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8,900 | Glossary of mathematical symbols List of important publications in mathematics List of important publications in statistics List of mathematical theories List of mathematics categories List of mathematical symbols by subject Table of logic symbols Table of mathematical symbols | Lists of mathematics topics | 0.820845 |
8,901 | Calculus studies the computation of limits, derivatives, and integrals of functions of real numbers, and in particular studies instantaneous rates of change. Analysis evolved from calculus. Glossary of tensor theory List of complex analysis topics List of functional analysis topics List of vector spaces in mathematics ... | Lists of mathematics topics | 0.820845 |
8,902 | Mathematicians study and research in all the different areas of mathematics. The publication of new discoveries in mathematics continues at an immense rate in hundreds of scientific journals, many of them devoted to mathematics and many devoted to subjects to which mathematics is applied (such as theoretical computer s... | Lists of mathematics topics | 0.820845 |
8,903 | Logic is the foundation that underlies mathematical logic and the rest of mathematics. It tries to formalize valid reasoning. In particular, it attempts to define what constitutes a proof. List of Boolean algebra topics List of first-order theories List of large cardinal properties List of mathematical logic topics Lis... | Lists of mathematics topics | 0.820845 |
8,904 | In statistics, circular analysis is the selection of the details of a data analysis using the data that is being analysed. It is often referred to as double dipping, as one uses the same data twice. Circular analysis unjustifiably inflates the apparent statistical strength of any results reported and, at the most extre... | Circular analysis | 0.820841 |
8,905 | At its most simple, it can include the decision to remove outliers, after noticing this might help improve the analysis of an experiment. The effect can be more subtle. In functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data, for example, considerable amounts of pre-processing is often needed. These might be applied incre... | Circular analysis | 0.820841 |
8,906 | Cryochemistry is the study of chemical interactions at temperatures below −150 °C (−238 °F; 123 K). It is derived from the Greek word cryos, meaning 'cold'. It overlaps with many other sciences, including chemistry, cryobiology, condensed matter physics, and even astrochemistry. | Cryochemistry | 0.820836 |
8,907 | At absolute zero most elements become a solid, but not all behave as predictably as this; for instance, helium becomes a highly unusual liquid. The chemistry between substances, however, does not disappear, even near absolute zero temperatures, since separated molecules/atom can always combine to lower their total ener... | Cryochemistry | 0.820836 |
8,908 | Cryochemistry has been a topic of interest since liquid nitrogen, which freezes at −210°C, became commonly available. Cryogenic-temperature chemical interactions are an important mechanism for studying the detailed pathways of chemical reactions by reducing the confusion introduced by thermal fluctuations. Cryochemistr... | Cryochemistry | 0.820836 |
8,909 | The wavelengths from the laser beams eventually hit the gaseous atoms and their outer spinning electrons. This clash of wavelengths decreases the kinetic energy state fraction by fraction to slow or cool the molecules down. Laser cooling has also been used to help improve atomic clocks and atom optics. Ultracold studie... | Cryochemistry | 0.820836 |
8,910 | One method that used to cool molecules to temperatures near absolute zero is laser cooling. In the Doppler cooling process, lasers are used to remove energy from electrons of a given molecule to slow or cool the molecule down. This method has applications in quantum mechanics and is related to particle traps and the Bo... | Cryochemistry | 0.820836 |
8,911 | Recombinant DNA is an important method of research in many fields, including neurogenetics. It is used to make alterations to an organism's genome, usually causing it to over- or under-express a certain gene of interest, or express a mutated form of it. The results of these experiments can provide information on that g... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,912 | Neurological diseases, behavior and personality are all studied in the context of neurogenetics. The field of neurogenetics emerged in the mid to late 20th century with advances closely following advancements made in available technology. Currently, neurogenetics is the center of much research utilizing cutting edge te... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,913 | By identifying specific genetic markers for the genes of interest in a recombinant inbred strain, the amount of interaction between these genes and their relation to the observed phenotype can be determined through complex statistical analysis. In a neurogenetics laboratory, the phenotype of a model organisms is observ... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,914 | Such databases are used in genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Examples of phenotypes investigated by notable neurogenetics GWAS include: Language-related skills: a meta-analysis of GWAS reported genetic factors of, the so far uniquely human, language-related capabilities, in particular factors of differences in sk... