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Effect of yoga on Mental Health and its Benefits
Do you always feel stressed and tensed? Do you feel as if you're carrying the entire world on your shoulders? Most of us have jokingly declared that we plan to run away and settle in the Himalayas, but this is never possible practically. So, what is the solution? The answer lies in the ancient art of Yoga. By removing tension and stress via yoga poses and breathing exercises, a person remains free from negative vibes. The effect of Yoga on mental health is profound. This is why more and more people are embracing it.
The Effect of Yoga on Mental Health
- Yoga helps in moving from the sympathetic nervous system to the parasympathetic nervous system. It will typically lessen your anxiety and keep you in a more relaxed state. When you start breathing deeply, your system slows down and you calm your nervous system. This is the effect of Yoga on Mental Health.
- Yoga helps in building your sense of self and trust. You become strong and courageous with the willpower you get by practicing yoga. You will not be afraid of difficult conversations and you will know that you are going to be fine at the end of the day. When you become more confident and rooted in your self, you develop a healthy and balanced ego, where you have nothing to prove and nothing to hide.
- Yoga modulates stress and anxiety by slowing down the heart rate and lowering your blood pressure. Exercises of various kinds increase the feel-good neurotransmitters. However, Yoga is the best at boosting one's mental health. It will put a brake on your brain activity and keep you relaxed.
- A study on mild depression revealed that yoga classes improve mood and reduce anxiety and fatigue. When compared to other breathing and visualization exercises, those who practice yoga will feel more alert, energetic and will be in a positive mood.
- Yoga has the power to boost the brain. It helps in improving concentration and memory.
The Effect of Yoga on Mental Health of Adolescents
Adolescence is a stage in one's life where various health and mental problems are more likely to develop. With many such cases diagnosed, it has become imperative to prevent the onset of such mental health conditions. Yoga is the savior that will protect adolescents from mental sickness. Yoga involves breathing, relaxation and meditation. This will help in keeping the wide range of moods in adolescents in check. It will also help in lowering the levels of anxiety and depression, controlling anger and enhancing mindfulness
A Note to the Reader
The regular practice of yoga brings remarkable lifestyle changes in people. Not to mention that people will experience relief from chronic illness and also observe pleasant behavioral changes. This can happen once we fully enter the different worlds of yoga and learn the secret to better health and a sense of happiness.
Yoga is a psychology that helps us understand the nature of the mind and our bodies. It also helps grasp how emotions live in our bodies and how they affect our behavior and mind. It helps in recognizing and coping with our own low self-esteem. There are many people who develop a condition called Traumatic stress disorder after a shocking life incident. In such cases, Yoga is the best counter. There is a huge effect of yoga on mental health which is backed by psychologists and scholars.
You can start your Yoga journey by finding a trained Yoga Instructor here.
Vatsla Singh is a content curator and writer. She is actively interested in the psychology of the human mind. Thus writing about spirituality and personal growth comes to her easily. She also tussled with a borderline bipolar disorder and consequently understood the importance of spirituality in life for better well-being. After thorough research and first-hand experience, she now truly understands the effect of yoga on mental health. Aside, you can catch her with her cats whilst she isn't typing away on her laptop.
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For this week, we will think about how we like to spend our time and what our priorities are.
October is the Month of the Rosary, so why not print off and try this colouring activity to teach or remind your children how to pray the Rosary?
A fun family homemade game for 27th Ordinary Time (A) – Parable of Tenants.
For 26th Sunday in Ordinary Time (A) start a family challenge by making a game of trying to put others first.
This Pray Through Play focuses on how service to others.
This Pray Through Play focuses on how we remind ourselves to forgive.
Activities for 23rd Sunday OT (A) – over the next couple of weeks, the Gospels ask us to reflect on forgiveness. This Pray Through Play focuses on how we can make peace with others.
Create your wonderful artwork while reflecting on what it means to follow Jesus.
How well do we know the 12 Disciples of Jesus?
An activity to see how many titles you can find for The Blessed Virgin Mary.
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The Republic of Albania, a south eastern country of Europe is known for its proximity to sea and sea related beauty. But this country has a rich historic heritage too. In past this land was inhabited by ancient Illyrian people and Greeks. Later it became a colony of Rome. An Albanian state was formed in 12th century that was conquered by Ottoman empire in 15th century. Of this occupation the country became independent in early 20th century. But it got involved in various other conflicts with other nations in later years too. At present there are several sites around Albania that still hold remains of this historic past. A history loving tourist can visit these during his or her tour of the country.
Here Are 5 Magnificent Historic Sites Of Albania:
Apollonia is perhaps the best known historic as well as general tourist attraction of Albania. It is an ancient place where Illyrian people used to live. Later Greeks established the city here on the bank of Aous river. Romans captured it in 3rd century BC and the city became prosperous under Roman rule. The city lost its importance and glory following an earthquake that made the river change its course. At present a visitor can see wonderful Roman or classical European architecture in forms of pillars, walls, theater, library, places of worship etc. There is a site museum which has terrific arts derived from the site. These include interesting art objects, mosaic etc.
2. Butrint National Archeological Park
Butrint National Archeological Park of Albania is an amazing historic site that has remains of different historic eras like Greek, Roman, Byzantine etc. In this regard some relics of this site bear signs of different historic times too. Such a relic is the Greek theater. Besides other notable historic ruins include a Roman bath with baptizing pool, a basilica and a sanctuary type place which was used as a site for healing. It was dedicated to Greek god of medicine. The site museum is very vast and rich also. A UNESCO world heritage site of Albania.
3. Kruje Castle
If you have become a bit bored seeing ancient Europe related historic relics in Albania then you can visit the historic town of Kruje. Kruje played important parts in history of Albania in different times. Kruje castle is the most interesting and main attraction of this town. This castle played an important role when a series of sieges took place from middle of to late 15th century by Skanderbeg, a rebellious Ottoman against Ottoman empire in Albania. Skanderbeg had only a few thousands to hold off the empire. At present there is a museum and remains of a few historic relics inside this historic castle to see.
4. Berat Castle
Like Butrint, Berat or town of Berat is a place in Albania that has a mixture of heritages from ancient age. Historians say that Berat has signs of Greek, Roman, Byzantine as well as Bulgarian, Serbian culture etc. Berat castle overlooking the city is the most impressive attraction. This is an ancient castle that can be dated back to Roman time. But the present structure belongs to 13th century AD. You can see ruins of mosques, churches inside the castle. there is museum inside that can be visited also. Berat town is a UNESCO site of the country.
5. The Durres Amphitheater
If you want to conclude your historic tour of Albania then you can do this visiting the world famous Durres amphitheater in the city of Durres. This amphitheater is said to be one of the largest amphitheaters built by the Romans in Europe. It is also said that this is the largest in Balkan region. Historians say that it was built during the rule of emperor Trajan in 2nd century AD. It continued to function till 4th century. it had a capacity of 20,000 people. The restoration state of this site is not that much satisfactory. Still it is one of the most visited sites of Albania.
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By Constantin A. Panchenko
Translated by Brittany Pheiffer Noble and Samuel Noble
Paperback, 206 pages
Conflict or concord? The history of Islam, from its emergence in early seventh century Arabia and its explosive growth into the wider Middle East, is often portrayed as a story of the struggle with and conquest of the Christian people of Greater Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. Alternatively, the appearance of Islam is characterized as being welcomed by the conquered, whose existing monotheistic faiths of Christianity and Judaism were tolerated and even allowed to flourish under Muslim rule.
In this concise but in depth survey of the almost nine centuries that passed from the beginning of the spread of Islam up to the Ottoman Turkish conquest of Syria and Egypt beginning in 1516, Constantin Panchenko offers a more complex portrayal of this period that opens up fresh vistas of understanding, focusing on the impact that the appearance of Islam had on the many forms of Christianity they encountered, principally the Orthodox Christian communities of the Middle East. In particular he illuminates the interplay of their Greek cultural heritage with increasing Arabization over time.
This is essential reading for those who want to gain an understanding of the history of the Middle East in these centuries and of how the faith of Orthodox Christians in these lands is lived today.
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According to Merriam-Webster, a hero is “a person admired for achievements and noble qualities, one who shows great courage, an object of extreme admiration and devotion.” As you consider this definition, who comes to mind? It may be a superhero, a character in a movie or book, or a celebrity. It may be someone more personal such as a parent, a teacher, a student, a manager, or a coworker.
Connecting bridges to history makes us curious about the lives of those who traveled the bridges. How they made an impact on others then and how they make an impact on us now. Though we may wonder about their lives, we have writings about other heroes in the Bible. Some of these amazing individuals are listed in Hebrews 11, what we traditionally call the “Hall of Faith.” Their lives of faith are sprinkled throughout Scripture. They are our heroes.
Our heroes from the past have given us an example. They were not perfect. They made mistakes. Their testimonies of faith teach us to remain faithful, to not give up, and to endure.
Our heroes are with us today. People whose lives are testimonies. They demonstrate heroism through their faithfulness in adversity. They sacrifice for others. They put others before themselves. They are not perfect. They make mistakes. And their testimonies today encourage us to stay faithful, to not give up, and to endure.
Our role? Be the hero for your hero. If they are down, be their encourager. If they are alone, be their companion. If they are physically unable to do something, be their helping hand. If they lack a need, be the anonymous person that takes care of it. If they need to cry and share, be their attentive ear. May our testimony be one of faith!
Our Faith Connection: Identify your hero. Write them a note or treat them to a meal, thank them, and tell them how they have impacted your life. Then, identify how you can be their hero. How can you help them? Take a few minutes to listen to this amazing song by Casting Crowns that so beautifully describes our “Heroes.”
Lord, thank You for the examples of those who have gone before us and those we know today. Thank You for their example of a life of faith. May I be sensitive to the needs of others that I may be able to help, and may I live a life of faithful devotion to You. In Your name, Amen.
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7 months ago
All humans will need to shed some of their teeth at some point in their lives. It’s one of the natural laws that many animals are not protected from. Luckily for humans, medicine has made it easier for one to go through the process of tooth extraction with the help of a dentist. However, even the presence of medical assistance is not a 100% guarantee that this experience will not have its complications. An example of this is a dry socket.
Understanding Dry Sockets and its Symptoms
Your body works in such a way that it tries to protect its own organs. For example, your blood clots in order to prevent further loss of blood. This action closes the wound, preventing unwanted microorganisms from entering into it. After tooth extraction, the part where the tooth was removed will have an open wound. Just like a small open wound on the skin, a small blood clot will form on it. This clot is important because it provides a protective layer for the nerves and the bones in the tooth socket. People who are suffering from dry sockets are those who fail to develop these clots, have these dissolved easily or may have these removed on their own. Roughly about 1% to 3% of tooth extractions will end up as dry sockets but most of these are attributed to lower wisdom tooth problems. Telltale signs that you may be suffering from dry sockets are moderate to intense mouth and facial pain, 3 or 4 days after tooth extraction. This could also be coupled with a foul odor and leave a bad taste in the mouth.
What Causes Dry Sockets?
There are several reasons why clots in the tooth socket are dislodged or removed. This could be brought about by the presence of force or trauma on the socket. For some, it’s the body’s reaction to inflammation, infection, bacteria and hormonal changes, all of which could lead to a destroyed blood clot. It may be difficult to pinpoint its real cause because these are varied. Take note, however, that some people may be at a higher risk compared to other patients. People who smoke, are on contraceptive pills, those suffering from infections and people who fail to exercise cleaning regimen after extraction are more likely to suffer from dry sockets.
Can You Prevent Dry Sockets?
Since dry sockets will most likely develop in the first five days after tooth extraction, it is vital that the patient should stay rested during these days to prevent trauma. People who smoke tobacco products should stay away from this habit at least a day prior to the dental procedure. Women taking contraceptive pills should mention their condition to the dentist and ask when is the best time to get their tooth extracted. After the procedure, patients are also advised to exercise precautionary measures that include doing away with spitting and drinking through a straw. And for those who are afraid of visiting the dentist, then try to be a bit braver next time since this could help prevent dry sockets. Those who have regular dental check-ups reportedly have lower incidences of mouth issues that include dry sockets and other teeth and gum problems.
BDS (Hons.) MJDF RCS (Eng), MClinDent (FRP Lond) FICOI, MSc (Dental Implantology)
BDS (Lond) MJDF RCS (Eng)
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By Louis Althusser
By Marie Těšitelová
Because the Sixties quantitative linguistics has gone through a superb improvement marked particularly through makes an attempt to paintings systematically with language phenomena on all language degrees. along with conventional parts the place major effects have been already completed sooner than the 60s (phonology, graphemics and lexicology), quantitative linguistics has now additionally penetrated into morphology, syntax, stylistics, historical past and typology of languages and, extra lately, into semantics. This booklet supplies a complete account of a number of the advancements and functions in quantitative linguistics.After an outline of metho. Read more...
content material: QUANTITATIVE LINGUISTICS; CONTENTS; I. QUANTITATIVE LINGUISTICS; II. tools of analysis; III. the most parts OF QUANTITATIVE LINGUISTICS; IV. different domain names OF QUANTITATIVE LINGUISTICS; V. the applying OF the result of QUANTITATIVE LINGUISTICS; VI. QUANTITATIVE LINGUISTICS AND desktops; VII. views OF QUANTITATIVE LINGUISTICS; NOTES; REFERENCES; record OF ABBREVIATIONS OF THE ANALYZED TEXTS AND different LANGUAGE fabrics; checklist of different ABBREVIATIONS; identify INDEX; topic INDEX;
By Christer Lauren, Marianne Nordman
The relation among complicated considering and its expression needs to, whilst such, be of specified curiosity to linguists particularly except the query of functional functions. because the so much complex human considering is expressed through targeted language there are interesting chances for learn within which philosophical, semantic, semiotic, text-linguistic, pragmatic and different methods are utilised. it really is, besides the fact that, marvelous how absolute the borders among varied learn traditions were, and the way the borders persist. however internationalism may be known as both invaluable for winning paintings in LSP learn as in different places. each chance of bringing jointly and mixing those traditions can be seized. the current quantity is an try and accentuate the contacts among diversified examine traditions. The papers incorporated signify the most recent nation of LSP learn. A spouse quantity entitled 'From workplace to varsity: distinctive Language and Internationalisation', edited via Christer Lauren and Marianne Nordman, has additionally been released via Multilingual concerns (ISBN 1-85359-037-1 pbk, 1-85359-038-X hbk).
By Manes Sperber
1979. 8°. 227 S., 2 Bl., Orig.-Ganzleinenband mit Orig.-Schutzumschlag.
By H. Maaß (auth.)
By Robert Burchfield
Quantity five of The Cambridge heritage of the English Language seems on the dialects of britain due to the fact 1776, the historic improvement of English within the former Celtic-speaking international locations of Scotland, Wales and eire, and at different types of English in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the Caribbean and South Asia. This exact quantity can be welcomed via all these attracted to the unfold of English all over the world.
By Claire Lefebvre
This learn makes a speciality of the cognitive procedures desirous about creole genesis: relexification, reanalysis, and direct leveling. The function of those strategies is documented via a close comparability of Haitian creole with its significant contributing languages, French and Fongbe, to demonstrate how mechanisms from resource languages express themselves in creole. the writer examines the enter of grownup, instead of baby, audio system and resolves the issues within the 3 major ways, universalist, superstratist and substratist, that have been relevant to the new debate on creole improvement.
By Wolfgang Strauss
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For centuries, scientists have been trying to answer this question. Here is an idea of what could have happened.
Scientists hit a real turning point recently. A turning point in which it is possible a huge question may be answered sometime in the near future. It is always a great question to scientists why some living creatures that lived long ago went extinct. It’s very hard to answer a question like this because it was so long ago. However, last May a mammoth calf was uncovered in Northern Siberia. The six-month old calf’s remains uncovered, Lyuba, is the best preserved mammoth ever found. The remains found have been said to have to have been frozen for some 37,500 years. Little did the scientists know, they uncovered remains that this month, have led them closer to discovering a mystery of the past.
On January 4th, of this year, scientists quoted that “the frozen remains of a six-month-old mammoth may show humans why the species became extinct.” The reason for this is because last month the mammoth remains underwent a CT scan. The CT scan created 3D images of inside the calf’s preserved body. The scans that the CT scan took will eventually be used in order to tell the reason why the mammoth died. Maybe this will uncover the secret to the extinction of the mammoths? For many years scientists have debated the reason to why mammoths went extinct. Could it be a climate change of over-hunting from humans? The question has gone unanswered for a long time now. Perhaps the mystery the woolly mammoth’s extinction will be uncovered because of the
newly examined remains. “This is what we’ve all been waiting for,” says one of the leaders of the international study, Naoki Suzuki.
In my opinion, I believe that evidence of animals of the past preserved in ice is the best way to possibly learn about them. I think it is really cool how scientists are able to look at things today, thousands of years later, and be able to tell details down to what the animal/species enjoyed to eat. Discoveries such as Lyuba are important because everyone is curous to know what happened to the magnificent animals of the past and why they all died out. Once the details to the CT scan are available, I will be very curious to know what was found out.
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A compilation of important assorted transistor simple circuits to build has been included here.
Simple Transistor Circuits for New Hobbyists
Many simple transistor configurations like, rain alarm, delay timer, set reset latch, crystal tester, light sensitive switch and many more have been discussed in this article.
In this compilation of simple transistor circuits (schematics) you will come across many small very important transistor configurations, especially designed and compiled for new budding electronic enthusiasts.
The simple circuits to build (schematics) shown below have very useful applications and are yet easy to build even for new electronic enthusiasts. Let’s begin discussing them:
Adjustable DC power supply:
A very nice adjustable power supply unit may be built using just a couple of transistors and a few other passive components.
The circuit provides good load regulation, its maximum current being not more than 500mA, sufficient for most applications.
This circuit is built around just two transistors as the main active components.
The configuration is in the form of a standard Darlington pair, which increases its current amplification capacity hugely.
Rain drops or water drops falling and bridging the base with the positive supply is enough to trigger the alarm.
Hum free power supply:
For many audio amplifier circuits hum pick-ups can become a big nuisance, even proper grounding sometimes are unable to rectify this problem.
However, a high-power transistor and a few capacitors when connected as shown can definitely curb this problem and provide the required hum free and ripple free power to the entire circuit.
This circuit also utilizes a very few components and will faithfully set and reset the relay and the output load according to the input commands.
Pressing the upper push switch energizes the circuit and the load, whereas it is deactivated by pressing the lower push button.
Simple Delay Timer
A very simple yet very effective timer circuit can be designed by incorporating just two transistors and other handful of components.
Pressing the push ON switch instantly charges the 1000uF capacitor and switching ON the transistors and the relay.
Even after releasing the switch the circuit holds on the position until C1 is completely discharged. The time delay is determined by the values of R1 and C1. In the present design it’s around 1 minute.
Crystals can be quite unfamiliar components especially with the electronic novices.
The shown circuit is basically a standard Colpitts oscillator incorporating a crystal to initiate its oscillations.
If the connected crystal is a good one, will be indicated through the illuminated bulb, a faulty crystal will keep the lamp shut.
Water Level Warning Indicator:
No more peeping and nervous apprehensions with overflowing water tanks.
This circuit will produce a nice little buzzing sound well before you tank spills over.
Nothing can be as simple as this one. Keep watching for more of these little giants, I mean simple circuits to build with huge potentials.
Hand Stability Tester:
Pretty confident regarding your hand dexterity? The present circuit can definitely challenge you.
Build this circuit and just try sliding a constricted metal ring over the positive supply terminal without touching it.
A buzzing sound from the speaker will entitle you with “antsy hands”.
Light Sensitive Switch:
If you are interested to build a low-cost light dependent switch, then this circuit is just for you.
The idea is simple, a presence of light switches OFF the relay and the connected load, absence of light does exactly the opposite.
Need more explanations or help? Just keep posting your valuable comments (comments need moderation, may take time to appear).
Simple Tester Circuit
Passive testing of an electronic circuit appears pretty straightforward job. All you want is really a Ohm meter.
Sadly, still, working with this type of device for semiconductors is not really advisable. The output currents will probably harm semiconductor junctions.
The tester explained in this write-up is simple to construct and possesses the benefit that a maximum of around 50 µA can only be delivered in the circuit under test.
Therefore it may be used for the majority of standard IC's and semiconductors which includes MOS based elements. The indication is implemented through a little loudspeaker, to ensure that in the course of testing, it isn't required to keep on referring to the testing device rather than the concentrating on the test points.
The transistor T1 and T2 constitute a basic voltage controlled LF-oscillator, with a loudspeaker working like a load. The oscillator frequency is formed by C1, R1, R4 and the external resistance between the measuring leads. Resistor R3 is the collector resistance of T2; C2 behaves like a low frequency decoupling of this particular resistor.
As previously mentioned, the tester never will cause any sort of harm to the circuit under check; alternatively, it is best to include diodes D1 and D2 in order that the circuit under test is no way able to counter damage the tester parts. So long as you don't have an electrical interconnection between the testing prods, the circuit pulls absolutely no current. Battery-life can then be approximately same as the shelf life of the battery.
Car Fused Tail Lamp Indicator
For those who would like to be assured that the lamps on their automobile are in excellent order, this circuit is probably the remedy. It is quite basic and offers an honest indication any time a specific light fuses or stops working. With respect to the current drawn by the lamp L, a voltage drop develops around resistance Rx.
This voltage drop should result in being around 400 mV, which can help determine the value of R.. For instance, if it is the tail lights, where a pair of lamps of 10 W 12 V may be parallel, Rx may be worked out as given below:
The current may be expressed as P/V = 20/12 = 1.7 amps
Then Rx can be calculated as V / I = 0.4 / 1.67 = 0.24 Ohms
Due to the fact the 400 mV drop develops across RX, T1 is typically switched ON leading to T2 getting cut off. In case one of the tail lights blows out, the current by means of Rx is lowered by one half, which is 0.84 Amp. The voltage drop across Rx at this point results in being 0.84 x 0.24 = 0.2 V.
This voltage looks appreciably minimal to activate T1, which means this T2 now gets base current via R1, and the LED illuminates. To get a well-performing indication on lamps failure, it is suggested to make use of a single detector circuit for may be only a couple of lamps.
It is rather allowable, nonetheless, to use a single LED for a number of detectors: D1 and R3 work commonly to all sensors, and the collectors of all T2 transistors may be wired up with each other. R3 must be 470 Ohms for a 12 V circuitry and 220 Ohms for a 6 V procedure.
Simple Regulated Variable Power Supply
A very simple variable power supply with stabilized output can e built with just a couple of transistors as shown below:
Transistors T1 and T2 form a high current gain Darlington pair for controlling the output voltage. Since the design is basically an emitter follower, the emitter output follows the base voltage, which means varying the base voltage proportionately varies the emitter output voltage.
R1, along with the zener diode determines the base voltage of the Darlington which in turn provides the equivalent emitter output voltage.
R1 and the zener can be fixed as desired, by selecting the values as per the following date:
PCB Design for the above transistorized stabilized power supply can be seen in the following figure.
Simple 30 Watt Power Amplifier Circuit
This simple 30 watt fully transistorized amplifier circuit can be used for powering small speaker systems from USB or from mobile, Ipod music sources. The unit will provide great sounding amplified music output sufficient for any small room.
The distortion level for this 30 watt transistor amplifier circuit is highly reduced and the stability is awesome.
Capacitor C7 is positioned to make up for the phase shift from the output transistors. The value of R1 is decreased to 56 k, and supplemental decoupling, by means of a 47 k resistor and a I0 µF capacitor are placed in series with high potential side of R1 and power supply positive.
The output impedance is rather minimal, since T5/T7 and T6/T8 work like power darlingtons. The control amplifier stage is effectively competent at delivering the 1-V RMS input voltage.
Due to the reduced input sensitivity, the amplifier provides excellent stability and its level of sensitivity to hum is minimal. Significant negative feedback through R4 and R5 guarantees reduced distortion. Optimum allowable supply voltage is 42 V.
The power supply circuit must be designed as a stabilized power supply unit for the amplifier. Besides the heat sinks presented the 3nos 2N3055 transistors needs to be cooled down by clamping them on the metal cabinet using mica insulating washers. The power supply table is designed for stereo.
Electrical Specifications for the 30 watt amplifier circuit is given below:
Full parts list for the the above amplifier circuit
Car Interior Lights Delay OFF
When a vehicle trip begins after sunset, it is helpful to provide a system that can keep the interior lights on sometime after the doors have been locked, making it easy for the drivers to strap seat belts and turn the ignition key. A simple delay OFF circuit shown below can be used for implementing this function perfectly.
When the doors are shut, the door contact is opened, disconnecting the transistor base from the ground line vi D3. This breaks the ground bias for the pnp transistor. However, the relay still holds for sometime due to C1, which allows the BC557 base current to conduct via C1 and the relay coil, until eventually the C1 charges fully and shuts off the transistors and the relay.
7-Segment Display Light controller Circuit
Typical 7 Segment display currents should be restricted to approximately 25 mA, which is normally carried out through series resistors. When fitted with resistors, the display illumination cannot be any further altered. The circuit demonstrated here, alternatively, supplies the display from an adjustable voltage source built with an emitter follower circuit.
Display's LED illumination varies according to the adjustments of voltage controls P1 (coarse) and P2 (fine), approximately within 0 and 43 volts, the precise setting being somewhat crucial because of the diode characteristic of the LED.
While adjusting the display light, the voltage output is initially fixed at the minimum point, after that steadily increased attain the proper brightness.
The overall current for any 7-digit display must not go over around 1 amp to get a safe and sound segment current of 25 mA (7 segments at 25 mA for 6 digits). The selection of the series transistor (T1) is determined through its recommended dissipation spec.
Operating Relay with Lower Supply voltage
Once a relay is operated with the rated voltage, it is actually able to hold the activation even if the driving voltage is reduced considerably. With reduced voltage it allows the relay to perform optimally yet save power.
However, the initial voltage has to be close to the relay's specified voltage, otherwise the relay may not activate.
The circuit explained below allows the relay to switch ON from a lower than the rated supply by ensuring that at the switch ON the voltage is boosted through a diode/capacitor voltage doubler network. This boosted voltage provides the relay with the required higher initial supply. Once the activation is accomplished, the voltage drops to the lower value, enabling the relay to hold and work with a reduced economical power
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CC-MAIN-2020-50
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FERPA Recognized Exceptions
FERPA law defines a number of other circumstances besides the release of directory information in which an education record can be released to certain parties without written permission from the student. Here are some examples:
- State and local educational authorities when allowed by statute;
- School official or lending institutions in connection with financial aid for which the student has applied or which the student has received, if certain conditions are met;
- An alleged victim of a crime of violence has a right to learn the results of a disciplinary proceeding conducted by the institution against the alleged perpetrator of the crime;
- The parents of a “dependent student,” as defined in Internal Revenue Code, when the parent has provided a notarized affidavit, along with a copy of the relevant page of the parent’s most recent income tax return indicating the student’s dependent status. Affidavits must be updated annually, otherwise, prior written permission from the student is required;
- Appropriate persons in connection with an emergency, in order to protect the health or safety of the student or others;
- The Attorney General or his/her representatives for law enforcement purposes;
- Pursuant to a lawfully issued subpoena or to comply with a judicial order*; and
- A school official who has a legitimate educational interest in the records.
*Although information may be released pursuant to a subpoena, a release under this exception should not be made without first contacting the Admissions & Records Office.
FERPA | Major Concepts in FERPA | Who is a Student | What is an Education Record? | Exceptions | FERPA Recognized Exceptions |
Legitimate Educational Interests | Records not Protected by FERPA | General Rule: | Disclosure of Education Records |
Releasing Records | Who is a School Official | Confidential Records | "Keeper" of the Record | Parent Access to Student Record | Important Note | Email and Computer Guidelines | Summary | Warnings Against Non-Compliance | Additional Resources |
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"...As the looming outbreak of World War I became more and more imminent when Austria made an ultimatum to Serbia in the last week of July 1914, the resulting fear in global markets set off a massive financial panic. Investors, fearing unpaid debts, pulled out of stocks and bonds in a scramble for cash, which at this point in history meant gold.
The London Stock Exchange reacted by closing on July 31 and staying closed for five straight months. The U.S. stock exchange, which witnessed a mass dumping of securities by European investors in exchange for gold to finance the war, would also close on the same day, for about four months.
Britain declared war while on a bank holiday.
Over 50 countries experienced some form of asset depletion or bank run.
...“For six weeks during August and early September every stock exchange in the world was closed, with the exception of New Zealand, Tokyo and the Denver Colorado Mining Exchange.”
...Britain and its counterparts in Europe had established central banks, and responded to the war fear with vast infusions of liquidity through the printing press...
...With investor flight causing a rapid dissolution of the country’s gold, the backing for the dollar, Treasury Secretary William McAdoo stopped additional securities sales by closing the stock market, basically a form of capital controls...
Then he ...allowed banks to issue additional bank notes, increasing the money supply.
...that the United States emerged with their financial system relatively intact facilitated a shift from London to New York as the seat of global financial power, although the fact that the war never touched American soil probably also had something to do with it.
...The next 30 years saw the end of the gold standard, the collapse of global trade, a marked reduction in migration flows, the rise of protectionism and the biggest depression the world has ever seen...
Roll forward 93 years from 1914. It’s July 2007 and there have been a few tremors in the financial markets. A few hedge funds have hit problems with their investments in US sub-prime mortgages but most traders are blissfully unconcerned. The assumption is that any difficulties are localised, minor and soluble. There is nothing to suggest this will be any more serious than the peso crisis in Mexico, south-east Asia’s meltdown, Russia’s default or the bursting of the dotcom bubble.
Again, the optimism was unfounded. When the financial markets froze up in early August 2007 it created the conditions for the near-collapse of the western banking system 13 months later.
...We know far less than we think we do.
...Warning signs were ignored, with disastrous consequences.
...The question is what happens next.
Then as now, crisis measures were undertaken to forestall a near-term catastrophe, and the weakness of the overall model never contemplated.
...the Panic of 1914 was a symptom of a greater disease, of a world being dragged into the modern age.
We’re at a similar moment today, so we might want to remember and study the past."
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<urn:uuid:f7bfcc10-7552-46e6-84ad-43fff9750b30>
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CC-MAIN-2017-43
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http://hartzman.blogspot.com/2014/07/the-forgotten-financial-panic-of-1914.html
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Make the change to solar power and get a much more efficient electricity supply for your home.
Is Solar Power Suitable for my Home?
You can use PV systems for a building with a roof or wall that faces within 90 degrees of south, as long as no other buildings or large trees overshadow it. If the roof surface is in shadow for parts of the day, the output of the system decreases.
PV arrays now come in a variety of shapes and colours, ranging from grey ‘solar tiles’ that look like roof tiles to panels and transparent cells that you can use on conservatories and glass to provide shading as well a generating electricity.
If you would like to know more about what it takes to install solar cells and the qualifications that are required, you can do so by clicking here.
Solar panels are not light and the roof must be strong enough to take their weight, especially if the panel is placed on top of existing tiles.
In England, changes to permitted development rights for microgeneration technologies introduced on 6th April 2008 have lifted the requirements for planning permission for most solar PV installations. Roof mounted and stand-alone systems can now be installed in most dwellings, as long as they respect certain size criteria. Exceptions apply for Listed Buildings, and buildings in Conservation Areas and World Heritage Sites.
In Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, the developed governments are currently all considering changes to their legislation on permitted developments, to facilitate installations of microgeneration technologies, including solar PV. Legislation is expected in all three countries later this year. Until then householders in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland must consult with their local authority regarding planning permission.
If you would like to also know what kind of solar heating systems are available as an alternative to electricity you can do so here.
With the cost of electricity and fuel rising to unforeseen highs, something you should do as a responsible individual is conserve energy and make the most out of natural resources for you energy supply.
There are many different options to explore, like solar energy panels, wind turbines and magnetic power generators to name but a few. This will both slash your energy use costs as well as helping to reduce emissions. If you want to know more, please contact the Energy Matters team.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.gasandelectricity.me.uk/electricity-supply.html
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Significance of Academic Regalia for Colleges and Universities
Since the Middle Ages, a time-honored tradition of great dignity has been the wearing of academic apparel, which was a survival of still earlier civilian fashions. The academic gown, necessary for a scholar’s warmth, and the hood to protect his tonsured head were apparently first regularly adopted in the thirteenth century at the University of Cambridge (1284). The University of Oxford was soon to follow. The custom was transplanted to this country in colonial times by King’s College in New York, now Columbia University.
In 1895 American universities and colleges decided to standardize their academic styles and developed the intercollegiate code of academic costume, following primarily the Cambridge tradition. The characteristic elements of academic regalia are three: gown, cap, and hood.
The gown is usually of black material (serge or worsted for bachelors, the same or silk for masters, and silk for doctors). The doctors’ dress gowns of the chief British universities are scarlet. Bachelors’ gowns have pointed sleeves; masters’ have long, closed sleeves, with lunettes at the bottom and slits at the elbows from which the arms protrude; and doctors’ have wide, round, open sleeves. Doctors’ gowns are faced with panels of velvet down the front and three bars of velvet across each sleeve.
The cap, the square mortar-board in American universities but a round, soft, flat, velvet hat in British, Canadian, and some European universities, bears a tassel that may be black for all ranks and degrees or may be of gold thread for doctors and the color of the degree for bachelors and masters only. The doctors’ cap may be of velvet.
The hood, worn around the neck so as to hang down the back, is the principal emblem of the nature and source of the degree and may be worn only after the degree has been granted. Bachelors’ hoods are three feet long; masters’ are three and one-half feet; and doctors’ hoods have wide panels at the sides. The color edging the hood defines the nature of the degree while the lining of silk bears the colors of the institution that granted the degree.
The degree colors are appropriate to the category of the degree rather than to the scholar’s major subject. For example, the appropriate color for degrees in Arts and Letters (B.A., M.A., B.Litt.) is white; in Commerce, drab; in Education, light blue; in Engineering, orange; in Fine Arts, brown; in Humanities, crimson; in Laws, purple; in Library Science, lemon; in Medicine, green; in Music, pink; in Pharmacy, olive; in Philosophy (Ph.D.), dark blue; in Physical Education, sage; in Science, golden yellow; in Theology, scarlet. These colors are used for the edging of all hoods and may be used for the velvet facing and sleeve bars of doctors’ gowns and for the tassels on bachelors’ and masters’ caps.
The institutional colors with which the hoods are lined indicate the university or college granting the degree. Among those hoods you will see worn by Delta State’s faculty are those from Alabama, crimson and white; Arkansas, red and white; Central Missouri, red, white, and black; Columbia, light blue with white chevron; Duke, royal blue with white chevron; Emory, navy blue and gold; Florida, orange and blue; Indiana, crimson with white chevron; Louisiana State, purple with old gold; Michigan, maize and light blue; Mississippi, red with blue chevron; Mississippi State, maroon and white; Missouri, old gold and black; Southern Mississippi, gold and black; Tennessee, white with orange chevron; Texas, white above orange; Tulane, green and white; and Virginia, navy blue with orange.
The colors of Delta State University are green and white, adopted in the fall of 1925, the first quarter after opening, by the faculty and administration on the recommendation of an eight-member committee, including local residents William P. Moses and Doyle Garrett.
The mace in medieval times was often carried by kings, bishops, and other officials into battle where it was used as a weapon. Gradually, the mace came to be used more for ceremonial occasions than for actual combat. In modern times, the mace is most frequently seen in legislative chambers and in academic or religious processions. Used in this fashion, the mace is a symbol denoting authoruty.
The mace, carried at the head of the Inaugural Procession by the Delta State University Chief Marshal, was designed and carved from solid walnut in 1972 by Duncan Baird while he was an art student at Delta State University.
Historically, medallions or medals have been used to recognize significant achievement in various fields such as the humanities, the arts and sciences, and the military. In more recent times, medallions have also been employed as commemorative designs used to help celebrate a significant occaion. Such an occasion is the inauguration of Mr. William N. LaForge as eighth president of Delta State University. The Presidential Medallion he wears was designed in 1972 by Edward W. Gong while majoring in commercial art at Delta State University.
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http://inauguration.deltastate.edu/inaugural-traditions/
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a High School Student from Mouse & DIIT Design League @ Bronx International HS
About this Project:
American Sign Language is a natural language that serves as the predominant sign language of Deaf communities in the United States and most of Anglophone Canada. In the United States, ASL is claimed to be the third most used language. ASL is a complete and organized visual language that is expressed by facial expression as well as movements and motions with the hands.
Learning American Sign Language will allow you to be able to thoroughly communicate with the deaf and allow the collapse of the language barrier that divides the hearing and deaf world. Today, around one million people use American Sign Language (ASL) as their main way to communicate, according to Communication Service for the Deaf. Used by the deaf and hard-of-hearing communities, as well as those with communication disorders, in recent years it has received more resources and attention both online and in popular culture.
● Create a program for all students to learn American sign language.
● Students that take these classes will be able to help more people around them.
● This language can be used in emergency situations.
● This program also can be counted as an extra credit/extracurricular activity.
● The American sign language can be added to “Language classes”.
● Make this language a skill that everyone can have.
Sarah Judd 👏 Curriculum Manager at AI4ALL — Emoti-Con Judge
It's great that your pitch begins with stats that explain why this project is important! Using data is a great way to get people to see an issue; this is how we started to get people interested in teaching CS in schools. I appreciate that you offer an actionable solution to the problem. Do you have a plan for sourcing teachers?
Joey Raiton 👏 Education Modernization Team Head of Design at Meta — Emoti-Con Judge
Nicole – what a SUPER strong idea that I feel could really make a different in the American education system! Way to find a niche area that people often underestimate, supporting your fellow deaf community while also bringing attention to the benefits sign language can have for all people. I believe that the concept of encouraging students to take ASL as a language credit is an in-genius way to increase accessibility – as well as motivate generations to be fluent in a language they may have never before considered. I would recommend working closer with the deaf community to figure out how this course might work, and push your idea further by making a "sample lesson plan" that demonstrates to school districts what it might be like to sit through a year-long course centered around ASL. At my job working in education at Facebook, we create these "lesson plans" all the time using the free flow-making software "www.lucidchart.com," and I can see you doing the same. Keep up the wonderful work – can't wait to potentially see ASL be offered in schools in the future. 👍
Emily Gregor 👏 Content Lead at Fullstack Academy — Emoti-Con Judge
This is such a fantastic idea! Thank you for sharing your project with us. I love how you're thinking about education and incorporating ASL for all grade levels to create a more accessible, empathetic, and safe environment for people who rely on the language to communicate. I'd love to see a more in-depth lesson plan to understand how the curriculum would change for each grade level. Would it be similar to how we teach Spanish or French, or would it look a little different? I could also see incorporating ASL into other subject areas as well to take a holistic approach. I'm excited to see the next iteration of this project and what you'll create next!
Max Kirkpatrick 👏 Software Engineer at Google — Emoti-Con Judge
This is a strong pitch! Your presentation’s Q&A format and use of statistics illustrate a clear demand for ASL education. It’s also apparent that you put a lot of thought into ways to encourage usage of this program (e.g. making it free, framing it as a way to help others, providing academic incentives). Great job!
Maggie Muldoon 👏 Senior Manager, Design League at Mouse — Emoti-Con Judge
What a great idea! I love how well thought out your information is, and how clear your plan is! Very good presentation and concept - I would love to see it become a reality!
Feedback from the Community:
E. A. 👏 a High School Student from BxIHS
Thank you for creating and sharing the awareness for our non verbal community about ASL.
Damaris 👏 a Teacher from NJ
I loved this idea. As an educator, this idea just hit so many points for me. Students can earn credit while learning a great skill and I believe this would keep them engaged. Great job!!!!
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From Uncyclopedia, the content-free encyclopedia
William Roberto Montoya Dante Alighieri Steig (November 14, 1907 – October 3, 2003) was the author of the critically acclaimed literary epic Shrek, widely regarded to be one of the most remarkable works of fiction of the age in the ranks of Lord of the Rings and Paradise Lost.
edit Early life and childhood
William was born to an aristocratic family, the son of wealthy socialites Winston and Wanda Steig. Unfortunately however, his parents were cousins and as the the result of the inbreeding, William was born quite deformed in both body and mind. After he ate the family cat, his parents, not wanting to offend any of their wealthy aristocratic friends, took William and cast him into a nearby lake. He washed up on a riverbank near a forrest and was abducted by a wolf which sort to devour him but he was rescued by a tribe of highly advanced squirrels who raised him in the forrest. The squirrels taught him to read, write and forrage.
edit Quest of Self-Discovery
At the age of fifteen, William decided he wanted to live among humans and discover what it meant to be a man.
