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10,900 | ), Wiley, ISBN 978-0-471-19826-0 Butkov, Eugene (1968), Mathematical Physics, Addison-Wesley Hassani, Sadri (2009), Mathematical Methods for Students of Physics and Related Fields, (2nd ed. ), New York, Springer, eISBN 978-0-387-09504-2 Jeffreys, Harold; Swirles Jeffreys, Bertha (1956), Methods of Mathematical Physics ... | Mathematical physicist | 0.818474 |
10,901 | (1976–1986), Norbert Wiener: Collected Works with Commentaries, Vol 1–4, The MIT Press Morse, Philip M.; Feshbach, Herman (1999), Methods of Theoretical Physics, Vol 1–2, McGraw Hill, ISBN 0-07-043316-X Thirring, Walter E. (1978–1983), A Course in Mathematical Physics, Vol 1–4, Springer-Verlag Tikhomirov, Vladimir M. (... | Mathematical physicist | 0.818474 |
10,902 | ), Springer-Verlag, ISBN 3-540-58661-X Margenau, Henry; Murphy, George M. (2009), The Mathematics of Physics and Chemistry (2nd ed. ), Young Press, ISBN 978-1444627473 Masani, Pesi R. | Mathematical physicist | 0.818474 |
10,903 | Allen, Jont (2020), An Invitation to Mathematical Physics and its History, Springer, ISBN 978-3-030-53758-6 Courant, Richard; Hilbert, David (1989), Methods of Mathematical Physics, Vol 1–2, Interscience Publishers Françoise, Jean P.; Naber, Gregory L.; Tsun, Tsou S. (2006), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Elsevi... | Mathematical physicist | 0.818474 |
10,904 | Mathematical physics refers to the development of mathematical methods for application to problems in physics. The Journal of Mathematical Physics defines the field as "the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods suitable for such applications and for the formulatio... | Mathematical physicist | 0.818474 |
10,905 | The French mathematical physicist Joseph Fourier (1768 – 1830) introduced the notion of Fourier series to solve the heat equation, giving rise to a new approach to solving partial differential equations by means of integral transforms. Into the early 19th century, following mathematicians in France, Germany and England... | Mathematical physicist | 0.818474 |
10,906 | Also notable was the Italian-born Frenchman, Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736–1813) for work in analytical mechanics: he formulated Lagrangian mechanics) and variational methods. A major contribution to the formulation of Analytical Dynamics called Hamiltonian dynamics was also made by the Irish physicist, astronomer and ma... | Mathematical physicist | 0.818474 |
10,907 | The principle of Galilean invariance/relativity was merely implicit in Newton's theory of motion. Having ostensibly reduced the Keplerian celestial laws of motion as well as Galilean terrestrial laws of motion to a unifying force, Newton achieved great mathematical rigor, but with theoretical laxity.In the 18th century... | Mathematical physicist | 0.818474 |
10,908 | In this era, important concepts in calculus such as the fundamental theorem of calculus (proved in 1668 by Scottish mathematician James Gregory) and finding extrema and minima of functions via differentiation using Fermat's theorem (by French mathematician Pierre de Fermat) were already known before Leibniz and Newton.... | Mathematical physicist | 0.818474 |
10,909 | The theory of atomic spectra (and, later, quantum mechanics) developed almost concurrently with some parts of the mathematical fields of linear algebra, the spectral theory of operators, operator algebras and more broadly, functional analysis. Nonrelativistic quantum mechanics includes Schrödinger operators, and it has... | Mathematical physicist | 0.818474 |
10,910 | In mathematical logic, an elementary sentence is one that is stated using only finitary first-order logic, without reference to set theory or using any axioms which have consistency strength equal to set theory. Saying that a sentence is elementary is a weaker condition than saying it is algebraic. | Elementary sentence | 0.818461 |
10,911 | The second part of the proof no longer uses ω-consistency, and is changed to the following: Suppose T could have proven ¬ ρ {\displaystyle \neg \rho } . We then would have the following theorems in T: T ⊩ ¬ ρ {\displaystyle T\Vdash \neg \rho } T ⊩ P r o v R ( # ( ρ ) ) {\displaystyle T\Vdash Prov^{R}(\#(\rho ))} (by co... | Hilbert–Bernays provability conditions | 0.81846 |
10,912 | Now let us suppose T could have proven ¬ ρ {\displaystyle \neg \rho } . We then would have the following theorems in T: T ⊩ ¬ ρ {\displaystyle T\Vdash \neg \rho } T ⊩ P r o v ( # ( ρ ) ) {\displaystyle T\Vdash Prov(\#(\rho ))} (by construction of ρ {\displaystyle \rho } and theorem 1) T ⊩ ρ {\displaystyle T\Vdash \rho ... | Hilbert–Bernays provability conditions | 0.81846 |
