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brother Manco Inca Yupanqui in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish, while the Spanish fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile an associate of Pizarro's, |
Diego de Almagro, attempted to claim Cusco for himself. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco in 1536, but the Spanish retook the city afterwards. |
Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba, Peru, where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In |
1572 the last Inca stronghold was conquered, and the last ruler, Túpac Amaru, Manco's son, was captured and executed. This ended resistance to the Spanish conquest under the political authority |
of the Inca state. After the fall of the Inca Empire, the new Spanish rulers brutally oppressed the people and suppressed their traditions. Many aspects of Inca culture were systematically |
destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system. The Spaniards used the Inca mita (mandatory public service) system to literally work the people to death. One member of each family was forced |
to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at Potosí. When a family member died, which would usually happen within a |
year or two, the family would be required to send a replacement. The effects of smallpox on the Inca empire were even more devastating. Beginning in Colombia, smallpox spread rapidly |
before the Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. The spread was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system. Within a few years smallpox claimed between 60% and 94% |
of the Inca population, with other waves of European disease weakening them further. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox |
again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, measles in 1618 - all ravaged the remains of Inca culture. Organization of the EmpireSapa Inca ('the unique Inca'). Only descendants of the original |
Inca tribe ascended to the level of Inca. Most young members of the Inca's family attended Yachay Wasis (houses of knowledge) to obtain their education. The Inca Empire was a |
federalist system which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provinces: Chinchay Suyu (NW), Anti Suyu (NE), Kunti Suyu (SW), and Qulla Suyu (SE). |
The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cusco. Each province had a governor who oversaw local officials, who in turn supervised agriculturally-productive river valleys, cities and mines. |
There were separate chains of command for both the military and religious institutions, which created a system of partial checks and balances on power. The local officials were responsible for |
settling disputes and keeping track of each family's contribution to the mita (mandatory public service). Since the Inca Empire lacked a written language, the empire's main form of communication and |
recording came from quipus, ceramics and spoken Quechua, the language the Incas imposed upon the peoples within the empire. The plethora of civilizations in the Andean region provided for a |
general disunity that the Incas needed to subdue in order to maintain control of the empire. While Quechua had been spoken in the Andean region, like central Peru, for several |
years prior to the expansion of the Inca civilization, the type of Quechua the Incas imposed was an adaptation from the Kingdom of Cusco (an early form of "Southern Quechua") |
of what some historians define as "Proto-Quechua" or Cusco dialect (the original Quechua dialect). The language imposed by the Incas further diverted from its original phonetic tone as some societies |
formed their own regional varieties, or slang. The diversity of Quechua at that point and even today does not come as a direct result from the Incas, who are just |
a part of the reason for Quechua's diversity. The civilizations within the empire that had previously spoken Quechua kept their own variety distinct to the Quechua the Incas spread. Although |
these dialects of Quechua have a similar linguistic structure, they differ according to the region in which they are spoken. Although most of the societies within the empire implemented Quechua |
into their lives, the Incas allowed several societies to keep their old languages such as Aymara, which still remains a spoken language in contemporary Bolivia where it is the primary |
indigenous language and various regions of South America surrounding Bolivia. The linguistic body of the Inca Empire was thus largely varied, but it still remains quite an achievement for the |
Incas that went even beyond their times as the Spanish imposed the use of Spanish as a method to force their culture upon the indigenous peoples of South America (even |
though that further increased the diversity of the language). The dialect of Quechua spoken by the Incan ruling elite tended to remain somewhat closer to the "early Southern Quechua" of |
the Kingdom of Cusco mainly through the complex educational facilities the Inca Empire offered them. This standardized governmental Quechua is what served as the backbone for the Inca Empire, but |
it also differentiated the social status of the community. Moreover, some historians even discuss the possibility that the "secret language" of the ruling elite might have simply been another form |
of Quechua. The Roman Catholic Church employed Quechua to evangelize in the Andean region. In some cases, these languages were taught to people who had originally spoken other indigenous languages. |
Today, Quechua and Aymara remain the most widespread Amerindian languages. Daily life and diet The Inca diet consisted primarily of potatoes and grains, supplemented by fish, vegetables, nuts, and maize |
(corn). Camelid (llama and alpaca) meat and cuyes (guinea pigs) were also eaten in large quantities. In addition, they hunted various wild animals for meat, skins and feathers. Maize was |
malted and used to make chicha, a fermented alcoholic beverage. The Inca road system was key to farming success as it allowed distribution of foodstuffs over long distances. The Aqllawasi |