After getting kicked out of rehab for trying to make a nest in Amy Winehouse's hair, he went on to try and find his parents only to discover that they were in fact dead. They died of shame after Lord Marlborough Cavendish and his wife caught them eating meat with their salad forks during a dinner party at Buckinton Hall. It had been a long week.
edit The Cambridge Years
After visiting his parents graves, William, who was highly intelligent as the result of being raised by ingenious squirrels, applied for a position at Cambridge. Naturally with his brilliant mind he was excepted. His fellow students at Cambridge, including the now famous Philip Pullman have described William as being "Charismatic, intelligent, witty and eccentric, filled with all the intellect of Greek scholars and all the passion of the wildeness." His eccentricities such as swinging on the chandeliers whilst crying "AAAAAAAAAAA!" also drew attention, as did his habit of climbing the rooves and eating pigeons.
It was whilst at Cambridge that he began writing what was later to be regarded as his magnum opus; the stirring fantasy novel that was Shrek.
edit Publishing sensation
Soon after leaving Cambridge, aged eighteen, William published Shrek. Naturally it took the Western World by storm. Critics raved, praising William as "the Milton of the twentieth century]] and declaring his book "a shining achievement, a an odyssey in the ranks of Dante's Inferno and The Hobbit.
One chap wrote:
“There is something of Hans Anderson's power to evoke and Tolkien's ability to control”
while another said:
“An evocative work of Gothic fiction, Shrek contains all the moralistic brilliance of the Grimm Brothers and all of HP Lovecraft's bizarre genius and originality.”
Other critics, shockingly, were not so kind. An anonymous user of LOLForum@ED commented
“tihs sux lulz”
BLASPHEMY OF BLASPHEMIES!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! When we find who wrote this comment we'll hang him with his own entrails and leave his eviscerated remains for the vultures to pick at. So there.
Steig's long and vigorous life came to a tragic end when he committed suicide on the sixth of July 2006 by taking a drug-overdose. There was a national day of mourning to honour his demise. Steig's untimely suicide has been attributed to the crushing review on LOLForum@ED. There are rumours however that Steig was a manic depressive who drank excessively and was allegedly addicted to morphine. Steig's wife, Zelda Farqelharsen-Steig had this to say
“None shall miss dear Willy more than I. He was a brilliant man, talented and eccentric and full of the vibrancy of life and yet like the best artists, tortured by a constant need for self-betterment. He was too good for this world and we shall all miss him dearly.”
Allegedly Steig was also a closet homosexual who was driven to suidice by sexual repression as well as his unreciprocated love toward Heath Ledger.
edit Impact on Culture
- Andrew Adamson, the author of Shrek 2, an unofficial sequel to Shrek in the vein of Paradise Regained and Snowball's Chance, is reportedly directing a biopic about Steig's life.
- Joanne Harris is allegedly writing a biography of Steig entitled "Conquering the Ogre Within."
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Perhaps the most poignant lesson Moses teaches on the last day of his life is that it is never too late to get right with others and with God.
Recall in the Biblical story that God had punished Moses for striking the rock to draw water instead of speaking to it. Because of this, Moses would not accompany the people into the land.
So, what does Moses do in his final oration to the people? He speaks before the great Rock! God is indeed called Tzur in this text, the Rock. And Moses draws forth the very finest water for the people.
What's the water he draws with his speech? It is, I think, the living nourishment that quenches our needs, both physical and especially spiritual.
How does the water flow? As the text explicitly describes, it flows in ways that can sustain each and every one of us.
For the young and those new to it, the water comes gently as soft rain or dew. For those, like growing grass, who are ready for more, it comes as a steady rain. And for those who are the most firmly rooted, as sturdy trees or strong vegetation, it comes in pelting, penetrating showers.
We forever treasure Moses' final instruction mostly because it guides and sustains our living in covenant with God and community.
Yet, it is with a special sweetness and love, that we value Moses' gift for another reason. We see in his speech the lesson that it is never too late to turn back to God. However we've fallen short, and whatever amount of time we have left, we can serve God and others in ways that are even more consequential than when we earlier missed the mark.
Of all the remarkable personal legacies Moses left us, this may be his finest.
It's never too late.
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CC-MAIN-2021-31
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https://www.thirdwell.org/Torah-Portion-Haazinu-Handout-Lesson-48.html
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Pink eye, also known as conjunctivitis, is a very common eye problem that usually affects people in the school environment – preschoolers, school children, teachers, and daycare workers. The blood vessels in the thin clear eye covering, call the conjunctiva, become inflamed and dilate, causing bloodshot eyes. Here are the causes, treatment, and prevention suggestions for pink eye:
Viral conjunctivitis is caused by a virus. The eye becomes pink or red, watery, itchy, and sensitive to light. It can affect one or both eyes. There is no medical cure, but it will usually clear up on its own within a few days. Viral conjunctivitis is highly contagious, and can be spread by coughing, sneezing, or touching the eyes. Therefore, if you are infected, you should stay home until the symptoms clear. No medication is necessary, but you can apply a cool and damp washcloth to your eyes to relieve some of the itchiness and wateriness.
Bacterial conjunctivitis is caused by a bacterial infection, and can become quite serious if left untreated. You should visit the eye doctor right away if you notice the main symptom, a yellow-green sticky discharge. Bacterial conjunctivitis is contagious and can be spread by touching the eyes or coming into contact with the discharge. Your eye doctor will prescribe antibiotic ointment or eye drops to treat the condition.
Allergic conjunctivitis is caused by an irritant like pollen, dander, or dust. It causes watery, itchy, and/or burning sensations in one or both eyes. It only affects the allergy sufferer and is not contagious. It can usually be avoided or shortened with the use of allergy medications. If you know you are prone to allergic conjunctivitis, speak with your doctor or allergist about a prevention plan.
Do not share personal items like face cloths, tissues, or contact lenses with anyone else. Wash cloths and dispose of tissues after use. Always cover your mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing. Try not to touch or rub your eyes, especially if you have pink eye. Wash your hands properly and keep a disinfectant handy. Clean surfaces, door knobs etc. with an antibacterial cleaner. If you do get infected, stay home to keep others from catching the virus or bacteria that caused your infection.
Now you know more about the causes, symptoms, and treatments for the main forms of pink eye. Follow the recommended prevention steps and you can keep eyes safe from this uncomfortable condition.
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https://www.inneseyeclinic.com/2015/06/23/diagnosing-treating-and-preventing-pink-eye/
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How CPI’s Verbal Intervention™ Training Supports Student Success
In most classrooms across the United States, teachers report feeling insufficiently prepared to manage the challenging situations they face in their classrooms (Regan & Michaud, 2011). The most common struggles cited by teachers are:
- Task avoidance
But there are ways to equip teachers with the tools needed to support student success.
Researchers Thompson and Webber (2010) found that by providing training and structuring the use of evidence-based practice in classroom settings, teachers experienced a reduction in both frustration levels and use of reactive forms of discipline in the classroom.
Setting up a Research Study to Understand the Impact of CPI’s Verbal Intervention™ Training
During the fall of 2012, researchers worked with a large, inclusive elementary school in Illinois to test the impact of using CPI’s Verbal Intervention™ training on perceived levels of teacher self-efficacy with regard to handling challenging situations in the classroom.
With the goal of providing safe and productive learning opportunities to all students, there is a need to increase teachers’ awareness of effective and feasible strategies for supporting student success.
The following study took place over seven consecutive months. Perception data was gathered through surveys and incident documentation was gathered from referral forms.
Review of Related Staff Success Literature
Using a Response to Intervention (RTI) model, all students at risk for learning disabilities are given support that draws from evidence-based practice, allowing the student to have needs met while accessing general education curriculum.
From a social-emotional perspective, the same multi-tiered service delivery model can be used to provide support in the general education classroom to students who are at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (Fairbanks, Sugai, Guardino, & Lathrop, 2007).
In order for the necessary supports to be implemented in the classroom, general education teachers need to perceive that they are knowledgeable of and confident in using evidence-based practices for managing challenging classroom behavior.
Several researchers have identified the lack of training that general educators receive as a major contributing factor to the research-to-practice gap that exists for effective classroom management.
In their study of characteristics common to teachers who use evidence-based practices for classroom management, Stormont, Reinke, and Herman (2011) found that special educators were more likely than general educators to select and implement, with confidence, interventions that could be used through data-based decision making to support intensive behavioral needs. To gain both knowledge and confidence in implementing effective behavior management techniques, general educators need to receive ongoing training and support to implement evidence-based practices with fidelity (Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, & Sugai, 2008).
By providing training and structuring use of evidence-based practice in classroom settings, Thompson and Webber (2010) found that reductions occurred in both teacher frustration levels and use of reactive forms of discipline in general education classrooms.
In another study that involved a four-hour-long verbal and nonverbal intervention training provided to general educators, Dhaem (2012) found that teachers reported both reduction in disruptive behavior and increases in confidence levels on post-training surveys, which were issued six weeks after the training took place.
Additionally, findings from Polirstok and Gottlieb (2006) suggest that training all staff members on effective management techniques not only reduces referrals for misbehavior but also has a positive impact on student achievement, particularly in the area of reading.
When general educators are trained to use proactive or positive strategies in the general education classroom, outcomes like improved student relationships and increased time on task are the result (Cartledge, Singh, & Gibson, 2008).
Details of the Research Study
The following questions guided the study:
- Which student behaviors do classroom teachers identify to be the most disruptive?
- What effect can participation in a verbal intervention training session have on teachers’ reported levels of confidence with managing disruptive behaviors through verbal intervention?
- What effect can participation in a verbal intervention training session have on the number of disruptive classroom behaviors reported through behavior referrals?
The study used a researcher developed pre- and post-training survey instrument to investigate teachers’ perceptions of disruptive behaviors, teachers’ current level of comfort and competence with documenting incidents, and teachers’ self-efficacy with managing challenging behavior.
In addition to the survey, each participant attended a training session. CPI’s DVD from the Advancing Your Verbal Intervention Skills series, titled How-To Strategies for Intervening With Challenging Individuals, was shown to each participant in the study. Also, during the training, participants discussed relevant scenarios encountered in their classrooms and applied principles from the training to identify safe and effective ways to manage challenging behavior.
After the training, on a monthly basis, participants received an email from the researcher asking if the participant wanted to problem solve any specific scenarios involving challenging student behavior. The researcher met with three participants at two different times each after the training, for a total of six sessions, during which possible strategies for managing three different categories of student-specific behavior (refusal, work avoidance, and disrespect) were discussed and practiced.
According to the Illinois State Board of Education’s school report card database, Lincoln School (not real name) fell under the following categories:
- 55% of teachers hold a master’s degree in teaching
- 12.8 years is the average time educators have spent teaching
- During the 2011-2012 average class size was about 20 students
- 34.5% of students were eligible to receive free or reduced lunch and 13.5% were eligible for bilingual education (Spanish and Arabic were most prevalent language groups)
- Students with disabilities (18.5% of total student body) are placed in general education classrooms for over 80% of the school day
38 general education teachers and subject-specific teachers (e.g., reading specialists, physical education teachers) were invited to participate in the study. Of those invited, 21 attended the training and completed the pre- and post-training surveys.
Baseline data was collected during the fall of 2012. Researchers collected stats on the number of behavior referrals written by research participants for each of five categories in the month prior to CPI training. This data was also collected once per month for six consecutive months after the training.
The five categories were:
- Physical aggression
- Disruptive classroom behavior serving the hypothesized function of “task avoidance”
- “Other” violations, such as dress code violation
For each participant, teacher and office referral data were collected monthly and analyzed to determine trends in frequency with which referrals were written for given categories.
Documenting Concerns Addressed
At the onset of the study, a majority of participants indicated that they write behavior referrals on a monthly basis. The remaining 43% indicated that they never write referrals.
Responses to follow-up questions determined that this was because:
- Staff didn’t know which form to use
- Staff were unsure how to submit forms
- Some worried writing referrals would signal incompetency with managing a classroom
- Others worried that the time cost of writing a referral wasn’t worth it
These initial findings allowed researchers to promote awareness, collaboration, and support. To empower teams to develop fluency with documentation.
Results of the Research on Student and Staff Success
Defining Behavior Challenges
In both the pre- and post-training survey, teachers reported “refusal/noncompliance” to be the most disruptive behavior encountered in the classroom—it was also the most difficult for a teacher to manage.
After the training, incidences of behavior referrals submitted for refusal/noncompliance decreased month by month.
But not every challenging behavior is overtly recognized in the classroom. Several teachers noted during training that “disrespectful” behavior (eye-rolling, use of indifferent tone) was often difficult to address.
After the training, participants commented that the simple, effective techniques they learned for managing passive-aggressive/disrespectful behavior increased their confidence and empowered them with skills that could be immediately applied.
The referrals submitted by participants during the seven months were analyzed to determine the most frequent category that elicited referrals.
Throughout the study, the number of referrals submitted for behaviors that fell in the “refusal/noncompliance” category showed little variance from month to month. In this category, five to seven referrals were submitted to document teacher-managed responses each month.
A different trend was noticed when looking at referrals submitted for the category of inattention, task avoidance, or shouting-out behavior.
Throughout the study, the number of referrals for this category decreased consistently by one referral per month from five incidents in month two to zero in month seven.
Researchers were interested to note that teachers who struggled to address “refusal” or “task avoidance” behaviors came to the hypothesis that this kind of interaction was to escape a task rather than to gain power. Determining a hypothesized function of the target behavior proved an essential component of each problem-solving session.
The number of teacher-managed behaviors exceeded the number of incidents requiring immediate administrative intervention. It is plausible to draw two conclusions:
- One possibility is that when disruptions to learning occurred, teachers were able to apply effective intervention techniques so that incidents could be managed in a way that prevented escalation, resulting in fewer referrals for the more severe categories of behavior.
- An alternate conclusion could be that the number of severe behaviors remained relatively low throughout the study and teachers’ increased fluency with using documentation procedures resulted in a higher number of teacher-managed behaviors being documented, respective to the number of behaviors managed by administration.
Prior to training, 67% of participants reported moderate to high levels of confidence in redirecting, defusing, and managing disruptive student behavior. The remaining percentage reported lower confidence.
After the training, the percentage of participants who reported lower levels of confidence with managing disruptive behavior decreased; those reporting moderate levels of confidence also decreased; and those reporting high levels of confidence increased.
Recommendations for future research
Based on the findings of the current study, future training sessions could incorporate enhanced content to further develop teachers’ competency in two additional areas.
One area to be addressed through ongoing training with systematic coaching and follow-up sessions involves helping general education and subject-specific teachers determine the function of student behavior.
This posed an area of challenge for teachers when filling out referral documentation forms. During the training session, participants learned possible functions of behavior, but future training should include opportunities for participants to collaboratively analyze functions of actual behaviors that they have witnessed in their classrooms.
Effective verbal intervention is the pivot point that could turn challenging classroom behavior into compliant behavior, thwarting crises and diminishing disruptions daily. Conversely, ineffective verbal intervention is the direct route to escalated behaviors and more teacher and office referrals.
Effective and feasible strategies to safely manage challenging behavior can be learned through CPI’s verbal intervention training materials. When teachers are provided with verbal intervention training, confidence levels can increase, and a reduction can occur in the number of disruptive behaviors as documented through teacher and office referrals.
Cartledge, G., Singh, A., & Gibson, L. (2008). Practical behavior-management techniques to close the accessibility gap for students who are culturally and linguistically diverse. Preventing School Failure, 52(3), 29–38.
Dhaem, J. (2012). Responding to minor misbehavior through verbal and nonverbal responses. Beyond Behavior, 21(3), 29–34.
Fairbanks, S., Sugai, G., Guardino, D., & Lathrop, M. (2007). Response to intervention: Examining classroom behavior support in second grade. Exceptional Children, 73(3), 288–310.
Polirstok, S., & Gottlieb, J. (2006). The impact of positive behavior intervention training for teachers on referral rates for misbehavior, special education evaluation and student reading achievement in the elementary grades. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation & Therapy, 2(3), 354–361.
Regan, K. S., & Michaud, K. M. (2011). Best practices to support student behavior. Beyond Behavior, 20(2), 40–47.
Simonsen, B., Fairbanks, S., Briesch, A., Myers, D., & Sugai, G. (2008). Evidence-based practices for classroom management: Considerations for research to practice. Education and Treatment of Children, 31(3), 351–380.
Stormont, M., Reinke, W., & Herman, K. (2011). Teachers' characteristics and ratings for evidence-based behavioral interventions. Behavioral Disorders, 37(1), 19–29.
Thompson, A., & Webber, K. (2010). Realigning student and teacher perceptions of school rules: A behavior management strategy for students with challenging behaviors. Children & Schools, 32(2), 71–79.
Originally published in 2015.
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Mentoring is a concept that originated between 800 and 700 BC and which is still in existence in organisations irrespective of size, nature of ownership, type of industry or geographic location. In its most primal form it is regarded as a method according to which a less experienced employee (protégé or mentee) is guided and advised by a more experienced and skilled employee (mentor) in terms of life as well as professional skills. However, this definition has developed over time as organisations applied mentoring in a more structured manner and institutionalised it within formal organisational processes. Mentoring was, therefore, regarded as a method to “systematically develop the skills and leadership abilities of less experienced members of the organization” (SPA Consultants, 1995, p. 14). Mentoring has been in use within the library and information science profession from the mid-1980s and various publications have discussed the use of mentoring from an American, Australian and British perspective. However, relatively few publications are available regarding the use of mentoring within the South African contexts, and therefore an extensive discussion on the implementation of a structured mentoring scheme at the National Library of South Africa (NLSA) is included in the article. This study draws particularly on recent literature on the knowledge economy and more specifically knowledge management to suggest ways in which the concept of mentoring should be revised. Mentoring should henceforth be seen as a knowledge management technique to support the creation and sharing of tacit knowledge rather than merely a technique to develop less experienced individuals. This revised view of mentoring is of particular importance to ensure the sustainability of library and information service organisations in the knowledge economy.
Botha, D. (2006), "Mentoring Revisited", Garten, E., Williams, D. and Nyce, J. (Ed.) Advances in Library Administration and Organization (Advances in Library Administration and Organization, Vol. 24), Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Bingley, pp. 151-189. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0732-0671(06)24005-7Download as .RIS
Emerald Group Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2006, Emerald Group Publishing Limited
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January 12, 2011
BRNI Identifies New Therapies For Prevention And Treatment Of Alzheimer’s Disease
Study in mice indicates disease's underlying causes and finds compounds that normalize the Alzheimer's brain
A Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute (BRNI) study published today in the Journal of Neuroscience reveals underlying causes for the degeneration of synapses in Alzheimer's Disease and identifies promising pharmaceutical solutions for the devastating condition that affects more than 5 million people in the United States. The BRNI study is the first to achieve fundamental molecular understanding of how synapses are lost in Alzheimer's Disease before the plaques and tangles develop. At the same time, it is the first study to demonstrate the comprehensive benefits of synaptogenic compounds in treating Alzheimer's Disease.The BRNI study marks an important shift in our understanding of how Alzheimer's Disease is caused and should be treated. Previous autopsy-based studies have shown the critical role of synaptic loss in producing dementia (though, not the reason behind the degeneration), yet for decades scientists and pharmaceutical companies have focused on ways to target the amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles thought to play a role in causing Alzheimer's Disease. By preventing the loss of synapses, BRNI's new therapeutics prevent the progressive symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease.
"Alzheimer's Disease is not primarily a disease of plaques and tangles as many had previously concluded, it is most importantly a disease of synapses," said Dr. Daniel Alkon, the scientific director of BRNI and co-author of the study, "This study found that treatments that target the loss of synapses in the Alzheimer's brain, can virtually eliminate all other elements of the disease "“ elevation of the toxic protein, A Beta, the loss of neurons, the appearance of plaques, and loss of cognitive function; the animals' brains were normalized."
The study utilized mice genetically engineered to express the symptoms and pathology of human Alzheimer's Disease in two different strains. BRNI used a difficult training regimen for the mice in order to reveal that significant cognitive deficits occurred five months before plaques were detected in their brains, providing evidence that plaques and tangles are not at the root of the disease.
Treatments of Bryostatin and similar compounds synthesized at BRNI that target the enzyme PKCõ, which controls the creation of synapses at the molecular level, were administered for twelve weeks during the study. While the compounds promoted the growth of new synapses and preservation of existing synapses, they also stopped the decrease of PKCõ and the increase of soluble ò amyloid, meaning that the treatments could be used to prevent the familiar hallmarks of Alzheimer's Disease, the plaques and tangles. BRNI has received approval to move forward with Phase II clinical testing for Bryostatin to treat Alzheimer's Disease, which is set to begin within the next several months.
The synaptogenic BRNI drugs have also shown potential for the treatment of traumatic brain injury (TBI), as recently reported in the journal Neurobiology of Disease, and stroke described in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science in 2008 and 2009.
The target of the synaptogenic compounds is the same molecule identified as a biomarker for early diagnosis of Alzheimer's Disease in clinical trials conducted by BRNI and published in Neurobiology of Aging in 2010. As a result of that study, researchers at the Institute are now working to develop a skin test for identifying Alzheimer's Disease in its early stages before significant progression.
On the Net:
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These are fractions that identify the rough milled thickness of lumber. You might be used to terms like 1x6 or 2x8 for softwoods (pine, fir, etc), hardwoods are measured differently, starting with the thickness in fraction form.
The fractions read in quarters of inches. For example, 4/4 is called "four quarter," and it means approximately 1" in rough thickness.
You might find this article in our blog pretty useful if you want to know more:
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Racism In To Kill A Mockingbird
Racism is one theme which is hugely illustrated in "To Kill A Mockingbird". Harper Lee has been very successful in being able to elicit racism. The most unique and significant approach she uses to reveal racism is that she tells the story through the point of view of a child. This helps her very much to bring out this important theme as she shows Scout being in a learning process and just being able to learn the differences between right and wrong. Scout is a very strong character as she is only a child when she has to show her maturity about a very significant social issue. She has to face prejudice herself for making the right choice of going against society and not being racist. Lee has also used Atticus who has been portrayed as a guiding and supporting character. She has portrayed him to morals and courage to do the right thing. Atticus always treats Scout as a mature lady rather than a child, and has very well put the differences in her mind between right and wrong and given her power to deal with society.
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Harper Lee's "To Kill A Mockingbird" is set in Maycomb, in the southern state of Alabama during 1933-35. This was the time of the Great Economic Depression. Racial prejudice was particularly strong in the Southern States though there had been an abolishment of slavery. Blacks were still considered as slaves to whites. The white people couldn't go against the racist ideas, superstitions and the general state of injustice that they had been practicing for their whole lives. Racism was at its peak during the years of "To Kill A Mockingbird". Rather than the abolishment of slavery causing harmony between whites and blacks it had worsened the divisions between them. Maycomb could be considered as the paramount example of a town containing much prejudice, discrimination and injustice.
The beginning itself, consists of a quote that portrays racism as being "against ones dictum" and "not for the glory of god". This is done very subtly to leave the idea of negativity toward racism.
"Simon made a pile practicing medicine, but in this pursuit he was unhappy lest he be tempted into doing what he knew was not for the glory of God, as the putting on of gold and costly apparel. So Simon, having forgotten his teacher's dictum on the possession of human chattels, bought three slaves and with their aid established a homestead on the banks of the Alabama River."
This quote shows that the book starts off with negativity towards acts of racism. Racism is considered to be unholy and against the morals of people. This is the case even in the time of Simon Finch (Scouts grandfather). Even this is narrated by eight year old Scout she has a wholesome view of the society. By the end of the book we can perceive that Scout has had a change in perspective about society and whether she chooses to be racist or not.
The racism element is notoriously brought across by Lee. Lee merely indicates that race was an issue people faced in America at that time. It is introduced very slowly and subtlety. The book is written so that every once in a while the issue of race and the characters views on it are brought out. For example, on page 94 of the novel the main character, Atticus refers to racism as "Maycomb's usual disease". This comment reveals to the reader that Atticus is against racism. The scene and characters are just being introduced. From that one comment you are introduced to Atticus's views on race and racism. He refers to it as a disease because it is very hard to get cured from being racist; he also wants to compare how racism spreads like a disease.
Another quote that indicates that Atticus is a very strong multidimensional character is located on page 35 of the book. "First of all, if you can learn a single trick, Scout, you'll get along a lot better with all kinds of folks. You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view- until you climb into his skin and walk around in it" This quote is not only important because it shows the reader how Atticus understands everyone's perspective and what they are going through, but also it shows how he is a guiding force for his daughter Scout and teaching her to be able to perceive the society in a better manner. He gives her a level of maturity in thought that not all the children of her age have.
Lee has shown this novel to be about human dignity and the right to be left alone to live as you please. It's also the story of growing up and learning some very harsh truths about life. One of the "much needed lessons" in this book is about the acceptance and equality of everyone in a society, the acceptance of race and how to deal with racism. Harper Lee has been very successful in portraying this.
Harper Lee concentrates on bringing across these points and characteristics, and introduces and illustrates the townspeople's personalities, history and attributes. The main plot of the novel is not brought out till the later parts of the novel, when the reader feels they know the characters. Harper Lee might have attempted to make the reader feel like they are part of Maycomb's society. As mentioned, everyone in Maycomb knew each other, and the reader knows almost all the citizens (characters) of Maycomb, and begins to feel like he is part of the society. This would result in the reader becoming more involved and 'wrapped up in the story'.
This essay is an example of a student's work
In the novel, the black community is portrayed very positively, as they are shown as reacting in an absolutely non-violent way to the racist abuse that they suffer, behaving passively and even still helping white people. In this way, they are portrayed as 'heroes'. Despite some dispute over just how realistic this view was, this was undoubtedly Harper Lee's intention as to what we are meant to think of the black community. The novel is about a white man defending a black man in court, something considered "wrong" at the time and something that would have made the lawyer a public enemy. It is narrated by a little girl and this gives the novel an interesting take on racism, as she does not understand why the black people are being ostracized.
Maycomb society has been presented as two split communities, attempting to join together, but failing. Every aspect of the book somehow comes down to the society of Maycomb. Also, class and family history is an important part of tradition to many of the people in Maycomb. When Aunt Alexandra comes to visit, she feels it her duty to put upon Scout the importance of her roots. Aunt Alexandra forces Atticus to explain to Scout that she is "not from run-of-the-mill people, but the product of several generations' gentle breeding". Aunt Alexandra feels that people are born into a certain class, and should, therefore, behave accordingly. If you are born into a high class, you will always be considered high class, and if you are born into a low class, there is no use to strive for anything higher. The result is that families are repeated in each generation with similar attitudes and character shadings. The objective is obviously to refine the classes and keep them pure. Aunt Alexandra and many other men and women in Maycomb praise the distinction of class. To them, having high blood is seen as sacred and there is no way to obtain it but by birth.
Harper Lee also presents Maycomb society as a place of gossip. As there was not much to do, in terms of amusements, people would talk and spread rumors about other Maycomb residents. Characters similar to Miss Rachel, the town gossip queen, appear to have nothing better to do than to live through the people that they talk about. The ladies in the Missionary Society would like others to consider that they care about them, but in reality, their meetings soon turn towards the most recent story going around town. This is one aspect that spreads prejudice throughout the society. Gossips and rumors change the point of view of people and this is not always in the good way as sometimes it turns people against one another and people become more prejudiced.
In the beginning parts of the book you read about how Calpurnia looks after Jem and Scout whilst their father Atticus is at work. You read about how Atticus is very busy during that summer. You do not realize why until later. As I have said the early parts of the book are spent introducing you to Maycomb and its inhabitants. You later discover that Atticus is defending a Negro in court, you soon realise he is willing to risk his reputation and friendship of many to get justice. Many in Maycomb think that Atticus is putting shame on the white community by defending a black man. They are totally against black people, and are willing to see an innocent black man suffer and die in his struggle for equality and justice. Despite the majority in Maycomb discriminating against the blacks there are a few people who can see that the colour of their skin doesn't change anything. However, apart from Atticus, no one is willing to put their reputation and friendship with many white people on the line. The majority over power and pressure the minority of un-racist people into not speaking out for the black community. The anti-black movement seems to overpower and intimidate the people who want equality in their society; everyone apart from Atticus is prepared to make a stand. Atticus felt it is duty to protect and serve Tom Robinson; this is brought out in a conversation with Scout, on page 111.
"…. This case, Tom Robinson's case, is something that foes to the essence of a man's conscious- Scout, I couldn't go to church and worship God if I didn't try to help that man"
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This shows the reader that Atticus would feel tremendous guilt if he does not defend Tom Robinson. He would be going against his conscience if he were to not go with what he thought was the right thing to do, and it didn't matter how much prejudice he would have faced for doing the right thing. He may be able to live with the comments and unfriendliness of the white people in Macomb but he would not be able to live with himself if he did not defend that man.
Scout goes on to say, "Well most folks seem to think that they're right and you're wrong…"
Harper Lee uses this line to show that the majority of Maycomb's population doesn't think a white man should protect a black man. That line brings across and portrays as a racist society. When I say the majority I mean nearly all of Maycomb, even the school children are racist. This is because most, if not all are brought up in a racist household. Thus resulting in the children saying such things as "my ma says that your dads a nigger lover"
Although Harper Lee has also mentioned this comment because she wants to illustrate the relationship that Scout and Atticus have, where Scout being confused in her thought as she is a only a child when she has to show maturity and make a decision of not being prejudiced and Atticus having to channel her into doing and thinking what's right.
Even the children in Maycomb are racist towards the black people. This is because they are brought up in a racist society and since the beginning itself racism is engraved within them so deep that it becomes extremely hard to follow ones conscience. Few are not, and even fewer are willing to speak out and do something about it (Dolphus Raymond for example). Many are not willing to risk everything to make the black people's life a better one. It is an example of the majority over powering the minority, forcing many to deny their beliefs and support with the blacks, in order to be accepted a part of Maycomb's society, Maycomb's racist society, only Atticus in the beginning part who is willing to follow and carry out their beliefs and support for the black people. He will go against the racist society of Maycomb in search of justice and equality.
Although in his own family he has racist members. Aunt Alexandra is prejudiced towards Calpurnia, the housemaid of the Finch family, because she is a Negro. She believes that Calpurnia is a bad influence to young Scout and Jem, taking into no account that Calpurnia has been a mother figure to the children since their early childhood. When Aunt Alexandra holds her missionary tea party, the ladies talk about the black community:
"…the only reason I keep her is because this depression's on and she needs her and a quarter every week she can get it." comments one of the ladies. She pities her piteous Negro maid: "…I tell you there's nothing more distracting than a sulky darky."
Thus criticized Mrs. Merriweather, one of the ladies at Aunt Alexandra's missionary tea party. The term "sulky darky" is used in a racist tone as they feel that the Negroes degrade them.
Here we can also see the social status brought into the picture. As illustrated if the ladies are racist or are presented in a manner where they show dominance over certain people they are considered to be well accepted in society and are given respect for doing so.
Mrs. Merriweather is racist, following stereotypes and tradition. The reason for her racism is that it is inbred. She has been brought up believing in a narrow-minded view and cannot, or will not, see the innocence of the Blacks. Mrs Merriweather will believe what she wants to believe, and refuses to take in others' views. This is a substantial schism between the two races.
Certain incidents depict how racism affects the characters and brings conflicts in their perception of society. Such as when Mr. Cunningham and a few other resident of Maycomb come to kill Tom Robinson but Atticus doesn't let them and they would harm Atticus as well.
"I was playing with a spoon… That was enough."(1)
The theme racism is very prominent throughout the plot from the beginning to the end. Since this plot is depicted through the perspective of a child racism is presented in its starkest and most honest face. By doing this the author has been able to give a unique perspective to racism.
This incident is a very good example of racism because it shows that Scout has difficulty in understanding the changed nature of Mr. Cunningham. She always perceived that he was a man who had always been nice to the Finch family and he was in Atticus's debt, not because he owed Atticus money, but because Atticus had been merciful to him and saved his dignity. She failed to comprehend the change in his character.
Mr. Cunningham was facing conflict in his persona. He couldn't decide whether or not to flow with the tide or go against it and face discrimination himself. He chose the easier path for that night, not the right one but a simple human act of friendship and acceptance brought him back to his principles and he left with the mob. It only took an act of acceptance from a little girl. Thus Atticus brought to Scout's notice that Mr. Cunningham was only a part of a mob that night not an individual logical thinker. Scout was the one who transformed him into thinking logically as an individual. A mob is not a human and thus cannot have the logic or understanding that an individual can. The mob of the white community abandoned its individuality to look down on the black community.
In the same way the black community is guilty for being discriminatory toward the white community.
This is well depicted in the incident where Calpurnia takes Scout and Jem to the black church.
Blacks had always been regarded as lower class due to tradition and the fact that they were unimportant according to the whites; they were sold and bought as objects. The Whites' attitude to the Blacks has put up a barrier between the two races. However the prejudice works both ways. The Black community also feels prejudice towards the Whites. This is experienced when Calpurnia takes the children, Scout and Jem, to her local church:
"You ain't got no business bringin' white chillun here - they got their church, we got our'n." rattles Lula, a Black lady part of the church community. Not only the Whites, but also the Blacks can reinforce the strong racial barrier, clearly shown by Lula. They both even have their own, separate, place of worship. Because the Whites have and are treating the Blacks in this unsatisfactory manner, the Blacks have built up hatred for the Whites. I feel that these two impressions lead to a self-reinforcing circle where either side believes the other race is completely different in attitude and behavior.
Another event that shows that the racial prejudice is so extreme is in the courthouse. The Negroes had to allow the Whites to enter the courthouse before them as if the Whites were royalty. And, in the courthouse, they have a different seating area, away from the Whites. This is a physical barrier that also reinforces the non-physical barriers, and causes the Whites and Blacks to be separate.
The case with Atticus defending Tom Robinson also shows the prejudice that is so prevalent in Maycomb at the time. Atticus's argument had proven Mayella wrong and had the jury out for a long time. But despite the evidence shown and the logic, Tom Robinson was still sentenced guilty.
"…I ain't ever seen any jury decide in favour of a coloured man over a white man…"
It went against the nation's zeitgeist to have a Negro sentenced innocent over a White. During the 1930's, the time in which 'To Kill a Mocking-Bird' is set, it was always the Whites that came first; Black Americans were automatically seen as the lowest of human beings. However, Dolphus Raymond is also considered as of a lower rank. He is a character in 'To Kill A Mockingbird' that is married to a coloured woman. Dolphus Raymond is a white man and has mixed race children with his wife. The whole of Maycomb does not accept his family:
"…once you have a drop of Negro blood, that makes you all black."
This is the reason why Whites, including Scout and Jem, do not accept his children, let alone his wife.
"They don't belong anywhere. Coloured folks won't have 'em because they're half white; white folks won't have 'em 'cause they're coloured, so they're just in-betweens, don't belong anywhere."
This shows how distinct the divisions are. You either have to be one or the other. Because the two races, Whites and Blacks, will not accept each other, they will not accept anyone if they have the smallest interest in the opposite race. This is one reason why nobody even fathoms about having interracial relations. It is such an unapproachable condition that even when someone wants to be unprejudiced they are forced not to fallow that path. And this is what gives strength to the racial barriers.
Racism was an open and obvious issue in Maycomb society; overall the white community hated Negroes, because they were not able to accept the cultural and traditional background the Negroes hailed from. The white community judged the black community by the skin color, not by the content of their character. 'They did manage to go to schools; the standard of education was very limited, and above all they were treated with contempt by most of their white neighbors, frequently being referred as 'niggers' and 'trash'. It was this lack of education, knowledge and qualification was what that suppressed the blacks from the whites, making the whites dominant and the blacks vulnerable. The blacks found it hard to get jobs because of their lack of education so they had to have menial jobs under the whites. The whites took advantage of their innocence.
Throughout the novel, the black community earns our respect in many ways. Their unfailing passive stance to the racism they faced in their everyday lives provides a great admiration for them, as not many people could take abuse such as "Come here, nigger, and bust up this chiffarobe for me, I gotta nickel for you." Or "I seen that black nigger yonder ruttin' on my Mayella!" These cusses were the kind of language a black person there and in those times could expect when talking to a white person. They simply accepted this and did not complain. They were of course also driven to this civility by the knowledge that, should one of them put so much as a toe out of line, they would be taken to court and sentenced to death, or lynched on the spot.
This is where Lee shows the significance of language in the depiction of racism. The black people being referred to as 'negro' or 'nigger' in day to day dialect, was a part of the southern vernacular. This demonstrates how subtly racism was engraved within everyone's subconscious, while the black people having to meekly tolerate this without refute.
As well as that, they even willingly helped white members of the community, for example, Tom Robinson helped Mayella Ewell daily without once refusing or even complaining. He didn't mind being helpful in this way, even when he did not have to be. This was highly commendable because the character of Tom demonstrated that he reacted to the racism of the whites in a positive manner, by lending a friendly hand. He was just being nice; though the Ewell's had done nothing to earn this good treatment, they had always been nasty and racist towards Tom and the rest of the black community.
Atticus, one of the main characters in the novel, can also be known as an outsider, or a loner of some sort. This is because he is going against the recognized way of life in Maycomb and everyone else. It was unjust to defend a Negro against a White; to say that a Negro is innocent and that a White is guilty. Not many people supported Atticus and his beliefs that everyone is equal. Many people referred to him as a 'nigger lover'. We can say that he is an individual who is tolerant, kind, fair-minded, and courageous for defending a Negro: he isn't biased. Even though he is a man of goodness it is not recognized by his sister, Aunt Alexandra, and her fellow friends:
"…Mr. Finch, there ain't nothin' you can do now, so there ain't no use tryin'." comments one of the ladies, implying that there would be no point in even trying to prove the Negro wrong as the White race will be put in first position.
We have seen that these prejudices and divisions are very much due to tradition and stereotypes. The black community isn't treated with respect because they were known as slaves and this novel portrays the unfairness between the two races. Reading 'To Kill A Mocking-Bird' may make one feel that there is a lot of prejudice and separation during the 1930's. Even though the Blacks were thought to be unfriendly and inhuman, Harper Lee makes them out to be very warm and loving indeed. We see Calpurnia to be knowledgeable by the way she has brought up Atticus's children, showing that she is loving; she has brought up the children in such a way that Scout recognises as a mother figure. She is definitely not a bad influence on them and does not show signs of racial discrimination, to the children or Atticus.
Harper Lee has also made us see that Tom Robinson is not guilty of the rape charge and that he too is innocent and also caring. It was highly unlikely at the time for the Blacks to pity the Whites as the Whites treated the Blacks so badly that they despised the Whites. However Tom Robinson did feel sorry for Mayella Ewell. Even though he was being accused of a crime that he didn't commit and was deemed guilty, Tom Robinson felt sympathy for Mayella. Harper Lee has used this novel and the fact that there was prejudice to give out a positive effect. It has made us see that the Negroes aren't what the Whites had thought they are. In fact we see a more caring and gentle side to the Black community.
In the trial, Tom Robinson had so much evidence pointing out that he was innocent but he was still charge guilty. Why? Because he was black, it was as simple as that. There was nothing that Atticus could have done. Even if there had been a mountain of evidence against Bob Ewell, Tom would still have been found guilty. In the world back then, in Maycomb county, people were racist and they didn't think it was wrong because they didn't know any better. You even see Scout slowly become one. She says things like, 'He's just a nigger.'. Racism isn't even rebelled against in Maycomb by the blacks because they too, don't know any better. They live their lives in appalling conditions but they don't realise that as they have never lived any other way. Unfortunately, people took advantage of them not caring what happened to them because they were just 'niggers'. Unfortunately, in some parts of the world today, things haven't changed.
In 'To Kill A Mockingbird', there are a lot of racial inequalities, however the author has cleverly used this fact to give out a positive effect. The White race was thought to be at the top of the hierarchy and that they were superior in all cases. Theoretically this is true, however the Ewell family was portrayed to be no different to the Negroes. And as we read through this novel, we sense that each character holds the potential in a playing a part to break down these barriers. As stated, baby steps are the paths of having hope.
Throughout the story, people that are unlike the majority, get hurt. They are given obstacles that they have to overcome in order to survive. Some people in the world can survive these obstacles, and there are some that just give up. By fighting for your rights, people start to realize that character is the important attribute to a person. To Kill a Mockingbird, by Harper Lee showed me that the people with differences are not always doing things the wrong way. It is the majority that may be going at it all wrong. She also encourages the theme "Appearances may not lead to reality" and gives some good examples for it.