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,915 | Neurodegenerative diseases are a more common subset of neurological disorders, with examples being Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Currently no viable treatments exist that actually reverse the progression of neurodegenerative diseases; however, neurogenetics is emerging as one field that might yield a cau... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,916 | While the genetic basis of simple diseases and disorders has been accurately pinpointed, the genetics behind more complex, neurological disorders is still a source of ongoing research. New developments such as the genome wide association studies (GWAS) have brought vast new resources within grasp. With this new informa... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,917 | Many of the techniques he used and conclusions he drew would drive the field forward.Early analysis relied on statistical interpretation through processes such as LOD (logarithm of odds) scores of pedigrees and other observational methods such as affected sib-pairs, which looks at phenotype and IBD (identity by descent... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,918 | The field of neurogenetics emerged from advances made in molecular biology, genetics and a desire to understand the link between genes, behavior, the brain, and neurological disorders and diseases. The field started to expand in the 1960s through the research of Seymour Benzer, considered by some to be the father of ne... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,919 | Advances in molecular biology techniques and the species-wide genome project have made it possible to map out an individual's entire genome. Whether genetic or environmental factors are primarily responsible for an individual's personality has long been a topic of debate. Thanks to the advances being made in the field ... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,920 | One of the most noticeable results of further research into neurogenetics is a greater knowledge of gene loci that show linkage to neurological diseases. The table below represents a sampling of specific gene locations identified to play a role in selected neurological diseases based on prevalence in the United States. | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,921 | Neurogenetics studies the role of genetics in the development and function of the nervous system. It considers neural characteristics as phenotypes (i.e. manifestations, measurable or not, of the genetic make-up of an individual), and is mainly based on the observation that the nervous systems of individuals, even of t... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,922 | Another example is the ROBO3 gene where a mutation alters axon length negatively impacting neuronal connections. Horizontal gaze palsy with progressive scoliosis (HGPPS) accompanies a mutation here. These are just a few examples of what current research in the field of neurogenetics has achieved. | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,923 | Research in neurogenetics has yielded some promising results, though, in that mutations at specific gene loci have been linked to harmful phenotypes and their resulting disorders. For instance a frameshift mutation or a missense mutation at the DCX gene location causes a neuronal migration defect also known as lissence... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,924 | As a result of the expanding neurogenetics field a better understanding of specific neurological disorders and phenotypes has arisen with direct correlation to genetic mutations. With severe disorders such as epilepsy, brain malformations, or mental retardation a single gene or causative condition has been identified 6... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,925 | Neurogenetics is a field that is rapidly expanding and growing. The current areas of research are very diverse in their focuses. One area deals with molecular processes and the function of certain proteins, often in conjunction with cell signaling and neurotransmitter release, cell development and repair, or neuronal p... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,926 | In addition to examining how genetic mutations affect the actual structure of the brain, researchers in neurogenetics also examine how these mutations affect cognition and behavior. One method of examining this involves purposely engineering model organisms with mutations of certain genes of interest. These animals are... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,927 | Model organisms are an important tool in many areas of research, including the field of neurogenetics. By studying creatures with simpler nervous systems and with smaller genomes, scientists can better understand their biological processes and apply them to more complex organisms, such as humans. Due to their low-maint... | Neurogenetics | 0.820832 |