(Acllahuasi) which means "house of the sun virgins" was developed under the Incas in Peru at about 1438–1532 CE. Its central purpose was in the manufacturing of garments for the |
Inca royalty and the worship of the sun god, Inti. The Inca believed in reincarnation. Those who obeyed the Incan moral code—ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella (do not steal, |
do not lie, do not be lazy)—"went to live in the Sun's warmth while others spent their eternal days in the cold earth". The Inca also practiced cranial deformation. They |
achieved this by wrapping tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns in order to alter the shape of their soft skulls into a more conical form. Further studies are |
still needed to determine whether these deformations caused brain damage. Arts and technology Architecture was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with textiles reflecting motifs that were |
at their height in architecture. The main example is the capital city of Cusco. The breathtaking site of Machu Picchu was constructed by Inca engineers. The stone temples constructed by |
the Inca used a mortarless construction that fit together so well that a knife could not be fitted through the stonework. This was a process first used on a large |
scale by the Pucara (ca. 300 BC–AD 300) peoples to the south in Lake Titicaca, and later in the great city of Tiwanaku (ca. AD 400–1100) in present day Bolivia. |
The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust |
was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable. Ceramics, precious metal work, and textiles Almost all of the gold and silver work |
of the empire was melted down by the conquistadores. The Larco Archaeological Museum and the National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology and History have comprehensive of all indigenous cultures found in |
Peru with examples of Incan, as well as, Moche gold and silver jewelry, armor and ceremonial wear. Ceramics were painted using the polychrome technique portraying numerous motifs including animals,birds, waves, |
felines (which were popular in the Chavin culture) and geometric patterns found in the Nazca style of ceramics.In place of a written language Ceramics portrayed the very basic scenes of |
everyday life,including the smelting of metals,relationships and scenes of tribal warfare,it is through these preserved Ceramics that we know what life was like for the ancient South Americans . The |
most distinctive Inca ceramic objects are the Cusco bottles or ¨aryballos¨. Many of these pieces are on display in Lima in the Larco Archaeological Museum and the National Museum of |
Archaeology, Anthropology and History. Inca Textiles are some of the oldest textile traditions of the Andes and became one of the most developed during the height of the Inca, due |
to the use of different materials and techniques. The Incas were able to produce a variety of clothing and everyday items. Inca Textiles designs are characterized by geometric or tocapus |
and the fineness of his technique. The Incas are noted for their tapestries and feather cloaks and geometric designs. They had an extraordinary sense of symmetry, reflected in the repetition |
of stylized figures arranged in a very orderly way. Communication and medicine The Inca used an assemblages of knotted strings, known as Quipu to record information, the exact nature of |
which is no longer known. Originally it was thought that Quipu were used only as mnemonic devices or to record numerical data. Recent discoveries, however, have led to the theory |
that these devices were instead a form of writing in their own right. The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful skull surgery, which involved cutting holes in |
the skull in order to alleviate fluid buildup and inflammation caused by head wounds. Anthropologists have discovered evidence which suggests that most skull surgeries performed by Inca surgeons were successful. |
In pre-Inca times, only one-third of skull surgery patients survived the procedure. However, survival rates rose to 80-90% during the Inca era. Coca leaves were used to lessen hunger and |
pain, as they still are in the Andes. The Chasqui (messengers) chewed coca leaves for extra energy to carry on their tasks as runners delivering messages throughout the empire. They |
were also used during surgeries. Weapons, armor, and warfare The Inca army was the most powerful in the area at that time, because they could turn an ordinary villager or |
farmer into a soldier, ready for battle. This is because every male Inca had to take part in war at least once so as to be prepared for warfare again |
when needed. By the time the empire had reached its large size, every section of the empire contributed in setting up an army for war. The Incas had no iron |
or steel, and their weapons were no better than those of their enemies. They went into battle with the beating of drums and the blowing of trumpets. The armor used |
by the Incas included: - Helmets made of wood, copper, bronze, cane, or animal skin; some were adorned with feathers - Round or square shields made from wood or hide |
- Cloth tunics padded with cotton and small wooden planks to protect spine The Inca weaponry included: - Bronze or bone-tipped spears - Two-handed wooden swords with serrated edges - |
Clubs with stone and spiked metal heads - Woolen slings and stones - Stone or copper headed battle-axes - Stones fastened to lengths of cord (bola) Roads allowed very quick |
movement for the Inca army, and shelters called quolla were built one day's distance in travelling from each other, so that an army on campaign could always be fed and |
rested. (The name for the Sapa Inca's storehouses was tambo. This can be seen in names of ruins such as Ollantay Tambo, or My Lord's Storehouse. These were set up |
so the Inca and his entourage would always have supplies (and possibly shelter) ready as he traveled. There are 16th and 17th century chronicles and references that support the idea |