If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have the essay published on the UK Essays website then please click on the link below to request removal:
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By Subrata Dasgupta
Politically, socially, and culturally, the 1960s were tumultuous times. But tucked away amidst the folds of the Cold War, civil rights activism, anti-war demonstrations, the feminist movement, revolts of students and workers, flower power, sit-ins, Marxist and Maoist revolutions — almost unnoticed — a new science was born in university campuses across North America, Britain, Europe. and even, albeit tentatively, certain non-Western parts of the world. This new science acquired a name of its own: computer science (or some variations thereof, ‘computing science’, ‘informatique’, ‘informatik’).
At the heart of this new science was the process by which symbols, representing information, could be automatically (or with minimal human intervention) transformed into other symbols (representing other kinds or new information). This process was called, variously, automatic computation, information processing, or symbol processing. The agent of this process was the artifact named, generically, computer.
The computer is an automaton. In the past, this word, ‘automation’ (coined in the 17th century) was used to mean an artifact which, largely driven by its own source of motive power, performs certain repetitive patterns of movement and action without any external influences. Often, these actions imitated those of humans and animals. Ingenious mechanical automata had been invented since antiquity, largely for the amusement of the wealthy though some were of a more utilitarian nature (such as the water clock, said to be invented in the 1st century CE by the engineer/inventor Hero of Alexandria).
So mechanical automata that carry out physical actions of one sort or another form a venerable tradition. But the automatic electronic digital computer marked the birth of a whole new genus of automata, for this artifact was designed or intended to imitate human thinking; and, indeed, to extend or even replace humans in some of their highest cognitive capacities. Such was the power and scope of this artifact, it became the fount of a socio-technological revolution now commonly referred to as the Information Revolution, and a brand new science, computer science.
But computer science is not a natural science. It is not of the same kind as, say, physics, chemistry, biology, or astronomy. The gazes of these sciences are directed toward the natural world, inorganic and organic. The domain of computer science is the artificial world, the world of made objects, of artifacts — in particular, computational artifacts. Computer science is a science of the artificial, to use a term coined by Nobel laureate polymath scientist Herbert Simon.
A fundamental difference between a natural science like physics and an artificial science such as computer science relates to the age old philosophical distinction between is and ought. The natural scientist is concerned with the world as it is; she is not in the business of deliberately changing the natural world. Thus, the astronomer peering at the cosmos does not desire to change it but to understand it; the paleontologist examining rock layers in search of fossils is doing this to learn more about the history of life on earth, not to change the earth (or life) itself. For the natural scientist, understanding the natural world is an end in itself.
The scientist of the artificial also wishes to understand, not nature but artifacts. However that desire is a means to an end, for the scientist of the artificial, ultimately, wishes to alter the world in some respect. Thus the computer scientist wants to alter some aspect of the world by creating computational artifacts as improvements on existing one, or by creating new computational artifacts that have never existed before. If the natural scientist is concerned with the world as it is, the computer scientist obsesses with the world as she thinks it ought to be. For computer scientists, like other scientists of the artificial (such as engineering scientists) their domain comprises of artifacts that are intended to serve some purpose. An astronomer does not ask what a particular galaxy or planet is for; it just is. A computer scientist, striving to understand a particular computational artifact begins with the purpose for which it was created. Artifacts are imbued with purpose, reflecting the purposes or goals imagined for them by their human creators.
So how was this science of the artificial called computer science born? Where, when, and how did it begin? Who were its creators? What kinds of purposes drove the birth of this science? What were its seminal ideas? What makes it distinct from other, more venerable, sciences of the artificial? Was the genesis of computer science evolutionary or revolutionary? A ‘big bang’ or a ‘steady state’ birth? These are the kinds of questions that interest historians of science peering into the origins of what is one of the youngest artificial sciences of the 20th century.
Subrata Dasgupta is the Computer Science Trust Fund Eminent Scholar Chair in the School of Computing & Informatics at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, where he is also a professor in the Department of History. Dasgupta has written fourteen books, most recently It Began with Babbage: The Genesis of Computer Science.
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Image Credit: A reflection of a man typing on a laptop computer. Photo by Matthew Roth. CC-BY-SA-3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.
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The supply curve slopes upward because the volume suppliers in an industry are willing to produce increases as the price the market pays increases. Under typical circumstances, the revenue and profit derived by a supplier increases as the market price rises.Continue Reading
On a supply cover, the vertical axis shows various price points for the product or industry being depicted. The horizontal axis represents the relative quantity of goods suppliers will produce. To demonstrate the law of supply, a person must increase the supply volume while increasing the price. This requirement dictates that the slope curves upward.
Producers in a given industry must compare the opportunity cost of supplying one good against the opportunity cost of supply another. If the market price for one good is relatively small compared to the market price of another good at a similar output, the producer will opt to supply more of the first good. If the price of "widget A" goes up from $5 to $7, while "widget B" remains at $5, the producer has increased incentive to offer more of "widget A" to the market.This incentive is depicted as an upward-sloping curve.
Another reason producers supply more goods as prices increase is that margins are typically better at higher prices.Learn more about Economics
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- Massachusetts Mercury Management Act
Chapter 190 of the Acts of 2006 (amending M.G.L. Chapter 21H) requires end-of-life recycling of mercury-containing products, and bans the sale of some specific mercury products in Massachusetts. Manufacturers must notify the state of products with mercury content and establish collection and recycling programs. Makers of mercury-added lamps are not required to collect and recycle spent bulbs, but must educate the public about the need to recycle them. If specific lamp recycling targets are not met, lamp manufacturers must also make payments to a state-managed fund that would support municipal collection and recycling.
- Summary of the Mercury Management Act
MassDEP fact sheet explaining the law's requirements.
- Prohibition on Disposal of Mercury-Containing Products
Answers to common questions about the disposal ban provisions of the Mercury Management Act.
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When you think of the word tough, what comes to mind? Do you think of an object that is tough to break down, meat that is overcooked, or an individual who has overcome great obstacles to find victory? This week we’ll explore what true toughness is and how sports are the perfect vehicle to teach it.
The definition of toughness says it is the ability to withstand great strain without tearing or breaking; being strong and resilient. Too often toughness is only associated with individuals who possess great physical strength. For men, too many of us think we have to be overly macho, show no emotion, and be really, really ridiculously strong in order to be tough. That simply is not true. You don’t have to be all muscle and brawn in order to be tough. When I think of men who have a distorted view of what tough is, I think of those who always feel the need to pick fights. I think of the guys in the gym who load the bar up with weights, stare at themselves in the mirror, have a five-minute routine for each lift, and actually spend more time socializing than working out. Society has a distorted view of what tough is, and we need to change. Athletics offer the perfect setting in order to do this.
One of the problems with today’s youth is that they cannot handle hearing the word “No.” It’s almost as if this word has become taboo in their culture, and parents are primarily to blame for it. Parents mean well and no doubt want their kids to succeed, but the overwhelming desire for kids to experience success and happiness becomes a problem. It is ok for kids to fail. It is ok if they do not get what they want all the time. Too often the protective nature parents have limits their ability for their children to experience real growth. The only way real growth can occur is through the experience of failure and the learning that comes from it.
Being tough means having a backbone and heart. This requires the ability to say no and tell the truth. Sports provide the perfect opportunity to teach this to our youth. Coaches must not only focus on scoreboard results but also on what life lessons can be taught through their sport. In sports you do have to be physically fit and possess strength and stamina. One does have to be physically tough to excel in the athletic world. I argue, however, that the mental is more important than the physical dimension. It is said that success in sports is over 70% mental. Basketball great Bill Russell said, “Concentration and mental toughness are the margins of victory.” In life I would argue that the success is over 95% mental. The best do what the rest don’t; they prepare their minds for success by knowing that they will fail, but it’s okay because they know it will make them better and more successful in the long run.
Sports are a perfect illustration of toughness because things change from year to year and often day to day. Just this week the Boston Celtics lost their best player and point guard for the season with a torn ACL. In order to succeed the Celtics must have players step up to fill his role and be mentally tough to go through the challenges ahead. In my basketball coaching career I have had a relatively good amount of success. This year our team has struggled somewhat and right now we have a record below .500. Many factors have contributed to our record, but one thing we have continually talked about is how the tough times will make us better. We have played an extremely tough schedule so far, but it will make us better as we approach district playoffs. I know the tough times we’ve had so far are making our team better, on and off the court. As a coach one can become beaten down if they let wins and losses solely dictate their perspective on a season. Success should not always be measured on the scoreboard. It should be measured in the progress made and the life lessons taught. Going through tough times on the court makes you appreciate the good times. It makes you want to work that much harder to experience the joy of victory more often. I am more concerned about how my players are going to respond in life when a crisis presents itself and they are going through tough times. This is why sports are great; we get to prepare kids for what life may throw at them and how to respond. Always remember, “Tough times don’t last, tough people do.”
In life it is not a question of whether or not you will get knocked down. The question is what are you going to do when you do get knocked down. I have confidence that our team can and will finish the season around .500, but that is not my ultimate goal. I want my girls to continue to be tough, to be able to respond to adversity, and to get better every day. Sports simulate the up and downs that we all experience in the work world, in relationships, and in parenthood. When used properly, sports can teach us how to block out critics, how to dust yourself off, get back up, and go again. This is what coaching should be about. Anyone can be a winner, that’s easy. Not everyone can go through adversity and come out better as a result of it.
As a coach and parent I have a challenge. In fact, all of us have a challenge with our younger generations. Our challenge is to give them a backbone. We need to have the courage to tell our kids the truth, to say “No,” and to help them experience and overcome adversity, not shelter them from it. This is why I do what I do. It is great to win. As Herm Edwards famously said: “You play to win the game.” But if we only play to win and not teach what real toughness is, then we fail our athletes.
Thanks for reading, have a great week, and be an RGP today!
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1. Energy Sources
For the development of the economy of the country and especially of the industry, energy sources are needed. The most important are: oil, natural gas, electricity , coal and alternative energies .
- Oil is currently the main source of energy. Chemical derivatives are also obtained.
The major producers are the United States, China, Russia and Saudi Arabia.
- Natural gas is a source of cheap and clean energy.
The Producers are Russia, United States, United Kingdom and Algeria.
- The electricity is produced in hydroelectric plants (dams), in thermal plants (coal) and nuclear plants through nuclear fission.
- The coal produces heat and force to move machines in the industry.
The most important producers are China, United States, Australia, India, South Africa and Russia.
- Alternative energies are the new types of energy characterized by being cheaper, cleaner and almost inexhaustible. The main ones are: wind power is produced by wind, solar power produced by photovoltaic panels and tidal power produced by tides.
2. Choose one of these words and Answer: coal, oil, natural gas, electricity or alternative energies:
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For decades now, pulling a 40 hour week has been intertwined in the American dream. A student goes to college, graduates and enters the 9-5 system.
You get to work in the morning, work until evening, go home to unwind, and after working for three decades, you go on to retire and pick on a hobby like golfing or gardening.
The 40 hour week is deeply engraved in the American society that immigrants observe excruciating hours for years just to make sure their children can get educated and enrolled into the 40 hour week system.
Country band “Alabama,” noticed how this system works and wrote a song “40 Hour Week (For A Livin’)” to salute all blue-collar workers in the American society.
A majority of salaried employment positions in the US pay are based on a 40 hour week. Any work put in over the 40 hours is considered as overtime.
Below we discuss the most intricate questions such as:
1890s the year when the US government started tracking work hours. It was determined that a majority employees worked 100 hours averagely on a weekly basis.
The 14.5 daily hours in the seven days of the week was found to take a toll on a majority of workers due to the gruelling and exhausting man hours.
In 1906, two of the biggest print companies instituted an eight-hour workday.
Congress passed the Adamson Act in early 1916 which demanded that domestic railroad workers observe an eight-hour workday. In 1917, the Supreme Court constitutionalized the Adamson Act.
To popularise the sale of their vehicles, Ford Company instituted a 40-hour workweek allowing employees to enjoy driving to the countryside in their Ford vehicles on Saturdays and Sundays making the car brand attractive.
Economist John Maynard Keynes in the 1930s predicted that within the century, workers would result in pulling 15 hours work weeks, he was puzzled how people would keep busy with just 15 work hours each week.
However, his prediction didn’t hold water as studies show that workers are pulling in more hours at their jobs as opposed to fewer hours. More people are working 47 hours every week, amounting to an extra full workday in the 40-hour work week.
40 percent of the workforce reports that they pull 50 plus hours at work each week. Salaried positions are the main culprits of the increase in hours. Workers are forced to pull in more hours to get the job done before getting paid.
Hence why there are differences between salaried workers who work an averagely 49 hours weekly with permanent hourly workers who push in 44 hour work days.
Is The 40 Hour Workweek Viable?
Daniel Cook’s “Rules of productivity” book shows how working for more than 40 hours a week in a month lowers productivity. Numerous studies indicate that 40 hour weeks maximize productivity.
Contrary to popular belief, 40-hour work weeks are the most efficient as it allows workers to rest and increases their productivity.
To maximize productivity workers are encouraged to cut down their hours by following simple rules such as minimizing workplace distractions, focusing on challenging projects during peak hours and minimizing time spent on reading and responding to email and social media.
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February 28, 2007
GCRIO Program Overview
Our extensive collection of documents.
Archives of the
Global Climate Change Digest
A Guide to Information on Greenhouse Gases and Ozone Depletion
Published July 1988 through June 1999
FROM VOLUME 5, NUMBER 9, SEPTEMBER 1992
Mt. Pinatubo's impact on ozone has been documented by researchers
who found that stratospheric ozone levels decreased by up to 20 percent at the
altitude (24 km) where the greatest concentrations of volcanic particles reside.
See Grant et al., Geophys. Res. Lett., p. 1109, June 2, 1992, in Prof.
Pubs./Strat. Ozone, this GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE DIGEST issue--Sep. 1992,
and New Scientist, p. 16, Aug. 1.
Methane accumulation slows: new results based on widespread global
measurements indicate that the rise in atmospheric methane concentration may be
reaching a peak. See Steele et al., Nature, July 23, in Prof. Pub./Gen.
Int.--Science, this GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE DIGEST issue--Sep. 1992; also
Sci. News, p. 55, July 25.
Mysterious plumes solved: Plume-like cloud streaks emanating from
Bennett Island in the East Siberian Sea were initially observed by satellite in
1983, and thought by some to indicate deposits of frozen methane leaking from
the ocean floor. The recent demise of the Cold War enabled researchers to sample
the plume by aircraft and determine that it contains normal levels of methane.
The streaks are apparently water clouds created by air flow over the island's
mountains. See Sci. News, p. 422, June 27, 1992; Science, p. 35,
ARM Program information: The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has
begun publication of ARM Outreach, a bulletin to inform a broad
readership of researchers, policy makers, managers and educators about its
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program, DOE's largest contribution to the
U.S. Global Change Research Program. The 20-page Spring 1992 issue describes the
program's setting within DOE; its purpose, goals and organization; its
investigators and their research in a general fashion, and two specific research
projects. Available (no charge) from Carbon Dioxide Info. Analysis Ctr., Oak
Ridge Nat. Lab., MS-6355, POB 2008, Oak Ridge TN 37831 (615-574-0390).
Also available is ARM Bulletin, a monthly update of ARM activities
with calendar listings and other brief notes of interest to the research and
policy community. Contact Ted Cress, Pacific NW Lab., K1-74, POB 999, Richland
WA 99352 (509-375-6964).
Methane data sought: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center
(CDIAC) of the U.S. DOE is constantly on the lookout for new databases bearing
on global climate change. A dozen specific types of methane data desired are
listed in CDIAC Communications (p. 24, Winter 1992). Contact CDIAC at
the address given in the previous item.
"Mt. Pinatubo's Cloud Shades Global Climate," Sci. News,
p. 37, July 18, 1992. Provides further details on climate model results and
measurements of decreased solar radiation indicating that the Pinatubo eruption
has had the expected effect on climate. (See Research News, GLOBAL
CLIMATE CHANGE DIGEST, Aug. 1992.)
"Flourishing Forests Mop up Missing Carbon," F. Pearce, New
Scientist, p. 10, July 11, 1992. Roger Sedjo at Resources for the Future
finds that, contrary to the conventional view of broad global deforestation,
Northern Hemisphere forests have expanded so much in the past four decades that
they are counteracting the greenhouse effect. (See his article in the June 1992
Ambio, listed in GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE DIGEST, Prof.
Pubs./Global Carbon Cycle, Aug. 1992)
"International Meeting Airs Ozone Studies," Eos, pp. 273,
275-276, June 30, 1992. The Quadrennial Ozone Symposium (June 4-13,
Charlottesville, Virginia) gave as much attention to increasing levels of
tropospheric ozone as it did to stratospheric ozone, its traditional topic. It
included a progress report on the effects of Mt. Pinatubo on stratospheric
"Summary Report of the IUGG-IAMAP Workshop MW5: Climatic Effects of
Atmospheric Trace Constituents," (Aug. 19-20, 1991, Vienna), W.-C. Wang et
al., Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., pp. 801-804, June 1992.
"NADW Formation as a Branch of the Hydrological Cycle," T.F.
Stocker, W.S. Broecker, Eos, May 5, 1992. Summary of a conference on
North Atlantic deep water formation (NADW) held Nov. 1991 at Lamont-Doherty
Geological Observatory, Palisades, New York.
Guide to Publishers
Index of Abbreviations
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Like all countries, India faces the reality that modern biotechnology is unlocking many advances in healthcare, food and energy security, and environmental conservation. At the same time, these same breakthroughs are ushering in a host of potential threats, including biological warfare and irreversible alterations to the human gene pool.
To navigate this complex policy landscape, India needs to craft a more streamlined regulatory system and take other concrete steps to support growth in its domestic biotech sector. Doing so would likely help New Delhi—a much-needed voice from the developing world—vie for a chance to play a leading role in discussions on global governance, as nations begin formulating responsible global standards in response to recent biotech innovations.
The Promise and Pitfalls of India’s Biotech Sector
- India’s indigenous biotech sector has risen rapidly in recent years, with the country’s biopharmaceuticals industry leading the charge. Given increasing private investment in R&D, and the sector’s relatively low starting point, there remains immense potential for future growth, especially in biopharmaceuticals, bioservices, and bioagriculture.
- Yet India’s convoluted regulatory system is plagued with bureaucratic bottlenecks and redundancies that delay or prevent new products from securing government approval. This problem is compounded by highly politicized public opposition to biotechnology, which lacks a serious empirical or scientific basis and further impedes the sector’s growth.
- New Delhi must take proactive steps to strengthen and streamline its biotech regulatory apparatus; support the commercialization of biotech advances; and foster an inclusive domestic dialogue to build greater public knowledge about biotechnology, appropriate norms, and baseline practices.
Prospects for the Global Governance of Biotechnology
- There are gaps in the current patchwork of international legal agreements that shape the global governance of biotechnology, particularly related to the protection of intellectual property rights, the nonproliferation of biological weapons, and equitable terms for the cross-border movement of biotech products. Even more stark is the absence of global norms that outline responsible practices for new advances in the biotech sector, especially in the cases of big data analytics and genetic engineering.
- Developing and developed countries should begin collaborating to try to craft guiding principles for responsible innovation in the biotech sphere. India should start positioning itself as a strong voice in the discussions that will help define and set these emerging global standards. For instance, India and the rest of the international community need to rethink and possibly overhaul the existing global regimes for biodiversity and patenting.
If physics and chemistry drove the industrial transformations of the twentieth century, biology promises to generate groundbreaking technological applications in the present one. Humanity’s growing ability to map, mimic, and manipulate the genetic code of organisms is opening up new possible applications of biology in areas ranging from agriculture and medicine to information technology (IT) and warfare.
Recent breakthroughs in biotechnology foreshadow profound, both positive and negative, societal effects around the world.
Recent breakthroughs in biotechnology foreshadow profound, both positive and negative, societal effects around the world. Optimists claim that biotechnology offers the potential for advances in fields including healthcare, agriculture, and environmental conservation. As a massive emerging economy that bills itself as a promising hub for such innovation, India is no exception. Biotechnology has great potential in India, where cutting-edge product development and research is under way despite a nascent market and industry. Three areas in particular—biopharmaceuticals, bioagriculture, and bioservices—have significantly driven growth in India’s biotech sector. Yet some fear that burgeoning forms of biotechnology may lead to the spread of new types of biological weapons, new ethical challenges, and other risks.
In any case, India will face considerable challenges in securing its national interests amid this unfolding biological revolution. While New Delhi has taken some initial steps to encourage biotech research and commercial applications, inefficiencies in the country’s current regulatory mechanisms and political opposition to biotechnology spawned by public misgivings have sometimes constrained the sector’s economic potential. Addressing such regulatory shortcomings and political hurdles may help India become a more competitive economic player and more influential international actor in this rapidly changing field.
The State of Play in Biotechnology
Modern biotechnology is defined as “the application of science and technology to living organisms, as well as parts, products and models thereof, to alter living or non-living materials for the production of knowledge, goods and services.”1 The subdiscipline of synthetic biology involves the design, redesign, and/or construction of biological entities such as enzymes, genetic circuits, and cells.2 Alongside breakthroughs in biotechnology itself, complementary advances in physics, chemistry, and the computational and material sciences have further expanded the horizons of such research.
Applications of Biotechnology
The discovery of double-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), molecules that contain organisms’ genetic blueprints, laid the groundwork for modern biotech research. In recent years, the development of a breakthrough technology called Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) and its associated Cas9 enzyme has revolutionized the field of genome editing, making it possible to snip out small pieces of harmful DNA and replace it with normal sequences.3 Biotechnology is not only confined to tinkering with DNA sequences but also has expanded to explore the potential of single-stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA). The latter is necessary for the expression of DNA and has already been the subject of extensive research, especially in areas such as RNA interference (RNAi) and anti-sense technology. Both RNAi and anti-sense technology allow scientists to exert control over the expression of specific genetic traits through a technique known as gene silencing without changing the sequence of the target gene. This advance has enormous significance as it changes the terms of the worldwide debate over the safety of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). In the healthcare sector, for instance, such techniques also may provide a potential alternative to gene therapies, making these tools easier to use reliably and safely compared to DNA-based technologies.4
Rapid innovations in the field have the potential to improve the lives of people around the world.
Rapid innovations in the field have the potential to improve the lives of people around the world in at least five areas, including agriculture, environmental conservation, healthcare and disease treatment, big data–driven bioinformatics, and industrial biotechnology. Relevant areas of inquiry include stem cell research, embryo research, genetic engineering, synthetic biology, and tissue engineering.
First, agricultural biotechnology can help meet the world’s food supply needs as populations increase. Scientific advances have produced new genes that can fortify crops to withstand natural calamities, pests, and diseases (including crops like Bacillus thuringiensisor Bt cotton) or to provide higher nutritional value (as with golden rice). One technique is to employ RNA-based gene-silencing sprays to make crops more viral-resistant or drought-resistant.5 CRISPR, meanwhile, provides a targeted alternative approach for improving plants’ genetic traits that is easier and generally cheaper than traditional breeding techniques.6 Genetic engineering technologies have also been used to improve the quality and quantity of fish reared in aquaculture.7 Similar advances can help improve the quality and quantity of milk, eggs, and meat, as well as produce healthier, faster-growing animals.8
Second, biotechnology can be used to reduce carbon emissions and otherwise promote environmental conservation efforts. Using microbes, oil-based raw materials in the plastics industry can be replaced with more ecofriendly raw materials like sugars.9 One application of bioremediation involves the use of microorganisms like Pseudomonas and Mycobacterium to treat sewage. The chemicals conventionally used for this purpose can be augmented with these beneficial bacteria to control the spread of pathogenic bacteria, in turn helping reduce the transmission of cholera, typhoid, and other waterborne diseases.10 This type of technology can also be employed to mitigate environmental hazards, including oil spills and radioactive waste.11
Third, biotechnology has led to new ways of treating a variety of human diseases. Clinical trials involving gene therapy have successfully prevented the further development of Alzheimer’s in mice suffering from the initial stages of the disease,12 and gene therapy reversed sickle-cell anemia for the first time in a French teenager.13 A gene therapy product made by Renova Therapeutics for congestive heart failure is also currently at the third stage of clinical trials.14 In addition, there are a number of diseases that gene therapy has the theoretical potential to treat, like cystic fibrosis and even some forms of cancer.15 The versatility of CRISPR and the Cas9 enzyme suggests that this breakthrough, too, is a promising theoretical avenue to other potential forms of gene therapy for those suffering from other debilitating hereditary diseases.16 In October 2016, a China-based research team took the unprecedented step of successfully injecting and delivering cells modified using CRISPR and Cas9 into the body of a person suffering from lung cancer, and clinical trials involving CRISPR are also planned in the United States.17
Biotech advances in the healthcare space are also spurring revolutions in the development of drugs.18 The mapping of genetic variations among individuals has opened new possibilities in the field of personalized medicine, potentially enabling physicians to prescribe drugs tailored to patients’ genetic profiles to maximize their therapeutic effects. To cite one example, such pharmacogenetic testing has already become an integral part of breast cancer treatment.19
Information obtained from next-generation gene-sequencing techniques and advancements in targeted gene editing could even go beyond treating diseases. In the future, this knowledge could possibly also be exploited to microengineer the intelligence, strength, speed, health, and other traits of individuals as embryos, perhaps eventually spawning designer babies with tailored genomes through assistive reproductive technologies.20 Some experts predict that in about twenty years, techniques that reprogram human bodies to amplify intellectual capacity, improve physical capabilities, and even enhance emotional well-being may be available.21
Fourth, the twin fields of genomics and bioinformatics are also poised to revolutionize healthcare, by coupling the advances of biotechnology with the collection and analysis of huge volumes of genetic and biological big data. Genomics is a large, interdisciplinary field that focuses on studying the genome as a whole,22 while bioinformatics uses computer programming and information storage to study biological data.23 Companies such as 23andMe in the United States, the Beijing Genomics Institute in China, and Mapmygenome in India have made it possible to test individual proclivities for certain diseases and tailor treatments for individuals’ specific needs.24 Although these developments are promising in the case of diseases caused by a single defective gene, it does not seem to be as readily applicable to ones involving multiple genes, like diabetes, hypertension, and cancer. This use of big data extrapolates vital medical information from individual genetic data sets. This, in turn, could theoretically facilitate earlier detection of diseases such as cancer from a single blood test, a feat that a company called GRAIL is currently attempting.25 Big data can also help researchers and pharmaceutical companies like Roche monitor the efficacy of drugs.26
Fifth, industrial biotechnology employs complete microbial cells or cellular enzymes to generate products for industrial use. Industrial biotechnology involves the manufacturing of chemicals, biodegradable plastics, food additives, biofuels, or other enzyme-based products. One example is the use of recombinant DNA technology to make BioSteel; genes isolated from a silk-spinning spider are inserted into the genome of a goat egg prior to fertilization to produce a highly resilient silk product. This type of transgenic goat, once mature, creates a spider silk–based protein through its milk that can be used to manufacture athletic shoes and other products.27 Another example involves the production of biorubber using sugar rather than traditional hydrocarbons, thereby providing a reliable and sustainable alternative to the raw materials typically used in the rubber and plastics industries.28
Risks of Biotechnology
Despite all this promise, however, some aspects of biotechnology are raising profound ethical and political dilemmas that must be addressed, particularly related to the alteration of genetic material. The most important concern is unintended, potentially harmful genetic mutations. For instance, the possible medical applications of CRISPR pose a fresh round of ethical and legal quandaries for the world.29 While this technology is intended to treat debilitating hereditary diseases, it can interfere with cellular signaling pathways or be used to edit genes on the human germ line. Changes to the latter would be passed down to subsequent generations, permanently altering the human gene pool with potentially dangerous consequences.30 Another point of contention is intentional gene drives, that is to say, efforts to genetically enhance specific traits and their chances of being inherited by future generations, which could lead to a loss of human genetic diversity.31 Furthermore, while big data applications in the fields of genomics and bioinformatics have immense potential, such innovations also raise fundamental questions about data privacy, particularly regarding how to protect individuals’ genetic information and how to govern the commercial use of such private genetic data.
Despite all this promise, however, some aspects of biotechnology are raising profound ethical and political dilemmas.
Aside from these ethical and safety questions surrounding genetic alterations, some potentially dual-use aspects of biotechnology have other troubling national security implications. Developments in genetic engineering and advances in computational power are opening the door to new forms of biological weapons that could further challenge the existing international regimes that govern the development and spread of biotechnology.32 Hence, new developments in biotechnology, in turn, are raising fresh questions about norms, arms control, and nonproliferation.
Beyond the challenges of governing genetic alterations responsibly and preventing the proliferation of biological weapons, many developing countries like India are also concerned about the inequitable global distribution of biotech capacity. Many developing nations are far behind developed ones in terms of both research capabilities and industry size in this emerging frontier. This grim situation is attributed to a confluence of factors, including limited funding, a shortage of skilled human capital, and more tenuous linkages between industry actors and academic institutions in the developing world compared to those in advanced economies.
India’s Biotech Landscape
As a major emerging economy with a burgeoning biotech sector, India has a strong interest in global trends in this field. In India, biotechnology is best considered a sunrise industry with a lot of growth potential, given the country’s wealth of biodiversity, the traditional knowledge of indigenous communities, recent policy initiatives to promote the sector, and the emergence of private players driving the sector’s growth. According to Renu Swarup, the managing director of the Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC), India has only scratched the surface when it comes to areas like bioagriculture and bioinformatics.33 Biotechnology is one of the fastest growing knowledge-based sectors of India’s economy, garnering about $11 billion in revenue during the 2015–2016 fiscal year.34 The industry is expected to grow at a compound annual rate of nearly 30.5 percent to reach the $100 billion mark by 2025 if the country’s business and regulatory environment is favorable.35
Like in other countries, India’s biotech sector includes a range of areas. Biopharmaceuticals—comprising vaccines, therapeutics, and diagnostics—is the largest biotech subsector in India. In 2016, it accounted for 64 percent of the industry’s total revenue. Aside from this, bioservices—including clinical research and contract manufacturing—brought in 18 percent of the industry’s revenue; bioagricultural products—such as hybrid seeds, genetically modified (GM) crops, biofertilizers, and biopesticides—stood at 14 percent; bioindustry, predominantly from enzyme manufacturing, constituted 3 percent; and bioinformatics—dealing primarily with the maintenance of extensive electronic databases, stood at 1 percent.36 Thus, India’s biotech sector offers opportunities for economic growth and job creation in various industries. Organizations like BIRAC have been working closely with industry players to drive these outcomes.
But while the Indian biotech sector holds a lot of promise, India also has a lot of ground to make up in this space compared with other countries. India currently accounts for 2 percent of the global biotech industry.37 The investor community has shied away from early-stage biotech ventures due to long gestation periods before commercialization, bureaucratic delays related to government approvals for new products, and India’s multilayered regulatory structures. In addition, while India produces a large number of biotech graduates and postgraduates annually, most are not job-ready—this highlights a significant skill gap in the sector.38
Still, India’s biopharmaceuticals sector in particular has enormous opportunities for growth. This stems from the country’s large population, along with substantial predicted revenue growth from medical tourism.39 The sector counts vaccines, diagnostics, and recombinant therapeutics among its major drivers of growth.40 Starting with the days of vaccine production by the Haffkine Institute in Mumbai and the Pasteur Institute of India in the early 1900s,41 this sector has produced globally acclaimed Indian companies, including the Serum Institute of India, Biocon, and Shantha Biotechnics. India helps supply vaccines to international institutions, such as the World Health Organization and the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF).42
Indian biopharmaceutical firms have also made impressive advances in recent years. While efforts to develop a vaccine for the Zika virus are under way at multinationals like the French firm Sanofi and the Japanese firm Takeda, Bharat Biotech, an Indian firm, has become the first to file for a relevant patent.43 Another example is that Regenerative Medical Services, another Indian company, has become the fourth in the world to receive regulatory approval from the Indian government to administer a new treatment called chondron autologous chondrocyte implantation to repair damaged cartilage in patients’ knee and hip joints.44
India could potentially build on its existing competencies to emerge as a hub for biosimilars—the generic equivalent of biologic drugs. Considering India’s remarkable achievements in the generic drugs industry, domestic pharmaceutical firms like Zydus Cadila and Dr. Reddy’s Laboratories have initiated research programs to capture this emerging space. However, designing and testing viable biological compounds, given their complex structures, requires more intensive, technically demanding research than traditional small-molecule drugs do. There is indeed a long road ahead for Indian firms that are still playing catch up in this area.45
Bioservices—which comprise contract research, manufacturing services, and clinical trials—constitute another important area for sectoral expansion in India. The high cost of drug development in highly regulated markets, such as the United States and the European Union (EU), encourage pharmaceutical companies to look for cheaper alternatives. India, with drug development costs that are significantly lower than those of the United States and nearly half as much as those in the EU,46 could conceivably serve as an attractive destination for contract manufacturing. This cost factor could significantly drive investments in this sector in combination with other factors—such as India’s young, diverse population; the impending expirations by 2020 of patents for many drugs with annual global sales in excess of $1 billion;47 and regulatory waivers granted by the Indian government’s Drug Technical Advisory Board (DTAB) for advanced clinical trials of certain drugs.48 Contract manufacturing firms like Jubilant Life Sciences, Dishman, and Divi’s Laboratories have become suppliers of active pharmaceutical ingredients used in drug formulas.49 Syngene International is an affiliate of the Indian biotech firm Biocon that conducts contract research and plans to launch a pharmaceuticals research and development center in Bengaluru for U.S. biotech company Amgen.50
India, with drug development costs that are significantly lower than those of the United States and nearly half as much as those in the EU, could conceivably serve as an attractive destination for contract manufacturing.
Bioagriculture is the third largest contributor to the Indian biotechnology space, and it holds great potential considering India is still predominantly an agricultural economy. As the NITI Aayog, a government think tank, points out in its latest three-year action plan, GM seeds have emerged as a powerful new technology that promises high productivity; improved quality; and lower use of fertilizers, weedicides, and pesticides.51 Among crops, Bt cotton is the only GM crop currently approved for production and commercialization in India. Mahyco Monsanto Biotech, a joint venture between Monsanto and an Indian biotech firm called Mahyco, has developed cutting-edge Bollgard technologies to protect Bt cotton against destructive bollworm infections,52 while Nuziveedu Seeds has become the largest Bt cotton seed company in India.53
Biofuels, biofertilizers, and biopesticides have also contributed significantly to the Indian bioagriculture sector. India has a huge supply chain of biofertilizers, including companies like Gujarat State Fertilizers and Chemicals, Madras Fertilizers, and Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizers. Complementing conventional forms of agricultural biotechnology, marine biotechnology, too, can help meet impending challenges like securing sustainable food supplies and energy resources. For example, the Center for Conservation and Utilization of Blue Green Algae at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute has been developing algal strains as biofertilizers.54 Private firms like Geomarine Biotechnologies, Parry Nutraceuticals, and Mangalore Biotech Laboratory have also been active in formulating marine-based biotech products.55 This is a promising, yet underexplored, area where India can target market expansion.
Meanwhile, industrial biotechnology in India covers products such as microbial enzymes and microorganisms themselves, which can be used in food products, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and even for bioenergy and bioremediation purposes. These products provide an alternative to chemicals used in these industries, thereby addressing environmental hazards. Private players, such as Novozymes and Sea6 Energy, have made considerable progress in this sector. The former offers a new technology to produce biodiesel, while the latter has optimized a technology to derive biofuel from marine biomass.56
Meanwhile, bioinformatics is an emerging area that deploys mathematical, statistical, and computer models to analyze biological data. The Indian bioinformatics space is fragmented with a large number of small and mid-sized players, the most notable of which are Strand Life Sciences, Ocimum Biosolutions, and Molecular Connections.57 Large overseas IT firms like IBM and Intel also have expanded to capture shares of this world market.58
In short, India’s private biotech industry may not be as advanced as those of more industrialized countries, but India does have several emerging players in a variety of biotech-related sectors. The right government policies can help create an environment in which they can flourish.
India’s Biotech Policies and Regulations
How well India taps into the immense potential of its biotechnology sector depends largely on how well the nation addresses policy and regulatory challenges stemming from the current structuring of its bureaucratic system and from public misconceptions about the negative effects of biotech that have engendered political pressure to oppose its advances. A sound regulatory environment and a flourishing domestic biotech sector, in turn, would help India build a foundation to emerge as a more prominent voice in international conversations about biotech-related issues.
A sound regulatory environment and a flourishing domestic biotech sector would help India build a foundation to emerge as a more prominent voice in international conversations about biotech-related issues.
Major Government Actors
There is a fundamental distinction between the U.S. and Indian models for regulating biotech products. While Washington’s system has been characterized as a product-driven, innovator-friendly regime that relies on measurable performance and safety standards to evaluate genetically engineered products in comparison to ones that are not genetically modified,59 in the Indian system, GM products attract regulatory attention at the level of the genetic event and undergo case-by-case biosafety testing.60 Thus, in India, regulations kick in starting with the process used to introduce a new genetic trait into an organism. The multiple regulatory layers of this system ensure that, in sectors like agricultural biotechnology, approval processes typically take between three and five years, and sometimes even more than ten years.61
Governmental and quasi-governmental actors in India’s biotech space serve at least three broad functions: providing funding, conducting and supporting research, and monitoring adherence to state regulations. The Department of Biotechnology (DBT), under the Ministry of Science and Technology, is considered the main governmental body vested with state authority on matters pertaining to biotechnology. Set up in 1986, the department promotes research, development, and innovation in biotechnology; oversees some funding activities; and carries out regulatory responsibilities. More specifically, the DBT supports universities, research institutes, and firms working in the biotech field in multiple ways: it provides infrastructural support, helps cultivate skilled human capital, champions related scientific advances, implements biosafety guidelines for recombinant DNA products, and undertakes other related activities.62
An assortment of additional bodies—some that are under the DBT umbrella and some that are not—provide funding and other sources of support to commercial actors in India’s biotech sector. The DBT’s Small Business Innovation Research Initiative supports the early-stage research of small and medium-sized firms.63 Meanwhile, the BIRAC, set up in 2012 under the DBT, has supported biotech enterprises with a wide range of initiatives, including the Biotech Ignition Grant—which helps scientists and entrepreneurs commercialize their research—and the Biotechnology Industry Partnership Program, which allows private companies involved in high-risk biotech research to reduce their financial burdens through cost-sharing arrangements with public research centers.64 Other government-led efforts promote start-ups and other entrepreneurial activities in the biotech sector. For instance, several state governments have set up biotech parks and technology incubators with a particular focus on agricultural and healthcare-related biotechnology.65
The DBT also fulfills a range of regulatory functions in conjunction with committees that are affiliated with it, including the Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM) and the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC). The roles of committees accentuate the department’s significance as a regulatory institution and are enumerated in a set of rules formulated in 1989 under the Environment Protection Act of 1986. These rules are implemented through a series of DBT and GEAC guidelines that are updated from time to time and touch upon vital areas including recombinant DNA (1990), transgenic seeds (1998), clinical and preclinical data for ribosomal DNA (rDNA) vaccines (1999), genetically engineered crops and plants (2008), and stem cell research (2013).
Under the present framework, state bodies from three different domains—biotechnology, environmental protection, and drug control—wield varying degrees of regulatory power, depending on the nature of a given biotech research activity or resulting products. Broadly speaking, the regulatory system covers three areas: advisory, approval, and monitoring functions. The Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee (RDAC) takes note of national and international biotech developments and recommends suitable technologies and processes accordingly. The RDAC therefore holds an advisory function, and its recommendations carry significant weight when Indian safety regulations are formulated for rDNA research, use, and applications.