8,928 | VQAs are one of the most studied quantum algorithms as researchers expect that all the needed applications for the quantum computer will be using the VQAs and also VQAs seem to fulfill the expectation for gaining quantum supremacy. VQAs is a mixed quantum-classical approach where the quantum processor prepares quantum ... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,929 | Another approach to improving classical machine learning with quantum information processing uses amplitude amplification methods based on Grover's search algorithm, which has been shown to solve unstructured search problems with a quadratic speedup compared to classical algorithms. These quantum routines can be employ... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,930 | “When mixing machine learning with ‘quantum,’ you catalyse a hype-condensate.” - Jacob Biamonte a contributor to the theory of quantum computation. "There is a lot more work that needs to be done before claiming quantum machine learning will actually work," - computer scientist Iordanis Kerenidis, the head of quantum a... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,931 | While machine learning itself is now not only a research field but an economically significant and fast growing industry and quantum computing is a well established field of both theoretical and experimental research, quantum machine learning remains a purely theoretical field of studies. Attempts to experimentally dem... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,932 | Due to VQCs superiority, neural network has been replaced by VQCs in Reinforcement Learning tasks and Generative Algorithms. The intrinsic nature of quantum devices towards decoherence, random gate error and measurement errors caused to have high potential to limit the training of the variation circuits. Training the V... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,933 | Variational Quantum Circuits also known as Parametrized Quantum Circuits (PQCs) are based on Variational Quantum Algorithms (VQAs). VQCs consist of three parts, preparation of initial states, quantum circuit and measurement. Researchers are extensively studying VQCs, as it uses the power of quantum computation to learn... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,934 | The need for models that can be understood by humans emerges in quantum machine learning in analogy to classical machine learning and drives the research field of explainable quantum machine learning (or XQML in analogy to XAI/XML). XQML can be considered as an alternative research direction instead of finding a quantu... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,935 | Associative (or content-addressable memories) are able to recognize stored content on the basis of a similarity measure, rather than fixed addresses, like in random access memories. As such they must be able to retrieve both incomplete and corrupted patterns, the essential machine learning task of pattern recognition. ... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,936 | Such process can be accomplished applying full Tomography on the state to reduce it all the way down to one qubit and then processed it in subway. The most frequently used unit type in the pooling layer is max pooling, although there are other types as well. Similar to conventional feed-forward neural networks, the las... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,937 | The quantum convolutional filter can be seen as an extension of the filter in the traditional CNN because it was designed with trainable parameters. Quantum neural networks take advantage of the hierarchical structures, and for each subsequent layer, the number of qubits from the preceding layer is decreased by a facto... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,938 | The convolution filter is the most basic technique for making use of spatial information. One or more quantum convolutional filters make up a quantum convolutional neural network (QCNN), and each of these filters transforms input data using a quantum circuit that can be created in an organized or randomized way. Three ... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,939 | A novel design for multi-dimensional vectors that uses circuits as convolution filters is QCNN. It was inspired by the advantages of CNNs and the power of QML. It is made using a combination of a variational quantum circuit(VQC) and a deep neural network(DNN), fully utilizing the power of extremely parallel processing ... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,940 | Reinforcement learning is a branch of machine learning distinct from supervised and unsupervised learning, which also admits quantum enhancements. In quantum-enhanced reinforcement learning, a quantum agent interacts with a classical or quantum environment and occasionally receives rewards for its actions, which allows... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,941 | Quantum-enhanced machine learning refers to quantum algorithms that solve tasks in machine learning, thereby improving and often expediting classical machine learning techniques. Such algorithms typically require one to encode the given classical data set into a quantum computer to make it accessible for quantum inform... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,942 | Quantum learning theory pursues a mathematical analysis of the quantum generalizations of classical learning models and of the possible speed-ups or other improvements that they may provide. The framework is very similar to that of classical computational learning theory, but the learner in this case is a quantum infor... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,943 | A quantum neural network has computational capabilities to decrease the number of steps, qubits used, and computation time. The wave function to quantum mechanics is the neuron for Neural networks. To test quantum applications in a neural network, quantum dot molecules are deposited on a substrate of GaAs or similar to... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,944 | Such gates make certain phases unable to be observed and generate specific oscillations. Quantum neural networks apply the principals quantum information and quantum computation to classical neurocomputing. Current research shows that QNN can exponentially increase the amount of computing power and the degrees of freed... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,945 | Quantum analogues or generalizations of classical neural nets are often referred to as quantum neural networks. The term is claimed by a wide range of approaches, including the implementation and extension of neural networks using photons, layered variational circuits or quantum Ising-type models. Quantum neural networ... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,946 | Pattern reorganization is one of the important tasks of machine learning, binary classification is one of the tools or algorithms to find patterns. Binary classification is used in supervised learning and in unsupervised learning. In quantum machine learning, classical bits are converted to qubits and they are mapped t... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,947 | In the most general case of quantum machine learning, both the learning device and the system under study, as well as their interaction, are fully quantum. This section gives a few examples of results on this topic. One class of problem that can benefit from the fully quantum approach is that of 'learning' unknown quan... | Quantum Machine Learning | 0.820824 |
8,948 | From 1934 to 1936, NEC engineer Akira Nakashima, Claude Shannon and Victor Shestakov published a series of papers showing that the two-valued Boolean algebra, which they discovered independently, can describe the operation of switching circuits.Ideal switches are considered as having only two exclusive states, for exam... | Switching theory | 0.820818 |
8,949 | Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a version of the 16-row truth table as proposition 5.101 of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921). Walther Bothe, inventor of the coincidence circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics, for the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924. Konrad Zuse designed and built electromecha... | Switching theory | 0.820818 |
8,950 | For an equivalent rule in an algebraic context, see C2 in Laws of Form.A proof manipulates a graph by a series of steps, with each step justified by one of the above rules. If a graph can be reduced by steps to the blank page or an empty cut, it is what is now called a tautology (or the complement thereof). Graphs that... | Existential graph | 0.820807 |
8,951 | Hence an empty cut denotes False; All subgraphs within a given cut are tacitly conjoined.Hence the alpha graphs are a minimalist notation for sentential logic, grounded in the expressive adequacy of And and Not. The alpha graphs constitute a radical simplification of the two-element Boolean algebra and the truth functo... | Existential graph | 0.820807 |
8,952 | He also extended De Morgan's relation algebra. He stopped short of metalogic (which eluded even Principia Mathematica). But Peirce's evolving semiotic theory led him to doubt the value of logic formulated using conventional linear notation, and to prefer that logic and mathematics be notated in two (or even three) dime... | Existential graph | 0.820807 |
8,953 | The existential graphs are a curious offspring of Peirce the logician/mathematician with Peirce the founder of a major strand of semiotics. Peirce's graphical logic is but one of his many accomplishments in logic and mathematics. In a series of papers beginning in 1867, and culminating with his classic paper in the 188... | Existential graph | 0.820807 |
8,954 | "On Existential Graphs, Euler's Diagrams, and Logical Algebra")—from "Logical Tracts, No. 2" (manuscript 492), c. 1903. Paragraphs 510–529 (II.5. | Existential graph | 0.820807 |
8,955 | Peirce proposed three systems of existential graphs: alpha, isomorphic to sentential logic and the two-element Boolean algebra; beta, isomorphic to first-order logic with identity, with all formulas closed; gamma, (nearly) isomorphic to normal modal logic.Alpha nests in beta and gamma. Beta does not nest in gamma, quan... | Existential graph | 0.820807 |
8,956 | {\displaystyle I=n\left(\mathbf {1} _{3\times 3}\operatorname {tr} (\Sigma )-\Sigma \right).} This difference between moment of inertia in physics and in statistics is clear for points that are gathered along a line. | Variance | 0.820805 |