10,913 | For the first theorem only the first and third conditions are needed. The condition that T is ω-consistent is generalized by the condition that if for every formula φ, if T proves Prov(#(φ)), then T proves φ. Note that this indeed holds for an ω-consistent T because Prov(#(φ)) means that there is a number coding for th... | Hilbert–Bernays provability conditions | 0.81846 |
10,914 | The Hilbert–Bernays provability conditions, combined with the diagonal lemma, allow proving both of Gödel's incompleteness theorems shortly. Indeed the main effort of Godel's proofs lied in showing that these conditions (or equivalent ones) and the diagonal lemma hold for Peano arithmetics; once these are established t... | Hilbert–Bernays provability conditions | 0.81846 |
10,915 | In mathematical logic, the Hilbert–Bernays provability conditions, named after David Hilbert and Paul Bernays, are a set of requirements for formalized provability predicates in formal theories of arithmetic (Smith 2007:224). These conditions are used in many proofs of Kurt Gödel's second incompleteness theorem. They a... | Hilbert–Bernays provability conditions | 0.81846 |
10,916 | A path-connected space whose fundamental group is trivial is called simply connected. For example, the 2-sphere S 2 = { ( x , y , z ) ∈ R 3 ∣ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 } {\displaystyle S^{2}=\left\{(x,y,z)\in \mathbb {R} ^{3}\mid x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}=1\right\}} depicted on the right, and also all the higher-dimensional spheres,... | Fundamental groups | 0.818458 |
10,917 | The circle (also known as the 1-sphere) S 1 = { ( x , y ) ∈ R 2 ∣ x 2 + y 2 = 1 } {\displaystyle S^{1}=\left\{(x,y)\in \mathbb {R} ^{2}\mid x^{2}+y^{2}=1\right\}} is not simply connected. Instead, each homotopy class consists of all loops that wind around the circle a given number of times (which can be positive or neg... | Fundamental groups | 0.818458 |
10,918 | Many optimization processes are iterative, repeating the same step until the process converges to an optimal value. Gradient descent is one such algorithm. If you define θ i ∗ {\displaystyle \theta _{i}^{*}} as the approximation of the optimal θ {\displaystyle \theta } after i {\displaystyle i} steps, a learning curve ... | Learning curve (machine learning) | 0.818457 |
10,919 | It is a tool to find out how much a machine model benefits from adding more training data and whether the estimator suffers more from a variance error or a bias error. If both the validation score and the training score converge to a value that is too low with increasing size of the training set, it will not benefit mu... | Learning curve (machine learning) | 0.818457 |
10,920 | In machine learning, a learning curve (or training curve) plots the optimal value of a model's loss function for a training set against this loss function evaluated on a validation data set with same parameters as produced the optimal function. Synonyms include error curve, experience curve, improvement curve and gener... | Learning curve (machine learning) | 0.818457 |
10,921 | One model of a machine learning is producing a function, f(x), which given some information, x, predicts some variable, y, from training data X train {\displaystyle X_{\text{train}}} and Y train {\displaystyle Y_{\text{train}}} . It is distinct from mathematical optimization because f {\displaystyle f} should predict w... | Learning curve (machine learning) | 0.818457 |
10,922 | It is then straightforward to show that The Green's function in r is therefore given by the inverse Fourier transform, This integral may be evaluated using spherical coordinates in k-space. The integration over the angular coordinates is straightforward, and the integral reduces to one over the radial wavenumber k r {\... | Screened Poisson equation | 0.818455 |
10,923 | In electric-field screening, screened Poisson equation for the electric potential ϕ ( r ) {\displaystyle \phi (\mathbf {r} )} is usually written as (SI units) where k 0 − 1 {\displaystyle k_{0}^{-1}} is the screening length, ρ e x t ( r ) {\displaystyle \rho _{\rm {ext}}(\mathbf {r} )} is the charge density produced by... | Screened Poisson equation | 0.818455 |
10,924 | In physics, the screened Poisson equation is a Poisson equation, which arises in (for example) the Klein–Gordon equation, electric field screening in plasmas, and nonlocal granular fluidity in granular flow. | Screened Poisson equation | 0.818455 |