The most important approval bodies are institutional biosafety committees (IBSCs), the RCGM, and the GEAC. Of these, IBSCs are the internal approval authorities housed within each organization involved in recombinant DNA activities. Composed of a given institution’s head, scientists within the institution engaged in rDNA work, medical experts, and a DBT nominee, IBSCs evaluate whether lab and onsite experiments comply with rDNA safety guidelines and relevant emergency plans. IBSCs have the authority to approve experiments with low risks, conducted in a contained facility with genetic material of microbial, plant, or animal origins considered safe by the guidelines. When experiments carry greater risks, IBSCs make their recommendations known to the RCGM for approval.66
The RCGM, which primarily serves as an approval body within the DBT, also has a limited monitoring role to play. Because IBSCs submit reports on the progress of research and share information relating to experiments with the RCGM, the latter is best positioned to monitor the safety of ongoing research projects.67 It can direct field-trial institutions to generate toxicity, allergenicity, and long-term environmental safety data on transgenic materials, and then it can respond in a data-driven manner. It also has a recommendation-based role, mandating appropriate procedural and guidance manuals as well as proper types of containment facilities and conditions for experimental trials. As an approval body, the RCGM has to grant prior approval for all experiments involving category III risks—that is, those conducted with genetic material of microbial, plant, or animal origins considered capable of altering the biosphere—and all open-field experiments with GMOs. RCGM approval is also required for the cross-border movement of agents and vectors required to produce GMOs, transgenic microorganisms, and germplasms.68
After the RCGM recommends product safety measures on the basis of small-scale trials and preclinical data, the regulatory role of the GEAC—falling under the authority of the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC)—takes effect. The GEAC approves activities involving the large-scale use of hazardous microorganisms and recombinant products in research and industrial production. It also examines data from clinical trials with respect to living modified organisms and grants clearances pertaining to the discharge of genetically engineered organisms from labs and hospitals into the environment.69
But the GEAC’s approval functions are narrowly confined to the environmental perspective it brings to bear on a given activity. Beyond this, more specialized, domain-specific authorities come into the picture, adding new layers to the regulatory landscape. In the case of GM foods, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is stipulated as the relevant regulatory authority on paper. However, the FSSAI has not yet enacted specific permanent regulations, so the GEAC has been handling this duty for the time being.70 In 2010, the FSSAI came up with interim regulations and proposed the creation of a GM foods—and food safety—assessment unit within the FSSAI,71 but no real progress on implementation has been made.
By its own admission, the FSSAI suffers from various hurdles including inadequate infrastructure, a lack of lab or surveillance infrastructure, and limited research support on food science and risk assessment.
By its own admission, the FSSAI suffers from various hurdles including inadequate infrastructure, a lack of lab or surveillance infrastructure, and limited research support on food science and risk assessment.72 The FSSAI has also been accused of selectively prioritizing particular regulatory issues while neglecting other important ones; for instance, critics have pointed to the body’s haste in seeking to regulate organic foods to substantiate this accusation.73 In the case of GM crops, small-scale, open-field trials require extensive agronomic evaluations under the supervision of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research or a state agricultural university for at least two crop seasons. However, the field trials can only be done after a no-objection certificate has been obtained from the relevant state government. This additional obligation has limited field trials to only a few crops, such as chickpeas and cotton, thereby hindering growth in the agricultural biotech sector.74
For firms seeking approval to manufacture and sell biologics or biosimilar drugs,75 India’s drug control authorities also figure into this already complicated regulatory framework. The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO), headed by the drugs controller general of India (DCGI) under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, is responsible for the approval of new drugs. In the case of biosimilars, the RCGM recommends clinical trials based on data from preclinical studies. The DCGI then considers these recommendations and independently decides whether to grant approval for clinical trials and, subsequently, permission for marketing and manufacturing.76
In addition, India’s federal governing structure also vests regulatory powers in authorities at the state level, so biotech innovators are accountable to multiple levels of authority and compliance regimes. Because biotech products touch upon legislative areas, such as agriculture and the environment, that have both national and local significance, regulatory authorities at the state level and even district level possess vast monitoring and enforcement powers.
The state biotechnology coordination committees (SBCCs) of each Indian state rely on other state bodies, such as pollution control boards and health authorities, to inspect, investigate, and take punitive action in cases of unsafe biotech activities. They monitor research institutions and companies engaged in the genetic manipulation of microorganisms, plants, or animals to examine whether they are following stipulated safety regulations and the conditions tied to GEAC approvals for field and clinical trials. They also do post-release monitoring of GM products for a period of at least three to five years to avoid unforeseen risks. District-level committees do similar work within their respective jurisdictions, visiting biotech installations and regularly submitting reports to SBCCs or the GEAC. Likewise, when it comes to biosimilars, state drug regulatory bodies exercise wide-ranging powers. This is particularly so because in India’s drug regulatory regime—while the licensing and approval of drugs and drug imports is within the remit of the central government—the manufacture, sale, and distribution of drugs come under the shared, or even exclusive, regulatory responsibilities of state governments.
Major Obstacles to Growth in Biotech
India’s relatively young efforts to help fund and promote biotech research are laudable and deserve to be scaled up more, but these positive steps will likely not deliver optimal results absent a streamlined, well-resourced regulatory system and a supportive political environment. Regulatory bodies need to coordinate effectively among themselves and must be aware of innovations happening in the biotech space early on, so that appropriate regulatory adjustments can be made in a manner conducive to both innovation and safety.
Unfortunately, the current Indian regulatory system is characterized by divided roles and responsibilities based on the diverse applications of biotechnology rather than integrated, coordinated action within a holistic, well-tailored ecosystem.
Unfortunately, the current Indian regulatory system is characterized by divided roles and responsibilities based on the diverse applications of biotechnology rather than integrated, coordinated action within a holistic, well-tailored ecosystem. There was overwhelming evidence of this issue in a 2012 report of the Committee on Agriculture headed by Basudeb Acharia.77 The committee observed that the roles and responsibilities of the GEAC were not spelled out properly, and much uncertainty persisted regarding its autonomy as an approval-granting body.78 Similarly, the committee observed that both the GEAC and RCGM seemed to have underdeveloped organizational structures.79
As a result, Indian biotech firms seeking to establish themselves in rapidly advancing sectors are too often hamstrung by bureaucratic delays and poorly defined regulatory processes. As observed by the expert committee constituted by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in 2013, the CDSCO has been plagued by a lack of functional and financial autonomy, poor infrastructure, and the adequate manpower to perform its role as the central drug approval body. Similarly, the pharmacovigilance machinery to inspect the safety of already approved drugs, mostly through state regulatory bodies, is in need of technical and skill upgrades.80 These gaps have already caused considerable concerns and problems with respect to the small-molecule generics industry, and are likely to stand multiplied in the context of biosimilars due to the fast-evolving nature of this technology, a lack of sufficient resources for creating new kinds of testing labs, and the absence of a talent pool that grasps the science behind these advances and related concerns well enough to effectively regulate them.
Indian biotech firms seeking to establish themselves in rapidly advancing sectors are too often hamstrung by bureaucratic delays and poorly defined regulatory processes.
On top of these barriers, incomplete and sometimes skewed societal understandings of biotechnology and its consequences have contributed to a contentious political atmosphere in India that is often not supportive of the biotech industry.81 Political actors and civic activists have often turned this environment to their advantage, creating a state of public paranoia about biotechnology, which consequently has sometimes made authorities afraid to take any regulatory initiative.82
The way biotechnology has played out in two areas in particular validates this point: GM crops and the exploration of India’s biodiversity. Since agriculture comes under the jurisdiction of states in India, state governments wield significant influence over trials and the commercial cultivation of GM crops. Bt cotton, approved for commercial cultivation in 2002, remains to date the only crop to receive such approval. The polarization of views and opinions around biotechnology has left little room for healthy and balanced appraisals.83
As a consequence, states long refused to even offer a regulatory pathway for testing other GM crops. For instance, in the case of Bt eggplant, although the GEAC recommended commercial cultivation in October 2009, the MoEFCC announced a moratorium in February 2010.84 The stated reason for the latter’s decision was the absence of long-term studies that established human and environmental safety. But after seven years, the status of Bt eggplant still stands where it was left in 2010, and the GEAC has provided no clear path for securing approval. Recent developments indicate that GM mustard may also be headed in the same direction. A public interest litigation case initiated before the Supreme Court of India by an anti-GM campaigner has delayed approval from the GEAC, which was inclined to approve commercial cultivation of the crop.85
Meanwhile, innovation and growth in India’s biotech sphere has also been hampered by well-intentioned regulatory efforts to shield India’s wealth of biodiversity from foreign profiteering. India’s biodiversity has sometimes been wrongfully misappropriated by foreign actors in the past. Examples abound, including the granting of patents pertaining to the healing properties of turmeric and the fungicidal properties of the neem plant, in the United States and the EU respectively.86 These patents were subsequently revoked but at considerable cost to the Indian exchequer.
To prevent such situations from recurring, India enacted the National Biodiversity Act, which came into force in 2002 and was meant to govern access to the use of India’s bioreserves and make benefit sharing more equitable. Though originally billed as a solution to India’s foreign exploitation problem, ambiguities in the act’s regulations have unwittingly deterred innovation and investment in biotechnology, a field heavily reliant on biodiversity.
Foreign companies subsequently have found it difficult to access India’s wealth of biodiversity, while both Indians and foreign individuals (which include nonresident Indians, according to the act) have found it difficult to commercialize their research findings. Moreover, innovative Indian companies have not been able to raise foreign capital, and criminal penalties for accessing biodiversity resources without “prior-permission” further constrains research and commercial ventures in the biotech space.87 Both Indians and non-Indians require prior approval from the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) when seeking intellectual property (IP) rights and transferring research involving Indian bioresources.88 Meanwhile, insufficiently funded state biodiversity boards have opportunistically relied on this act to compel revenue sharing by Indian companies, despite direct instructions from the NBA to the contrary.89
Consequently, this act has painted India as unfriendly toward scientific innovation in the biotech space and even compelled some Indian biotechnology companies to relocate abroad.90 Shrikumar Suryanarayan, one of India’s leading innovators in the industrial biotech space and chairman of Sea6 Energy, says that the Indian approach almost borders on xenophobia. He observes that the National Biodiversity Act has “stall[ed] foreign investment,” and he concludes that “outsider skepticism and paranoia surrounding biodiversity exploration has led to inertia by approval authorities.”91
How to Strengthen India’s Biotech Sector
Unless India seeks ways to address the problems plaguing its biotech sphere, growth in this sector will likely continue running into sizable roadblocks. Fortunately, there are steps that India can take that may enhance its biotech sector’s prospects for growth and innovation. A flourishing Indian biotech sector supported by a sound regulatory environment and a supportive political atmosphere, in turn, would help New Delhi build a foundation to become a more prominent voice in global governance discussions pertaining to biotechnology.
One promising step would be for New Delhi to strive to create a legal and financial ecosystem that will nurture innovation and growth while limiting regulatory hold-ups. India needs a proper balance between strategic research, product planning, and the liberalization of regulatory frameworks to support biotech growth. The contributions of science, research, and innovation have to be synchronized within an overall paradigm of inclusive growth and development in order to increase India’s chances of establishing itself as a global scientific power.
To improve bureaucratic outcomes, New Delhi must strengthen its regulatory capacity. The best solution may be to establish an independent or statutory body with the authority to regulate biotech research as well as the transporting and importing of biotech products. In the absence of such a sweeping overhaul, the government should at least augment the capacities of and facilitate greater coordination among existing institutional bodies like the RCGM, GEAC, and DCGI so as to minimize bureaucratic delays. In 2005, for instance, the MoEFCC’s Task Force on Recombinant Pharma, headed by R.A. Mashelkar, proposed one possible solution when it recommended the creation of an independent National Biotechnology Regulatory Authority (NBRA), which would offer a single professionally managed mechanism for the various clearance processes across different verticals in the biotech industry.92 An earlier committee headed by Mashelkar also recommended realigning the CDSCO as a central drug authority with regulatory power across the value chain from drug research and development to post-marketing supervision.93
As of now, both these ideas remain unimplemented. The NBRA recommendation metamorphosed into a proposed Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India. There was even a parliamentary bill initiated to create such an entity in 2013, which subsequently lapsed.94 The central drug authority, though a very good policy innovation that would have streamlined the entire regulatory environment for drugs and biotech, was vetoed by a later parliamentary committee.95 There are no policy steps currently under way to revive these ideas, though reforms of some kind clearly are necessary in order for India’s biotech sector to reach its full potential.
India also needs strong legal and regulatory frameworks to address emerging critical issues arising from new innovations in the biotech space, such as big data analytics. The bioinformatics boom is a function of technological advances in genomics, cloud computing, data analytics, artificial intelligence, and machine learning. At its core is the availability of significant data tranches coupled with analytic capabilities.96 Public trust in data security and confidence that genetic information shall not be misused or prejudicially used are integral to gathering the requisite volume and variety of data needed for pattern recognition and sound analytics.97
Structural regulatory reforms would likely be more impactful if they are accompanied and complemented by broader societal input on issues related to biotechnology. India needs a more expansive domestic discourse on a range of issues that affect biotech governance—from the ethics of deploying new technologies to flexible efforts to adopt to the changing balance of influence on biotech issues among states and nonstate actors. New Delhi needs to draw in the biotech industry as well as the legal and strategic communities to strengthen interactions with the bureaucratic and political classes to cope with the extraordinary challenges and opportunities that biotechnology is ushering in.
A comprehensive domestic discourse involving a wide range of stakeholders would enable India to chart a path to obtain the greatest possible benefits from these developments in a sustainable and legal manner. A committee on the biotech economy, constituted by the Department of Biotechnology, and comprising researchers, policymakers, industry players, and members of civil society, must be created to enhance synergies and make central- and state-level policies and regulations both coherent and consistent. A bioeconomy information system and observatory, along the lines of a three-year experiment in the EU,98 may also be established to regularly evaluate research and innovation, the interactions between policies and actors, and market competition across biotech verticals and update strategies accordingly.
The exchange of ideas and information is imperative for ensuring that biotech research and development is carried out in a sustainable manner. Additional outreach efforts such as national biotech conferences should be held regularly to discuss advances in modern biotechnology and regulatory hurdles to researching and commercializing such advances. It is only through ongoing regular dialogues with multiple stakeholders including bioethicists, lawyers, industry players, and researchers that efficient regulatory mechanisms compliant with good manufacturing practices can be formed. This, in turn, could present new avenues for contract research and manufacturing services, which could spark further growth in the bioservices sector.
More energetic public outreach on issues related to biotechnology is also vital. The emphasis must be on communicating about biotechnology with the general public in comprehensible terms. Conducting public awareness campaigns in print and electronic media as well as modifying school curricula may be the initial steps toward making public discourse on biotech issues science-based rather than emotionally driven; this may eventually help lessen public opposition to biotech and the political pressure this can cause.
The Limitations of Global Governance on Biotech Issues
Until India takes domestic steps to address the regulatory impasses and inefficiencies that plague its biotech sector, the country’s progress in this emerging technological field will remain constrained. In the meantime, these difficulties will likely hamper New Delhi’s potential to become a more influential voice in broader global conversations on how to responsibly govern biotechnology in ways that take India’s interests into account. Aspects of global governance pertaining to biotechnology have become particularly salient as the rapid pace of innovation in India and around the world has also heightened the global challenges that such advances pose.
The issue of how to regulate biotechnology globally came to the fore in the 1970s and, over the years, this has given rise to a number of international legal instruments. These instruments broadly deal with three distinct sets of challenges: the protection of genetic resources and biodiversity, the regulation of biological weapons, and the management of international trade in GM products. Instruments such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), the International Plant Protection Convention (1951), the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) International Declaration on Human Genetic Data (2003), and the Nagoya Protocol (2010) pertain to genetics and biodiversity. The 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) deals with the issue of weaponized forms of biotechnology. And the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (1994) and the WTO Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (1994) help govern international trade involving GMOs.99
Broadly speaking, there have been a few successes (especially in the case of biological weapons), but elements of this patchwork of legal instruments suffer from three major shortcomings.100 First, of particular concern to developing countries like India is the fact that legal provisions governing the cross-border spread of biotechnology have not significantly reduced the uncompensated movement of precious biological and genetic resources—including specific genetic traits and plant DNA—from developing countries to advanced economies.101 Breakthroughs in genetic engineering have raised concerns over the use and manipulation of genetic resources and the monopolization of their use through indiscriminate patenting by the world’s dominant biotech companies, which are primarily based in the West; this has led to charges of biocolonialism from organizations such as the Indigenous People’s Council on Biocolonialism.102
Existing legal instruments have not included adequate enforcement provisions to protect the interests of developing countries.
Existing legal instruments have not included adequate enforcement provisions to protect the interests of developing countries. While the Nagoya Protocol, a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity,103 does address the issue of fair and equitable sharing of benefits from products developed through genetic manipulation, it has not been as effective as one would hope.104 The use of ambiguous qualifiers such as “as appropriate,” “where applicable,” and “as far as possible” throughout the texts, and the absence of any self-standing obligation on the part of user countries to ensure benefit sharing, leaves the implementation of these instruments open-ended.105 Moreover, the Convention on Biological Diversity defines genetic material as “any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity,”106 a definition subsequently interpreted by the convention’s governing body to exclude human genetic resources from the framework of the convention and the Nagoya Protocol.107 Thus, several advances in modern biotechnology are not even covered by this equitable benefit-sharing framework.
Consequently, while biotechnology can help states move toward achieving economic and environmental sustainability in a globalizing world,108 there is a fear that a few multinational firms in technologically rich states will enjoy a disproportionate degree of power over access to food and other critical resources. The outsized control of vital biotech innovations by such companies has been a source of significant tension in developing countries, including India. A good example of this is the recent case of Monsanto threatening to reevaluate its business activities in India in the face of a government proposal to cut royalties on Monsanto’s vital Bt cotton seeds.109 Further, as an ongoing patent dispute between two U.S. universities over the revolutionary CRISPR technology shows, it looks as though the future of biotech may be determined largely by the actions of institutions based in the West.110 This demonstrates the stark economic and technological imbalance between the West and the rest of the world.
There is a fear that a few multinational firms in technologically rich states will enjoy a disproportionate degree of power over access to food and other critical resources.
When coupled with the continued commercialization of vital genetic and biological resources of the developing world, this reality has two major implications for global politics: If the world comes to increasingly rely on seeds and technologies developed and controlled by such companies, the food security achieved in much of the developing world, including India, after immense struggles and investments could be undermined.111 An increased centralization of genetic resources in the hands of a few Western companies could push the developing world back into a situation of greater dependency on the West, reinforcing global inequalities and potentially ratcheting up tensions.
The second area where global governance must be improved relates to the security dimensions of biotechnology, which existing legal mechanisms may not be in a position to deal with comprehensively.112 Synthetic biology can be harnessed to create biological weapons, including disease-carrying viruses, in laboratories without the need for existing biological resources. In a worst-case scenario, advances in biotechnology, genetics, and genomics could theoretically result in a new form of militarized eugenics, whereby certain individuals, or a small section of people carrying a certain genetic strain, could be specifically targeted. Furthermore, the falling costs of bioengineering using technologies like CRISPR may level the playing field between states and nonstate actors to a degree. If such technologies were to get into the hands of extremist or terrorist groups, the nature and scale of potential harm would be almost unimaginable.113 These challenges pose a wide array of environmental, ethical, political, and social challenges.114
The security dilemmas posed by the potential weaponization of biotechnology have already caught the attention of the United States; James Clapper, then U.S. director of national intelligence, highlighted genome editing as a global danger before the Senate Armed Services Committee in 2016.115 It is only a matter of time before other major powers begin grappling with this issue in an institutional manner. Traditionally, India has taken a hard stance against biological weapons; however, it remains to be seen how New Delhi might react to the possible developments discussed here.
Third, the ability of existing multilateral legal instruments to respond to rapidly emerging biotech-related ethical dilemmas is unproven. Take for example, the recent creation of a pig embryo injected with human stem cells that, when fully developed, will be able to grow organs containing human cells.116 The medical possibilities of this development are immense, especially for lifesaving organ transplant procedures and for advancing medical research. But the creation of a part-human, part-animal creature throws up a number of fundamental ethical and regulatory questions that cannot be answered by the existing regime. Similar questions are being raised by advances in gene-editing technologies; this may facilitate the genetic modification of embryos, which could eventually lead to the birth of so-called designer babies, in effect allowing people to artificially enhance their capabilities.117
These issues of gene editing directly relate to the existing technology gap between a handful of rich nations and the rest of the world. If, for example, gene editing is used to enhance the capabilities of citizens in countries that have the technical and financial resources to do so, then actual biologicaldifferences could arise between the citizens of these countries and the rest of humanity. Reconciling these issues under existing international agreements would be very difficult, and the only means of addressing this challenge is likely to provide for new ways of consensus building among relevant actors.118
The inadequacies in these current international frameworks underscore the need for a new set of global conversations that not only take into account the evolving issues likely to be faced in the future but also address the leading questions of today. Beyond traditional actors like states, the stakeholders in these new conversations must include pharmaceutical companies, universities, research laboratories, and nongovernmental organizations from both developing and developed countries, along with proprietors of traditional knowledge, including indigenous peoples. Such a multi-stakeholder model would mean acknowledging the diversity of issues present in this field and would allow everyone who has a stake in the outcome of such global discussions to have a voice at the table. The multi-stakeholder model that internet governance is moving toward could possibly be emulated for the case of biotechnology. At present, however, with biotechnology increasingly being seen as central to countries’ economic and national security, having such an inclusive conversation is not going to be an easy task.
India’s Role in Shaping Global Biotech Regimes
Given these pressing concerns, India has an urgent interest in shaping new potential global regimes pertaining to biotechnology. As a global biodiversity hotspot, and as a potential beneficiary of these technologies, India must actively engage in shaping governance regimes that account for its interests. These interests primarily include protecting indigenous bioresources and related knowledge, equitably sharing technological know-how, and preventing these technologies from falling into the wrong hands. And, as previously mentioned, India must also focus on providing a stable and open domestic ecosystem for biotech innovations.
In the past, India’s approach to global regimes related to emerging technologies has tended to be defensive, and this, in turn, has resulted in all-or-nothing ideological positions that sometimes have isolated New Delhi on the global stage. India’s initial idealistic emphasis on total nuclear disarmament and complete nondiscrimination, for example, had made New Delhi increasingly marginal to the evolution of global nuclear technology regimes. To some degree, old thinking on strategic autonomy and a presumed commitment to lead the developing world against advanced economies still endures in India’s leadership classes.
Yet, over the last few years, some have begun attempting to correct this orientation, as India has started instead presenting itself as a responsible power seeking to contribute to and manage the global order. India’s support for the global nonproliferation regime, its quest for membership in technology regimes, its recent commitment to positive outcomes in climate change negotiations, and its support for a multi-stakeholder approach to internet governance all mark India’s new sense of itself as a leading power that will uphold its responsibilities to the international order as well as secure its own economic and political interests.
To this end, beyond the aforementioned ways that India could seek to improve its domestic regulatory environment and convene a comprehensive domestic dialogue on biotechnology, there are other steps that India can take on the international stage to improve its position on issues related to biotechnology.
India’s Stance on Global Biotech Standards
For instance, India can try to leverage its position as a major developing country to advocate for a more equitable worldwide distribution of the technical knowledge and potential gains of biotechnology. With the global biotech industry currently focused on accelerating productivity, collaboration is a plausible way forward for countries faced with resource constraints. With an abundance of high-quality, low-cost, technical human capital and a relatively advanced commercial biotech sector, India could conceivably become a partner of choice for stakeholders from developed and developing countries alike.119 Though IP rights still present a major hurdle—given that most major Western biotech companies do not consider the Indian IP regime sufficiently protective of their proprietary rights120—several Indian companies have managed to overcome this hurdle and work with international partners. The task is to foster an environment that encourages India to continuously improve its domestic strengths in collaboration with others and use that strength to shape global rules of the road.
One issue to keep in mind is that such international collaboration should not provide an impetus for bio-piracy or the undue transfer of genetic resources outside the country.
One issue to keep in mind here is that such international collaboration should not provide an impetus for bio-piracy or the undue transfer of genetic resources outside the country. India has, in the past, been subject to instances of bio-piracy, including infamous examples involving Basmati rice and turmeric.121 To counter this trend, India launched the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) as a way of documenting and protecting traditional knowledge and preventing bio-piracy and unethical bio-prospecting.122 Recent reports that indicate a degree of apathy toward the TKDL among policymakers are therefore worrisome.123 While the TKDL may not have been as successful as some initially hoped,124 it remains a unique experiment in protecting both traditional knowledge and indigenous genetic resources. Despite its limitations, the TKDL could potentially be at the front lines of ensuring that genetic research collaboration does not take place on terms that are detrimental to India, and therefore the Indian government should consider giving it greater support.
These problems at least partially stem from a lack of clear biotech-related definitions in international mechanisms for protecting IP. The current vehicle for multilateralism—the 1994 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)—is inadequate for dealing with modern advances in biotechnology. Terms such as “microorganism” and “microbiological process,” which are considered patent-eligible under TRIPS, unfortunately bear no consistent meaning in scientific and medical literature.125 Though introduced with the aim of harmonizing standards across countries, the various patent exclusions contained in Article 27 of TRIPS have meant that countries adopt highly divergent eligibility thresholds.126 Similarly, patent exclusions on the grounds of ordre public or morality have provided states with huge leeway to treat biotechnology in widely differing ways for purposes of patent granting.127 Such flexibility would not be undesirable per se but for the indeterminacy of these expressions and the consequential divergence that undermines the broader goal of harmonization.
A further issue is that these IP protections have expired. It would likely be in India’s interest to try and revive them. Tellingly, Article 27(3), which deals with the patentability of microorganisms, was introduced with a short shelf life, and its terms were supposed to come up for review only four years after TRIPS came into effect. That this review never happened indicates strong differences over this issue and the need for clarity as to when renewed negotiations should commence in earnest. Moreover, it would be in India’s interest to help lead such multilateral discussions as much as possible because the alternative would likely be rather inimical to its interests. After all, bilateralism between countries that own technology in this space and other countries that do not could accentuate the division between technological haves and have-nots, whereas a multilateral approach would allow developing countries to exercise greater collective negotiating power and perhaps level the diplomatic playing field considerably.
The treatment of data being gleaned from the field of bioinformatics and the intersection of biotechnology and big data would also benefit from having global standards, which India could help shape. There is currently no global framework for vital matters such as nondiscriminatory deep-learning algorithms; privacy-by-design architecture; or norms for data acquisition, storage, distribution, and analysis. Leadership in this arena would help guarantee beneficial, data-driven solutions while hopefully safeguarding against truant actors who may be tempted to handle genetic data irresponsibly.
It may take a great deal of time to improve global standards on various aspects of biotech and the prospects for success are uncertain. In the meantime, India can also do more on its own to spur domestic innovation as a way to reduce its dependence on biotech materials from other countries. For instance, Radhakrishna Pillai, the director of the Rajiv Gandhi Center for Biotechnology, observes that basic biotech research in India still depends almost exclusively on imports of molecular biological enzymes, monoclonal antibodies, cell lines, serums, experimental animals, and key reagents. This dependence is expensive and considerably slows the pace of innovation and research in India. To overcome this limitation, Pillai recommends that the Indian government invest in developing the necessary infrastructure, along with seed capital and tax breaks, to push scientific researchers out of their comfort zones and spur them to develop their own domestic business ventures. A feasible approach, in his opinion, would be to work backward from society’s needs to generate research-based solutions in the laboratory, instead of creating new markets for technologies developed in the laboratory.128
<B>Hedging Against Biological Weapons
As for the threat of biological weapons, India is party to the 1972 BWC and has stated that it has no intention of developing such weapons.129 Recognition of the potential militarization of advances in biotechnology led to a round of negotiations between 1995 and 2001 that centered on the insertion of an additional protocol to the BWC, which would have required member states to annually declare their biological defense facilities and their industrial capabilities and programs. India supported these efforts and expressly mentioned that a “multilaterally agreed mechanism for verification of compliance” would be “critically important” to the effective working of the convention.130
The United States, however, presumably fearful of international interference with its own biological defense program, seemingly scuttled these talks and the additional protocol.131 In fact, the United States has since remained opposed to international oversight at subsequent BWC review conferences, as evidenced by its statement in the recent Eighth Review Conference of the convention, where Washington stressed that “there is no substitute for effective national implementation” and did not mention the word “verification” at all.132 The U.S. position stands in marked contrast to statements at the same conference by countries like India.
With formal efforts to strengthen and update the BWC effectively stalled, India must not shy away from studying the possible implications of the weaponization of new developments—including CRISPR and gene editing. These advances, by their very nature, are dual-use and cannot be easily equated with more easily distinguishable weaponized applications, such as anthrax. There are potential military and strategic benefits that can be derived from these technologies that may not fall afoul of existing international norms, and India should actively undertake and encourage research on these particular technical aspects until new norms specifically dealing with these developments are adopted.
In all of these areas, it is therefore necessary for an honest and open global conversation to take place on recent developments in this biotech sector among a wide range of stakeholders. A consensus-based approach to the global governance of biotech that is equitable, just, and fair may emerge out of such a conversation. Any such global regimes would need to be necessarily open to further changes, while ensuring that safeguards exist against the potential misuse of these technologies.
Biotechnology is among a handful of technologies, along with artificial intelligence and quantum computing, that will likely redefine human society in the twenty-first century. The avenues it will continue to open up, both positive and negative, are staggering. If India is to become a leading power in the coming decades, it is imperative that it begin to grasp the immense possibilities and implications of recent developments in biotechnology. New Delhi should therefore continue searching for ways to enhance its biotech regulatory system and to foster growth in India’s biotech sector, so that the country can position itself to play as prominent a role as possible in global conversations about how to respond to the promise and peril that biotechnology represents.
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28 “Versalis and Genomatica Produce Bio-Rubber With Bio-Butadiene From Sugars,” GlobeNewswire, February 16, 2016, https://globenewswire.com/news-release/2016/02/16/810849/0/en/Versalis-and-Genomatica-Produce-Bio-Rubber-With-Bio-Butadiene-From-Sugars.html.
29 Walter D. Valdivia, “Gene Editing: New Challenges, Old Lessons,” TechTank (blog), Brookings Institution, March 15, 2016, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/techtank/2016/03/15/gene-editing-new-challenges-old-lessons/.
30 Edward Lanphier et al., “Don’t Edit the Human Germ Line,” Nature 519 (March 26, 2015): 410–11.
31 Otieno MO, “CRISPR-Cas 9 Human Genome Editing: Challenges, Ethical Concerns and Implications,” Journal of Clinical Research & Bioethics 6, no. 6 (December 2015): 1–3.
32 Erik Frinking et. al., “The Increasing Threat of Biological Weapons: Handle With Sufficient and Proportionate Care,” Hague Centre for Strategic Studies, February 20, 2017.
33 Renu Swarup, in discussion with the authors, April 13, 2017, Department of Biotechnology, New Delhi.
34 “Biotechnology Industry in India,” India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF), 2017.
35 “Biotechnology: Statistics,” Make in India, accessed March 2, 2017, http://www.makeinindia.com/sector/biotechnology.
36 “Biotechnology Industry in India,” IBEF.
37 “Indian Biotech Industry at a Glance in 2015–16,” Indian Mirror, accessed March 9, 2017, http://www.indianmirror.com/indian-industries/2016/biotechnology-2016.html.
38 Soma Das, “Biotech Graduates in India Not Job Ready: E&Y,” Financial Express, July 7, 2012, http://www.financialexpress.com/archive/biotech-graduates-in-india-not-job-ready-ey/971276/.
39 “Medical Tourism on the Rise in India,” IBEF, April 2017.
40 “Biotechnology Industry in India,” IBEF.
41 Chandrakant Lahariya, “A Brief History of Vaccines and Vaccination in India,” Indian Journal of Medical Research 139, no. 4 (April 2014): 491–511; Sujith Varma K, “An Overview of Biopharmaceutical Industry in India,” Pharmabiz.com, December 10, 2009, http://saffron.pharmabiz.com/article/detnews.asp?articleid=53092§ionid=50.
42 Stephen M. Sammut and Daniel S. Levine, “Accelerating Growth: Forging India’s Bioeconomy,” Biotechnology Industry Organization and Association of Biotechnology Led Enterprises, 2014.
43 Madhura Karnik, “An Indian Biotech Company Has Been Developing Zika Vaccines for Over a Year,” Quartz India, February 4, 2016, https://qz.com/609291/this-indian-biotech-firm-is-the-worlds-first-to-ready-a-zika-vaccine-for-testing/.
44 Aesha Datta, “Repairing Painful Joints: RMS Regrow to Offer Cartilage Therapy Using Own Cells,” Business Line, April 14, 2017, http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/science/repairing-painful-joints-rms-regrow-to-offer-cartilage-therapy-using-own-cells/article9640453.ece.
45 Chirantan Chatterjee and Shreekanth Mahendiran, “From a ‘Pharmacy’ to a ‘Laboratory’: The Global Biologics Revolution and the Indian Bio-Pharmaceutical Industry,” in India as a Pioneer of Innovation, ed. Harbir Singh, Ananth Padmanabhan, and Ezekiel Emmanuel (New York: Oxford University Press, forthcoming).
46 “Pharmaceuticals,” IBEF, 2015.
47 “Indian CRAMS Players to Cram in Growth: CARE Ratings,” Credit Analysis and Research Limited, January 2015.
48 Anke Geipel-Kern, “Why Pharmaceutical Contract Manufacturing in India Is Growing,” Process Worldwide, September 28, 2015, http://www.process-worldwide.com/why-pharmaceutical-contract-manufacturing-in-india-is-growing-a-505970/.
49 “Indian CRAMS,” Credit Analysis and Research Limited.
50 “Biotechnology Industry in India,” IBEF.
51 “India Three Year Action Agenda: 2017–18 to 2019–20,” National Institution for Transforming India, 2017.
52 “Mahyco Monsanto Biotech (India) Private Limited (MMB),” Monsanto, accessed March 3, 2017, http://www.monsanto.com/global/in/whoweare/pages/mahyco-monsanto-biotech-private-limited.aspx.
53 Ramesh Viswanathan, “Nuziveedu Has a Strong Presence in the Cotton Market in India,” LifeScienceWorld, accessed on March 3, 2017.
54 G.P. Talwar and Rahul Pal, “Biotechnology in India,” in Biotechnology in Developing Countries: Research Advances and Applications, ed. William Edwardson and Michael Graham (Ottawa: International Development Research Center, 1994).
55 “Research,” Geomarine Biotechnologies, accessed September 14, 2017, http://www.geomarinebiotech.com/research.htm.
56 “About,” Sea6 Energy, accessed March 3, 2017, http://www.sea6energy.com/about/.
57 Sammut and Levine, “Accelerating Growth.”
58 “Analyzing Whole Human Genomes for as Little as $22: QIAGEN Bioinformatics and Intel Reference Architecture for High-Volume Genome Analysis,” Intel, 2016, https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/healthcare-it/solutions/documents/qiagen-analyzing-human-genome-paper.html; “Computational Biology,” IBM Research, accessed July 17, 2017, http://researcher.ibm.com/researcher/view_group.php?id=137.
59 Katharine Gostek, “Genetically Modified Organisms: How the United States’ and the European Union’s Regulations Affect the Economy,” Michigan State International Law Review 24, no. 3 (2015): 761, 767–69.
60 Julia Freeman, Terre Satterfield, and Milind Kandlikar, “Agricultural Biotechnology and Regulatory Innovation in India,” Science and Public Policy 38, no. 4 (May 1, 2011): 319, 322.
61 Hugh Dang, Brad Gilmour, and Nawal Kishor, “India’s Agri-Biotech Policies, Regulations, and Decision-Making,” AgBioForum 18, no. 1 (2015): 87, 94.
62 Shailja V. Gupta, Rinko Ganjoo, and Arnab Hazra, “Biotechnology Landscape in India,” Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, 2015, 12.
64 “Biotechnology Industry Partnership Programme (BIPP),” Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council, accessed March 3, 2017, http://birac.nic.in/desc_new.php?id=76.
65 “Functional Biotechnology Parks and Incubation Centres,” Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, accessed March 3, 2017, http://www.dbtindia.nic.in/functional-biotechnology-parks-and-incubation-centres/.
66 Manju Sharma and Renu Swarup, “The Way Ahead – The New Technology in an Old Society,” in Biotechnology in India, vol. 1, ed. T.K. Ghose & P. Ghosh (Berlin: Springer, 2003), 1, 41.
68 Ibid., 42.
69 Rajashree Sharma, “Regulatory Approval Procedure for Biotech Products,” Pharmabiz, October 20, 2011, http://clgindia.com/RS_Regulatory%20approval%20procedure%20for%20biotech%20products_Oct%2020_2011.pdf.
70 Santosh K. Singh, “India: Agricultural Biotechnology Annual,” December 14, 2016, Global Agricultural Information Network, U.S. Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service, 5, 10.
71 “Operationalizing the Regulation of Genetically Modified Foods in India,” Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, http://www.old.fssai.gov.in/Portals/0/Pdf/fssa_interim_regulation_on_Operatonalising_GM_Food_regulation_in_India.pdf.
72 “Submissions Before the Committee on Agriculture (2011–12),” in the 37th Report on Cultivation of Genetically Modified Food Crops – Prospects and Effects 204 (New Delhi: Lok Sabha Secretariat, 2012), available at http://agrariancrisis.in/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/1208-GM_Report.pdf.
73 Mayank Aggarwal, “GEAC to Hold Meet on Issue of Genetically Modified Processed Foods Import,” Livemint, May 9, 2017, http://www.livemint.com/Politics/oithfZU0JhOOlODByMwaHL/GEAC-to-hold-meet-on-issue-of-genetically-modified-processed.html.
74 Singh, “India: Agricultural Biotechnology Annual.”
75 “Information on Biosimilars,” U.S. Food and Drug Administration, last updated May 10, 2016, https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DevelopmentApprovalProcess/HowDrugsareDevelopedandApproved/ApprovalApplications/TherapeuticBiologicApplications/Biosimilars/.
76 “Guidelines on Similar Biologics: Regulatory Requirements for Marketing Authorization in India,” Department of Biotechnology and Central Drugs Standard Control Organization, 2012, http://www.cdsco.nic.in/writereaddata/Bio%20Similar%20Guideline.pdf.
77 Lok Sabha Secretariat, 37th Report on Cultivation of Genetically Modified Food Crops – Prospects and Effects (New Delhi: Lok Sabha Secretariat, 2012), http://agrariancrisis.in/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/1208-GM_Report.pdf.
78 Ibid., 73–74.
79 Ibid., 74.
80 Report of the Prof. Ranjit Roy Chaudhury Expert Committee to Formulate Policy and Guidelines for Approval of New Drugs, Clinical Trials and Banning of Drugs, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, July 2013, 90–94, available at http://www.cdsco.nic.in/writereaddata/Report_of_Dr_Ranjit_Roy.pdf.
81 G Seetharaman, “GM Crops: Government Should Set Up an Independent Regulator at the Earliest,” Economic Times, March 27, 2016, http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/agriculture/gm-crops-government-should-set-up-an-independent-regulator-at-the-earliest/articleshow/51563953.cms.
82 Pushpendra Kumar Gupta, Bhagirath Choudhary, and Godelieve Gheysen, “Removing Bt Eggplant From the Face of Indian Regulators,”Nature Biotechnology 33 (2015): 904–6; Sayantan Bera and Nikita Mehta, “Regulation of Biotech in India Is Not Predictable: Michael Frank,” Livemint, September 18, 2015, http://www.livemint.com/Companies/7eJodHBjdI4iCKseKtno7K/Regulation-of-biotech-in-India-is-not-predictable-Michael-F.html.
83 Bhagirath Choudhary et al., “Regulatory Options for Genetically Modified Crops in India,” Plant Biotechnology Journal 12, no. 2 (January 2014): 135, 142–43;Vidya Venkat, “All You Need to Know About the GM Food Controversy,” Hindu, July 8, 2016, http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/All-you-need-to-know-about-the-GM-food-controversy/article14483330.ece.
84 Gupta et al., “Removing Bt Eggplant.”
85 Sanjay Kumar, “India’s First GM Food Crop Held Up by Lawsuit,” Nature, January 18, 2017, http://www.nature.com/news/india-s-first-gm-food-crop-held-up-by-lawsuit-1.21303.
86 VK Gupta, “Protecting Indian Traditional Knowledge From Biopiracy,” World Intellectual Property Organization, 2011, http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/meetings/en/2011/wipo_tkdl_del_11/pdf/tkdl_gupta.pdf.
87 “The Biological Diversity Act 2002,” National Biodiversity Authority, accessed March 3, 2017, http://nbaindia.org/text/12//TheBiologicalDiversityAct2002.html.
88 Ibid. This has led to inordinate delays; see Anshul Sunil Saurastri,“Beware of the Indian Biological Diversity Act, 2002,” Lexology, November 14, 2016, http://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=1294c10e-82ad-471a-a010-371762810bd7, last accessed August 5, 2017.
89 Kabir Sanjay Bavikatte and Morten Walloe Tvedt, “Beyond the Thumbrule Approach: Regulatory Innovations for Bioprospecting in India,” Law Environment and Development Journal 11, no. 1(2015): 1, 10–11, http://www.lead-journal.org/content/15001.pdf.