8,957 | The term variance was first introduced by Ronald Fisher in his 1918 paper The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance: The great body of available statistics show us that the deviations of a human measurement from its mean follow very closely the Normal Law of Errors, and, therefore, t... | Variance | 0.820805 |
8,958 | This formula for the variance of the mean is used in the definition of the standard error of the sample mean, which is used in the central limit theorem. To prove the initial statement, it suffices to show that Var ( X + Y ) = Var ( X ) + Var ( Y ) . | Variance | 0.820805 |
8,959 | Linear discriminant analysis (LDA), normal discriminant analysis (NDA), or discriminant function analysis is a generalization of Fisher's linear discriminant, a method used in statistics and other fields, to find a linear combination of features that characterizes or separates two or more classes of objects or events. ... | Discriminant function analysis | 0.820803 |
8,960 | The standard exercises of calculus involve finding derivatives and integrals of specified functions. Usually instructors prepare students with worked examples: the exercise is stated, then a model answer is provided. Often several worked examples are demonstrated before students are prepared to attempt exercises on the... | Exercise (mathematics) | 0.8208 |
8,961 | Various approaches to geometry have based exercises on relations of angles, segments, and triangles. The topic of trigonometry gains many of its exercises from the trigonometric identities. In college mathematics exercises often depend on functions of a real variable or application of theorems. | Exercise (mathematics) | 0.8208 |
8,962 | A mathematical exercise is a routine application of algebra or other mathematics to a stated challenge. Mathematics teachers assign mathematical exercises to develop the skills of their students. Early exercises deal with addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of integers. Extensive courses of exercises in... | Exercise (mathematics) | 0.8208 |
8,963 | Post-mortem diagnosis is the use of post-mortem chemistry analysis tests to diagnose a disease after someone has died. Some diseases are unknown until death, or were not correctly diagnosed earlier. One way that diseases can be diagnosed is by examining the concentrations of certain substances in the blood or other sam... | Post-mortem chemistry | 0.820789 |
8,964 | Post-mortem chemistry, also called necrochemistry or death chemistry, is a subdiscipline of chemistry in which the chemical structures, reactions, processes and parameters of a dead organism is investigated. Post-mortem chemistry plays a significant role in forensic pathology. Biochemical analyses of vitreous humor, ce... | Post-mortem chemistry | 0.820789 |
8,965 | A numeric feature can be conveniently described by a feature vector. One way to achieve binary classification is using a linear predictor function (related to the perceptron) with a feature vector as input. The method consists of calculating the scalar product between the feature vector and a vector of weights, qualify... | Feature space | 0.820786 |
8,966 | Some examples of naïve physics include commonly understood, intuitive, or everyday-observed rules of nature: What goes up must come down A dropped object falls straight down A solid object cannot pass through another solid object A vacuum sucks things towards it An object is either at rest or moving, in an absolute sen... | Folk physics | 0.820781 |
8,967 | A containment event tests the infant's recognition that an object that is bigger than a container cannot fit completely into that container. Elizabeth Spelke, one of the psychologists who founded the naïve physics movement, identified the continuity principle, which conveys an understanding that objects exist continuou... | Folk physics | 0.82078 |
8,968 | This advantage is a result of the increased ability of Dextramers to bind multiple times to a single T-cell, improving the stability of this interaction as compared with other multimer technologies such as pentamers and tetramers. Further applications include the ability to isolate antigen specific T-cell populations a... | MHC multimer | 0.820779 |
8,969 | A form of MHC multimer developed and trademarked by the Danish biotechnology company, Immudex in 2002. Dextramer reagents are fluorescently labeled with FITC, PE or APC, and contain MHC molecules attached to a dextran backbone, which are used to detect antigen-specific T-cells in fluid cells and solid tissue samples us... | MHC multimer | 0.820779 |
8,970 | The systematic search for possible life outside Earth is a valid multidisciplinary scientific endeavor. However, hypotheses and predictions as to its existence and origin vary widely, and at the present, the development of hypotheses firmly grounded on science may be considered astrobiology's most concrete practical ap... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,971 | Enceladus Life FinderEnceladus Life Finder (ELF) is a proposed astrobiology mission concept for a space probe intended to assess the habitability of the internal aquatic ocean of Enceladus, Saturn's sixth-largest moon. Life Investigation For EnceladusLife Investigation For Enceladus (LIFE) is a proposed astrobiology sa... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,972 | Research within this topic is conducted utilising the methodology of paleosciences, especially paleobiology, for astrobiological applications. Astrobiology is a rapidly developing field with a strong interdisciplinary aspect that holds many challenges and opportunities for scientists. Astrobiology programs and research... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,973 | Astrobiology also concerns the study of the origin and early evolution of life on Earth to try to understand the conditions that are necessary for life to form on other planets. This research seeks to understand how life emerged from non-living matter and how it evolved to become the diverse array of organisms we see t... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,974 | Research within this topic is conducted utilising the methodology of the geosciences, especially geobiology, for astrobiological applications. The search for biosignatures involves the identification of signs of past or present life in the form of organic compounds, isotopic ratios, or microbial fossils. Research withi... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,975 | In the 1960s and 1970s, NASA began its astrobiology pursuits within the Viking program, which was the first US mission to land on Mars and search for signs of life. This mission, along with other early space exploration missions, laid the foundation for the development of astrobiology as a discipline. Regarding habitab... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,976 | Astrobiology is a scientific field within the life and environmental sciences that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe by investigating its deterministic conditions and contingent events. As a discipline, astrobiology is founded on the premise that life may exist beyon... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,977 | The study of prebiotic chemistry: Scientists are studying the chemical reactions that could have occurred on the early Earth that led to the formation of the building blocks of life- amino acids, nucleotides, and lipids- and how these molecules could have formed spontaneously under early Earth conditions. The study of ... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,978 | Desert extremophiles: Researchers are studying organisms that can survive in extreme dry, high temperature conditions, such as in deserts.Microbes in extreme environments: Researchers are investigating the diversity and activity of microorganisms in environments such as deep mines, subsurface soil, cold glaciers and po... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,979 | Astrobiological research concerning the study of habitable environments in our solar system and beyond utilises methodologies within the geosciences. Research within this branch primarily concerns the geobiology of organisms that can survive in extreme environments on Earth, such as in volcanic or deep sea environments... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,980 | Oceanus' objectives are to reveal Titan's organic chemistry, geology, gravity, topography, collect 3D reconnaissance data, catalog the organics and determine where they may interact with liquid water. Explorer of Enceladus and TitanExplorer of Enceladus and Titan (E2T) is an orbiter mission concept that would investiga... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,981 | Icebreaker LifeIcebreaker Life is a lander mission that was proposed for NASA's Discovery Program for the 2021 launch opportunity, but it was not selected for development. It would have had a stationary lander that would be a near copy of the successful 2008 Phoenix and it would have carried an upgraded astrobiology sc... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,982 | It will also aid in the selection of future landing sites. DragonflyDragonfly is a NASA mission scheduled to land on Titan in 2036 to assess its microbial habitability and study its prebiotic chemistry. Dragonfly is a rotorcraft lander that will perform controlled flights between multiple locations on the surface, whic... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,983 | This astrobiological mission is currently under development by the European Space Agency (ESA) in partnership with the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos); it is planned for a 2022 launch. Mars 2020Mars 2020 successfully landed its rover Perseverance in Jezero Crater on 18 February 2021. It will investigate enviro... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,984 | Mission objectives are to help assess Mars' habitability and in doing so, determine whether Mars is or has ever been able to support life, collect data for a future human mission, study Martian geology, its climate, and further assess the role that water, an essential ingredient for life as we know it, played in formin... | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,985 | Its primary purpose was to search for signs of life on Mars, past or present. Although it landed safely, it was unable to correctly deploy its solar panels and telecom antenna. EXPOSEEXPOSE is a multi-user facility mounted in 2008 outside the International Space Station dedicated to astrobiology. | Space biology | 0.820777 |