10,925 | The wave–particle duality has been shown to apply not only to photons but to more massive particles as well.Interactions of particles in the framework of quantum field theory are understood as creation and annihilation of quanta of corresponding fundamental interactions. This blends particle physics with field theory. ... | Sub atomic particle | 0.818453 |
10,926 | In physics, a subatomic particle is a particle smaller than an atom. According to the Standard Model of particle physics, a subatomic particle can be either a composite particle, which is composed of other particles (for example, a proton, neutron, or meson), or an elementary particle, which is not composed of other pa... | Sub atomic particle | 0.818453 |
10,927 | Also, they can be used for subtyping (identificate a specific genetic variant of a microorganism).Untargeted mNGS is the most promising approach to analyse clinical samples and provide a comprehensive diagnosis of infections. Various groups have validated mNGS in Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA), such ... | Clinical metagenomic sequencing | 0.818449 |
10,928 | One type of sequencing method can be used in preference to another depending on the type of the sample, for a genomic sample assembly-based methods is used; for a metagenomic sample it is preferable to use read-based methods.Metagenomic sequencing methods have provided better results than genomics, due to these present... | Clinical metagenomic sequencing | 0.818449 |
10,929 | {\displaystyle \phi (z).} If the curve is compact, and the function f is meromorphic on the whole curve, then the number of zeros and poles is finite, and the sum of the orders of the poles equals the sum of the orders of the zeros. This is one of the basic facts that are involved in Riemann–Roch theorem. | Poles and zeroes | 0.818446 |
10,930 | A strong system is defined as having an SCR above three, and the SCRs of weak and very weak systems range between three and two and below two, respectively.Power electronic applications often encounter issues related to SCR, particularly in renewable energy systems that use power converters to connect to power grids. W... | Grid strength | 0.818446 |
10,931 | Large penetration of the inverter-based resources (IBRs) reduced the short circuit level: a typical synchronous generator can deliver a significant overcurrent, 2-5 p.u., for a relatively long time (minutes), while the component limitations of the IBRs result in overcurrent limits of less than 2 p.u. (usually 1.1-1.2 p... | Grid strength | 0.818446 |
10,932 | Integrative bioinformatics is a discipline of bioinformatics that focuses on problems of data integration for the life sciences. With the rise of high-throughput (HTP) technologies in the life sciences, particularly in molecular biology, the amount of collected data has grown in an exponential fashion. Furthermore, the... | Integrative bioinformatics | 0.818444 |
10,933 | Let R be a commutative ring and let M be a finite free module over R. Then contraction operates on the full (mixed) tensor algebra of M in exactly the same way as it does in the case of vector spaces over a field. (The key fact is that the natural pairing is still perfect in this case.) More generally, let OX be a shea... | Tensor contraction | 0.818441 |
10,934 | In multilinear algebra, a tensor contraction is an operation on a tensor that arises from the natural pairing of a finite-dimensional vector space and its dual. In components, it is expressed as a sum of products of scalar components of the tensor(s) caused by applying the summation convention to a pair of dummy indice... | Tensor contraction | 0.818441 |
10,935 | A positive number has two square roots, one positive, and one negative, which are opposite to each other. When talking of the square root of a positive integer, it is usually the positive square root that is meant. The square roots of an integer are algebraic integers—more specifically quadratic integers. The square ro... | Complex square root | 0.81844 |
10,936 | For example, the nth roots of x are the roots of the polynomial (in y) y n − x . {\displaystyle y^{n}-x.} Abel–Ruffini theorem states that, in general, the roots of a polynomial of degree five or higher cannot be expressed in terms of n-th roots. | Complex square root | 0.81844 |