90 Narayanan Suresh, “Biodiversity Laws: Simply Obsolete or Genuine Concerns?,” BioSpectrum, May 12, 2015, www.biospectrumindia.com/article/pdf/5992.
91 Shrikumar Suryanarayan, in conversation with Ananth Padmanabhan and Shruti Sharma, March 1, 2017.
92 Task Force on Recombinant Pharma, Report of the Task Force on Recombinant Pharma: Recommendations for Streamlining the Current Regulatory Framework (New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests, August 2005), http://www.envfor.nic.in/divisions/csurv/geac/tforce_mashelkar_report.pdf.
93 R.A. Mashelkar, Report of the Expert Committee on a Comprehensive Examination of Drug Regulatory Issues, Including the Problem of Spurious Drugs (New Delhi: Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, November 2003), http://www.cdsco.nic.in/writereaddata/Final%20Report%20mashelkar.pdf.
94 “For a Biotechnology Regulatory Authority,” ETEdit (blog), Economic Times, September 9, 2016, http://blogs.economictimes.indiatimes.com/et-editorials/for-a-biotechnology-regulatory-authority/.
95 Nupur Chowdhury et al., “Administrative Structure and Functions of Drug Regulatory Authorities in India,” Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations, September 2015, http://icrier.org/pdf/Working_Paper_309.pdf.
96 Aisling O’Driscoll, Jurate Daugelaite, and Roy D. Sleator, “‘Big Data’, Hadoop and Cloud Computing in Genomics,” Journal of Biomedical Informatics 46, no. 5 (October 2013): 774.
97 New debates on the Human DNA Profiling Bill, currently in the works, will be important to follow in this regard. See Vasudevan Mukunth, “The DNA Profiling Bill Is Back in a New Avatar – Here’s the Lowdown,” Wire, August 2, 2017, https://thewire.in/163958/dna-profiling-fingerprinting-bill-dbt-crime-scene/.
98 For further details on the EU experiment, see: “BISO Report Summary,” Community Research and Development Information Service, European Commission, last updated July 20, 2016, http://cordis.europa.eu/result/rcn/187162_en.html.
99 Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems, s.v. “International Law on Biotechnology,” by Der-Chin Horng, http://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c14/e1-36-13.pdf.
100 Jason Enia and Jeffrey Fields, “The Relative Efficacy of Biological and Chemical Weapon Regimes,” Nonproliferation Review 21, no.1 (2014): 43–64.
101 Ikechi Mgbeoji, “Patents and Traditional Knowledge of the Uses of Plants: Is a Communal Patent Regime Part of the Solution to the Scourge of Bio Piracy,” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 9, no.1 (Fall 2001): 164.
102 Alain Pottage, “The Inscription of Life in Law: Genes, Patents, and Bio-Politics,” Modern Law Review 61 (September 1998): 743.
103 “Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising From Their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity,” Convention on Biological Diversity, United Nations, 2011, https://www.cbd.int/abs/doc/protocol/nagoya-protocol-en.pdf.
104 Stuart R. Harrop, “‘Living in Harmony with Nature?’ Outcomes of the 2010 Nagoya Conference of the Convention on Biological Diversity,” Journal of Environmental Law 23, no. 1 (2011): 117–28.
105 Evanson Chege Kamau, Bevis Fedder, and Gerd Winter, “The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing: What Is New and What Are the Implications for Provider and User Countries and the Scientific Community?,” Law Environment and Development Journal 6, no.3 (Fall 2010):248-263.
106 Article 2, Convention on Biological Diversity.
107 “COP 2 Decision II/11,” Convention of Biological Diversity, https://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/default.shtml?id=7084 ; “COP 10 Decision X/1,” Convention on Biological Diversity, https://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/?id=12267.
108 “Industrial Biotechnology and Climate Change: Opportunities and Challenges,” Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2011, http://www.oecd.org/sti/biotech/49024032.pdf, 1–41.
109 Nayantara Narayanan, “Three Charts That Show How Monsanto Seeds Changed Cotton Farming in India,” Scroll.in, March 23, 2016, https://scroll.in/article/805421/three-charts-that-show-how-monsanto-seeds-changed-cotton-farming-in-india.
110 Antonio Regalado, “Who Owns the Biggest Biotech Discovery of the Century?,” MIT Technology Review, December 4, 2014, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/532796/who-owns-the-biggest-biotech-discovery-of-the-century/.
111 Hossein Azadi and Peter Ho, “Genetically Modified and Organic Crops in Developing Countries: A Review of Options for Food Security,” Biotechnology Advances 28, no. 1 (January–February 2010): 161.
112 Filippa Lentzos and Gregory D. Koblentz, “It's Time to Modernize the Bioweapons Convention,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, November 4, 2016, http://thebulletin.org/it%E2%80%99s-time-modernize-bioweapons-convention10128.
113 Dennis Pirages, “Galloping Biotechnology: A New Global Malady?,” Politics and the Life Sciences 9, no. 1 (Fall 1990): 106–8.
114 Jan van Aken and Edward Hammond, “Genetic Engineering and Biological Weapons,” EMBO Reports 4, no. 65 (June 2003): 57–60.
115 Worldwide Threat Assessment of the US Intelligence Community, Before the Senate Armed Services Committee, 114th Cong.(February 9, 2016) (statement of James R. Clapper, Director of National Intelligence) 9.
116 Sharon Begley, “First Human-Pig Chimeras Created, Sparking Hopes for Transplantable Organs—and Debate,” STAT, January 26, 2017, https://www.statnews.com/2017/01/26/first-chimera-human-pig/.
117 Sonia M. Suter, “A Brave New World of Designer Babies,” Berkeley Technology Law Journal 22, no. 2 (March 2007): 897–969; G. Owen Schaefer, “The Future of Genetic Enhancement Is Not in the West,” Conversation, August 2, 2016, https://theconversation.com/the-future-of-genetic-enhancement-is-not-in-the-west-63246.
118 Saeed Daryaee Bajhdadabadi et al., “International Legal Challenges on Biotechnological Products,” Journal of Politics and Law 9, no.7 (September 2016): 6–7.
119 “India Ripe for Biotech Industry Growth: Government Incentives, Investments Leading Transition to Bio-Economy,” Frost & Sullivan, 2016, http://images.discover.frost.com/Web/FrostSullivan/FS_WP_CII%20India%20Biotech%20Road%20Map_052516_CAM-v2.pdf.
120 Seemantani Sharma, “Despite Modi's New IPR Policy, US Continues to Cry Foul Over Indian Laws,” Wire, March 31 2017, https://thewire.in/120122/national-ipr-policy-cautionary-pessimism-continues-washington-d-c/.
121 Saritha Rai, "India-US Fight on Basmati Rice Is Mostly Settled,” New York Times, August 25, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/25/business/india-us-fight-on-basmati-rice-is-mostly-settled.html; Rakesh Kalshian, “Turmeric Biopiracy,” Outlook, July 31, 1996, http://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/turmeric-biopiracy/201841.
122 “TKDL to Protect Traditional Knowledge of Indian Medicinal System,” Press Information Bureau, Government of India, August 12, 2016, http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=148831
123 Jacob Koshy, “Ancient Knowledge Hub Faces Grim Future,” Hindu, March 24, 2017.
124 Prashant Reddy Thikkavarapu and Sumathi Chandrashekaran, “Why the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library's Existence Deserves a Through Relook,” Wire, April 4, 2017, https://thewire.in/120782/tkdl-csir-neem-patents/.
125 Kshitij Kumar Singh, Biotechnology and Intellectual Property Rights: Legal and Social Implications (New Delhi: Springer India, 2015), 118–19.
126 Ibid., 117–19.
127 Ibid., 117.
128 Radhakrishna Pillai, e-mail message to authors, March 11, 2017.
129 Press Trust of India, “India Will Not Make Biological Weapons: Kalam,” Times of India, October 28, 2002, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-will-not-make-biological-weapons-Kalam/articleshow/26573227.cms.
130 “Statement by Ambassador D.B. Venkatesh Varma, Permanent Representative of India to the Conference on Disarmament, at the Eighth Biological Weapons Convention Review Conference,” United Nations Office at Geneva, November 7, 2016, http://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/ED5619983B388CEEC125807A004C036E/$file/India.pdf.
131 Judith Miller, “U.S Explores Other Options on Preventing Germ Warfare,” New York Times, July 25 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/25/world/us-explores-other-options-on-preventing-germ-warfare.html.
132 Statement by Thomas M. Countryman, Acting United States Under Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security, at the Eighth Biological Weapons Convention Review Conference,” United Nations Office at Geneva, November 7, 2016, https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/34C4F47EBD7451B4C12580640054A405/$file/US+Statement+BWC+RevCon+(11-7-16)+As+Delivered+Clean.pdf.
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In this photo provided by NASA, a photograph of Neil Armstrong as a young man is displayed on a table during a memorial service celebrating the life of Armstrong, Friday, Aug. 31, 2012, at the Camargo Club in Cincinnati. Armstrong, the first man to walk on the moon during the 1969 Apollo 11 mission, died Saturday, Aug. 25. He was 82. (AP Photo/NASA, Bill Ingalls)
In this July 20, 1969 file photo provided by NASA shows Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, the first men to land on the moon, plant the U.S. flag on the lunar surface. The family of Neil Armstrong, the first man to walk on the moon, says he has died at age 82. A statement from the family says he died following complications resulting from cardiovascular procedures. It doesn't say where he died. Armstrong commanded the Apollo 11 spacecraft that landed on the moon July 20, 1969. He radioed back to Earth the historic news of "one giant leap for mankind." Armstrong and fellow astronaut Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin spent nearly three hours walking on the moon, collecting samples, conducting experiments and taking photographs. In all, 12 Americans walked on the moon from 1969 to 1972. (AP Photo/NASA)
CINCINNATI (AP) _ Neil Armstrong, the first man to walk on the moon, will be buried at sea.
A family spokesman said Thursday no other details on the timing or the location of the burial were available. Armstrong was a Navy fighter pilot before joining the space program.
A public memorial service will be held at the Washington National Cathedral on Sept. 13. The 10 a.m. service will be broadcast live on NASA Television and streamed on the websites of the cathedral and space agency. It will be open to the public on a first come, first served basis. But reservations still must be made through NASA.
A private service was held in Ohio for Armstrong, who died Aug. 25 at age 82.
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The twenties were a time of economic prosperity and hope for North America and some parts of Europe. Countries began to rebuild themselves physically and financially after the war, and as war bonds began to mature, new capital began to stream into the pockets of the individual. Consumption in both the industrial and private sectors began to create an economic boom and production levels soared well above full employment capacity. This influx of money and prosperity made investment in companies a very lucrative business venture because profit margins and stocks dividends were making people all over the world a small fortune. Brokers began to involve any person who had extra money to spend in the world of stocks and bonds, and international trade markets began to develop and flourish. Money was an abundant, fluid entity, and economies were thriving.
During this decade, corporations were given the capital to expand. However, the amount of money that had been invested and continued to be invested in these firms, was far greater than the amount that could be spent on efficient production and development. This disparity led to the overinflation of stock prices, a state where the value of the stocks far outweighed the value of the company. This was a very dangerous level to maintain because if people realized that their stocks could only go down in price, they would sell at the higher price levels and would jeopardize the longevity of these firms. In addition, banks also used stocks as collateral for loans, taking the face value of the stocks as a solid asset. If the market were to rapidly and spontaneously deflate, not only would individual debtors lose their ability to repay loans, but the banks would lose their stability because the collateral held on these loans would become worthless.
In 1929 the worst case scenario happened and the world wide stock market fell into a state of chaos. In the proceeding years banks fell, corporations crumbled and businesses cut back on all aspects of production. The economy was entering a decade of recession that was later called The Great Depression, and its repercussions would be felt across the entire world.
The Great Depression is often characterized by the microeconomic variables involved, as these tend to be more dramatic tales. Implanted in the minds of men and the writings of history are tales of personal struggle and hardship, where individuals fought for social stability caused by the deplorable conditions forced upon the masses. However, it is the long term changes in macroeconomic policy, changes that mark this decade in history as one of the most progressive periods in Europe’s economic history, that lay the foundations for future generations of capitalists to flourish. By dealing with the outdated policies of laissez-faire economics and the question of the gold standard, the economic superpowers of Europe, Britain, Germany and France, forge the new standard for European economics after the Great Depression.
Laissez-faire economics were based on the principal that the economy of a country should be left to run by itself without any government interference. Men like Adam Smith and J.S. Mill wrote explicit essays advocating free enterprise and unrestricted capitalism. This method of economic conduct worked well until the private sector was hit with the sudden and drastic onset of the depression. The depression took away the confidence of buyers all over the world and shriveled consumption statistics, leaving individual firms very few options about how to handle the price level, wages and unemployment. Leading ultimately to a downturn in aggregate production, governments were forced to intervene in business affairs to speed recovery along, and changes in government policy had to be made if the country was to survive. The only problems with policy changes were that governments were not sure which policies they should implement, and in the end each country took a different stance to this question based on their individual economic standings in the world.
Closely tied to the economic standings of these countries was the question of what currency standard should be used. The gold standard which was originally set up prior to the first World War to equate all the major economic countries’ currencies into a common value, was becoming weakened by constant fluctuations of individual currencies. Since each country is independent in and of itself, the rates of inflation and the rates of production were not always uniform across the countries. If a country was to keep with the standard, major controls would have to be implemented within a country to keep their economy prosperous.
After World War I, Britain was the strongest economic voice in Europe, having per capita income definitively higher than France’s or Germany’s.1 Having this strong economic base to work from, Britain was able to deal with the impacts of the gold standard on their economy much better than other European countries. From, the start Britain knew their currency was overvalued according to the gold standard and they set about to immediately rectify this problem. After a few failed attempts at working within the system, Britain left the gold standard behind in 1931, devaluing its currency by about one-third2 of its original value. Inflation did occur after the change, however the rate of costs did not increase to the severe extent other states were forced to endure.
In response to earlier demands and pressures to move away from the laissez-faire system of economics, a British citizen by the name of John Keynes began to develop what would be the new economic policy for not only Britain, but the United States as well. His theory stressed the importance of government expenditures and taxation, as he felt they were related to the variables of employment, wages and the price level. In his publication General Theory, Keynes pointed out that the depression severely limited the ability of individual firms to correct any production problems they were having by themselves.3 The decreased demand for goods caused by inflation was commonly followed by firms lowering the prices of their goods in attempts to increase demand. This lowering of prices, however, would force a firm to lower wages or cut back on employment numbers to save on cost of production. With lowered prices and lower wages, it was found that the real income, or the ratio of costs to an income, remained for the better part unchanged and consumption figures did not rise. This is where Keynes suggests that the government change its spending to support higher prices and inflation. He figured that if the prices were encouraged to rise, allowing the income of the workers to remain the same, the value of real wages would decrease, meaning that firms could raise employment and thus production.4 With renewed production capacity and higher employment rates, the consumption statistics could rise once again and start to restore life to the economy.
The German economic reaction to the Great Depression was drastically different than that of Britain since they did not experience the economic boom that the rest of the world had during the early twenties. After the first World War, Germany was forced to make large reparation payments to France, believed by some economic historians to be overly punitive and opressive.5 Because of this economic strain the country suffered from what is known as hyperinflation, where the values of the German mark depreciated to the point where it became valueless if the gold standard was to be maintained. Trade, both nationally and internationally ground to a halt as the financial system collapsed. A new currency was introduced in replace of the old, and Germany carried onward in a pattern of economic policies that supported an economic deflation as a last resort defensive economic tactic.
Despite foreign loans Germany’s economy was crippled and there was nothing the government could do to recover from this shock.6 With rising unemployment and with the onset of an even greater depression in the early 1930’s, Germany’s prospects for economic recovery were bleak. Nevertheless, when Adolf Hitler was elected to office and later set himself up as a military dictator, he attempted to turn Germany’s crumbling economy around using an intensive job creation strategy. Under this program Hitler upgraded his military power and the great numbers of young men inducted into the military lowered the jobless rate in Germany. However, since the state lacked the capital to maintain this level of employment on its own, Hitler initiated the second phase of his quest to force the recovery of the German economy, the conquest phase.7 He struck the highly industrialized regions of Czechoslovakia first and incorporated their resources to those of Germany. The wars continued and as territory after territory was captured, the economic hardships of Germany were passed along to these conquered peoples. Production and employment dramatically increased in the German homelands, and the economy started to re-stabilize itself.
The last of the three major economic entities in Europe, France, was the slowest to respond to the pressures of the gold standard. By setting the gold standard value of the Franc to its prewar values knowing that it was only valued at one-fifth8 the amount, the French economists were taking a large risk. Because France did experience significant upturns in 1926 and 1928, their economy was sheltered through the first signs of the depression in the early thirties. This prosperity combined with increasing government control over the economy, led France to hold on to their overvalued currency until 1936 when pressures to change became too great.
Since France held its currency value for such a long period of time, French goods became relatively expensive when compared to other goods on the world market. In order to remain competitive in the world market the French adopted a policy of deflation whereby the government would limit expansion or development of new firms, as well as placing strict limits on production. This policy would not increase world trade by much, but would maintain the incomes of local firms by raising and sustaining internal prices as well.9 Increased tariffs were also implemented to raise the price of imports and increase the consumption of domestic goods. In the long run, these policies did not bring about prosperity and the effects of the depression caught up to France. They were forced to devalue the Franc and leave the gold standard behind.
Since France had already gained experience in having a government controlled economy, their conversion to a new long term economic policy was already halfway completed. They ceased their deflationary tactics and began to expand production capacity once again. France did not want to adopt a system like that of Britain where deficit spending was encouraged to speed economic recovery, so they took a parallel road to recovery.10 The French government raised taxes and shifted the burden of economic recovery onto the firms that they had protected for the last decade. Unlike Britain or Germany, whose private sector could not pull out of the downward spiral, the French companies managed to recuperate individually.
In conclusion, the prominent long term macroeconomics effect of the Great Depression was the escape from a laissez-faire system of economics. While each country responded differently to the shockwaves of the economic downturn, the idea that the government sought increased control over the economy was uniform. The British began to develop an economic system that turned out to be the key foundation of modern economic theory based on action reaction equations. The Germans, while they were eventually defeated and forced to develop different systems, experienced a militaristic view of the economy where efficiency and production were stressed. The French rounded off the group by creating an environment that promoted the longevity of the firm thorough the manipulation of its government fiscal policy. In the end, had the prolonged depression not occurred, it is hard to say if we would have had a need to develop these policies that are still with us in just about every country in the world today. It is, however, definite that the recession forced these changes to occur.
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Amongst all the new dietary supplements, spirulina has gained widespread fame due to its immense health benefits. For those who are not aware, spirulina is in fact a cynobacterium that can be consumed by both animals and humans. Spirulina is considered as a superior source of protein not derived from meat or eggs and is more effective for your protein needs in comparison to plant proteins such as that from legumes. Spirulina has been consumed by humans since the time of the Aztecs and has survived the test of time only because of its potential health benefits. Commonly used as a dietary supplement to substitute the protein from meat and eggs, spirulina is a popular option for vegans and vegetarians. However, in recent times spirulina has also gained repute as an integral tool for weight loss. Let’s take a look at how spirulina benefits weight loss when taken in the daily diets.
Spirulina Weight Loss:
1. Spirulina in Comparison to Meat and Egg Proteins:
It’s common for people to go on a predominantly vegetarian diet to bring about weight loss because of the high fat content in red meats. However, this drastic measure often brings about a severe lack of protein that is essential for healthy functioning of human body. Proteins are essential to cell regeneration and growth in the body. Constituting of 20 different kinds of amino acids, proteins are the source of life itself thus it is easy to see why even though omitting meat and eggs from your diet could aid in weight loss but still hamper your health. Hence, spirulina is an important substitute for the proteins your body stands to gain through consumption of meat and eggs without the added fat and cholesterol. Dried spirulina contains 60% proteins and is a far richer source of proteins than can be achieved by a purely vegetarian diet.
[ Read: Honey and Diabetes ]
2. Spirulina as a Dietary Supplement:
It is also common for people to eat smaller portions of food to bring about weight loss. This is effective to a certain extent, but it can also be detrimental. Cutting down on food means cutting down on energy and nutrients in quantities that your body is normally used to having, substituting these essential nutrients with spirulina intake cuts out the risks and side effects of such weight loss diets. Spirulina also actively suppresses the appetite in overweight people, as per recent scientific studies.
3. Aids Digestion:
Most people on diets complain of constipation, gas or nausea which is expected considering your body is not getting the usual amounts of food it is used to and your digestive system goes haywire. Spirulina with its essential amino acids offsets these side effects thus daily intake of spirulina tablets can benefit you.
Spirulina In Comparison To Other Diet Pills and Methods
It’s common knowledge that eating healthy is better than not eating at all, however; it is still common to see people literally starve themselves to lose weight. It is both practical and essential that people must realize that eating healthy non fat foods such as spirulina is equivalent to drastic diets in terms of the amount of weight they can potentially lose. It is not a secret that most synthetic diet pills come with a host of serious side effects and may induce weight loss but are not conducive to the overall health in the long run where as spirulina tablets are effective and safe with none or very little side effects. With all the cards put on the table in support of spirulina as an integral aid in weight loss, it is easy to see why you should let spirulina help you with your weight woes.
[ Read: Low Calorie Food Recipes for Weight Loss ]
Hope the article on spirulina for weight loss was informative. Do share your comments and feedback with us.
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Doing Yoga for health and wellness can give you the strength to get through a lot!
Daily Yoga practice has been proven to calm your mind, focus your thoughts, and boost your mood.
It’s no surprise, then, that it may be just what you need to endure the challenges of the pandemic and stay sane and mentally healthy.
Below, I want to share with you the results of a fascinating study into the effects of Yoga for health and wellness—specifically, how it helps people cope with lockdown and the other pandemic side effects.
If you’re struggling, it may be high time for you to start practicing Yoga in your daily life.
Yoga for Health and Wellness: Surviving the Lockdown
The journal Frontiers in Psychology published a study conducted in India. In the study, experts assessed the effects of Yoga on people in lockdown—not only their physical health, but mental health, coping skills, and lifestyle of those studied.
A survey was sent out throughout India, and got responses for over 23,000 people. Included in the survey was a question as to whether or not people practiced Yoga. This allowed researchers to categorize the people as “Yoga” and “non-Yoga” groups.
Throughout the course of the study:
People who practiced Yoga were shown to have better endurance and physical ability, even through lockdown. Because they were practicing Yoga regularly at home (no need for a Yoga studio when you can just roll out your mat and train anywhere), their physical health didn’t suffer as much as non-Yoga practitioners.
People who didn’t practice Yoga were more likely to depend on substances to help them cope with the lockdown. Though the study didn’t say exactly what substances, it’s pretty common to see people drinking or smoking more in order to try and find some measure of relaxation or distraction from the “pandemic blues” that settle in after weeks or months spent locked inside.
People who didn’t practice Yoga were also more likely to eat unhealthy food. It’s not difficult to understand why, with so many of our favorite pastimes and hobbies no longer available, we’d turn to food for pleasure. And, as you well know, it’s rare that we use “healthy” food as our comfort food of choice. Most comfort food is high in fat, fried, sugary, or processed. The result is poor health because of these food choices.
People who practiced Yoga reported less anxiety, stress, and fear than those who didn’t. Not only was their mental health better off, but they actually had better and healthier coping strategies than people who didn’t practice Yoga. The study actually called it “striking and superior ability” to cope with the anxieties and stresses caused by the lockdown.
People who didn’t practice Yoga also found that their sleep suffered. This was likely due to a combination of increased anxiety/stress and decreased energy expenditure. With no way to get out of the house to do exercise, their bodies had no outlet for all the energy generated in a day, so they were likely prone to feeling restless and restive. Given how critical exercise is for good sleep, you can see why it’s poor sleep is a likely consequence of being stuck indoors with no regular form of exercise.
People who practiced Yoga reportedly “had better mental health” than those who didn’t. Because of their lower stress and anxiety levels, as well as their ability to cope mentally with the pressure of the lockdown, regular Yoga practitioners suffered less during the tough pandemic times.
We’ve dedicated a lot of our posts talking about how Yoga can benefit you in mind, body, and spirit. We’re avid proponents of Yoga, so of course we’re going to want to highlight the advantages of this form of workout.
But the information above is all directly taken from scientific study. Experts and researchers are looking into how Yoga can help you—in reality, how it can change your life for the better. With all this scientific proof to back it up, it’s pretty hard to argue with the facts that Yoga really can improve your overall wellness in a lot of truly important ways.
If you find yourself stuck in the house and back on lockdown (again!), I highly recommend taking up Yoga as a daily or regular practice. Not only will it give you a way to burn energy and improve your physical health, but it can help to stabilize your mind, bring you clarity of thought, counteract anxiety and stress, and enhance your mental health. During the tough times we’ve all been facing, mental health is as important as—or possibly even more important than—your physical health!
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Illustrated Encyclopedia of Human Anatomic Variation: Opus II: Cardiovascular System
Ronald A. Bergman, PhD
Adel K. Afifi, MD, MS
Ryosuke Miyauchi, MD
Peer Review Status: Internally Peer Reviewed
Based on the study of 600 brains.
A.: Usual cerebral arterial circle and associated vessels. Illustration labels: A Com, anterior communicating; A Ce, Anterior cerebral; M Ce, Middle Cerebral; P Ce, Posterior Cerebral; IC, Internal carotid stump; P Com, Posterior communicating; SC, Superior cerebellar; Ba, Basilar; La, Labyrinthine; AIC, Anterior inferior cerebellar; PIC, Posterior inferior cerebellar; V, Vertebral; AS, anterior spinal; P, Pontine.
B.,C.: Failure of vertebral artery to unite with the basilar artery (extremely rare variation).
D.: Inferior union of vertebral arteries to form basilar artery.
E.: Double basilar artery with absence of anterior communicating artery (first description of this variation).
F.: Failure of left posterior communicating artery to unite with rostral end of basilar artery.
G.: A specimen showing underdeveloped anterior cerebral, anterior communicating, and left posterior communicating arteries.
H.: Absence of left posterior communicating artery.
I.: Both anterior cerebral arteries are related only to the left internal carotid artery.;
J.: Specimen from a microcephalic idiot showing attenuation of internal carotid arteries and their branches, and a large saccular basilar artery.
K.: Absence of both posterior communicating arteries.
L.: A plexiform basilar artery (first description of this variation).
M. Specimen showing difference in size of internal carotid, posterior communicating, middle and anterior cerebral arteries, with right side underdeveloped.
N.: A composite drawing showing several variations found in different specimens: (a) anterior inferior cerebellar and internal auditory arteries arise as branches from a common origin; (b) posterior cerebral and superior cerebellar arteries arise from a common origin; and (c) all pontine branches on one side arise from common origin.
redrawn from McCullough (rewritten posthumously for the author by Howard K. Suzuki), 1962
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"Anatomy Atlases", the Anatomy Atlases logo, and "A digital library of anatomy information" are all Trademarks of Michael P. D'Alessandro, M.D.
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Your personal information remains confidential and is not sold, leased, or given to any third party be they reliable or not.
The information contained in Anatomy Atlases is not a substitute for the medical care and advice of your physician. There may be variations in treatment that your physician may recommend based on individual facts and circumstances.
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Irish Slaves – In memory of the Irish victims of Slavery
Irish Slaves – In memory of the Irish victims of Slavery.
President Jacques Chirac announced, last January, that France will hold a national day of remembrance for the victims of slavery every 10 May. The date for the annual holiday was chosen as it marks the day in 2001 when France passed a law recognising slavery as a crime against humanity. He said children should be taught about slavery at primary and secondary school as part of the national curriculum. “Slavery fed racism,” he said. “When people tried to justify the unjustifiable, that was when the first racist theories were elaborated.” This also applies to Ireland, in that there were many Irish Slaves, though this is not well known. Given that tens of thousands of Irish slaves were shipped into slavery, isnt it strange that Ireland has no day remembering them? I dont know of a single monument to the victims of slavery in Ireland. Perhaps someone can let me know if they know of one. As far as I know, even the Republican Movement fails to commemorate the tens of thousands of innocents sold into slavery from Ireland. Many of the women and children into sex slavery.
The following extract gives an idea of the colossal scale of the slave trade from Ireland. No doubt this post will be met by the usual chorus of deniers wishing we could keep quite about this – but lets just ignore them. I think some remembrance should be made of these unfortunate people. The event could be linked with the fight against slavery in the world today. Does anyone have suggestions?
The reign of Elizabeth I, English privateers captured 300 African Negroes, sold them as slaves, and initiated the English slave trade. Slavery was, of course, an old established commerce dating back into earliest history. Julius Caesar brought over a million slaves from defeated armies back to Rome. By the 16th century, the Arabs were the most active, generally capturing native peoples, not just Africans, marching them to a seaport and selling them to ship owners. Dutch, Portuguese and Spanish ships were originally the most active, supplying slaves to the Spanish colonies in America. It was not a big business in the beginning, but a very profitable one, and ship owners were primarily interested only in profits. The morality of selling human beings was never a factor to them.
After the Battle of Kinsale at the beginning of the 17th century, the English were faced with a problem of some 30,000 military prisoners, which they solved by creating an official policy of banishment. Other Irish leaders had voluntarily exiled to the continent, in fact, the Battle of Kinsale marked the beginning of the so-called “Wild Geese”, those Irish banished from their homeland. Banishment, however, did not solve the problem entirely, so James II encouraged selling the Irish slaves to planters and settlers in the New World colonies. The first Irish slaves were sold to a settlement on the Amazon River In South America in 1612. It would probably be more accurate to say that the first “recorded” sale of Irish slaves was in 1612, because the English, who were noted for their meticulous record keeping, simply did not keep track of things Irish, whether it be goods or people, unless such was being shipped to England. The disappearance of a few hundred or a few thousand Irish was not a cause for alarm, but rather for rejoicing. Who cared what their names were anyway, they were gone.
Almost as soon as settlers landed in America, English privateers showed up with a good load of slaves to sell. The first load of African slaves brought to Virginia arrived at Jamestown in 1619. English shippers, with royal encouragement, partnered with the Dutch to try and corner the slave market to the exclusion of the Spanish and Portuguese. The demand was greatest in the Spanish occupied areas of Central and South America, but the settlement of North America moved steadily ahead, and the demand for slave labour grew.
The Proclamation of 1625 ordered that Irish political prisoners be transported overseas and sold as laborers to English planters, who were settling the islands of the West Indies, officially establishing a policy that was to continue for two centuries. In 1629 a large group of Irish men and women were sent to Guiana, and by 1632, in the main Irish slaves sold to Antigua and Montserrat in the West Indies. By 1637 a census showed that 69% of the total population of Montserrat were Irish slaves, which records show was a cause of concern to the English planters. But there were not enough political prisoners to supply the demand, so every petty infraction carried a sentence of transporting, and slaver gangs combed the country sides to kidnap enough people to fill out their quotas.
Although African Negroes were better suited to work in the semi-tropical climates of the Caribbean, they had to be purchased, while the Irish were free for the catching, so to speak. It is not surprising that Ireland became the biggest source of livestock for the English slave trade.
The Confederation War broke out in Kilkenny in 1641, as the Irish attempted to throw out the English yet again, something that seem to happen at least once every generation. Sir Morgan Cavanaugh of Clonmullen, one of the leaders, was killed during a battle in 1646, and his two sons, Daniel and Charles (later Colonel Charles) continued with the struggle until the uprising was crushed by Cromwell in 1649. It is recorded that Daniel and other Carlow Kavanaghs exiled themselves to Spain, where their descendants are still found today, concentrated in the northwestern corner of that country. Young Charles, who married Mary Kavanagh, daughter of Brian Kavanagh of Borris, was either exiled to Nantes, France, or transported to Barbados… or both. Although we haven’t found a record of him in a military life in France, it is known that the crown of Leinster and other regal paraphernalia associated with the Kingship of Leinster was brought to France, where it was on display in Bordeaux, just south of Nantes, until the French Revolution in 1794. As Daniel and Charles were the heirs to the Leinster kingship, one of them undoubtedly brought these royal artifacts to Bordeaux.
In the 12 year period during and following the Confederation revolt, from 1641 to 1652, over 550,000 Irish were killed by the English and 300,000 were sold as Irish slaves, as the Irish population of Ireland fell from 1,466,000 to 616,000. Banished soldiers were not allowed to take their wives and children with them, and naturally, the same for those sold as Irish slaves. The result was a growing population of homeless women and children, who being a public nuisance, were likewise rounded up and sold. But the worse was yet to come.
In 1649, Cromwell landed in Ireland and attacked Drogheda, slaughtering some 30,000 Irish living in the city. Cromwell reported: “I do not think 30 of their whole number escaped with their lives. Those that did are in safe custody in the Barbados.” A few months later, in 1650, 25,000 Irish were sold to planters in St. Kitt. During the 1650s decade of Cromwell’s Reign of Terror, over 100,000 Irish children, generally from 10 to 14 years old, were taken from Catholic parents and sold as Irish slaves in the West Indies, Virginia and New England. In fact, more Irish slaves in American colonies and plantations from 1651 to 1660 than the total existing “free” population of the Americas!
But all did not go smoothly with Cromwell’s extermination plan, as Irish slaves revolted in Barbados in 1649. They were hanged, drawn and quartered and their heads were put on pikes, prominently displayed around Bridgetown as a warning to others. Cromwell then fought two quick wars against the Dutch in 1651, and thereafter monopolized the slave trade. Four years later he seized Jamaica from Spain, which then became the center of the English slave trade in the Caribbean.
On 14 August 1652, Cromwell began his Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland, ordering that the Irish were to be transported overseas, starting with 12,000 Irish prisoners sold to Barbados. The infamous “Connaught or Hell” proclamation was issued on 1 May 1654, where all Irish were ordered to be removed from their lands and relocated west of the Shannon or be transported to the West Indies. Those who have been to County Clare, a land of barren rock will understand what an impossible position such an order placed the Irish. A local sheep owner claimed that Clare had the tallest sheep in the world, standing some 7 feet at the withers, because in order to live, there was so little food, they had to graze at 40 miles per hour. With no place to go and stay alive, the Irish were slow to respond. This was an embarrassing problem as Cromwell had financed his Irish expeditions through business investors, who were promised Irish estates as dividends, and his soldiers were promised freehold land in exchange for their services. To speed up the relocation process, a reinforcing law was passed on 26 June 1657 stating: “Those who fail to transplant themselves into Connaught or Co. Clare within six months… Shall be attained of high treason… are to be sent into America or some other parts beyond the seas… those banished who return are to suffer the pains of death as felons by virtue of this act, without benefit of Clergy.”
Although it was not a crime to kill any Irish, and soldiers were encouraged to do so, the Irish slave trade proved too profitable to kill off the source of the product. Privateers and chartered shippers sent gangs out with quotas to fill, and in their zest as they scoured the countryside, they inadvertently kidnapped a number of English too. On March 25, 1659, a petition of 72 Englishmen was received in London, claiming they were illegally “now in slavery in the Barbados”’ . The petition also claimed that “7,000-8,000 Scots taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester in 1651 were sold to the British plantations in the New World,” and that “200 Frenchmen had been kidnapped, concealed and sold in Barbados for 900 pounds of cotton each.”
Subsequently some 52,000 Irish, mostly women and sturdy boys and girls, were sold to Barbados and Virginia alone. Another 30,000 Irish men and women were taken prisoners and ordered transported and sold as Irish slaves. In 1656, Cromwell’s Council of State ordered that 1000 Irish girls and 1000 Irish boys be rounded up and taken to Jamaica to be sold as slaves to English planters. As horrendous as these numbers sound, it only reflects a small part of the evil program, as most of the slaving activity was not recorded. There were no tears shed amongst the Irish when Cromwell died in 1660.
The Irish welcomed the restoration of the monarchy, with Charles II duly crowned, but it was a hollow expectation. After reviewing the profitability of the slave trade, Charles II chartered the Company of Royal Adventurers in 1662, which later became the Royal African Company. The Royal Family, including Charles II, the Queen Dowager and the Duke of York, then contracted to supply at least 3000 slaves annually to their chartered company. They far exceeded their quotas.
There are records of Irish slaves sold in 1664 to the French on St. Bartholomew, and English ships which made a stop in Ireland en route to the Americas, typically had a cargo of Irish slaves to sell on into the 18th century. Few people today realize that from 1600 to 1699, far more Irish were sold as slaves than Africans.
Irish Slaves or Indentured Servants
There has been a lot of whitewashing of the Irish slave trade, partly by not mentioning it, and partly by labelling slaves as indentured servants. There were indeed indentureds, including English, French, Spanish and even a few Irish. But there is a great difference between the two. Indentures bind two or more parties in mutual obligations. Servant indentures were agreements between an individual and a shipper in which the individual agreed to sell his services for a period of time in exchange for passage, and during his service, he would receive proper housing, food, clothing, and usually a piece of land at the end of the term of service. It is believed that some of the Irish that went to the Amazon settlement after the Battle of Kinsale and up to 1612 were exiled military who went voluntarily, probably as indentureds to Spanish or Portuguese shippers.
However, from 1625 onward the Irish were sold, pure and simple as Irish slaves. There were no indenture agreements, no protection, no choice. They were captured and originally turned over to shippers to be sold for their profit. Because the profits were so great, generally 900 pounds of cotton for a slave, the Irish slave trade became an industry in which everyone involved (except the Irish) had a share of the profits.
Although the Africans and Irish were housed together and were the property of the planter owners, the Africans received much better treatment, food and housing. In the British West Indies the planters routinely tortured white Irish slaves for any infraction. Owners would hang Irish slaves by their hands and set their hands or feet afire as a means of punishment. To end this barbarity, Colonel William Brayne wrote to English authorities in 1656 urging the importation of Negro slaves on the grounds that, “as the planters would have to pay much more for them, they would have an interest in preserving their lives, which was wanting in the case of (Irish)….” many of whom, he charged, were killed by overwork and cruel treatment. African Negroes cost generally about 20 to 50 pounds Sterling, compared to 900 pounds of cotton (about 5 pounds Sterling) for Irish Slaves. They were also more durable in the hot climate, and caused fewer problems. The biggest bonus with the Africans though, was they were NOT Catholic, and any heathen pagan was better than an Irish Papist. Irish prisoners were commonly sentenced to a term of service, so theoretically they would eventually be free. In practice, many of the slavers sold the Irish on the same terms as prisoners for servitude of 7 to 10 years.
There was no racial consideration or discrimination, you were either a freeman or a slave, but there was aggressive religious discrimination, with the Pope considered by all English Protestants to be the enemy of God and civilization, and all Catholics heathens and hated. Irish Catholics were not considered to be Christians. On the other hand, the Irish were literate, usually more so than the plantation owners, and thus were used as house servants, account keepers, scribes and teachers. But any infraction was dealt with the same severity, whether African or Irish, field worker or domestic servant. Floggings were common, and if a planter beat an Irish slave to death, it was not a crime, only a financial loss, and a lesser loss than killing a more expensive African. Parliament passed the Act to Regulate Slaves on British Plantations in 1667, designating authorized punishments to include whippings and brandings for slave offenses against a Christian. Irish Catholics were not considered Christians, even if they were freemen.
The planters quickly began breeding the comely Irish women, not just because they were attractive, but because it was profitable,,, as well as pleasurable. Children of Irish slaves were themselves slaves, and although an Irish woman may become free, her children were not. Naturally, most Irish mothers remained with their children after earning their freedom. Planters then began to breed Irish slave women with African men to produce more Irish slaves who had lighter skin and brought a higher price. The practice became so widespread that in 1681, legislation was passed “forbidding the practice of mating Irish slave women to African slave men for the purpose of producing slaves for sale.” This legislation was not the result of any moral or racial consideration, but rather because the practice was interfering with the profits of the Royal African Company! It is interesting to note that from 1680 to 1688, the Royal African Company sent 249 shiploads of slaves to the Indies and American Colonies, with a cargo of 60,000 Irish slaves and African ones. More than 14,000 died during passage.
”In memory of all those who have died and suffered as a result of Slavery and the loss of liberty, wherever they came from, may they rest in peace”
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This is based on data from the European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS). According to them, not only the Mediterranean countries were affected this year, as is usually the case; other regions also suffered enormously. Slovenia experienced its worst forest fire in generations.
