs can mess up your judgment and lead |
to bad decisions—bad decisions like unsafe sex. And risky sex can lead to more than pregnancy. It can also lead to becoming infected with HIV or other sexually transmitted viruses. |
Tutorials - GRANTS WORKSHOP Resources for History & Social Studies Teachers Resources and Links compiled and annotated by SALEM in History staff. Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institution Grants Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum The Roosevelt Presidential Library provides grants of up to $2500 for ... |
This page of the H-Net website includes a listing of upcoming grant deadlines. Grants for Individuals Michigan State University The MSU library website has a large list of grants available to individuals in a number of areas, including history and education. Kennedy Library Research Grants John F. Kennedy Presidential ... |
collections of the library. Although preference is given for PhD candidates, all proposals are welcome. Stipends range from $500 to $2500. See website for details. Local Cultural Council Program Massachusetts Cultural Council Through the MCC Local Cultural Council Program, cities and towns make grant money available fo... |
contacts for local cultural councils. The Millipore Foundation funds programs including educational institutions and programs with an emphasis on grades K through 12 and culture. Presidential Libraries Grants National Archives & Records Administration Funding is available from private foundations for research in severa... |
York and the Herbert Hoover Library in Iowa. Grants range from $500 to $2500. Rogers Family Foundation The Rogers Family Foundation was funded by the owners of Eagle-Tribune Publishing Company. They fund programs in the area of historical preservation, education and youth development, among others. Save Our History Gra... |
partner with local history organizations on projects that work to preserve local history. See website for application details and deadlines. Associated Grant Makers Associated Grant Makers is an organization connecting non-profit and philanthropic organizations. Their Boston office has a library of grant resources and ... |
much of the material is free. Provides a free database of grants that can be searched by keyword and funding agency. Salem State College The Salem State College Grants Office provides grant research and writing support to SSC faculty, staff and students. The Grants Office website has a list of resources, grants databas... |
grants terminology. The website also has a list of upcoming grants deadlines. “A Teacher’s Guide to Fellowships and Awards” Massachusetts Department of Education This is an online guide to fellowships and awards available to teachers in Massachusetts. Included is a section on history/social studies. Of particular inter... |
their students. - FASSE General Grant, for innovative projects in social studies education. - Geraldine R. Dodge Curriculum Design Award in History, for grade 7-12 innovative history curriculum design. - Outstanding Social Studies Teacher of the Year Awards. - Taft Seminars for Teachers, advanced courses in American co... |
studies classroom teachers in developing and implementing imaginative, innovative, and illustrative social studies teaching strategies; and supporting student implementation of innovative social studies, citizenship projects, field experiences, and community connections. C-SPAN Teacher Fellowships The C-SPAN Teacher Fe... |
lessons with other educators. National Endowment for the Humanities The NEH offers fellowships for primary and secondary school teachers to conduct full-time advanced research in the humanities. See the website for instructions and deadlines. James Madison Memorial Foundation Fellowships James Madison Fellowships are g... |
Boston Athenaeum offers up to eight month-long fellowships to conduct research in their collections. Research may be used to develop curriculum and programs, and secondary school teachers are invited to apply. Stipends of up to $1,500 are provided for selected applicants. See the website for details and restrictions. M... |
War Teachers Institute The Civil War Preservation Trust runs a free Civic War Teachers Institute for grade 4-12 teachers. Landmarks of American History and Culture Workshops National Endowment for the Humanities Landmarks of American History summer workshops for teachers are offered across the country during the summer... |
the study of primary sources and the interpretation of historical sites. K-12 teachers are eligible to apply for workshops. If selected, applicants receive a stipend of $500 to help cover travel, living expenses and books. See the website for an updated list of summer workshops and application details. Summer Seminars ... |
NYC) runs week-long summer seminars for teachers of history. Seminars are taught by scholars from universities across the country. Tuition is free and accepted teachers receive books, housing and a $500 stipend. See website for upcoming topics, applications and deadlines. Supreme Court Institutes and Seminars Supreme C... |
help teachers grow professionally by deepening their knowledge about the Supreme Court and learning innovative teaching methods to help students master standards-based content related to the Court and its cases.” Teacher Resource Center Organization of American Historians This website provides information about publica... |
Painting, artists and art (technique, of all times) Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a surface. In art, the term describes both the act and the result, which is called a painting. Paintings may have for their support such surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood, glass, lacque... |
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