10,937 | However, Descartes made no claim to originality and his audience would have been quite familiar with Euclid. Euclid's second proof in Book VI depends on the theory of similar triangles. Let AHB be a line segment of length a + b with AH = a and HB = b. Construct the circle with AB as diameter and let C be one of the two... | Complex square root | 0.81844 |
10,938 | Otherwise, it is a quadratic non-residue. There are (q − 1)/2 quadratic residues and (q − 1)/2 quadratic non-residues; zero is not counted in either class. The quadratic residues form a group under multiplication. The properties of quadratic residues are widely used in number theory. | Complex square root | 0.81844 |
10,939 | It defines an important concept of standard deviation used in probability theory and statistics. It has a major use in the formula for roots of a quadratic equation; quadratic fields and rings of quadratic integers, which are based on square roots, are important in algebra and have uses in geometry. Square roots freque... | Complex square root | 0.81844 |
10,940 | The square root function maps rational numbers into algebraic numbers, the latter being a superset of the rational numbers). For all real numbers x, (see absolute value). For all nonnegative real numbers x and y, and The square root function is continuous for all nonnegative x, and differentiable for all positive x. If... | Complex square root | 0.81844 |
10,941 | That is, a certain pattern of partial denominators repeats indefinitely in the continued fraction. In a sense these square roots are the very simplest irrational numbers, because they can be represented with a simple repeating pattern of integers. The square bracket notation used above is a short form for a continued f... | Complex square root | 0.81844 |
10,942 | Many important cell properties, such as voltage, energy density, flammability, available cell constructions, operating temperature range and shelf life, are dictated by battery chemistry. | Voltaic electricity | 0.818437 |
10,943 | QSurveillance is a near-real-time surveillance scheme to collect, analyse and report on rates of infectious diseases and influenza-related conditions, flu vaccine and pneumococcal vaccine uptake. The UK Health Protection Agency have quoted QSurveillance statistics during the 2009 flu pandemic in the United Kingdom. | QResearch | 0.818431 |
10,944 | In the vacancy strengthening model, the increased strength below the peak stress temperature is approximated as proportional to the vacancy concentration to the one-half with the vacancy concentration estimated using Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. Thus, the strength can be estimated as e − E f / 2 k B T {\displaystyle e... | Yield strength anomaly | 0.818423 |
10,945 | In materials science, the yield strength anomaly refers to materials wherein the yield strength (i.e., the stress necessary to initiate plastic yielding) increases with temperature. For the majority of materials, the yield strength decreases with increasing temperature. In metals, this decrease in yield strength is due... | Yield strength anomaly | 0.818423 |
10,946 | Mathematical knowledge management (MKM) is the study of how society can effectively make use of the vast and growing literature on mathematics. It studies approaches such as databases of mathematical knowledge, automated processing of formulae and the use of semantic information, and artificial intelligence. Mathematic... | Mathematical Knowledge Management | 0.818423 |
10,947 | The decisional composite residuosity assumption (DCRA) is a mathematical assumption used in cryptography. In particular, the assumption is used in the proof of the Paillier cryptosystem. Informally, the DCRA states that given a composite n {\displaystyle n} and an integer z {\displaystyle z} , it is hard to decide whet... | Decisional composite residuosity assumption | 0.81842 |
10,948 | The formulation of statistical ensembles used in physics has now been widely adopted in other fields, in part because it has been recognized that the canonical ensemble or Gibbs measure serves to maximize the entropy of a system, subject to a set of constraints: this is the principle of maximum entropy. This principle ... | Thermodynamic ensemble | 0.818418 |
10,949 | In physics, specifically statistical mechanics, an ensemble (also statistical ensemble) is an idealization consisting of a large number of virtual copies (sometimes infinitely many) of a system, considered all at once, each of which represents a possible state that the real system might be in. In other words, a statist... | Thermodynamic ensemble | 0.818418 |