“2022 is a record year so far,” said EFFIS coordinator Jesus San-Miguel. “Drought and extremely high temperatures have hit all of Europe.” This greatly increases the risk of forest fires. “The situation is worrying – and we are only just in the middle of the fire season.” So far this year, Spain has been hit the hardest with 249,000 hectares burned. Romania follows with 151,000 and Portugal with more than 75,000 hectares.
Forest fires flared up again in southern France
Meanwhile, after a forest fire flared up again in southern France, a thousand people had to leave their homes again. According to local authorities in the Aveyron department on Sunday, the fire near the village of Mostuéjouls appeared to be on the way out before flaring up “violently” again on Saturday afternoon. According to this, an additional 500 hectares of land have burned since then. In total, more than 1,200 hectares fell victim to the flames on Sunday morning.
The fire broke out last Monday, and 3,000 people were evacuated as a precaution. They had returned to their homes after the fire seemed under control. In eastern France, the police announced over the weekend that they would block access to most of the forests in the Bas-Rhin department on the border with Germany. This should reduce the risk of new fires.
In the south-west of France, rain on Sunday night provided a brief respite from a fire that has devastated 7,400 hectares since Tuesday. The situation with the fire in the Gironde department “improved significantly overnight” due to the precipitation, said Arnaud Mendousse from the local fire brigade. At the same time he restricted: “It gives you a breather, but it doesn’t mean the end of the fight.”
Bordeaux fire under control
Dozens of firefighters from Lower Austria have been helping out in the forest fires in the Bordeaux region since Saturday. You have now got the fire on the Atlantic coast under control. As a spokesman for the local prefecture announced on Sunday afternoon, the rainy and windless night helped. The 8,000 residents who temporarily had to leave their homes could return. The fire may have been caused by arson.
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Temperament is determined by what we pay attention to and what we are able to ignore. It’s how each of us responds emotionally and physiologically to our environment.
A key component to good mental health, regardless of temperament, is the ability to endure difficult conditions. The professional mental health community calls the ability to withstand or overcome adverse conditions or rigorous testing HARDINESS.
Parents and teachers best help children develop hardiness by modeling resourcefulness and control when they themselves are faced with their own stressful events.
Attitude is how a situation is viewed. For instance, say you’re stuck in traffic and late for work, if your natural reaction is to lay on the horn and breakout into a litany of words that leave others to question if you kiss your mother with that mouth, you’re definitely what we call Type A. On the other hand if your approach is to inform your boss that you're caught in a situation beyond your control then immediately turn up the radio and engage in some full vocal car karaoke, you’re what’s known as Type B. Type B personalities are noted to live at lower stress levels. And while Type A personalities may lack that je ne sais quoi, cool- as- le cucumber quality, they may not be locked into a life of pulsating temples and full body sweats anytime they are faced with external stress.
Our response to stressful situations is often learned or conditioned behavior. Given the definitions, I would say my mother was Type A. My sisters were Type A, and my brothers were WRONG -Type B, but that really didn’t have an effect on me because I was like my female role models; a dyed -in- the- wool Type A. Or so I thought. When I was nineteen I was introduced to the concept of the mental pivot. I remember getting really upset, about what? I can't remember. But in that moment it was transforming my life to the point that I was throwing what boiled down to be a full blown temper tantrum. I was not in control of my emotions. Again, so I thought. Witnessing this, a close friend asked me, “Do you think this is an appropriate response to_”… What was it? Cold fries at the drive-thru? Couldn’t find the right shoes for my outfit? Certainly minutia. Anyway, I shouted back, “I can’t help it! This is just how I am!”
Fortunately for me this was not the end of the conversation.
For the record, my best friends have always been just a little bit older and waaaaaayyy cooler than me. This lady was one of the coolest. She asked me to indulge her in a creative visualization exercise. She had me close my eyes and visualize myself lying on the beach, eyes closed, relaxed and happy. To imagine that I was there on a perfect day; the temperature was perfect. The sun shining, warming my face as a slight breeze caressed me. She asked me to imagine that my life was carefree, in perfect order, that any struggles were behind me. The image immediately melted me into a puddle of nirvana. I became perfectly relaxed.
Then she asked me to imagine being splashed by freezing cold water. She asked how would I feel now. I imagined becoming furious in a second! Then she said for me to imagine I opened my eyes to find the person responsible for splashing me was a child happily playing in the sand with a pail of water and shovel. How would I feel? I imagined my anger subsiding in less than a second. The sight of a child happily playing would fill me with amusement. She said, "See Toni, you can chose your response.You always get to choose how you will respond. When you chose one response over another, this is called mental pivoting.” I learned something very valuable that day. If I want something to go one way and it goes another for the sake of my mental health, pivot. Dream job turns into a nightmare, pivot. Goal hit a road block, pivot. In other words the situation doesn't control how you're effected. Your response to the situation does. I won’t claim to have been transformed into a Type B personality, but I think I have taken enough steps away from that old modeling to re-qualify as a solid A/B hybrid. I still strive for perfection when I take on a task, but I have learned to appreciate my effort as much as the outcome. By no means do I remember to pivot to the positive a hundred percent of the time in the face of stress. And a stress relieving technique that may have worked in the past may lose it's effectiveness over time. Less we forget mental health is a lifelong process of acquiring tools to help successfully adapt to change.
The best result of stress is that it can be the catalyst to positive change. The not- so- best result of stress can be an inability to maintain intimate relationships, high blood pressure, elevated blood sugar levels and other medical conditions. The mind and body were once thought to be independent of one another, but now it's known that what the mind experiences, the body experiences as well which is why stress management is a vital part of living a quality life. Using relaxation techniques such as flex and release to let go of stress in the body, exercising at least thirty minutes a day a minimum of three days a week, practicing positive affirmations and deep breathing all aid in lowering the stress levels. Twenty minutes of meditation is equivalent to a two-hour nap. (*Milliken, 1998) I've heard it said that life is change, so change or suffer. Learning the art of the pivot is pivotal to mental health.
You absolutely cannot give what you don’t have. Being self-nurturing is in no way a selfish act, it the first step to nurturing others. Controlling stress is essential to your well-being and helps you become a better caregiver to yourself and the young learners around you.
Until next time, remember child development is human development.
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What is a flange?
A flange is nothing but a forged still ring. It Helping different mechanical sections of a pipe to stay connected, a flange is one of the most indispensable equipment in piping. It is often used to connect a pipe to a pump or a pressure vessel. Because of being made with steel, it is extremely easy to clean or inspect the flanges. Different forms in which flanges are available today include round, square, and rectangular. The bolting process is used to join two flanges together. Once two flanges are joined, they are welded to the piping system, as per requirement. A flange is often used for the purpose of either closing or covering the pipe end. The importance of flanges in supporting mechanical parts is next to none.
How to know more about Mild Steel Flange?
Flanges are made with different materials like carbon steel, alloy steel, mild steel, etc. for different purposes. MS Flanges are often used for resisting pressure which is often high. This kind of flanges are often offered in different finishes including hot dip galvanized finish, blackbodies finish, shot blasted, rust free oil finish, and so on. High-quality MS flanges are perfect to be used as water-proof seals to the end of a pipe. Plus, these flanges are pretty resistant to corrosion.
Which industries use MS Flanges?
Due to its ability to hold pressure and resist corrosion, MS Flanges are widely used across industries. Some of these industries include petrochemicals, pharmaceutical, sea water, power generation, gas processing, chemical equipment, etc.
What are the important measurements for buying MS flanges?
Some of the most important ms flange measurements are given below. You should always remember these while purchasing one.
- Pipe Size: Every pipe size has a corresponding pipe flange size. These measurements are calculated according to accepted standards. So, make sure that you remember the pipe size to get the perfect-sized flange.
- Flange Thickness: Flange thickness is nothing but the thickness of the outer rim of a flange. While measuring flange thickness, you are not supposed to count the part that holds the pipe.
- Pitch Circle Diameter: PCD or Pitch Circle Diameter is the measurement between the center of a bolt hole to the same of the opposite bolt hole.
- Outside Diameter of Flange (OD): OD or Outside Diameter is the length between the outer edge and the edge opposite to it.
Is it possible to have MS flanges in custom shapes?
Most of the manufacturers out there will offer MS Flanges in custom shapes and sizes. Whether you are looking for popular ranges or not, ms flanges can be customized as per your requirement. Detailing in the flanges can be manufactured according to your choices as well. Reputed companies will provide you with details like gasket surfaces, bevel edges, o-ring grooves, and much more.
About Apex Engineering:
The Mumbai-based Apex Engineering is known for offering assorted industrial products. Their product range includes industrial flanges, fittings, pipes, and so on.
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Remember the days of playing outside all day until it was dinner time? Hardly watching tv unless it was raining outside or you were sick? In this day and age, it’s very common for kids to spend a huge part of the day watching tv, playing on a tablet or computer, or playing video games on an Xbox or Wii.
I can’t stress enough how important exercise is to the health of a family. As busy parents who work outside the home, or even as busy parents who work in the home, finding the time to exercise can be a real challenge. Seriously, when you are chasing a toddler around all day, who has the time (or energy) to do cardio for an hour?
Not only is physical activity crucial to the health of the family members, it’s an important foundational structure element for kids. Our children model their lives after the role models they had growing up…that’s us. If their model is an inactive lifestyle, they will emulate that and adopt it for their own lives.
However, if kids have a model of an active lifestyle, they will also model that. Even if their choice of activity differs from that of their parents’. If we want them to exercise, we need to exercise. And preferably, we need to exercise together!
When families adopt an active lifestyle (as well as healthy eating habits), it creates a culture in the family of wellness. It helps to form the belief that healthy habits are a good thing – something to strive for – rather than a punishment or a negative consequence of eating too many treats.
The easiest way to model a healthy, active lifestyle for our kids is to participate in activities and have them join us. Doing these activities as a family not only helps to build healthy habits, it also makes memories together and is a bonding time.
Not sure where to start? Here are 5 very achievable and simple activities that you can do with your kids today!
Hiking/take walks/nature walks
If you live in an area close to mountains or hiking trails, hiking is a very easy way to get the kids active. In fact, nature is a child’s paradise because there is so much to see and explore: sights, sounds, smells, and textures that may not be found near or in the home.
If you don’t live near hiking trails, explore walking trails or nature walks near your home. A stroll through the woods or a walk along a nearby river or on the beach are just as enriching as a hike through the mountains.
I highly recommend letting your child explore on your hike or walk. Children learn best through manipulating their environment. Picking up sticks, touching rocks, smelling flowers, watching a bird fly or dive for fish, sitting next to a creek and listening to the sounds of the water – these are all learning and growing experiences for children. And, more often than not, they are wonderfully calming and centering experiences for adults!
When your kids are super young (infant and young toddler), put them in a pack and carry them on your adventure. Start them as early as you can, and they’ll never know the experience of an inactive lifestyle! If your children are young (toddler to under 4 years old), start slow and keep the walk or hike short (say, under a mile). Slowly build up time and distance with regular practice.
My boys are now 10, 8 and 7. When they were really young, we used to pull them in an attached kid carrier (such as a Burley trailer). When they got slightly older, they rode on a tandem seat behind my husband’s bike. For the last couple of years we have all been riding our own bikes, and up until this summer, our family rides were 4 miles long or shorter in length.
This summer has seen a large change in our kids’ stamina and endurance. Just recently we went on a 6.5-mile hike followed by a 13.5-mile bike ride the next day. Oh, happy day! We have been waiting for the day (for years now) when activities with the kids would also become a cardio activity for us.
As someone who didn’t learn to swim until I was 12 years old, I am a huge proponent of learning to swim early. Swimming is not only an important life-saving skill, it’s also wonderful low-impact exercise and tons of fun!
I started my kids in swim lessons around 2 years old. Before then, we would play in the bathtub and blow bubbles in the water and get used to having water in our faces. Kids pick things up so easy at young ages, so doing these things as naturally as possible introduces them to it without seeming like “work”!
Now we go to the pool and play and do races and flips and just have a blast together as a family being active.
Sports – basketball, baseball, climbing, volleyball, soccer
Sports are a wonderful way of being active while also working on things like hand-eye coordination and body awareness. Plus they are just fun! Kick a soccer ball around in the backyard or go to a local park and play catch or basketball.
The beauty of so many sports is that they are easy to play in a relaxed way, with only a couple of players (playing catch vs. a full game of baseball). You really are limited only by your imagination here!
Do a 5K together
If you are a runner, take your kids with you as you do a local community 5K. So many 5Ks have parents with strollers participating, and it’s a great way to introduce the kids to the experience at a very young age.
Also, many communities are incorporating more and more “fun” runs – themed 5Ks to make it more about the experience rather than the run. Bubble runs, tough mudders, super hero runs, and so much more. These are generally very family-friendly, so check your community to see what is offered!
Stay Hydrated and Fueled
When going on activities, make sure to have a system for staying hydrated. Our family loves to wear hydration backpacks so that each member is carrying his or her own water, and it’s easily accessible, even during activity. But other options include a water bottle to carry around or attach to a bike.
Also, if your activity lasts longer than about an hour, be sure to take along a small snack for fuel (and to prevent those hunger-induced tantrums). Carbs and protein are good sources for fuel. Cheese sticks, trail mix, and raisins are good, portable, kid-friendly snacks to bring on activities.
Doing activities together as a family gets everyone healthier and teaches healthy habits to kids that will last a lifetime. Another huge benefit is that being active together creates memories that all family memories will cherish for many, many years.
Where are you in your journey of an active lifestyle? Have you ever tried any of these activities as a family? Comment below!
Written by: Heather
Heather Behrends is a mom of 3 boys and a blogger at Made In A Pinch – a site dedicated to making family life easier, healthier, and happier. Check out www.madeinapinch.com for simple, healthy recipes, tips, and so much more.
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The Barddas of Iolo Morganwg, Vol. I., ed. by J. Williams Ab Ithel, , at sacred-texts.com
There are eight vowels or sounds,
A. E. I. O. U. W. Y. Y, (wy,) so called because it is the mutate of W.
p. 78 p. 79
; and after that, thus,
, which continued mostly
in use by the Bards and Teachers, until the time of Addav, son of Davydd, of Gilvai, called in some books Adam Davi, 1 who introduced five long vowels into the Abcedilros, namely, ; and, asserting that there was no occasion for , he abolished it, and appointed twelve vowels. Nevertheless, it was not that Addav who devised these five, for they had been long retained in memory, even for upwards of three hundred years; but they had no authority of Chair and Gorsedd. It was this authoritative privilege that was bestowed upon them in the time of the said Addav, who also restored to memory much of the primitive learning. His books were warranted by the authority of ancient memorial and art.
Thus, according to others,
, which is called the New Coelbren.
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The prophet Isaiah’s influence extended from his long career in Jerusalem in the late 8th century bce through Judah’s exilic and Second Temple periods. Through the ages in both Judaism and Christianity, Isaiah’s words have funded subsequent theological writings, liturgies, lectionaries, hymns, poetry, and art. Among early Christian writings, Isaiah was seen as “evangelist rather than prophet,” foretelling Christ’s birth, life, death, and resurrection—a view that continues to prevail today, though scholars have long argued that Isaiah addressed his own time and not, in the first instance, the distant future.
Readers of Tull’s engaging guide will come to understand Isaiah as visionary spokesperson of ancient Jerusalem’s God in a critical moment in the history of western faith. They will learn about the paths the book traveled as it grew, absorbed new meanings, underwent reinterpretion, and emerged as Scripture for synagogues and churches. Preachers, teachers, and students will imagine afresh the connections between modern people and this ancient book.
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Sheep are an important part of the economy of North Africa, Europe, and West Asia even today. They were much more important long ago. People wore clothes made out of wool from the sheep, and they drank milk from the sheep and ate its cheese and its meat (lamb is the meat of baby sheep; mutton is meat from grown-up sheep, which is tougher and harder to chew). People wove tapestries for the walls, and carpets for the floors, and blankets, all out of sheeps' wool.
Here's a video of some sheep baaing
Sheep generally wandered around from one place to another, through the villages and around them, looking for grass to eat under the care of a shepherd. Often shepherds were children, sometimes groups of children. Joseph, for instance, was out tending the sheep with his brothers when his brothers sold him to the Egyptian slave traders.
People hunted wild sheep from the beginning of the Stone Age, with stone-tipped wooden spears and wooden clubs. But around the end of the Stone Age, about 10,000 BC, some people in West Asia began to keep tame, domesticated sheep for themselves. Probably people began to herd sheep because there were so many people living in the area that wild sheep were getting hard to find. It's more work, and not as much fun, to herd sheep as to hunt them, but it is a more efficient use of land. If you started by catching a few lambs in nets, and raising them to know you, it would be easy to domesticate sheep.
At first people only kept sheep for their meat and their milk. These early sheep only had hair, like goats. They didn't have any wool to make into clothes. But as people began to breed sheep to make them more useful, they began to breed them with longer hair, and gradually sheep got woolier. By around 3000 BC, you could spin sheeps' wool and weave it into cloth. Even then, sheep had much less wool than they do today, after 5000 more years of breeding.
People also bred sheep to be much stupider than wild sheep, so they would be easier to watch over, and not try to get away. And they bred them to want to all stay together in one herd, which also made the sheep easier to watch over.
To find out more about sheep, check out these books from Amazon or from your local library:
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Camp Joslin History
In 1921, on the 100th anniversary of the birth of Clara Barton, founder of the American Red Cross, the Women's National Missionary Association of the Universalist Church purchased the home in North Oxford, Massachusetts in which Clara Barton was born. The property included a farmhouse, a barn and 96 acres of land. The home was restored as a museum and in 1925 a “fresh air” camp for inner-city youths was opened. This humanitarian endeavor was designed to honor Clara Barton, herself a Universalist.
While the Universalist Women were building the camp, Dr. Elliott P. Joslin, also born in Oxford, Mass., became one of the first physicians to use insulin to save the lives of children with diabetes. Children from across the country came to Boston to be treated by Dr. Joslin.
In 1932, Dr. Joslin and the Universalist women joined forces to create the Clara Barton Birthplace Camp, an “island of safety” for children with diabetes. The women provided property and funding, while Dr. Joslin became the first medical director, serving eight girls during this first year. The camp was revered around the world as the first “hospital in the woods” and many smaller programs were modeled after it.
In 1948, the enormous success of the “camp experiment” at the Barton homestead inspired Dr. Joslin to ask the Universalist Women to open another camp for boys on property he had purchased nearby in Charlton, Massachusetts. The Universalist Women agreed to administer both programs while Dr. Joslin and his staff provided the medical coverage. The “Barton” camp for girls and “Joslin” camp for boys became among the largest and most recognized programs of their kind in the world.
Ultimately, the financial burden of operating the boys and girls camps became too difficult, and the women's organization began divesting itself of the responsibility of the boys' camp, relinquishing control to Joslin Diabetes Center in 1976. Joslin ran the camp successfully for many years, giving thousands of boys and young men many memories of fun times with new friends, and a better understanding of themselves and diabetes.
Meanwhile, in 1985, the Clara Barton Camp for Girls with Diabetes, Inc. was formed to administer camp programs and the museum. In subsequent years, the organization developed coed year-round programs for children and their families and friends, including day camps for boys and girls in Worcester, Boston, Long Island, and New York City. Overall, the number of annual programs has grown to more than a dozen, involving 2,000 children and their families. In 1992, the organization was renamed the Clara Barton Diabetes Center. In 1998, the organization changed its name once again, to The Barton Center for Diabetes Education, Inc.
In 2008, in a move that brought management of the girls' and boys' camps back together after 31 years apart, The Barton Center entered into an agreement with Joslin Diabetes Center to assume the management and operation of Camp Joslin. In August 2010, The Barton Center purchased Camp Joslin whch is today part of the Barton Center.
Page last updated: February 22, 2017
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Working With Clay: A How-to Guide
Download MP3 (Right-click or option-click the link.)
This is the VOA Special English Development Report.
Clay is found almost everywhere in the world. It is formed by the action of wind and water on rocks over thousands of years. The rocks change in both chemical and physical ways. Chemically, elements like potassium and aluminum are added and taken away. Physically, the rocks break down into smaller and smaller pieces. After a long time, some of the rock changes to clay.
Clay is important because it is used around the world to make containers of all kinds. Potters add water to soften the clay. This makes it easier to form into shapes by hand or by machine. Then it is fired in an extremely hot stove. The result is a container with a hard surface that will last for many years.
In many countries, clay was formed from volcanoes. This kind of clay usually contains many minerals. So the fires to make containers from volcanic clay must be hotter than those used for non-volcanic clay. The fires may be as hot as one thousand four hundred degrees Celsius.
It is also important to dry the clay containers slowly. This means that the highest temperature should not be reached too fast.
You can add materials to clay to gain desired results. For example, you can add sand to prevent tiny breaks or lines from forming in the finished product. But you should not use sand from the coasts of oceans. Instead, you should use sand from rivers or from other areas of land that are not near the sea.
You can usually find good clay in low areas of islands or land, especially if volcanoes helped form the land. Clay often exists in fields covered with some water. The clay will be found about one meter below the ground. River banks often also have clay about one meter or less under the surface.
You can recognize clay because it is very shiny when it is wet. You can also perform a test. Take some of the material and add enough water to it to make it seem like you are making bread. Then press it in your hand until it is about the size of an egg. It is probably clay if it holds together instead of falling apart when you stop pressing.
And that's the VOA Special English Development Report, written by Gary Garriott. Guides to working with clay and other materials can be found on the EnterpriseWorks/VITA list of publications. These publications can be ordered for a charge. The list is available at enterpriseworks.org. Transcripts, MP3 and archives of our reports are at voaspecialenglish.com. I'm Chris Cruise.
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| 0.95083
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US wars in Iraq and Afghanistan: lessons from Humpty Dumpty
Overwhelming American force hasn't been able to restore order in Iraq and Afghanistan. Humpty Dumpty illustrates why.
Humpty Dumpty had a great fall.
All the king's horses and all the king's men
Couldn't put Humpty together again.
This rhyme that we all learned as children has had many interpretations: the defeat of a king, the explosion of a cannon, the overturn of a siege tower, and even the downfall of President Richard Nixon.
Over the years, people have found the verses memorable because, although apparently simple, they jog us to think about important truths. That is probably why they have endured and are reinterpreted in light of contemporary affairs, age after age.
For our times, "Humpty Dumpty" points to something so taken for granted that we often overlook it: the "social contract."
The social contract is the basis for a healthy, functioning society. Yet it is fragile.
American foreign policy in the past decade has been rooted in the notion that overwhelming force – "all the king's horses and all the king's men" – could, in fact, fix a broken social contract (Afghanistan) or create a new, improved one (Iraq).
The results have been unending and tragic costs.
Sometimes written out in constitutions, laws, and treaties, but more often just unwritten custom, the social contract is the convention in which we manage to live relatively peacefully next to one another. Whether written or not, it is based on a consensus of what we think of as "normal" or "right." In more traditional societies, it is referred to as "the way."
Historically, the idea of a social contract probably grew out of kinship. Our remote ancestors, who lived in small clans, were able to get along with one another because they were fathers and children or brothers and sisters. Few were more remote from one another than first cousins.
Then, about 4,000 years ago, clans grew into villages and towns grew into cities. Kinship became too vague or too remote to explain or enforce social peace. Some new means was required.
And, in the urban revolution, the idea of kinship was transformed into neighborhood. One was supposed to treat his neighbor as though he were a kinsman rather than a foreigner or, as foreigner often meant, an enemy.
That was not an easy transformation and is still incomplete, but over the past few thousand years, society after society has struggled with the challenge of making this notion effective.
Traditional pictures of the rhyme suggests this by making Humpty Dumpty a fragile egg.
Where societies succeeded, they created what the rhyme pictures as Humpty, sitting up on a wall, above the occasional rough and tumble, the push and shove, the give and take of daily life, but a presence that in some abstract and idealized way facilitates and brings order to the challenging process of living together.
As long as this "egg" exists and we accept it, we do not need massive and intrusive military force to keep from robbing, raping, or killing one another. Under its benign influence, we mostly continue to do what we do and refrain from what we should not do.
But if Humpty Dumpty is knocked off his perch, we lose our implicit agreement on what is right and proper.
This is more or less what the 17th-century philosophers thought of as returning to the "state of nature."
It evoked the great English philosopher Thomas Hobbes's memorable phrase in which he pictured men living outside the social contract as being in a state of war "of every man, against every man." Living in a time of great turmoil, Hobbes thought that the only way to keep order was by the application of overwhelming force.
We now know that force seldom works.
As we have seen in the attempts to impose order in Baghdad, New Orleans, and Haiti, even overwhelming military force fails. Over the past decade, we stationed a large part of the American Army in Baghdad without bringing back stability.
Indeed, history teaches us that the very act of attempting to impose security often has precisely the opposite effect.
The "trigger" of the American Revolution was the attempt of the British to impose order in Boston by military force in 1775.
The same process can be seen in the tragedy of Somalia. Today in Afghanistan, our nearly 100,000 soldiers are more targets than security forces. Once order is overthrown – Humpty is thrown down from the wall – "all the king's horses and all the king's men" are of no avail.
There is another message we can wring out of the rhyme: If Humpty's fall is not long-term, that is, people do not have time to adjust to a new reality, then he can probably be resurrected by those who have lived under his spell.
Thus, the people of New Orleans and Haiti, while they suffered catastrophes, will probably fairly soon return to living with one another on reasonably satisfactory terms. Their descent into chaos was momentary, and the effects, while horrifying, will probably be self-correcting. This is because, as the usually pessimistic Hobbes tells us, people everywhere really want peace.
But if, on the contrary, the social contract is shattered and remains inoperable for a long period of time, relations of groups of people – particularly if they are easily identified by racial or religious differences – become fixed in new modes and the old shared order is virtually irreparable.
We rather deprecatingly refer to them as "failed societies" and attempt ourselves to impose order or to support warlords or dictators who promise to do so.
That is a danger America would be wise to avoid. The best way to do it is by avoiding pushing Humpty off the wall.
By shattering the social contract, invading and changing a regime (even one we regard as tyrannical) to a new "better" model, we run the risk of leaving in our wake anarchy over which we have no control and which will be a breeding ground for the very forces we thought we were taming. Then the costs to society, both ours and theirs, will be virtually unending.
We would do well to ponder the message of Humpty Dumpty.
• William R. Polk has taught at Harvard University and at the University of Chicago, where he founded its Middle Eastern Studies Center. Polk is also the former president of the Adlai Stevenson Institute of International Affairs. Among his books are "The United States and the Arab World" and "The Elusive Peace: The Middle East in the Twentieth Century."
Monitor's View: Will Petraeus cut costs in Afghanistan as he did in Iraq?
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The SUMO uses an acceleration sensor, a gyro rate sensor and a GPS receiver for orientation and position. They are largely independent of external influences.
A pressure sensor for altitude measurement, a pressure tube for the velocity relative to the air or a magnetic compass for determining the orientation towards the earth is not used.
Altitude, speed (only relative the earths surface) and direction are taken only from the GPS receiver. This works as long as the SUMO moves forward so that the GPS can measure a correct direction.
This does not work for a quadcopter. It needs directional information even when it is hovering (which it is most of the time). Therefore a magnetic compass is installed. Our bebop2met is based on the Parrot Bebop2 and unfortunately the sensor in it is installed very close to the rest of the electronics, It provides imprecise data. Another problem is apparently the wide scattering of the sensors in the various individual quadcopters. In addition, we are at over 65° north and the x-y component of the earths geomagnetic vector is very small.
In the end we spend much of the day magnetically calibrating the quadcopters newly purchased for the campaign by holding and spinning the quadcopter at various angles to the earth in a dance-like performance.
The forecast has unfortunately come true and the weather was inappropriate for our measurements throughout the week. The SUMO flies profiles to collect comparison values anyway. In a cloud at 1000m we are back to the icing. The plane reverses and lands safely.
The measurements take place in parallel with several systems. For the lower 10m the mast is set up, above that the bebop2met measures from 2m to 200m, from 40m to 1800m the SUMO collects data and parallel to all that is the SODAR. At high wind speed or humidity, however, the acoustic pulse does not reach as high and the measurable altitude decreases significantly.
Somewhat troubling is water that appears close to the beach. It leads to little seas of slush ice. The locals tell us that the south wind pushes the seawater against the land and the water is pumped up.
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The extraction of wisdom teeth is Among the most common small oral surgery practices and requests.
What are wisdom teeth?
Wisdom teeth are also called third molars; are called "of judgment" because tend to erupt in the adult individual, from about 17 to 30 years, although their eruption may occur earlier, later, or not at all.
Why do we have wisdom teeth?
Our wisdom teeth are a ancestral heritage, a "legacy" left to us by our ancestors; primitive humans, in fact, had a very different diet from ours: they ate raw meat, raw vegetables and roots, hard foods that they were able to chew thanks to 4 extra teeth.
Over the millennia, thanks to changes in diet, habits and thanks to evolution, the third molars (four in all, two above and two below) have become unnecessary: in some people they erupt without giving problems, in others they do not erupt at all, and for still other people it is necessary to remove them.
Whatever the situation, not having them has no negative consequence on chewing or phonation.
Evolution several centuries from now will result in humans being born directly without wisdom teeth-some people are already being born without them!
Why can wisdom teeth give problems?
With evolution, the size of our jawbone has decreased: that is why wisdom teeth--being the last to erupt--often Do not have room to position themselves properly along the dental arch and their eruption can cause an imbalance that Negatively affects the whole dental set-up.
It may happen that the tooth erupts only partially: in this situation it is very difficult to be able to practice good oral hygiene and frequently thel tartar accumulates resulting in the risk of caries, which can move on to affect the neighboring tooth as well.
Moreover, this situation leads the bacteria contained in plaque to enter the gums and cause painful infections that cause intense pain and/or fever and need to be treated with anti-inflammatories and antibiotics.
Other times the wisdom tooth is entirely placed under the gingiva within the bone in a horizontal position; in this way there is no chance of it erupting, and if it should begin to bother since it "presses" on neighboring teeth the only solution is to extract it.
How to know if I have wisdom teeth and if I should remove them?
If wisdom teeth have not come out the only way to "see" them is to through a panoramic X-ray showing us their presence and location within the mouth.
Usually if an unerupted wisdom tooth does not cause discomfort, there is no need to remove it; a possible extraction is considered when the tooth causes discomfort or pain.
Does removing wisdom teeth hurt?
Extracting wisdom teeth is a rather quick routine operation performed under local anaesthesia; the duration of the procedure depends on the complexity of the specific case: an already erupted wisdom tooth is easier to extract than an included wisdom tooth placed horizontally.
After surgery It is normal to experience the following symptoms:
- bleeding (first day)
- swelling and bruising
In order to keep these annoying symptoms at bay, the dentist prescribes a supportive drug therapy.
In the days following the operation, it is important:
- sleep with your head elevated By multiple pillows to decrease bleeding
- eat cold, soft foods or liquids
- do not brush the affected part
- not inhale or spit
- not smoking
- not to drink spirits
- not to do intense physical activity
If the pain becomes too intense, the bleeding too profuse, or there are other worrisome symptoms, it is necessary to return to the dentist for a follow-up review.
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Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary 10th edition builds English vocabulary better than ever before and leads the way to more confident, successful communication in English.
The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary is the world's bestselling advanced level dictionary for learners of English.
Now in its 10th edition, the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, or OALD, is your complete guide to learning English vocabulary with definitions that learners can understand, example sentences showing language in use, and the new Oxford 3000™ and Oxford 5000™ word lists providing core vocabulary that every student needs to learn.
OALD is more than a dictionary. Take your English skills to the next level with extra resources and practice including the online iSpeaker and iWriter, or practise words anytime, anywhere with the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary app.
- Over 60,000 words, 79,000 phrases, 89,000 meanings and 109,000 examples
- 1000+ NEW words and meanings (chatbot, fake news, microplastic, woke)
- NEW Oxford 3000™ and Oxford 5000™ keywords graded by CEFR level
- NEW OPAL™ (Oxford Phrasal Academic Lexicon) teaches academic keywords
- Visual Vocabulary Builder including NEW illustrations for topic vocabulary
- Oxford Speaking Tutor and iSpeaker prepare you for exams and presentations – UPDATED iSpeaker coming soon
- Oxford Writing Tutor and iWriter help you plan, write and review your written work – UPDATED iWriter coming soon
- Teaching resources including 50 NEW vocabulary worksheets and NEW and revised lesson plans available online
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Apiculture was the solution. Beekeeping has a long tradition in Africa, but is not commonly practiced as a commercial activity because of lack of resources and training. In many countries, ‘honey hunting’ rather than bee farming is the norm, whereby natural colonies or traditional log hives are often destroyed to collect the honey, with little consideration given to sustainable management or the potential for income generation.
By introducing better equipment and training, beekeeping can provide a viable income for people who, in many areas, are living on less than 60p a day.
Our work in Uganda
We are currently working in Uganda, where we manufacture the hives that have been specifically designed for local conditions. Protective clothing and equipment, such as smokers, are also made in Uganda, providing more employment. We provide a package of hives, training and equipment to our beneficiary projects, and provide ongoing support, from colonising the hives to assisting with the marketing of the honey and other hive products.
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MADAGASCAR'S HISTORY for Kids
The first known European to see Madagascar was a Portuguese sea captain, Diogo Dias, who spotted the island August 10, 1500, after he was blown off course on the way to India. He named the island St. Lawrence. Later in the 1500s the Portuguese, French, Dutch, and English all attempted to establish trading settlements in Madagascar. All of these failed due to hostile conditions and fierce fighting by local Malagasy warriors.
Europeans first got a foothold on Madagascar in the late 1600s when pirates ruled the eastern coast of the island. These pirates used Madagascar as a base for attacking ships bringing goods back to Europe from India. In the 1700s, the French attempted to establish military positions on the east coast but again failed. By the early 19th century the only settlement the French could claim was the island of Sainte Marie.
Meanwhile, during the 1700s, the Sakalavas of the western coast established the first kingdom of Madagascar. In 1810, their rivals, the Merina, established a kingdom over most of the rest of the island. Their king, Radama I, established relations with the British and opened the country to English missionaries who spread Christianity throughout the island and transcribed Malagasy into a written language. Under Radama's reign, a miniature Industrial revolution brought industry to the island. After Radama's death, he was succeeded by his widow, Ranavalona I, who terrorized the country for 33 years by persecuting Christians, evicting foreigners, executing political rivals, and reviving the custom of killing babies born on unlucky days. After her death, relations with Europe were restored.
In 1883, France invaded Madagascar and by 1896 had established rule over the island, which became a French colony. France used Madagascar as a source for timber and exotic spices, like vanilla. The Malagasy had two major uprisings against the French, in 1918 and 1947, but the country did not gain independence until June 26, 1960.
In 1975, Didier Ratsiraka took control of the country. He ruled Madagascar as a dictator until he was overthrown in 1991 amid an economic collapse. He regained the presidency shortly thereafter and ruled until losing a contested election in 2001. The new president, Marc Ravalomanana, promised to bring democracy to the country. Having gotten his start selling yogurt on the streets from the back of his bicycle, Ravalomanana built a business empire and became Madagascar's richest man. As of 2005, he is still president and the economy continues to improve.
< Previous Page | Main Page | Next Page >
Page 5 of 27
© Rhett A. Butler / wildmadagascar.org 2008
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—– source Fabricadecercetare.ro —–
Renewable energy is known as a source of sustainable clean energy, being from sources such as sun, wind, plants, and water. Energy sources that either regenerate itself in time or are practically inexhaustible sources.
Development of renewable energy technologies have the potential to strengthen national energy security, improve the environment, and contribute to a strong economy energy.
—– click the link, romanian version —–
Renewable energy as a term refers to forms of energy produced by energy transfer processes resulting from natural sources. Thus, the energy of sunlight, wind, flowing water, biological processes, and geothermal heat can be captured by people using different methods.
Non-renewable energy sources include nuclear power and energy generated by burning fossil fuels, so like petroleum, coal and natural gas. These resources are in chip obviously limited to those existing deposits and are generally considered non-renewable.
Renewable Energy and the Energy Transition Video Animation for Germany – > clease click on the picture to see the video
Energy obtained from renewable sources :
— >> click on the picture to see the video
—– click on the links —–
All these forms of energy are, technically recoverable, and can serve to generate electricity and hot water production.
Currently they are unequally valued, but there is a definite and concrete tend to show that it is investing strongly in this relatively new branch of power.
To register your Company as ADD ENERGY PARTNER , please access
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|Part of the Arab–Israeli conflict|
Central Israel next to the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, 2007
Primary Negotiation Concerns
The Israeli–Palestinian conflict is the ongoing dispute between Israelis and Palestinians, and one of the most enduring and explosive of all the world's conflicts. The conflict is wide-ranging, and the term is also used in reference to the earlier phases of the same conflict, between Jewish and Zionist yishuv and the majority Arab population living in Palestine under Ottoman or British rule. It forms part of the wider, and generally earlier, Arab–Israeli conflict. The remaining key issues are: mutual recognition, borders, security, water rights, control of Jerusalem, Israeli settlements and legalities concerning refugees. The violence resulting from the conflict has prompted international actions, as well as other security and human rights concerns, both within and between both sides, and internationally.
Many attempts have been made to broker a two-state solution, which would entail the creation of an independent Palestinian state alongside an independent Jewish state or next to the State of Israel (after Israel's establishment in 1948). As recently as 2007, a majority of both Israelis and Palestinians, according to a number of polls, prefer the two-state solution over any other solution as a means of resolving the conflict. Moreover, a considerable majority of the Jewish public sees the Palestinians' demand for an independent state as just, and thinks Israel can agree to the establishment of such a state. A majority of Palestinians and Israelis view the West Bank and Gaza Strip as an acceptable location of the hypothetical Palestinian state in a two-state solution. However, there are significant areas of disagreement over the shape of any final agreement and also regarding the level of credibility each side sees in the other in upholding basic commitments. An alternative is the one-state or binational solution, whereby all of Israel, the Gaza Strip, and West Bank would become a bi-national state with equal rights for all.
Within Israeli and Palestinian society, the conflict generates a wide variety of views and opinions. This highlights the deep divisions which exist not only between Israelis and Palestinians, but also within each society.
A hallmark of the conflict has been the level of violence witnessed for virtually its entire duration. Fighting has been conducted by regular armies, paramilitary groups, terror cells and individuals. Casualties have not been restricted to the military, with a large number of fatalities in civilian population on both sides.
There are prominent international actors involved in the conflict. The two parties engaged in direct negotiation are the Israeli government, currently led by Benjamin Netanyahu, and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), currently headed by Mahmoud Abbas. The official negotiations are mediated by an international contingent known as the Quartet on the Middle East (the Quartet) represented by a special envoy that consists of the United States, Russia, the European Union, and the United Nations. The Arab League is another important actor, which has proposed an alternative peace plan. Egypt, a founding member of the Arab League, has historically been a key participant.
Since 2003, the Palestinian side has been fractured by conflict between the two major factions: Fatah, the traditionally dominant party, and its later electoral challenger, Hamas. Following Hamas' seizure of power in the Gaza Strip in June 2007, the territory controlled by the Palestinian National Authority (the Palestinian interim government) is split between Fatah in the West Bank, and Hamas in the Gaza Strip. The division of governance between the parties has effectively resulted in the collapse of bipartisan governance of the Palestinian National Authority (PA).
A round of peace negotiations began at Annapolis, Maryland, United States, in November 2007. These talks aimed at having a final resolution by the end of 2008. The parties agree there are six core, or 'final status,' issues which need to be resolved.
On the historical timeline, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict has had six distinct phases:
|Part of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict
and Arab–Israeli conflict series
|Camp David Accords · Madrid Conference
Oslo Accords / Oslo II · Hebron Protocol
Wye River / Sharm el-Sheikh Memoranda
2000 Camp David Summit · Taba Summit
Road Map · Annapolis Conference
|Primary Negotiation Concerns|
|Final borders · Compensation for Jewish refugees from Arab countries · Israeli settlements
Palestinian refugees · Security concerns
Status of Jerusalem · Water
|Secondary Negotiation Concerns|
Israeli West Bank barrier · Jewish state
Palestinian political violence
Places of worship
|Diplomatic Quartet · Arab League · Egypt|
|Arab Peace Initiative · Elon Peace Plan
Lieberman Plan · Geneva Accord · Hudna
Israel's unilateral disengagement plan
Israel's realignment plan
Peace-orientated projects · Peace Valley · Isratin · One-state solution · Two-state solution · Three-state solution · Middle East economic integration
|Major projects, groups and NGOs|
|Peace-orientated projects · Peace Valley · Alliance for Middle East Peace · Aix Group · Peres Center for Peace|
In 1993, Israeli officials led by Yitzhak Rabin and Palestinian leaders from the Palestine Liberation Organization led by Yasser Arafat strove to find a peaceful solution through what became known as the Oslo peace process. A crucial milestone in this process was Arafat's letter of recognition of Israel's right to exist. In 1993, the Oslo Accords were finalized as a framework for future Israeli-Palestinian relations. The crux of the Oslo agreement was that Israel would gradually cede control of the Palestinian territories over to the Palestinians in exchange for peace. The Oslo process was delicate and progressed in fits and starts, the process took a turning point at the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin and finally came to a close when Arafat and Ehud Barak failed to reach agreement. Robert Malley, special assistant to United States President Bill Clinton for Arab-Israeli Affairs, has confirmed that Barak made no formal written offer to Arafat. Consequently, there are different accounts of the proposals considered. However, the main obstacle to agreement appears to have been the status of Jerusalem.