8,986 | The formulation of the unification of the electromagnetic and weak interactions in the standard model is due to Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg and, subsequently, Sheldon Glashow. After the discovery, made at CERN, of the existence of neutral weak currents, mediated by the Z boson foreseen in the standard model, the physi... | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
8,987 | After the neutral weak currents caused by Z boson exchange were discovered at CERN in 1973, the electroweak theory became widely accepted and Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering it. The W and Z bosons were discovered experimentally in 1981, and their masses were found to ... | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
8,988 | In his patent application of February 6, 1959, Kilby described his new device as "a body of semiconductor material ... wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated." Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part of the invention of the integrated circuit. Robert Noyce also cam... | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
8,989 | This procedure was named renormalization. Based on Bethe's intuition and fundamental papers on the subject by Shin'ichirō Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger, Richard Feynman and Freeman Dyson, it was finally possible to get fully covariant formulations that were finite at any order in a perturbation series of quantum electrody... | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
8,990 | Shortly after the end of the war in 1945, Bell Labs formed a Solid State Physics Group, led by William Shockley and chemist Stanley Morgan; other personnel including John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, physicist Gerald Pearson, chemist Robert Gibney, electronics expert Hilbert Moore and several technicians. Their assignm... | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
8,991 | With the invention of bubble chambers and spark chambers in the 1950s, experimental particle physics discovered a large and ever-growing number of particles called hadrons. It seemed that such a large number of particles could not all be fundamental. | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
8,992 | In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, Albert Einstein had four papers published in the Annalen der Physik, the leading German physics journal. These are the papers that history has come to call the Annus Mirabilis papers: His paper on the particulate nature of light put forward the idea that certain exper... | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
8,993 | In 1887, the German physicist Heinrich Hertz in a series of experiments proved the actual existence of electromagnetic waves, showing that transverse free space electromagnetic waves can travel over some distance as predicted by Maxwell and Faraday. Hertz published his work in a book titled: Electric waves: being resea... | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
8,994 | Therefore, Lorentz's theorem is seen by modern historians as being a mathematical transformation from a "real" system resting in the aether into a "fictitious" system in motion. Continuing the work of Lorentz, Henri Poincaré between 1895 and 1905 formulated on many occasions the principle of relativity and tried to har... | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
8,995 | This theorem states that a moving observer (relative to the ether) makes the same observations as a resting observer. This theorem was extended for terms of all orders by Lorentz in 1904. Lorentz noticed, that it was necessary to change the space-time variables when changing frames and introduced concepts like physical... | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
8,996 | In 1896, three years after submitting his thesis on the Kerr effect, Pieter Zeeman disobeyed the direct orders of his supervisor and used laboratory equipment to measure the splitting of spectral lines by a strong magnetic field. Lorentz theoretically explained the Zeeman effect on the basis of his theory, for which bo... | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
8,997 | Galvani published the results of his discoveries, together with his hypothesis, which engrossed the attention of the physicists of that time. The most prominent of these was Volta, professor of physics at Pavia, who contended that the results observed by Galvani were the result of the two metals, copper and iron, actin... | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
8,998 | Various units of electricity and magnetism have been adopted and named by representatives of the electrical engineering institutes of the world, which units and names have been confirmed and legalized by the governments of the United States and other countries. Thus the volt, from the Italian Volta, has been adopted as... | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
8,999 | By investigating the forces on a light metallic needle, balanced on a point, he extended the list of electric bodies, and found also that many substances, including metals and natural magnets, showed no attractive forces when rubbed. He noticed that dry weather with north or east wind was the most favourable atmospheri... | History of electromagnetic theory | 0.820773 |
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