10,950 | The calendar is stored as a binary tree where leaves represent elementary time periods. Other nodes represent the period of time covered by all their descendants. The period of time covered by a reservation is represented by a set of "top-nodes". This set is the minimal set of nodes that exactly cover the reservation p... | Top-nodes algorithm | 0.81841 |
10,951 | Simultaneous equations models are a type of statistical model in which the dependent variables are functions of other dependent variables, rather than just independent variables. This means some of the explanatory variables are jointly determined with the dependent variable, which in economics usually is the consequenc... | Simultaneous equation models | 0.818406 |
10,952 | In mathematics, a modular equation is an algebraic equation satisfied by moduli, in the sense of moduli problems. That is, given a number of functions on a moduli space, a modular equation is an equation holding between them, or in other words an identity for moduli. The most frequent use of the term modular equation i... | Modular equation | 0.818398 |
10,953 | In 1936, André Weil proved a converse (of sorts) to Haar's theorem, by showing that if a group has a left invariant measure with a certain separating property, then one can define a topology on the group, and the completion of the group is locally compact and the given measure is essentially the same as the Haar measur... | Unimodular group | 0.818393 |
10,954 | In the same issue of Annals of Mathematics and immediately after Haar's paper, the Haar theorem was used to solve Hilbert's fifth problem restricted to compact groups by John von Neumann.Unless G {\displaystyle G} is a discrete group, it is impossible to define a countably additive left-invariant regular measure on all... | Unimodular group | 0.818393 |
10,955 | Several methods have been proposed for producing computing devices or data storage devices that approach physical and practical limits: A cold degenerate star could conceivably be used as a giant data storage device, by carefully perturbing it to various excited states, in the same manner as an atom or quantum well use... | Physical limits to computing | 0.818388 |
10,956 | Many limits derived in terms of physical constants and abstract models of computation in computer science are loose. Very few known limits directly obstruct leading-edge technologies, but many engineering obstacles currently cannot be explained by closed-form limits. | Physical limits to computing | 0.818388 |
10,957 | In the field of theoretical computer science the computability and complexity of computational problems are often sought-after. Computability theory describes the degree to which problems are computable, whereas complexity theory describes the asymptotic degree of resource consumption. Computational problems are theref... | Physical limits to computing | 0.818388 |
10,958 | The meetings are often held in conjunction with other biology conferences, especially the International Conference on Systems Biology (ICSB). The community effort is coordinated by an elected editorial board made up of five members. Each editor is elected for a 3-year non-renewable term. Tools such as an online model v... | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,959 | As of February 2020, nearly 300 software systems advertise support for SBML. A current list is available in the form of the SBML Software Guide, hosted at SBML.org. SBML has been and continues to be developed by the community of people making software platforms for systems biology, through active email discussion lists... | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,960 | The Systems Biology Markup Language (SBML) is a representation format, based on XML, for communicating and storing computational models of biological processes. It is a free and open standard with widespread software support and a community of users and developers. SBML can represent many different classes of biologica... | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,961 | The Flux Balance Constraints package (nicknamed "fbc") was first released in February, 2013. Import revisions were introduced as part of Version 2, released in September, 2015. The "fbc" package provides support for constraint-based modeling, frequently used to analyze and study biological networks on both a small and ... | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,962 | This type of structure can only be used to define how the value of a variable can be calculated from other values and variables at the start of simulated time. Rule: A mathematical