of a banner, or flag, attributable to the Inca. Francisco López de Jerez wrote in 1534: "all of them came distributed into squads, with their flags and captains commanding them, |
as well-ordered as Turks" ("todos venían repartidos en sus escuadras con sus banderas y capitanes que los mandan, con tanto concierto como turcos"). The chronicler, Bernabé Cobo, wrote: "The royal |
standard or banner was a small square flag, ten or twelve spans around, made of cotton or wool linen, placed on the end of a long staff, stretched and stiff |
such that it did not wave in the air, and on it each king painted his arms and emblems, for each one chose different ones, though the sign of the |
Incas was the rainbow." (...el guión o estandarte real era una banderilla cuadrada y pequeña, de diez o doce palmos de ruedo, hecha de lienzo de algodón o de lana, |
iba puesta en el remate de una asta larga, tendida y tiesa, sin que ondease al aire, y en ella pintaba cada rey sus armas y divisas, porque cada uno |
las escogía diferentes, aunque las generales de los Incas eran el arco celeste.) -Bernabé Cobo, Historia del Nuevo Mundo (1653) In modern times the rainbow flag has been associated with |
the Tawantinsuyu and is displayed as a symbol of Inca heritage in Peru and Bolivia. The city of Cusco flies the Rainbow Flag. Peruvian President Alejandro Toledo (2001–2006) flew the |
Rainbow Flag in Lima's presidential palace. - Peruvian Ancient Cultures - Cultural periods of Peru - History of Peru - War of the two brothers - Inca Garcilaso de la |
Vega - Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala - Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire - Smallpox Epidemics in the New World - Population history of Amerindians - Inca cuisine - |
Tambo (Incan structure) - Amazonas before the Inca Empire - Inca Textiles - ↑ The Inca Empire. Created by Katrina Namnama & Kathleen DeGuzman - ↑ Terence D'Altroy, The Incas, |
pp. 2–3. - ↑ Tawantin suyu derives from the Quechua "tawa" (four), to which the suffix "-ntin" (together or united) is added, followed by "suyu" (region or province), which roughly |
renders as "The four lands together". The four suyos were: Chinchay Suyo (North), Anti Suyo (East. The Amazon jungle), Colla Suyo (South) and Conti Suyo (West). - ↑ The Inca |
- All Empires - ↑ Gary Urton, The History of a Myth: Pacariqtambo and the Origin of the Inkas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990). - ↑ Gary Urton, Signs |
of the Inka Khipu: Binary Coding in the Andean Knotted-String Records (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003). - ↑ Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black, Larry S. Krieger, Phillip C. Naylor, |
Dahia Ibo Shabaka, (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274-X. - ↑ Innes, Hammond. The Conquistadors. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf Inc., 1969. - |
↑ The three laws of Tawantinsuyu are still referred to in Bolivia these days as the three laws of the Collasuyo. - ↑ Starn, Degregori, Kirk The Peru Reader: History, |
Culture, Politics; Quote by Pedro de Cieza de Leon; Published by Duke University Press, 1995 - ↑ Somervill,Barbara; Francisco Pizarro: Conquerer of the IncasPublished by Compass Point Books, 2005; pp.52 |
- ↑ Burger, R.L. and L.C. Salazar. 2004. Machu Picchu: Unveiling the Mystery of the Incas. Yale University Press, p. 45. ISBN 0-300-09763-8. - ↑ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. |
The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York:Thames and Hudson - ↑ Science News / Incan Skull Surgery - ↑ Francisco López de Jerez,Verdadera |
relacion de la conquista del Peru y provincia de Cuzco, llamada la Nueva Castilla, 1534. - ↑ Guaman Poma, El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno, (1615/1616), pp. 256, 286, |
344, 346, 400, 434, 1077, this pagination corresponds to the Det Kongelige Bibliotek search engine pagination of the book. Additionally Poma shows both well drafted European flags and coats of |
arms on pp. 373, 515, 558, 1077, 0. On pages 83, 167-171 Poma uses a european heraldic graphic convention, a shield, to place certain totems related to Inca leaders. - |
De la Vega, Garcilaso . The Incas: The Royal Commentaries of the Inca. New York: The Orion Press, 1961. - John Hemming. The Conquest of the Incas Harvest Press 2003. |
ISBN 978-0156028264. - MacQuarrie, Kim. The Last Days of the Incas. Simon & Schuster, 2007. ISBN 978-0743260497. - Mann, Charles. C (2005). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. |
Knopf. pp. 64–105. - Morales, Edmundo (1995). The Guinea Pig : Healing, Food, and Ritual in the Andes, University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1558-1. - Popenoe, Hugh, Steven R. King, |
Jorge Leon, Luis Sumar Kalinowski, and Noel D. Vietmeyer. Lost Crops of the Incas. Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1989. - Historical maps of inca empire Maps to be combined |
and compared - "Guaman Poma - El Primer Nueva Corónica Y Buen Gobierno" – A high-quality digital version of the Corónica, scanned from the original manuscript. - Conquest of Peru, |
Prescott, 1847 Full text, free to read and search. - Inca Land by Hiram Bingham (published 1912–1922 CE). - Inca Artifacts, Peru, and Machu Picchu 360 degree movies of inca |
artifacts and Peruvian landscapes. - Inca civilization and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil. - Inca stone cutting techniques: theory on how the Inca walls fit so perfectly. - Ancient |
Civilizations - Inca Great research site for kids. - "Ice Treasures of the Inca" National Geographic site. - "The Sacred Hymns of Pachacutec" Poetry of an Inca emperor. - Incan |
Ice Mummies NOVA site based on their series about the 1996 expedition that discovered Incan ice mummies. - Incan Religion - History of the Inca Empire Inca history, society and |
religion. - Engineering in the Andes Mountains MIT asst. professor gives 40 minute lecture on Incan suspension bridges. - A Map and Timeline of events mentioned in this article ar:إنكا |
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