In July 2000, U.S. President Bill Clinton convened a peace summit between Palestinian President Yasser Arafat and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak. Barak reportedly offered the Palestinian leader approximately 95% of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, as well as Palestinian sovereignty over East Jerusalem, and that 69 Jewish settlements (which comprise 85% of the West Bank's Jewish settlers) would be ceded to Israel. He also proposed "temporary Israeli control" indefinitely over another 10% of the West Bank territory—an area including many more Jewish settlements. According to Palestinian sources, the remaining area would be under Palestinian control, yet certain areas would be broken up by Israeli bypass roads and checkpoints. Depending on how the security roads would be configured, these Israeli roads might impede free travel by Palestinians throughout their proposed nation and reduce the ability to absorb Palestinian refugees.
President Arafat rejected this offer. President Clinton reportedly requested that President Arafat make a counter-offer, but he proposed none. No tenable solution was crafted which would satisfy both Israeli and Palestinian demands, even under intense U.S. pressure. Clinton blamed Arafat for the failure of the Camp David Summit. In the months following the summit, Clinton appointed former U.S. Senator George J. Mitchell to lead a fact-finding committee that later published the Mitchell Report aimed at restoring the peace process.
The Israeli negotiation team presented a new map at the Taba Summit in Taba, Egypt in January 2001. The proposition removed the "temporarily Israeli controlled" areas, and the Palestinian side accepted this as a basis for further negotiation. However, Prime Minister Ehud Barak did not conduct further negotiations at that time; the talks ended without an agreement. The following month the right-wing Likud party candidate Ariel Sharon was elected as Israeli prime minister in February 2001.
One peace proposal, presented by the Quartet of the European Union, Russia, the United Nations and the United States on September 17, 2002, was the Road Map for Peace. This plan did not attempt to resolve difficult questions such as the fate of Jerusalem or Israeli settlements, but left that to be negotiated in later phases of the process. Israel did not accept the proposal as written but called out 14 "reservations" or changes before they would accept it, which were unacceptable to the Palestinian leadership. The proposal never made it beyond the first phase, which called for a halt to Israeli settlement construction and a halt to Israeli and Palestinian violence, none of which was achieved.
The Arab Peace Initiative (Arabic: مبادرة السلام العربية) was first proposed by Crown Prince Abdullah of Saudi Arabia in the Beirut Summit. The peace initiative is a proposed solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict as a whole, and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in particular.
The initiative was initially published on March 28, 2002, at the Beirut Summit, and agreed upon again in 2007 in the Riyadh Summit. The peace initiative achieved the unanimous consent of all members of the Arab League, including both the Hamas and Fatah Palestinian factions.
Unlike the Road Map for Peace, it spelled out "final-solution" borders based explicitly on the UN borders established before the 1967 Six-Day War. It offered full normalization of relations with Israel, in exchange for the withdrawal of its forces from all the Occupied Territories, including the Golan Heights, to recognize "an independent Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital" in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, as well as a "just solution" for the Palestinian refugees.
Although the proposal was rejected outright by Israel when it was first proposed in 2002, the Arab League continues to raise it as a possible solution, and meetings between the Arab League and Israel have been held. According to Haaretz, Arab leaders had threatened in February 2008 to withdraw their proposal unless Israel explicitly expressed an acceptance of the initiative.
The following outlined positions are the official positions of the two parties; however, it is important to note that neither side holds a single position. Both the Israeli and the Palestinian sides include both moderate and extremist bodies as well as dovish and hawkish bodies.
Many Palestinians nowadays believe that Israel is not really interested in reaching an arrangement, but rather interested in continuing to control the entire territory from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River. As proof of their claims, they point to the expansion of the Jewish settlements during the terms of the Israeli left-wing political parties, the argument that it has always been Israel which has conquered territory which belonged to Arab countries, that the IDF entered Palestinian towns during the intifada, as well as quotes of Israeli right-wing leaders and religious leaders who have expressed their support in a Greater Israel and in implementing a population transfer.
On the other hand, many Israelis nowadays believe that the Palestinians’ true intentions are to conquer the Palestine region entirely and that their official claims are only a temporary strategy. As a proof to their claims, they note the rise of the Hamas, which has called for the takeover of all parts of Israel, incitement against Israel made in the Palestinian schools' textbooks and to the Palestinian political violence made against Israeli civilians within the Green Line borders.
Due to the large number of opinions and interpretations, the question of the true demands of the parties is a political issue by itself, about which many Israelis and Palestinians disagree.
A variety of concerns have emerged as key issues in seeking a negotiated settlement between the two sides. Since the Oslo Accords, finalized in 1993, the government of Israel and the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) have been officially committed to an eventual two-state solution. There are six core or 'final status' issues which need to be resolved.
The border of Jerusalem is a particularly delicate issue, with each side asserting claims over this city. The three largest Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—include Jerusalem as an important setting for their religious and historical narratives. Israel asserts that the city should not be divided and should remain unified within Israel's political control. Palestinians claim at least the parts of the city which were not part of Israel prior to June 1967. As of 2005, there were more than 719,000 people living in Jerusalem; 465,000 were Jews (mostly living in West Jerusalem) and 232,000 were Muslims (mostly living in East Jerusalem).
The Israeli government, including the Knesset and Supreme Court, is centered in the "new city" of West Jerusalem and has been since Israel's founding in 1948. After Israel captured the Jordanian-controlled East Jerusalem in the Six-Day War, it assumed complete administrative control of East Jerusalem. In 1980, Israel issued a new law stating, "Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel."
At the Camp David and Taba Summits in 2000–01, the United States proposed a plan in which the Arab parts of Jerusalem would be given to the proposed Palestinian state while the Jewish parts of Jerusalem were retained by Israel. All archaeological work under the Temple Mount would be jointly controlled by the Israeli and Palestinian governments. Both sides accepted the proposal in principle, but the summits ultimately failed.
Israel has grave concerns regarding the welfare of Jewish holy places under possible Palestinian control. When Jerusalem was under Jordanian control, no Jews were allowed to visit the Western Wall or other Jewish holy places, and the Jewish cemetery on the Mount of Olives was desecrated. In 2000, a Palestinian mob took over Joseph's Tomb, a shrine considered sacred by both Jews and Muslims, looted and burned the building and turned it into a mosque. There are unauthorized Palestinian excavations for construction on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, which could threaten the stability of the Western Wall. Israel, on the other hand, has seldom blocked access to holy places sacred to other religions. Israeli security agencies routinely monitor and arrest Jewish extremists that plan attacks, resulting in almost no serious incidents for the last 20 years. Moreover, Israel has given almost complete autonomy to the Muslim trust (Waqf) over the Temple Mount.
Israel expresses concern over the security of its residents if neighborhoods of Jerusalem are placed under Palestinian control. Jerusalem has been a prime target for attacks by militant groups against civilian targets since 1967. Many Jewish neighborhoods have been fired upon from Arab areas. The proximity of the Arab areas, if these regions were to fall in the boundaries of a Palestinian state, would be so close as to threaten the safety of Jewish residents. Nadav Shragai states this idea in his study for the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, "An Israeli security body that was tasked in March 2000 with examining the possibility of transferring three Arab villages just outside of Jerusalem - Abu Dis, Al Azaria, and a-Ram - to Palestinian security control, assessed at the time that: 'Terrorists will be able to exploit the short distances, sometimes involving no more than crossing a street, to cause damage to people or property. A terrorist will be able to stand on the other side of the road, shoot at an Israeli or throw a bomb, and it may be impossible to do anything about it. The road will constitute the border.' If that is the case for neighborhoods outside of Jerusalem's municipal boundaries, how much more so for Arab neighborhoods within those boundaries.
Palestinians have grave concerns regarding the welfare of Christian and Muslim holy places under Israeli control. They point to the several attacks on the Al-Aqsa Mosque (Masjid al Aqsa) since 1967, including a serious fire in 1969 which destroyed the south wing, and the discovery in 1981 of ancient tunnels under the structure of the mosque which some archaeologists believe have weakened the building structures on the Al Aqsa Mosque.
Some Palestinian advocates have made statements alleging that the tunnels were re-opened with the intent of causing the mosque's collapse. Israel considers these statements to be totally baseless and unfounded, and to be deliberately intended to incite aggression and public disorder, and stated this in a 1996 speech at the UN. The Israeli government claims it treats the Muslim and Christian holy sites with utmost respect.
According to the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), a Palestinian refugee is a person whose normal place of residence was Palestine between June 1946 and May 1948, and who lost both their homes and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict. The number of Palestinians who fled or were expelled from Israel following its creation was estimated at 711,000 in 1949. Descendants of these original Palestinian Refugees are also eligible for registration and UNRWA services, and as of 2009 number 4.6 million people. One third of the refugees live in recognised refugee camps in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The remainder live in and around the cities and towns of these host countries.
Most of the people described above were born outside of Israel. Nevertheless, Palestinian negotiators, most notably Yasser Arafat, have so far insisted that refugees have a right to return to the places where they lived before 1948 and 1967, including those within the 1949 Armistice lines, citing the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and UN General Assembly Resolution 194 as evidence.
The Arab Peace Initiative of 2002 declared that it proposed the compromise of a "just resolution" of the refugee problem.
Many Israelis are open to compromise on the issue, by means such as the monetary reparations and family reunification initiatives offered by Ehud Barak at the Camp David 2000 summit. Others, however, are opposed. The most common arguments given for this opposition are:
In the years following the Six-Day War, and especially in the 1990s during the peace process, Israel re-established communities destroyed in 1929 and 1948 as well as established numerous new settlements in the West Bank. These settlements are now home to about 350,000 people. Most of the settlements are in the western parts of the West Bank, while others are deep into Palestinian territory, overlooking Palestinian cities. These settlements have been the site of much intercommunal conflict.
The issue of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and, until 2005, the Gaza Strip have been described as an obstacle to a peaceful resolution of the conflict, by the international media; as well as the international political community (including the US, the UK, and the EU
These actors have also called the settlements illegal under international law; furthermore, the International Court of Justice as well as international and Israeli human rights organizations consider the settlements illegal.
However Israel disputes this; several scholars and commentators disagree, citing in 2005 recent historical trends to back up their argument, it has not changed the view of the international community and human rights organizations.
As of 2006, 267,163 Israelis lived within the West Bank and East Jerusalem. The establishment and expansion of these settlements in the West Bank and (at the time) the Gaza Strip have been described as violations of the fourth Geneva Convention by the UN Security Council in several resolutions. The European Union and the General Assembly of the United Nations consider the settlements to be illegal. Proponents of the settlements justify their legality using arguments based upon Article 2 and 49 of the fourth Geneva Convention, as well as UN Security Council Resolution 242. On a practical level, some objections voiced by Palestinians are that settlements divert resources needed by Palestinian towns, such as arable land, water, and other resources; and, that settlements reduce Palestinians' ability to travel freely via local roads, owing to security considerations.
In 2005, Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, a proposal put forward by Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, was enacted. All residents of Jewish settlements in the Gaza strip were evacuated, and all residential buildings were demolished.
Various mediators and various proposed agreements have shown some degree of openness to Israel retaining some fraction of the settlements which currently exist in the West Bank; this openness is based on a variety of considerations, such as, the desire to find real compromise between Israeli and Palestinian territorial claims,
Israel's position that it needs to retain some West Bank land and settlements as a buffer in case of future aggression, and Israel's position that some settlements are legitimate, as they took shape when there was no operative diplomatic arrangement, and thus they did not violate any agreement.
Former US President George W. Bush has stated that he does not expect Israel to return entirely to the 1949 armistice lines because of "new realities on the ground." One of the main compromise plans put forth by the Clinton Administration would have allowed Israel to keep some settlements in the West Bank, especially those which were in large blocs near the pre-1967 borders of Israel. In return, Palestinians would have received some concessions of land in other parts of the country. The current US administration views a complete freeze of construction in settlements on the West Bank as a critical step toward peace. In May and June 2009, President Barack Obama said "The United States does not accept the legitimacy of continued Israeli settlements," and the Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton stated that the President "wants to see a stop to settlements — not some settlements, not outposts, not ‘natural growth’ exceptions.”
Throughout the conflict, Palestinian political violence has been a concern for Israelis. Israel, along with the United States and the European Union, refer to the violence against Israeli civilians and military forces by Palestinian militants as terrorism. The motivations behind Palestinian violence against Israeli civilians are multiplex, and not all violent Palestinian groups agree with each other on specifics, however a common motive is to eliminate the Jewish state and replace it with a Palestinian Arab state. The most prominent Islamist groups, such as Hamas, view the Israeli–Palestinian conflict as a religious jihad.
The threat of Qassam rockets fired from the Palestinian Territories into Israel is also of great concern for Israeli defense officials. In 2006—the year following Israel's disengagement from the Gaza Strip—the Israeli government recorded 1,726 such launches, more than four times the total rockets fired in 2005.
There is significant debate within Israel about how to deal with the country's security concerns. Options have included military action (including targeted killings and house demolitions of terrorist operatives), diplomacy, unilateral gestures toward peace, and increased security measures such as checkpoints. The legality and the wisdom of all of the above tactics have been called into question by various commentators.
In the past, Israel has demanded control over border crossings between the Palestinian territories and Jordan and Egypt, and the right to set the import and export controls, asserting that Israel and the Palestinian territories are a single economic space.
Palestinians insist on contiguous territory which will in turn rupture the existing territorial contiguity of Israel. In the interim agreements reached as part of the Oslo Accords, the Palestinian Authority has received control over cities (Area A) while the surrounding countryside has been placed under Israeli security and Palestinian civil administration (Area B) or complete Israeli control (Area C). Israel has built additional highways to allow Israelis to traverse the area without entering Palestinian cities. The initial areas under Palestinian Authority control are diverse and non-contiguous. The areas have changed over time because of subsequent negotiations, including Oslo II, Wye River and Sharm el-Sheik. According to Palestinians, the separated areas make it impossible to create a viable nation and fails to address Palestinian security needs; Israel has expressed no agreement to withdrawal from some Areas B, resulting in no reduction in the division of the Palestinian areas, and the institution of a safe pass system, without Israeli checkpoints, between these parts. Because of increased Palestinian violence to occupation this plan is in abeyance. The number of checkpoints has increased, resulting in more suicide bombings since the early summer of 2003. Neither side has publicized a proposal for a final map. (Some maps have been leaked. These, purporting to show Israeli proposals, are reputed to come from the Israelis and the Palestinians).
Palestinians note, as one of their most central concerns, that their society must be given land and resources with enough contiguity to give them a viable society, and that they must therefore not be forced to give up too many resources to Israel, as this may cause economic collapse.
In the Middle East, water resources are of great political concern. Since Israel receives much of its water from two large underground aquifers which continue under the Green Line, the use of this water has been contentious in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Since some of the wells used to draw this water lie within the Palestinian Authority areas, there are many who question the legality of using the water for Israeli needs.
But critics of this argument say that even though Israel withdraws some water from these areas, it also supplies the West Bank with approximately 40 MCM annually, contributing to 77% of Palestinians' water supply in the West Bank, which is to be shared for a population of about 2.3 million.
While Israel's consumption of this water has decreased since it began its occupation of the West Bank, it still consumes the majority of it: in the 1950s, Israel consumed 95% of the water output of the Western Aquifer, and 82% of that produced by the Northeastern Aquifer. Although this water was drawn entirely on Israel's own side of the pre-1967 border, the sources of the water are nevertheless from the shared groundwater basins located under both West Bank and Israel. By 1999, these numbers had declined to 82% and 80%, respectively.
In the treaty of the Oslo II Accord, both sides agreed to maintain "existing quantities of utilization from the resources." In so doing, the Palestinian Authority established unequivocally the legality of Israeli water production in the West Bank. Moreover, Israel obligated itself in this agreement to provide water to supplement Palestinian production, and further agreed to allow additional Palestinian drilling in the Eastern Aquifer. Many Palestinians counter that the Oslo II agreement was intended to be a temporary resolution and that it was not intended to remain in effect more than a decade later. Indeed its name is "The Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement."
This agreement also established the right of the Palestinian Authority to explore and drill for natural gas, fuel and petroleum within its territory and territorial waters. It also delineated the major terms of conduct regarding regulations on the parties' facilities.
A variety of concerns have become prominent issues between the two sides in regards to ongoing day-to-day interactions, and actions by either side towards the other.
Occupied Palestinian Territory is the term used by the United Nations to refer to the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip—territories which were conquered by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War, having formerly been controlled by Egypt and Jordan. The Israeli government uses the term Disputed Territories, to indicate its position that some territories cannot be called occupied as no nation had clear rights to them and there was no operative diplomatic arrangement when Israel acquired them in June 1967. The area is still referred to as Judea and Samaria by some Israeli groups, based on the historical regional names from ancient times.
In 1980, Israel explicitly annexed East Jerusalem. The United Nations rejected this annexation on August 20, 1980. Israel has never annexed the West Bank or Gaza Strip, and the United Nations has demanded the "[t]ermination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for and acknowledgement of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every State in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force" and that Israeli forces withdraw "from territories occupied in the recent conflict" - the meaning and intent of the latter phrase is disputed. See Semantic dispute.
It has been the position of Israel that the most Arab-populated parts of West Bank (without major Jewish settlements), and the entire Gaza Strip must eventually be part of an independent Palestinian State. However, the precise borders of this state are in question. In 2000, for example, Ehud Barak offered Yasser Arafat an opportunity to establish an independent Palestinian State composed of the entire Gaza Strip and 92% of the West Bank. Because of security restrictions, and Barak's opposition to a broad right of return, Arafat refused this proposal.
Some Palestinians claim they are entitled to all of the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem. Israel says it is justified in not ceding all this land, because of security concerns, and also because the lack of any valid diplomatic agreement at the time means that ownership and boundaries of this land is open for discussion. Palestinians claim any reduction of this claim is a severe deprivation of their rights. In negotiations, they claim that any moves to reduce the boundaries of this land is a hostile move against their key interests. Israel considers this land to be in dispute, and feels the purpose of negotiations is to define what the final borders will be.
Other Palestinian groups, such as Hamas, have in the past insisted that Palestinians must control not only the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem, but also all of Israel proper. For this reason, Hamas has viewed the peace process "as religiously forbidden and politically inconceivable".
The Oslo peace process was based upon Israel ceding authority to the Palestinians to run their own political and economic affairs. In return, it was agreed that Palestinians would promote peaceful co-existence, renounce violence and promote recognition of Israel among their own people. Despite Yasser Arafat's official renunciation of terrorism and recognition of Israel, some Palestinian groups continue to practice and advocate violence against civilians and do not recognize Israel as a legitimate political entity.
Palestinians state that their ability to spread acceptance of Israel was greatly hampered by Israeli restrictions on Palestinian political freedoms, economic freedoms, civil liberties, and quality of life. Many feel that their own opposition to Israel was justified by Israel's apparent stifling of any genuine Palestinian political and economic development.
It is widely felt among Israelis that Palestinians did not in fact promote acceptance of Israel's right to exist. One of Israel's major reservations in regards to granting Palestinian sovereignty is its concern that there is not genuine public support by Palestinians for co-existence and elimination of terrorism and incitement. Some Palestinian groups, notably Fatah, the political party founded by PLO leaders, claim they are willing to foster co-existence if Palestinians are steadily given more political rights and autonomy. In 2006, Hamas won a majority in the Palestinian Legislative Council, where it remains the majority party. While Hamas has openly stated in the past that it completely opposed Israel's right to exist, and its charter states this, there is evidence that its position may have softened by 2006. However, Israel contended in 2007 that Hamas has refused to recognize Israel in any valid way, and that it supported recent rocket attacks on Israel. In June 2009, Hamas leaders met with former US President Jimmy Carter, and said that Hamas does not in any way recognize Israel.
Israel cites past concessions—such as Israel’s disengagement from the Gaza Strip in August 2005, which did not lead to a reduction of attacks and rocket fire against Israel—as an example of the Palestinian people not accepting Israel as a state. Palestinian groups and Israeli Human Rights organizations (namely B'Tselem) have pointed out that while the military occupation in Gaza was ended, the Israeli government still retained control of Gaza's airspace, territorial water, and borders, legally making it still under Israeli control. They also say that mainly thanks to these restrictions, the Palestinian quality of life in the Gaza Strip has not improved since the Israeli withdrawal. Furthermore, given that the Israeli army has run incursions into the Gaza Strip on various occasions, closed off its borders, and placed an embargo on the region, the Gazan economy has since gone into free fall. This has led and continues to result in warnings of the Palestinian population becoming more radicalized unless conditions improve.
The Palestinian Authority is considered corrupt by a wide variety of sources, including some Palestinians. Some Israelis argue that it provides tacit support for extremists via its relationship with Hamas and other Islamic terrorist movements, and that therefore it is unsuitable for governing any putative Palestinian state or (especially according to the right wing of Israeli politics), even negotiating about the character of such a state. Because of that, a number of organizations, including the previously ruling Likud party, declared they would not accept a Palestinian state based on the current PA. (Likud's former leader Ariel Sharon publicly declared that he rejected this position as too radical).
A PA Cabinet minister, Saeb Erekat, declared this indicates that Israel is seeking to maintain its occupation of the West Bank and Gaza. Israel has not recognised a Palestinian state, and has carried out extrajudicial killings of suspects within the West Bank and Gaza whom it claims have planned and led terrorist attacks within Israel. Some international observers have recommended that negotiations proceed anyway, claiming that internal Palestinian reform can be undertaken if negotiations make progress.
Societal attitudes in both Israel and Palestine are a source of concern to those promoting dispute resolution.
Some Israelis are concerned that key Palestinian leaders have promoted incitement against and overall non-acceptance of Israel, including promotion of violence against Israel. Some Palestinians are concerned that key Israeli leaders have refused to accept the reality of the Palestinian people and have been defended violence against Palestinians.
Because of an import-export ban imposed on Gaza in 2007, 95% of Gaza’s industrial operations were suspended. Out of 35,000 people employed by 3,900 factories in June 2005, only 1,750 people remained employed by 195 factories in June 2007.
Closures have severely hindered health services in Gaza. During the period October to December 2007, the World Health Organization has confirmed the deaths of 20 patients, including 5 children. Between 2007-2008, 120 people in Gaza died because they were not allowed to access medical treatment.
The Israeli Government's cut in the flow of fuel and electricity to the Gaza Strip has also been called collective punishment of the civilian population, which would be a violation of Israel’s obligations under the laws of war. Starting February 7, 2008, the Israeli Government reduced the electricity it sells directly to Gaza. This follows the ruling of Israel’s High Court of Justice’s decision, which held, with respect to the amount of industrial fuel supplied to Gaza, that, “The clarification that we made indicates that the supply of industrial diesel fuel to the Gaza Strip in the winter months of last year was comparable to the amount that the Respondents now undertake to allow into the Gaza Strip. This fact also indicates that the amount is reasonable and sufficient to meet the vital humanitarian needs in the Gaza Strip.” The Jerusalem Post argued that Palestinians had killed two Israelis in the process of delivering fuel to the Nahal Oz fuel depot.
With regard to Israel’s plan, the Court stated that, “calls for a reduction of five percent of the power supply in three of the ten power lines that supply electricity from Israel to the Gaza Strip, to a level of 13.5 megawatts in two of the lines and 12.5 megawatts in the third line, we [the Court] were convinced that this reduction does not breach the humanitarian obligations imposed on the State of Israel in the framework of the armed conflict being waged between it and the Hamas organization that controls the Gaza Strip. Our conclusion is based, in part, on the affidavit of the Respondents indicating that the relevant Palestinian officials stated that they can reduce the load in the event limitations are placed on the power lines, and that they had used this capability in the past."
During the British Mandate and after 1919, when unrest started to become widespread, the term "collective punishment" was freely used by the British government to refer to measures they took against Arabs when unknown Arabs attacked Jews or Jews when unknown Jews attacked Arabs. In that era, it meant closure of shops, restriction of movement, and taxes or fines levied on towns as punishment. Supporters of Israel have argued that Palestinian violence against Israeli civilians constitutes collective punishment of Palestinians for the actions of their government.
The West Bank and Israel form a strip only up to 80 kilometres wide. Israel has insisted on complete Israeli control of the airspace above the West Bank and Gaza as well as that above Israel itself. A Palestinian compromise of joint control over the combined airspace has been rejected by Israel.
The Israeli Cabinet issued a statement expressing that it does not wish the Palestinians to build up an army capable of offensive operations, considering that the only party against which such an army could be turned in the near future is Israel itself. However, Israel has already allowed for the creation of a Palestinian police that can conduct police operations and also carry out limited-scale warfare. Palestinians have argued that the Israel Defense Forces, a large and modern armed force, poses a direct and pressing threat to the sovereignty of any future Palestinian state, making a defensive force for a Palestinian state a matter of necessity. To this, Israelis claim that signing a treaty while building an army is a show of bad intentions.
In December 2009, the Israeli government ordered a 10-month lull in permits for new settlement homes in the West Bank. The restrictions, which Israeli politicians and media have referred to as a "freeze", do not apply to East Jerusalem (whose annexation by Israel is not recognised internationally), municipal buildings, schools, synagogues and other community infrastructure in the settlements. About 3,000 homes already under construction will be allowed to proceed. The Israeli government said the move was aimed at restarting peace talks, but Palestinian officials said it was insufficient. Palestinian officials have refused to rejoin peace talks unless a total building halt is imposed, including in East Jerusalem. The announcement followed calls by the US government for a total freeze in settlement building. The US government, the European Union, Russia and the UN have criticized Israel's plans to continue building in East Jerusalem but both the US and the EU have stated that neither the Palestinians nor Israel should have preconditions for resuming the suspended peace talks.
The Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs for the occupied Palestinian territory (OCHoPT) was established in late 2000 by the United Nations as a response to the deteriorating humanitarian situation in the West Bank and Gaza caused by military incursions and closures (See also: Second Intifada). The office monitors the conflict and presents figures relating to both internal-violence and direct conflict clashes.
|2008-26.12.08||464 (87)||31 (4)|
|2007||396 (43)||13 (0)||1843 (265)||322 (3)|
|2006||678 (127)||25 (2)||3194 (470)||377 (7)|
|2005||216 (52)||48 (6)||1260 (129)||484 (4)|
|Total||1754 (309)||117 (12)||6297 (864)||1183 (14)|
All numbers refer to casualties of direct conflict between Israelis and Palestinians including in IDF military operations, artillery shelling, search and arrest campaigns, Barrier demonstrations, targeted killings, settler violence etc. The figures do not include events indirectly related to the conflict such as casualties from unexploded ordnance, etc., or events when the circumstances remain unclear or are in dispute. The figures include all reported casualties of all ages and both genders.
|2004||828 (179)||108 (8)|
|2003||588 (119)||185 (21)|
|2002||1032 (157)||421 (47)|
|2001||467 (82)||191 (36)|
|2000 (as of 29.09.2000)||279 (83)||41 (0)|
|Total||3194 (620)||946 (112)|
|2000 (until 28.9)||16 (2)||2 (0)|
|1999||9 (0)||4 (0)|
|1998||28 (3)||12 (0)|
|1997||21 (5)||29 (3)|
|1996||74 (11)||75 (8)|
|1995||45 (5)||46 (0)|
|1994||152 (24)||74 (2)|
|14.9.93-31.12.93||42 (4)||19 (0)|
|1993-13.9.93||138 (37)||42 (0)|
|1992||138 (23)||34 (1)|
|1991||104 (27)||19 (0)|
|1990||145 (25)||22 (0)|
|1989||305 (83)||31 (1)|
|1988||310 (50)||12 (3)|
|Dec 9-31 1987||22 (5)||0 (0)|
|Total||1549 (304)||421 (18)|
|Arnon-Ohana, 1982, 140||Morris, Righteous Victims p 159.||4,500 (killed by other Arabs)|
|Various||Morris, Righteous Victims p 159.||3,000 to 6,000||several hundred|
These figures represent deaths caused by the Palestinian uprising against the British mandatory government in Palestine, and include those killed by the British.
A comprehensive collection mechanism to gather land mine and explosive remnants of war (ERW) casualty data does not exist for the Palestinian territories. In 2009, the United Nations Mine Action Centre reported that more than 2,500 mine and explosive remnants of war casualties occurred between 1967 and 1998, at least 794 casualties (127 killed, 654 injured and 13 unknown) occurred between 1999 to 2008 and that 12 people have been killed and 27 injured since the Gaza War. The UN Mine Action Centre identified the main risks as coming from "ERW left behind by Israeli aerial and artillery weapon systems, or from militant caches targeted by the Israeli forces." There are at least 15 confirmed minefields in the West Bank on the border with Jordan. The Palestinian National Security Forces do not have maps or records of the minefields.
"The PLO's agreement to support the participation of a Palestinian delegation from the West Bank and Gaza Strip in the Madrid Peace Conferences in late October 1991 further fueled the tension between Fatah and Hamas, which embarked on an intensive campaign against the very idea of territorial compromise and peacemaking with the Jews, as religiously forbidden and politically inconceivable" (339).
|Participants||Individuals||Conflicts / Violence / Terrorism||Diplomacy|
1920 Palestine riots
|
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CC-MAIN-2016-36
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Using Phase Change To Measure Velocity
Light, radio, microwaves and x-rays are all forms of electromagnetic waves, which is also the type of energy emitted by weather radars. All of these types of electromagnetic waves have different wavelengths (the distance between two crests of the wave), but it is most common for weather radars to use wavelengths of five or ten centimetres.
Figure 1. The wavelength is the distance between the crests of the wave.
The phase describes the current position of the wave in its sinusoidal cycle. That is, the wave may be at a crest, a trough, or somewhere in between when it returns to the radar, and a Doppler radar is capable of measuring this for each wave that is returned from a reflecting particle. The difference in phase of two waves is known as the phase shift.
Figure 2. The difference in phase of two waves is known as the phase shift.
If the reflecting particle is not moving, successive pulses will have travelled exactly the same distance, and there will be no phase shift. However, if the particle has a velocity with a component towards or away from the radar, successive pulses will return to the radar with a different phase. The resulting phase shift is therefore caused by the movement of the reflecting particle, with larger velocities resulting in larger phase shifts. Hence by measuring the phase of each returning pulse, the Doppler weather radar is able to measure the velocities of the reflecting particles.
Parent page: About Doppler Wind Images
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(also known as Trisomy 21, T21).
This syndrome was initially described by Dr John Langdon Down, a London based Physician in 1866. It is the most common pattern of malformation in humans with a birth incidence of 1:660.
The vast majority are due to the inheritance of an additional chromosome 21 at the time of conception.
Features of Down Syndrome
‘Mongoloid’ facial appearance.
Cardiac abnormalities – approximately 50%
Intellectual disability – leading to mild/moderate cognitive delay – possible autistic spectrum
Weak muscle tone
Digestive abnormalities – oesophageal reflux, coeliac disease.
Underactive thyroid in 15%
Hearing, speech and visual problems – language delay, attention problems.
Obsessive/compulsive behaviour, stubbornness and tantrums
Small percentage develop leukaemia
Gradual decline in thinking ability with age, usually around age 50, developing Alzheimers in approximately 50%.
Pregnancies affected by Down Syndrome increases with maternal age.
|
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https://fetal-medicine.co.uk/down-syndrome
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February is International Prenatal Infection Prevention Month and the obstetrics and gynecology team at Sidra Medical and Research Center (Sidra) is sharing advice on preventing prenatal infections.
Prenatal infection can, in some cases, have a serious impact on both mother and child during and after pregnancy. There are, however, some simple steps pregnant woman can take to reduce the risk of contracting an infection. “In many cases education and prevention are the best ways to fight disease. At Sidra, our mission is not only to treat patients but to ensure that they lead a healthy lifestyle throughout their lives. We hope to bring awareness to simple preventative measures that will help improve quality of life for mothers and families,” said Dr. Guy Fender, Senior Attending Physician in the Obstetrics and Gynecology Department at Sidra.
Is an infection more dangerous during pregnancy?
Viral infections like coughs and colds generally do not harm the mother or baby. However, persistent flu-like symptoms should be discussed with a doctor. Serious flu can be prevented via a vaccination offered to all mothers in the winter months. This vaccine is safe to give in early pregnancy and provides combined protection against flu and ‘bird-flu,’ a condition which can be very serious for pregnant women.
Urinary infections are more frequent in pregnancy but don’t affect the baby’s health. It is important to avoid dehydration and seek medical advice if there is persistent burning, blood in the urine or a fever.
Are there any foods that pregnant women should avoid to prevent infection?
Some bacterial infections, such as Listeriosis, can be passed on to an unborn baby through the placenta, even though the mother might not be displaying any symptoms of an infection. To help prevent this, pregnant women are advised to avoid certain foods such as unpasteurized milk and mold-ripened soft cheeses. This means that it is OK to eat cottage cheese, mozzarella, feta, paneer, ricotta, halloumi, and goat’s cheese provided the packaging states they are made from pasteurized milk. According to the NHS Choices website, hard cheeses are safe to eat in pregnancy, including cheddar, edam, emmental, gouda and parmesan.1
Pregnant women should also be aware of parasitic infections. These can be avoided by rigorously washing fruits and vegetables to remove all traces of dirt and soil and ensuring all meat and poultry is cooked thoroughly.
Can pets pass on infection to women during pregnancy?
Pregnant women should avoid any contact with cats or cat litter to avoid infection with toxoplasma, which can harm an unborn baby. If contact is unavoidable, women must wash their hands before and after interaction or alternatively wear gloves. It’s also advisable to avoid contact with any farm or other domestic animals during pregnancy.
Should pregnant women avoid contact with young children who may be ill? 2, 3, 4
Pregnant women can take steps to reduce their risk of exposure to childhood diseases by avoidingcontact with young children with a rash or a fever. Women should also seek medical advice if they haven’t had a blood test to check for immunity against German measles or Rubella infection. Other infections passed on by children include CMV virus, chickenpox and parvovirus or ‘slapped cheek’ disease. If a woman experiences any symptoms relating to these, she should see a doctor immediately. Simple hygiene including hand-washing with soap and hot water before and after contact with young children is also an effective prevention against infection.
Should pregnant women be tested for Hepatitis B? 2, 3, 4
All mothers should be tested early in pregnancy for Hepatitis B; this is part of a routine series of blood tests. Vaccination is a key form of prevention.. Hepatitis B is a serious condition for a pregnant mother and, if contracted, specialist hospital-based care is required.
Does traveling abroad increase the risk of prenatal infection? 5
If travelling abroad to a high-risk area, women should be aware of serious infections including malaria and HIV. Often vaccinations are not recommended due to concerns that the virus or bacteria in the vaccine could harm the unborn child. Women are generally advised to avoid travelling to countries where immunization is required but if this isn’t possible, women should seek specialist advice about prevention to reduce the risk of infection.
1 NHS Choices. Foods to avoid in pregnancy. Available from:http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/pregnancy-and-baby/pages/foods-to-avoid-pregnant.aspx
2NHS Choices. Infections in pregnancy that may affect your baby. Available from:http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/pregnancy-and-baby/pages/pregnancy-infections.aspx
3 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Chickenpox in pregnancy. Available form: https://www.rcog.org.uk/en/patients/patient-leaflets/chickenpox-in-pregnancy/
4 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Group B streptococcus (GBS) infection in newborn babies. Available from: https://www.rcog.org.uk/en/patients/patient-leaflets/group-b-streptococcus-gbs-infection-in-newborn-babies/
5 Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. HIV and pregnancy. Available from:https://www.rcog.org.uk/en/patients/patient-leaflets/hiv-and-pregnancy/
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Borage (Borago officinalis) is a versatile plant valued for its cool cucumber aroma and flavour. This annual has large, hairy, oval leaves with robust stems and five-pointed, sky blue, star-shaped flowers surrounding black stamens. Borage, thought to have originated in the area of Aleppo, Syria, was probably brought to Europe by the Romans; it is most popular in Great Britain, central Europe, Spain, Italy, and Greece.
British summer drinks like Pimm’s cup and claret cup, a red wine and brandy punch, are traditionally garnished with a stem of borage, complete with leaves and flowers. The lovely blue flowers can be preserved, candied, simmered in syrup, or used as garnish. In Spain, the succulent stalks are boiled and fried in butter. In Liguria, Italy, borage and other wild spring greens are gathered to fill pansotti al sugo di noci, triangular pasta served with a creamy walnut sauce. The flower corollas can be used to colour vinegar blue. Both leaves and flowers are brewed for tea, and the flowers yield a honey much appreciated in New Zealand.
- Other Names
- Beebread; borragine (Italian); borraja or rabo de alacrán (Spanish); borretsch or gurkenkraut (German; also used for dill); bourragé or bourraio (Provençal French); bugloss, burrage, or hodan (Turkish); lisan athaur (Arabic); llanwenlys (Welsh); star flower (blossom)
- Borage greens are most tender in spring and may be found wild in many places or purchased at local farmers’ markets. The flowers bloom in midsummer.
- Purchase and Avoid
- Look for the most tender, least hairy borage if you’ll be using it as an uncooked herb. The flowers should be sparkling blue and wide open. If using borage as a cooking green, larger, older leaves are acceptable.
Freeze borage blossoms (without the inedible calyx) in ice cubes and use to chill summer drinks or punch.
Briefly boil older leaves, steam like spinach, or dip in batter and deep-fry.
Category: Spices and Herbs
Sub Category: Herbs
Total Views: 1065
Word Count: 578
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A new study published in Current Biology found that the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors – a common antidepressant – can alter brain connectivity in a matter of hours. This is particularly interesting as antidepressants often have to be used for weeks before relieving symptoms of depression and in some cases prove ineffective. No single antidepressant works universally, so those suffering from depression often have to try out several pills to find one that relieves symptoms. The findings of this study are potentially good news for the industry of pharmacy technology, as this research could help scientists and medical professionals more easily match antidepressants with patients.
Depression is a condition that affects one in 10 Americans, and less than 20 percent of those affected are receiving treatment specifically for depression.1 In the U.S., depression occurs in a higher percentage of people in specific geographical regions. Divorced and unemployed Americans are more likely to experience symptoms of clinical depression.1 Depression generally goes undiagnosed, though it can often be effectively treated with therapy and antidepressants. If scientists can develop a system for identifying the effectiveness of an antidepressant on an individual in a short duration of time, it will benefit patient care and make treatment more efficient.
In the study, scientists used MRI scans to make a 3-D model of each subject’s brain. Participants were then given a dose of SSRIs. Analyzing the whole brain before and after the dosage, researchers found that there was a widespread decrease in connectivity in the majority of cortical and subcortical areas.2 However, researchers found localized increases in the thalamus and cerebellum.2 This potentially allows medical professionals to identify if prescribing SSRIs will prove beneficial for an individual suffering from depression. More broadly, it can be used to further research how serotonin affects the brain.
According to Forbes, this could also allow scientists to compare the connectivity of those who respond and don’t respond to a duration of SSRI treatment.3 In the long run, identifying such differences will be imperative to understanding individual genetic idiosyncrasies that make SSRIs an effective treatment option in some patients and ineffective in others.
As scientists find more advanced methods for mapping out the genetic structures of individuals, therapy methods can become more personalized. One of the main challenges of developing personalized medicine, specifically in regard to mental disorders, is understanding the human brain. This research has illuminated how quickly a drug can alter the chemistry of the human brain. Moving forward, such findings may result in more rapid research and understanding of individual genetics. This information is crucial to pharmaceutical companies because it presents the opportunity to develop pills that more accurately target specific regions of the brain. In the future, pharmacy technicians will be able to create niche drugs that rely on such research to better serve those suffering from a wide range of mental symptoms.