expression used in combination with the differential equations constructed based on the set of reactions in a model. It can be used to defi... | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,963 | SBML shorthand is a specification and associated Python tooling to interconvert SBML and the shorthand notation. The format was developed by the UK Newcastle systems biology group sometime before 2006. Its aim was to enable modelers to more rapidly create models without having to either write raw XML or use GUI tools. | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,964 | SBML is sometimes incorrectly assumed to be limited in scope only to biochemical network models because the original publications and early software focused on this domain. In reality, although the central features of SBML are indeed oriented towards representing chemical reaction-like processes that act on entities, t... | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,965 | SBML is primarily a format for the exchange of systems biology models between software modeling tools or for archiving models in repositories such as BiGG, BioModels, or JWS Online. Since SBML is encoded in XML and in particular uses MathML for representing mathematics, the format is not human-readable. As a result, ot... | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,966 | For example, a package might provide the ability to simulate the model by constructing differential equations and then perform numerical time integration on the equations to explore the model's dynamic behavior. Or, alternatively, a package might construct a discrete stochastic representation of the model and use a Mon... | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,967 | SBML can encode models consisting of entities (called species in SBML) acted upon by processes (called reactions). An important principle is that models are decomposed into explicitly-labeled constituent elements, the set of which resembles a verbose rendition of chemical reaction equations (if the model uses reactions... | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,968 | The first draft of the Level 2 Version 1 specification was released in August 2002, and the final set of features was finalized in May 2003 at the 7th Workshop on Software Platforms for Systems Biology in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida. | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,969 | SBML Level 2 was conceived at the 5th Workshop on Software Platforms for Systems Biology, held in July 2002, at the University of Hertfordshire, UK. By this time, far more people were involved than the original group of SBML collaborators and the continued evolution of SBML became a larger community effort, with many n... | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,970 | The Caltech ERATO team developed a proposal for this XML-based format and circulated the draft definition to the attendees of the 2nd Workshop on Software Platforms for Systems Biology in August 2000. This draft underwent extensive discussion over mailing lists and during the 2nd Workshop on Software Platforms for Syst... | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,971 | Separately, earlier in 1999, some members of these groups also had discussed the creation of a portable file format for metabolic network models in the BioThermoKinetics (BTK) group. The same groups who attended the first Caltech workshop met again on April 28–29, 2000, at the first of a newly created meeting series ca... | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,972 | Late in the year 1999 through early 2000, with funding from the Japan Science and Technology Corporation (JST), Hiroaki Kitano and John C. Doyle assembled a small team of researchers to work on developing better software infrastructure for computational modeling in systems biology. Hamid Bolouri was the leader of the d... | Systems Biology Markup Language | 0.818387 |
10,973 | Then there is a unique non-empty compact set A such that A = ⋃ i = 1 m ψ i ( A ) . {\displaystyle A=\bigcup _{i=1}^{m}\psi _{i}(A).} The theorem follows from Stefan Banach's contractive mapping fixed point theorem applied to the complete metric space of non-empty compact subsets of Rn with the Hausdorff distance. | Capacity dimension | 0.818384 |
10,974 | Many sets defined by a self-similarity condition have dimensions which can be determined explicitly. Roughly, a set E is self-similar if it is the fixed point of a set-valued transformation ψ, that is ψ(E) = E, although the exact definition is given below. Theorem. Suppose ψ i: R n → R n , i = 1 , … , m {\displaystyle ... | Capacity dimension | 0.818384 |
10,975 | In mathematics, Hausdorff dimension is a measure of roughness, or more specifically, fractal dimension, that was introduced in 1918 by mathematician Felix Hausdorff. For instance, the Hausdorff dimension of a single point is zero, of a line segment is 1, of a square is 2, and of a cube is 3. That is, for sets of points... | Capacity dimension | 0.818384 |
10,976 | It was also motivated by a more algebraic viewpoint: the definition of a pregroup is a weakening of that of a group, introducing a distinction between the left and right inverses and replacing the equality by an order. This weakening was needed because using types from a free group would not work: an adjective would ge... | Pregroup Grammar | 0.818383 |
10,977 | Pregroup grammars were introduced by Joachim Lambek in 1993 as a development of his syntactic calculus, replacing the quotients by adjoints. Such adjoints had already been used earlier by Harris but without iterated adjoints and expansion rules. Adding such adjoints was interesting to handle more complex linguistic cas... | Pregroup Grammar | 0.818383 |
10,978 | With his entry to the Gradmessungsbüro in 1921 he turned to geodesy and geophysics, in particular his work on the meridian arc measurement Großenhain-Kremsmünster-Pola, which detailed the use of comparisons of vertical deflections. Later he studied the important problem of the geoid (the Earth's shape), for example thr... | Hopfner's arc measurement | 0.818375 |
10,979 | In 1906 he began researching problems bordering both astronomy and geophysics, starting with the warming of the Earth by the Sun. We owe mainly to Hopfner the sharp distinction he made between the daily and seasonal average irradiation. In 1927 he went into the subject in more detail, laying out his discoveries in his ... | Hopfner's arc measurement | 0.818375 |
10,980 | Hopfner's early work was mostly concerned with astronomy and meteorology. In collaboration with Johann Palisa, he determined the trajectories and ephemerides of a number of planetoids. | Hopfner's arc measurement | 0.818375 |
10,981 | After the war he was restored to his position in Vienna, and was later elected Dean of the Faculty of Applied Maths and Physics. His pleasant friendliness made him popular with colleagues and students, and in the 1948-9 term he was voted Rector magnificus at the Technical High School of Vienna. In the last month of his... | Hopfner's arc measurement | 0.818375 |
10,982 | In 1921 he became Chief Astronomer at the new Geodetic Survey of Austria ("Bureau of Weights, Measures and Surveying" or Bundesamt für Eich- und Vermessungswesen). In 1936 he was appointed Professor of Theoretical Geodesy and Spherical astronomy at the Vienna University of Technology, as successor to Richard Schumann. ... | Hopfner's arc measurement | 0.818375 |
10,983 | He was born on 28 October 1881 in Trautenau, northern Bohemia (now Trutnov, Czech Republic). He studied mathematics, physics, geophysics and astronomy at the University of Prague and the University of Munich between 1899 and 1904. In 1905 at the Charles University in Prague he delivered his dissertation on "The average... | Hopfner's arc measurement | 0.818375 |
10,984 | From the very beginning of his career he made valuable contributions to astronomy, geodesy, geophysics and meteorology, in the applied fields as well as the theoretical, and published a great deal on all four subjects. He wrote three well-known textbooks. | Hopfner's arc measurement | 0.818375 |
10,985 | 1912 Oskar Freiherr von Rothschild-Preis for astronomy, from the Vienna Academy of Sciences 1923 Seegenpreis from the Society for the Promotion of German Science, Art and Literature in Bohemia 1931 Given the title Hofrat (Counsellor) 1977 The Austrian Geodetic Commission begins awarding the Friedrich Hopfner-Medaille i... | Hopfner's arc measurement | 0.818375 |
10,986 | Classical radiophysics deals with radio wave communications and detection Quantum radiophysics (physics of lasers and masers; Nikolai Basov was the founder of quantum radiophysics in the Soviet Union) Statistical radiophysics == References == | Radio physics | 0.818371 |
10,987 | Radiophysics (also modern writing "radio physics") is a branch of physics focused on the theoretical and experimental study of certain kinds of radiation, its emission, propagation and interaction with matter. The term is used in the following major meanings: study of radio waves (the original area of research) study o... | Radio physics | 0.818371 |
10,988 | In thermodynamics and chemical engineering, the vapor–liquid equilibrium (VLE) describes the distribution of a chemical species between the vapor phase and a liquid phase. The concentration of a vapor in contact with its liquid, especially at equilibrium, is often expressed in terms of vapor pressure, which will be a p... | Vapour-liquid equilibria | 0.818364 |
10,989 | In mechanical engineering, many terms are associated into pairs called duals. A dual of a relationship is formed by interchanging force (stress) and deformation (strain) in an expression. Here is a partial list of mechanical dualities: force — deformation stress — strain stiffness method — flexibility method | Duality (mechanical engineering) | 0.818359 |
10,990 | The key goals set out for ITS were to be able to teach a task as well as perform it, adapting dynamically to its situation. In the transition from CAI to ICAI systems, the computer would have to distinguish not only between the correct and incorrect response but the type of incorrect response to adjust the type of inst... | Intelligent tutoring systems | 0.818359 |
10,991 | Kurt VanLehn's much more recent overview (2011) of modern ITS found that there was no statistical difference in effect size between expert one-on-one human tutors and step-based ITS. Some individual ITS have been evaluated more positively than others. Studies of the Algebra Cognitive Tutor found that the ITS students o... | Intelligent tutoring systems | 0.818359 |
10,992 | One specific type of intelligent tutoring system, the Cognitive Tutor, has been incorporated into mathematics curricula in a substantial number of United States high schools, producing improved student learning outcomes on final exams and standardized tests. Intelligent tutoring systems have been constructed to help st... | Intelligent tutoring systems | 0.818359 |
10,993 | SmartTutor provides support for students by combining Internet technology, educational research and artificial intelligence. AutoTutor AutoTutor assists college students in learning about computer hardware, operating systems and the Internet in an introductory computer literacy course by simulating the discourse patter... | Intelligent tutoring systems | 0.818359 |
10,994 | CIRCSlM-Tutor CIRCSIM_Tutor is an intelligent tutoring system that is used with first year medical students at the Illinois Institute of Technology. It uses natural dialogue based, Socratic language to help students learn about regulating blood pressure. Why2-Atlas Why2-Atlas is an ITS that analyses students explanatio... | Intelligent tutoring systems | 0.818359 |
10,995 | COLLECT-UML COLLECT-UML is a constraint-based tutor that supports pairs of students working collaboratively on UML class diagrams. The tutor provides feedback on the domain level as well as on collaboration. StoichTutor StoichTutor is a web-based intelligent tutor that helps high school students learn chemistry, specif... | Intelligent tutoring systems | 0.818359 |
10,996 | Algebra Tutor PAT (PUMP Algebra Tutor or Practical Algebra Tutor) developed by the Pittsburgh Advanced Cognitive Tutor Center at Carnegie Mellon University, engages students in anchored learning problems and uses modern algebraic tools in order to engage students in problem solving and in sharing of their results. The ... | Intelligent tutoring systems | 0.818359 |
10,997 | In order to replicate this effect the roles of the student and ITS can be switched. This can be achieved by designing the ITS to have the appearance of being taught as is the case in the Teachable Agent Arithmetic Game and Betty's Brain. Another approach is to have students teach a machine learning agent which can lear... | Intelligent tutoring systems | 0.818359 |
10,998 | Intelligent tutoring systems are not, in general, commercially feasible for real-world applications.A criticism of Intelligent Tutoring Systems currently in use, is the pedagogy of immediate feedback and hint sequences that are built in to make the system "intelligent". This pedagogy is criticized for its failure to de... | Intelligent tutoring systems | 0.818359 |
10,999 | Intelligent Tutoring Systems: An Historic Review in the Context of the Development of Artificial Intelligence and Educational Psychology Intelligent Tutoring Systems: The What and the How Freedman, Reva (2000). "What is an Intelligent Tutoring System?" (PDF). Intelligence. | Intelligent tutoring systems | 0.818359 |
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