1 “Unhappiness by the Numbers: 2012 Depression Statistics” Healthline. http://www.healthline.com/health/depression/statistics-infographic
2 “Serotonergic Modulation of Intrinsic Functional Connectivity” by Alexander Schaefer, Inga Burmann, Ralf Regenthal, Katrin Arélin, Claudia Barth, André Pampel, Arno Villringer, Daniel S. Margulies, Julia Sacher. Current Biology. http://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(14)01037-9
3 “Can One Dose Of Antidepressant Lead To Changes In Your Brain?” by Robert Glatter. Forbes. September 19, 2014. http://www.forbes.com/sites/robertglatter/2014/09/19/can-one-dose-of-antidepressant-lead-to-changes-in-your-brain/
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Corn, a centerpiece of the Native American diet, was a marvel of biotech engineering before the European settlers arrived. Native Americans encouraged the formation of ears or cobs on maize, a rather grass-like plant. While pre-European corn was self-sustaining, the varieties we grow now need human intervention to flourish. It needs continual replanting.
Today we mainly rely on one type of yellow corn, but Native Americans used corn that came in many colors and varieties. Flint corn or Indian corn can be red, blue, yellow or white and is a hardy corn growing in diverse climates. Popcorn is a type of flint corn. Sweet corn, which contains more sugar than other types of corn, is usually yellow or white and used for table eating. And field corn or dent corn contains more starch than other types and is grown for livestock feed.
For human consumption, corn should be soaked in lye or lime water until the outer shell of the kernel slips easily off. When the husk is lifted in a process called “skinning the corn” the B vitamin niacin, as well as other nutrients, become available for assimilation. Niacin is necessary for the metabolism of carbohydrates, fat and alcohol as well as the proper function of the nerves and the digestive system. The consumption of corn that has not been treated in the traditional manner can lead to pellagra, a niacin deficiency. The symptoms of pellagra include the three D’s: diarrhea, dermatitis, and dementia. Sufferers also often experience a sore, swollen tongue (Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2004;13(Suppl):S176). Today, this deficiency disease is found among folks who dine primarily on processed or fast foods, who eat corn which has not had the niacin released or been skinned, and who drink alcohol to excess (Nutrition. 2004 Sep;20(9):778-82).
Researchers have also found that we need niacin for other reasons: lower total cholesterol, more high density lipoproteins (good cholesterol) and a decreased risk of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease (Harvard Health Pub. 10/04: Harvard Heart Letter).
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To reverse the decline in math scores and engender in our children an interest and expertise in mathematics, educators need to pay attention to teaching methods. In countries where students do exceptionally well and in U.S. schools where students excel, there are three key attributes:
- Each grade has a focus. In other words, there are non-negotiable skills that students master in that grade;
- Everyone in the school system understands and practices the common definition of knowing;
- The key concepts and procedures are taught using efficient and elegant models—methods that are generalizable and develop mathematical ways of thinking in our students.
The Common Core State Standards in Mathematics (CCSS-M, 2010) have brought the nation’s attention to these three aspects of mathematics learning. CCSS-M stands on three legs:
- Every grade has a focus on a few key concepts to be taught and learned;
- Those topics must be taught with rigor—understanding, fluency, and applicability (in other words, with mastery);
- There should be coherence in teaching these topics—a teacher should know the trajectory of the development of the concept or procedure—where it begins and how it develops in different grades.
With effective methods of teaching, we will achieve the intended objectives of the CCSS-M: higher achievement and interest in mathematics on the part of our students and the general public.
One of the important components of effective teaching is achieving mastery and that is dependent on practice of the material taught—language, concepts, procedures, skills. In the previous post (SAT Math Scores Decline in 2015), I emphasized the importance of practice. In this post, I want to focus on how to do that practice.
To benefit from practice, there is need to dissect the main skill into sub-skills, constantly evaluating their status, and practicing them in isolation and in combination.
Take the long division algorithm, for example, which involves several sub skills—estimation (what do I expect as the answer?), multiplication tables (with fluency and understanding—a fact is recalled in less than two seconds or less), place value (in order to know the size of the partial quotient), spatial skills (organizing and aligning numbers), subtraction (with fluency and understanding—using decomposition/recomposition), and sequencing (following the order and sequence of actions involved in the procedure).
Break Down the Skill: Create a Graphic Organizer
First, write the skill to be improved in a central bubble. Make branches to recognize each sub-skill necessary for performing the broader skill well. For example, the long division algorithm is in the center and multiplication tables, place value, subtraction, spatial orientation/space organization, etc. are the spokes from the central bubble. Similarly, when adding fractions, the addition of fractions is in the center and multiplication tables, divisibility rules, prime factorization, short division, concept of fraction, such as a fraction is equal to one when the numerator and denominator are equal, etc. are in the spokes.
The process continues (creating branches from branches) until the leaves of the branches are simple skills. Depending on the skill and the ability to articulate it, one may have anywhere from a dozen leaves to many more.
Evaluate Learner Performance on Each Sub-Skill
Mark each leaf on the branch by its importance with either critical, important, or of minor importance. Assess each branch using a rating for performance as good, okay, or poor for each leaf. Evaluate each sub-skill for understanding, fluency and applicability.
Identify branches and leaves that have high importance but low proficiency. If a leaf is critical but the student is unsuccessful in it, that represents the best candidate for immediate improvement and practice. Identify the top three sub-skills that require your most urgent attention.
Develop Practice Exercises to Improve Sub-Skills
Develop an exercise to practice using efficient strategies. Even short intervals of supervised practice, first alone and then with others, can be powerful, if the skill was specified clearly and the strategy used is efficient. Independent practice should take place when one is fluent under supervision.
Deliberate practice isn’t easy, which is why most people plateau at a level far below their potential. It is hard to do concentrated, uncomfortable practice on previous skills on top of the demands of the current grade level of work. The planning of and focusing on the components of practice is therefore important. Successful practice is a function of the nature of the content to be mastered, number of practice events, time of practice, nature of practice, the nature and frequency of feedback, etc.
There are two ways of practicing skills to reach a level of automaticity: block practice—repetitive drilling on the same task in one block of activity and variable practice or interleaving—to practice several skills in succession. Interleaving works better in all but the youngest learners because it seems to fit the mind’s natural capacity to detect patterns and recognize differences.
Interleaving practice is particularly useful when students practice a complex, multi-step skill or process such as long division, operations on fractions, or solving equations. If, for example, some aspect of the process is particularly troublesome for students, they might need to be given assignments that help them focus their practice on that one aspect only.
Practice of a concept or skill begins with efficient note taking – an important academic skill students, particularly at the middle and high schools levels, need to develop to have higher achievement in mathematics. It includes how to take notes during teacher and student presentations and then how to summarize work and learning. Through note taking, the information transfers from the teacher to the student and from the student to the teacher. Because the development of note taking skills cannot be left to chance, the teacher has to teach these skills explicitly.
Practice allows students to achieve automaticity of basic skills—the fast, accurate, and effortless processing of content information—which frees the working memory for more complex and higher order thinking and fosters the development of creative aspects of problem solving. With automaticity with understanding, the transfer—the ability to use skills learned in solving one class of problems to solving other problems—a vital part of mathematics learning is possible. Without understanding, students’ ability to make links between related domains is limited. When there is significant overlap in content areas, practice in one leaves an impact on the other. For example, in middle school, work on fractions, decimals, ratio, proportion, and percent should be integrated and practice exercises should include problems from all of them. If students practice pulling general concepts out of a collection of specific examples and give multiple different examples for the general idea, then their ability to transfer skills and procedures increases.
Individual and Small Group Practice
On the average, how many problems does an average student need to practice to achieve a level of competence? And when should students practice? To reach a fair level of competence in a skill takes a great deal of practice. Not until students have practiced a skill upwards of 12 times that they reach an 80 percent competency level. Of course, there will be variations depending on the nature of the skill being practiced and learner differences. Also, when a high level of mastery is reached, the increase in competence is less after each practice. This means the practice should not be in one big practice session but over a period of time. For this reason, part of each day must be devoted to practicing previous material—tool building.
The first four practice sessions result in a level of competence that is almost 50 percent of complete mastery. The next four sessions, however, account for only an approximate 14 percent increase. Therefore, learning new content does not happen quickly. It requires practice spread out over time. The results of this practice will be increments in learning that start out rather large but gradually get smaller and smaller as students fine-tune their knowledge and skill. Only after a great deal of practice, can students perform a skill with speed and accuracy.
Once an acceptable level of understanding and performance is evident, students should work individually because they can be expected to be reasonably close to high performance. They should practice problems and exercises to consolidate their knowledge and gain proficiency. Each student should attempt the same or similar sets of problems, and the differentiation should be achieved through the level of assistance offered for successful completion and the time it takes in achieving this.
Individual work may take multiple forms. For example, it may be conducted in silence to allow for quiet practice, contemplation, and self-assessment. The teacher can circulate to check that the students complete the work accurately, to diagnose problems, and to give strategies for remediation and improvements. During this time, the teacher monitors students’ work – how they are solving the problems, but also collects informal records on the students’ progress and decides which students require assistance and who will be asked to present solutions in the summarizing phase of the lesson.
Explicit instruction for students with and without mathematical difficulties has shown consistently positive effects on performance with both word problems and computation. By the term explicit instruction, I mean that teachers provide clear models for language, concepts, and procedures for solving a problem type using an array of examples. It also includes extensive practice in the use of newly learned strategies and skills and opportunities to think aloud (i.e., talk through the decisions students make, the strategies they plan and use, and the steps they take), and extensive feedback, in the use of strategies and relating strategies to outcomes.
Not all of students’ mathematics instruction should be delivered in an explicit fashion. However, struggling students should receive a significant part of their mathematics instruction explicitly. Some time should be dedicated to supervised practicing in automatizing foundational arithmetic skills and conceptual knowledge necessary for learning the mathematics at their grade level. While practicing, students should be helped to adapt and change strategies according to the context.
Understanding and Automaticity
To retain a skill and use it efficiently at will requires its mastery—understanding and automaticity. To master and use a skill or procedure, one needs to have either conceptual understanding so that one can reconstruct it as needed or automatized it. To be proficient in the use of a skill one should have both understanding and automaticity.
Conceptual understanding assures accuracy in its usage. However, accuracy alone is not enough. For instance, reconstructing a skill each time it is needed is inefficient. One can also automatize a skill or procedure by over learning it. However, if the conditions under which the procedure is to be applied are modified even minimally, one may not be able to apply the procedure. Automaticity is achieved more easily and faster if there is a clear understanding of the concept underlying the skill, first. Then, practice is more productive.
In the initial learning phase of a skill, concept, or procedure, the teacher needs to focus on identifying its salient attributes and help students to understand it by modeling, demonstrating, and breaking it down into its components (task analysis). The aim is to accommodate and assimilate it within existing schemas or if necessary, expand and reorganize them in order to integrate the new concept with old concepts and procedures. The students must adopt and “shape” these new schemas. This learning phase is a “shaping process.”
During the shaping process, the teacher focuses on learners’ attention on their conceptual understanding of the concepts and skills. Without this shaping, they are liable to develop misconceptions or use the procedure in ineffective ways.
The goal of practice is to master the skill—acquire both speed and accuracy, but the goal of the shaping phase is to gain accuracy. It is important to deal with only a few examples during the shaping phase of learning a new skill or process.
The shaping phase is not the time to press students to perform a skill with significant speed. Ineffective teachers tend to prematurely engage students in a heavy practice schedule and rush them through multiple examples. In contrast, effective teachers attend to the needs of the shaping process by slowly walking students through only a few examples.
Technology Assisted Drill and Practice
Tutorials using Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) programs that are well designed and implemented can have a positive impact on mathematics performance, particularly at the middle and high school levels. Still, educators should critically inspect individual software packages and the studies that evaluate them. They should assess if the software has been indeed increased the learning in the specific domain and with students who are similar to those who will use the software.
Charting Accuracy and Speed
Skills should be learned to the level that students can perform them quickly and accurately. To facilitate skill development, students should be encouraged to keep track of their speed and accuracy. This might be best accomplished if they can chart both. For example, I use addition and multiplication ladders to automatize arithmetic facts. As the student completes an individual ladder for a number, he/she records the completion time. Next time, the student tries to beat his/her time. When students can complete a ladder in 15 to 20 seconds without any error, at least three times, they have automatized that addition/multiplication table.
During the modeling phase, students can be given individual and collaborative targets in order to raise expectations and to keep the class working together. That is not to say that students are put under undue pressure, but that they are encouraged to take responsibility for making an effort and doing their very best. The constant monitoring provides the best form of diagnostic teaching and leaves the students little time for goofing off.
Tests as Aids in Mastery and Understanding
Tests have traditionally been used as a measure of learning. Properly used, tests can be and are themselves learning events. The retrieval processes triggered by tests enhance recall, sometimes to a much greater degree than do comparable opportunities to restudy the information. Restudying is better than testing in the short term, whereas an advantage for testing emerges at longer retention intervals. Testing also appears to have greater benefits for subsequent free-recall or cued-recall testing than it does for forms of testing that are less dependent on recall, such as tests of recognition or priming. Two factors that have been found to moderate the testing effect are final-test delay and final-test format:
- Later recall profits from having an earlier test (or tests) of to-be- remembered information versus not having a prior test, and
- later recall profits, under some conditions, more from having an earlier test (or tests) than it does from having an opportunity (or opportunities) to restudy the information in question.
From this perspective the test may have only one problem, but it calls for thinking and integration of knowledge. For example, rather than asking 20 multiplication facts, one can ask:
Problem 1: Make all the possible rectangles of area (a) 24, (b) 64, (c) 48 with whole number sides.
Problem 2: Write a six digit number between 400,000 and 500,000 that is divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10.
Tests as Practice Aids
Tests tax a student’s fluency, recall/retrieval, and understanding. Tests provide training in retrieval in integrative ways. The testing situations add a level of desirable difficulty, recalling of various learning and problem-solving strategies used in the testing process enhance long-term memory. The more difficult the initial test, provided retrieval succeeds, the larger is the benefit of testing.
Restudying, on the other hand, involves much more fluent processing than taking a test and adds to fluency and a better subsequent memory.
The retrieval processes engaged by tests constitute practice for a criterion test later. The idea is that tests enhance memory on subsequent tests because they give learners the opportunity to engage in retrieval processes of the type that will be required on a later test. The benefits of practice tests increase as a function of their similarity to the final test.
Testing improves long-term memory relative to an equal amount of time spent restudying, even in the absence of feedback. However, testing is not always better than restudying, particularly when fluency and understanding are absent. Sometimes restudying is better, and sometimes the two conditions do not differ significantly.
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Summary: Joshua had a giant called Jericho to face but first he had to win the war in his own heart. There were two things that had to happen for Joshua to win that war before the battle began.
“And it came to pass, when Joshua was by Jericho, that he lifted his eyes and looked, and behold, a Man stood opposite him with His sword drawn in His hand. And Joshua went to Him and said to Him, “Are You for us or for our adversaries?” So He said, “No, but as Commander of the army of the Lord I have now come.” And Joshua fell on his face to the earth and worshiped, and said to Him, “What does my Lord say to His servant?” Then the Commander of the Lord’s army said to Joshua, “Take your sandal off your foot, for the place where you stand is holy.” And Joshua did so.” (Joshua 5:13-15)
Alvin C. York was an unlikely man to become the most famous soldier of World War One. York felt his Christian faith barred him from killing anyone, even in war. After being drafted, York went home on a ten day leave and considered the Scriptures a Christian captain had shared with him. Finally, in a crisis of faith, God showed York he could obey God and defend the helpless in Europe at the same time. He wrote, “As I prayed there alone … I knowed He was there. He understood I didn’t want to be a fighter or a killing man … He took pity on me and gave me the assurance I needed … It was His will and that was enough for me.” Sgt.York had to win the war in his own heart before he could fight the battles that lay ahead of him in the trenches of France.
Joshua faced an even greater battle than Alvin York. He had a giant called Jericho to face but first he had to win the war in his own heart. There were two things that had to happen for Joshua to win that war before the battle began.
I. OBSERVATION (JOSHUA 5:13A)
A. The Visible Battle
The first things Joshua observed was a visible battle that lay before him. The city of Jericho was a walled city. The walls towered from six to eight stories high and were several yards thick. Inside were well-armed and fiercely warlike people. What Joshua saw with his eyes was indeed a giant of immense proportions.
Everyone has some kind of visible giant in their life. It may be sickness, attitudes of the heart, people who will not change, family issues, or many other things. Whatever that giant is for you it is real and stands right there in front of you.
B. The Invisible War
As great as the visible giant of Jericho was it was not Joshua’s real problem. It was the invisible war that he had to first fight in his own heart that was the real challenge. Joshua needed to get a handle on several things to win that invisible war. First, he had to overcome the challenge of past failures. Joshua brought to that moment all of his past experiences with him. He must have remembered again the miserable failure of Numbers 14:6-10 when Israel had refused to follow he and Caleb into the Promised Land. Moses had to wait forty years to defeat his giant because of his own failure. Joshua had to wait forty years to defeat his giant because of the failure of others. In both cases, past failures must have haunted them as they faced their present giants. Our failures in the past have to be given to God or they will cripple us in the present! Paul gave us a formula for dealing with past failures in Philippians chapter three:
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Can a vacant lot be….a dangerous idea?
Yes, argued a paper last fall in the journal Trends in Ecology and Evolution, if you think of that lot as a place that can’t be restored to a natural state before people turned it weedy and parkable (as in, “can be parked on by cars” — not “can be turned into a park”).
The paper highlighted one of the biggest scientific fault lines in conservation: Can such “novel” and “hybrid” ecosystems like that lot — human-altered places that include about 36 percent of Earth’s ecosystems, everything from farms to aquaculture to the plant-colonized sides of ruined buildings — ever be restored back to their prehistoric states? If so, which ones — and at what cost?
The paper’s authors, led by Carolina Murcia of the University of Florida and the Orgainzation for Tropical Studies, said the evidence is clear: Any ecosystem can be restored, given enough resources.
They argued that the very concept of the irreversible, phase-shifted novel ecosystem is unsupported by evidence. And they went on to say that the idea of novel ecosystems is a step back for conservation — providing a “license to trash” or “get out of jail” card for companies or others who want to sidestep the hard but ultimately beneficial investments restoration and biodiversity protection require. (Dan Simberloff, a coauthor on the paper, and Murcia have amplified on their argument in a recent piece for Ensia.com.)
Science is always about the play of ideas. So we asked seven scientists — including Erle Ellis, Richard Hobbs and Michelle Marvier — for their 100-word responses to the TREE paper. The answers are as various as ecosystems, novel or otherwise. (Editor’s note: The following should not be taken as responses to the Simberloff et al. Ensia piece.)
‘The fuss over labeling takes time and energy practitioners lack.'
Conservation practitioners find it hard to shake the feeling that dallying with “novel ecosystems” equates to giving up. Murcia et al.’s cautionary tone is therefore reassuring, although their recurring emphasis on the lack of “proof” of ecological thresholds detracts from a critical point: the fuss over labeling an ecosystem “novel,” “hybrid” or “historic” takes time and energy practitioners lack. Our core challenges remain: clearly define objectives, assess progress and adjust course as needed. No matter what we call them, those objectives should reflect the dynamic nature of the systems we manage and the emerging stressors that threaten their resilience.
‘Novel ecosystem science and conservation aim to expand the view of what “natures” are worth conserving'
I found the paper less than useful, scientifically and for conservation. The novel ecosystem community already knows, as the authors assert, that detecting “explicit, irreversible ecological thresholds [that] allow distinctions between ‘novel ecosystems’ and ‘hybrid’ or ‘historic’ ones” may be impossible. We also don’t intend to present a “clear message as to what practitioners should do with a ‘novel ecosystem.’” Novel ecosystem science and conservation instead aim to expand the view of what “natures” are worth conserving — beyond a return to “pristine nature,” a hopeless impossibility (e.g., Marris et al 2013) — and to explore all options and reasons to do so.
‘Decisions about managing ecosystems are colored mostly in shades of grey'
Thirty-six years ago I arrived in the western United States to a region dominated by sagebrush ecosystems that today has been transformed to large landscapes of an invasive Asian grass. Whitebark pine forests where I had hunted forest grouse only a decade ago are now largely dead or dying. Climate change is implicated in both cases; successful restoration efforts have yet to materialize.
Murcia and colleagues make valid points about the value of traditional restoration. Their critique of novel ecosystems, however, is limited by an impractical, black and white view of ecosystems, thresholds, and restoration itself. Decisions about managing ecosystems, unfortunately, are colored mostly in shades of gray.
‘Restoration and conservation have always absorbed new insights, challenges and opportunities'
Recently I visited a bald cypress swamp in Louisiana — beautiful, but with a floating understory of non-native water hyacinth that we soon found sheltering a native juvenile salamander. I’ve also seen thriving wetlands in California’s Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta without a single native organism.
These are real-world hybrid and novel ecosystems — a world Murcia et al would prefer we ignore regarding restoration and conservation options (especially when deciding whether something can’t or shouldn’t be restored). They fear derailing restoration and conservation; but these young disciplines have always absorbed new insights, challenges and opportunities, becoming better equipped to manage and restore systems for today and the future. Isn’t that what we all want?
'I thought troublesome ideas were the point of science'
Murcia and colleagues contend that “[t]he ‘novel ecosystem’ label may provide a ‘license to trash’” and “scientists should exercise caution” when discussing such ideas. They cite ecosystems’ ability to recover from past disturbance as evidence that the novel ecosystem idea is misguided.
Ironically, I recently discussed the same studies regarding ecosystem recovery. In response, Miller, Soule and Terborgh cautioned that “blanket predictions about nature having a high level of resilience are premature and may promote ecological tinkering.”
Somehow it’s unsafe to say nature sometimes cannot recover and it’s unsafe to say nature often can recover.
When did scientists start worrying so much about the dangerous implications of ideas? I thought troublesome ideas were the point of science.
‘Conservation: Let’s just get on with it.'
The term ‘novel ecosystems’ is an attempt to create a fundamental distinction between old and new thinking or functioning. Instead, it is nonsense, creating unhelpful polarization. Conservation is about negating human impacts on ecosystems and species. Murcia et al. are correct: no threshold exists beyond which we cannot return to a historic state. Leave my office alone for 1,000 years, and a verdant tropical rainforest replaces it. All ecosystems are in flux, and their ‘stability’ depends on how closely we look. Similarly, some parts of Earth need new conservation, while others do nicely with the old style. Let’s just get on with it.
‘Returning to arbitrary reference points will require the dislocation or livelihood transformation of hundreds of millions of people'
Seeking to return to “the historical trajectory of ecosystems before human activity” (if we actually knew what that was) would require the dislocation or livelihood transformation of hundreds of millions of people in places like Bangladesh, Haiti or Latin America. If we care about people as much as other species, this line in Murcia et al — “all ecosystems should be considered candidates for restoration, regardless of the requisite resources” — should instead be about restoring socio-ecological systems for their ecosystem services. Novel ecosystems like urban wetlands and rain gardens will be critical to restoring such services as watershed infiltration capacity (Tellman et al).
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This document describes proposed best practices for transforming multilingual terminologies, particulary those available in TBX format, into a Linked Data version. The best practices are exemplified using the well-known IATE resource. The document describes the models and vocabularies to be used and describes the conversion using a running example.
This document was published by the Best Practices for Multilingual Linked Open Data community group. It is not a W3C Standard nor is it on the W3C Standards Track.
There are a number of ways that one may participate in the development of this report:
This document provides guidelines on how to convert terminologies represented in the Term Base eXchange (TBX) into the Resource Description Framework (RDF). TBX is an open standard that has been published by the Localization Industry Standards Association (LISA). The standard is identical to ISO standard 30042. This document on the one hand describes the vocabularies that are recommended to be used in doing this conversion and describes the structure of the resulting RDF. It builds on standard W3C vocabularies and other vocabularies that are currently in the process of standardization. The conversion has been implemented in the form of a software package that can be used by anyone (see here).
The following table provides an overview of the vocabularies used in the conversion. Most vocabularies are W3C recommendations or near standards developed by a working group.
|Model||Prefix||Model reference URL|
|PROV-O: The Prov Ontology||prov||http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#|
|LIDER TBX Ontology||tbx||http://tbx2rdf.lider-project.eu/tbx#|
The following list provides an overview of the main elements of a multilingual terminology represented in TBX format.
Lexical resources such as WordNet are one of the most important types of data sources for linguistic research. Such resources are complementary to another type of Web resources that contain a large amount of taxonomic data described in RDF such as DBpedia . Bridging the gap between these two types of resources means that rich linguistic information found in lexical resources (e.g., lexicons) can be used to describe information on the Web, enabling novel applications such as question answering over Linked Data . This leads to a new type of resources that is termed ontology-lexicon, which consists of an ontology describing the semantic and taxonomic nature of the domain and a lexicon describing the behaviour of the words in a language used to refer to the semantics captured by the ontology.
In that context lemon (Lexicon Model for Ontologies) was proposed to provide a de facto standard to be used by a cloud of lexical linked data resources such as WordNet, BabelNet, and UBY, among many others. The lemon model’s core consists of the following elements depicted below:
A lexical entry, which may be a word, multiword expression or an affix, is assumed to represent a single lexical unit with common properties, especially part-of-speech, across all its forms and meanings.
A form represents a particular version of a lexical entry, for example a plural or some other inflected form. A form may have a number of representations in different orthographies (e.g., spelling variants) or media (e.g., phonetic representations).
The sense refers to the usage of a word with a specific meaning and can also be considered as a reification of the pair of a lexical entry used with reference to a given ontology. The sense is also used as a node for the annotation of many pragmatic features such as register.
The reference is an entity in the ontology that the entry can be interpreted as, or alternatively that can be represented by using the lexical entry.
The main data elements described above have been mapped into RDF using the above mentioned vocabularies as follows:
In this section we illustrate the transformation by providing one running and real example taken from the IATE terminology.
Converting terminological concepts and terms
The TBX header is transformed into RDF as follows:
Transforming terminological concepts
The term entry in lines 14 -18 would be represented in RDF by a skos:Concept in RDF.
This is shown by the following RDF snippet, where the the subject field of the terminological concept is specified via the property subjectField:
Our TBX example document has two language sets for English and German. In the lemon model, a lexicon is regarded as language-specific and as comprising lexical entries for a single language. Thus, in order to represent lexical entries in different languages, one lexicon per language needs to be created. In our example, as there are terms for English and German, two lexica need to be created. These lexica contain one lexical entry each, corresponding to the terms Zuständigkeit der Mitgliedstaaten and competence of the Member States. The English entry generated from lines 19--25 would look as follows:
Note that the entry specifies the reliability code (i.e. 3), the type of term (i.e. full form), the canonical form (i.e. competence of the member states), and the language (i.e. en). Each lexical entry is assumed to have a LexicalSense that represents the meaning of the entry. In this case the meaning is established by reference to the terminological concept :IATE_84.
We would generate a similar entry for German, which is identified as :Zust\%C3\%A4ndigkeit+\-der\-+Mitgliedstaaten-de and is an entry in the corresponding German lexicon. Note that both entries have a reference to :IATE_84 and are thus cross-lingual equivalents.
Components of a composite term are represented as constituents of the composite term. A component is linked to its corresponding lexical entry by way of the correspondsTo relation. In the example below, the lexical entry Zust%C3%A4ndigkeit+der+Mitgliedstaaten-de is linked to an object Zust%C3%A4ndigkeit+der+Mitgliedstaaten-de#ComponentList representing its decomposition via the property correspondsTo. This object Zust\%C3\%A4ndigkeit+der+Mitgliedstaaten-de#ComponentList is linked to its components via the property constituent. For each component, its part-of-speech and grammatical number (if applicable) is indicated. The decomposition of the German entry for Zuständigkeit der Mitgliedstaaten (lines 32-47 in the sample TBX document) is represented in RDF as indicated below:
Finally, we discuss how to represent provenance information, in particular provenance information as expressed via transaction elements in TBX. We rely on the PROV-O ontology for this, as this is the W3C recommended vocabulary to `represent and interchange provenance information generated in different systems and under different contexts´. Some provenance information is given on lines 48--53 of our TBX example document and from this we generate the following representation:
As a proof-of-concept for the conversion, we have converted the IATE (InterActive Terminology of Europe) into RDF format. The data is available here. We have also converted the European Migration Network glossary. The data is available here.
In order to show how the model can be used, we give a number of queries that demonstrate data access to the model.
A converter has been implemented to map TBX/XML input into RDF using the vocabularies described above. The converter has been implemented as a Java program that reads in the document and builds the DOM tree. The DOM tree is traversed and elements are mapped to appropriate object-oriented datastructures. These datastructures are then serialized as RDF. The code is available as GitHub project tbx2rdf
As additional input to the program, a file can be provided that contains mappings of specific XML elements and attributes used in the TBX document to URIs representing properties. If no file is specified the default file "default.mappings" is used. This option is only available when directly executing the Java program, not via the Web service.
A service for converting TBX to RDF is available here.
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|The Constitution of the United States of America
Bill of Rights: Amendments 1 through 10
Amendment 2: Right to bear arms.
2-0 A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of
a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms,
shall not be infringed.
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The Combination of Fountain Design and Environmental Science
Publish Time：2019/04/11 News Number of views：574
The water body is affected and restricted by the natural environment, but at the same time, the water form changes have an impact on the environment. The combination of water scenery art and environmental science is mainly reflected in four aspects: tree essence and environmental protection, entertainment and leisure, residential district construction and decoration art.
First, Fountain Design and Environmental Protection
Water can improve the humidity and temperature of the environment. After the water reaches a certain amount of water, due to the radiation nature of water, when the heat capacity and thermal conductivity are different from the surrounding environment, it will change the heat exchange between the water body and the atmosphere, so that the temperature and humidity near the water body will change, making the local microclimate near the water body more personal and more favored. The self-purification function of water body makes the water scenery have the function of environmental protection. All kinds of water bodies in nature have a certain self-purification ability. When pollutants enter the water body, the water body is purified by a series of physical, chemical and biological changes, and the water body is partially or completely restored to its original state.
Second, Fountains and Recreation
Water-rich form can satisfy people’s visual enjoyment; the pleasant sound of water flowing can satisfy people’s auditory enjoyment; and the special existence mode of water can satisfy people’s tactile enjoyment. Therefore, water plays an important role in people’s entertainment and leisure. Waterscape is now widely used in the game site, seashore playgrounds, various swimming pools, marine parks, community set up in the children’s game water spraying and so on are favored by people.
Third, Fountain and Residential Community Construction
With the development of real estate industry and the improvement of people’s living standard, people are more eager for nature and hope to create colorful water space. The reaction of this kind of feeling in architectural design and candlelight construction is that people have higher and higher requirements for living environment. Water has once again become one of the active and attractive factors in architecture and residential. Waterscape has become a bright spot in the residential area environmental landscape. The relationship between water and residence is not a simple water plus residence, but emphasizes the symbiotic relationship between man and water, man and nature, and emphasizes the harmonious relationship between matter and self.
Fourth, Fountain Waterscape and Decoration Art
Because of the variety of water scenery, the decoration of urban public space is more and more important. Large-area pools can also create soft reflections that increase the sense of space, thus achieving many water features that are not possible with other decorations on the flat. Running waterfalls, towering fountains, can make the space full of dynamic beauty, so that the landscape lively, resulting in magnificent feeling. As one of the urban decorative elements, the water view should also abide by certain decorative principles.The design should take into account the proportion, scale appropriate and the relationship between the water and the surrounding environment.
- What aspects need to be considered when de...
- Key design points of fountain waterscape
- The beautification and environmental prote...
- What is the control mode of music fountain...
- Those creative fountains
- What are the expression techniques for hig...
- What kinds of fountain sculptures are there?
- Analysis of the advantages of water curtai...
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Fainting & Unconsciousness
Signs & Symptoms
Fainting is a brief loss of consciousness. It can last from seconds to 30 minutes. Just before fainting, a person may feel a sense of dread, feel dizzy, see spots, and have nausea.
If a person falls and can't remember the fall itself, he or she has fainted.
An unconscious person is hard to rouse and can't be made aware of his or her surroundings. The person is unable to move on his or her own.
Fainting is due to a sudden drop in blood flow or glucose supply to the brain. This causes a temporary drop in blood pressure and pulse rate. Medical reasons for this include:
Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia). This can occur in diabetics, in early pregnancy, in persons on severe diets, etc.
Anemia. Eating disorders.
Conditions which cause rapid loss of blood.
Abnormal heart rhythm. Heart attack. Stroke.
Head injury. Heat stroke. Heat exhaustion.
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At Girl Scouts of Western Washington, we’re always looking for new ways to engage girls in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math).
So last spring, we gathered a group of girls together to talk science. They were in grades K-8 and from diverse, low-income communities where access to STEM opportunities is often limited. We didn’t tell the girls what the conversation was about beforehand—we wanted to see their immediate, real-time response to the idea of STEM programming.
When we introduced the word “science,” their reactions were alarming.
Several girls walked out. Others said we’d tricked them. Almost every girl said science was boring, and many said it was difficult, hard or frightening. Almost no one could describe what an engineer does.
We took those reactions as a challenge: how could we get these girls to engage with STEM—without scaring them off? Read more
It’s back-to-school time again! And for thousands of kids and teens across western Washington, that means it’s back to science class … even if it’s not everyone’s favorite subject.
This is especially true for girls: only 14% of girls say they want to become scientists.
But this year, fourth and fifth graders in the Edmonds School District will be using something new to explore science, technology, engineering and math: special STEM Kits created by Gold Award Girl Scout Jessica Dyck.
“Science has always just clicked for me,” says Jessica. “I’ve always loved puzzles and how things work together, and I wanted to find a way to share my love of science with others. I wanted to help students understand the magic behind science.”
On May 4, an uncharacteristically sun-drenched Saturday, Girl Scouts of Western Washington with the Women’s Funding Alliance and many other partners convened the inaugural State of the Girl(s) Summit in DuPont, WA. More than 75 government, education, health, non-profit, philanthropy and business folks gathered with girls to discuss how we can work together across sectors to improve girls’ quality of life. Together, we took a fresh look at data trends, explored what’s working and discussed ways to work to create change. Read more
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How much is 25 x 25 ?
Easy right? You can perhaps do it mentally and come up with the corect answer of 625.
How about 85 x 85 ? Oops. Feel the sudden urge to use a calculator? You don't need to!
The answer is 7225. How about 65 x 65 ? Again, its easy. 4225.
Finding the square of a number ending with "5" (like 25, 75 or 135) is very easy if you know a neat trick.
I am going to explain the trick here. See if you can figure out why it works !
First, notice that when you square a number that ends with 5, the answer always ends in a "25" For example, we saw that 85 squared is 7225 and 65 squared is 4225. So any number that ends with a "5", when squared, will result in a number whose last two digits are "25"
Now coming to the the remaining digit. In 25 x 25, the first digit is "2". In 65 x 65, the first digit is 6. To find the square, we MULTIPLY the first digit by the number that NORMALLY FOLLOWS it in the number line. For example, look at 25. The first digit is 2 and the number that normally follows it in the number line is 3. So 25x 25 = 2x3 = 6, followed by a 25 = 625.
Likewise, 65 x 65. 6 is followed by 7 in the number line. 6 x 7 = 42. So the answer we are looking for is 4225 !
Just try out 55 squared or 115 squared ! Easy eh!
Here's my question for you. WHY DOES IT WORK. Click HERE to see why it works. Would this work for the squares of other numbers?
Return to my homepage
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Faust by goethe many research papers discuss the archetypal tale of an ambitious, dissatisfied man who bargains with the devil as a means of achieving his goals has. Faust essay dedication analysis goethe study plan essay for master degree dissertation thesis on educational management, apa essay format guide us. Faust as a tragic hero in the story of faust, written by johann wolfgang von goethe, faust is whirled into an adventure of sin and deceit the further faust follows. The aim of this paper is to investigate how goethe and mary shelley portray knowledge in faust and frankenstein my choice of investigating this.
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Interventions to address the U.S. opioid crisis primarily target opioid use, misuse, and addiction, but because the opioid crisis includes multiple substances, the opioid specificity of interventions may limit their ability to address the broader problem of polysubstance use. Overlap of opioids with other substances ranges from shifts among the substances used across the lifespan to simultaneous co-use of substances that span similar and disparate pharmacological categories. Evidence suggests that nonmedical opioid users quite commonly use other drugs, and this polysubstance use contributes to increasing morbidity and mortality. Reasons for adding other substances to opioids include enhancement of the high (additive or synergistic reward), compensation for undesired effects of one drug by taking another, compensation for negative internal states, or a common predisposition that is related to all substance consumption. But consumption of multiple substances may itself have unique effects. To achieve the maximum benefit, addressing the overlap of opioids with multiple other substances is needed across the spectrum of prevention and treatment interventions, overdose reversal, public health surveillance, and research. By addressing the multiple patterns of consumption and the reasons that people mix opioids with other substances, interventions and research may be enhanced.
The U.S. opioid crisis exerts a major impact on health and social outcomes. Since 2005, deaths due to opioid overdoses exceed 500,000 , and declines in overall U.S. life expectancy are at least partly explained by overdose mortality [2, 3]. Morbidity caused by opioids includes increasing infectious disease (particularly HIV, hepatitis, and endocarditis), sleep disorders, affective disorders, and increasing neonatal opioid withdrawal, among other outcomes [4,5,6,7,8,9]. Overall economic impact from opioid misuse was estimated at $500 billion per year in 2017 .
In response, prevention and treatment practices and policies have been implemented widely [5, 11]. These include expanding access to medications for opioid use disorder (OUD) [12,13,14,15], reducing opioid prescribing [16,17,18,19], increasing access to naloxone [20,21,22,23,24], improving public health surveillance , increasing access to harm reduction programs such as syringe services [16, 25, 26], and major investments in research [27, 28]. All of these interventions target opioid use, misuse, and addiction. However, if the “opioid crisis” includes multiple substances, the opioid specificity of current prevention and treatment interventions may limit their ability to address the broader problem of polysubstance use involving opioids. To have the maximum impact on this multifaceted crisis, it is important to understand the overlap of opioids with other substances.
Overlap of opioids with other substances can include shifts across the lifespan and simultaneous co-use of substances. Use of substances across a broad time frame (i.e., past year or lifetime) is typical for epidemiological studies, which less commonly assess specific co-use patterns within specific drug using occasions. However, the primary focus of this Perspective is on the issue of simultaneous co-use of an opioid with another substance, which could include nicotine, alcohol, other opioids including prescribed opioids, benzodiazepines (and other sedatives), stimulants including cocaine and amphetamine-related compounds, and other categories.
There are multiple reasons people use other substances with opioids: enhancement of the high (additive or synergistic reward), compensation for undesired effects of one drug by taking another, compensation for negative internal states, or a general predisposition for all substances. The possibility that consuming multiple substances in combination has additive or synergistic pharmacological effects particularly demands study. Fortunately, we are now at a point where advances in research methods allow us to study these kinds of complexities, moving addiction science beyond the typically single-drug models of the past.
In this Perspective, we summarize overlaps of opioid use and addiction with use of and addiction to other substances from viewpoints of population science and then neuroscience. In each section we address questions of why nonmedical opioid users also commonly use other drugs, and what are health consequences of simultaneous use of multiple drugs, including their role in overdose deaths.
Epidemiological studies dating back at least several decades confirm that persons with OUD are likely to have used multiple substances, not just opioids. The Epidemiologic Catchment Area data from the early 1980s showed that, on average, heroin users consumed 5.0 other illicit substances (out of seven categories assessed and excluding tobacco or alcohol) and users of opioids other than heroin consumed 5.8 others . Results from observational studies of returning Vietnam Veterans and samples of heroin users in Miami and California confirm other drug use as a prominent risk factor for subsequent heroin use and overlapping co-use of heroin with other substances [30,31,32,33,34].
More recent studies also have documented that opioid use overlaps with other substances and that OUD often co-occurs with other substance use disorders [35,36,37,38]. A 2012–2013 U.S. general population study found that more than 90% of individuals with OUD used more than two other substances within the same year, and over 25% had at least two other substance use disorders along with OUD . Those with more substance use disorders were more likely to be younger, male, and single and were more likely to have initiated opioid use at an earlier age . Finally, a notable indicator of simultaneous multi-substance use is that the majority of opioid-related overdose deaths involve multiple substances (see “Health and Safety Consequences” below).
While overlap with other substances and substance use disorders is common among those with OUD, the patterns may vary . Recent evidence shows an increasing rate of methamphetamine use among adults in the U.S. admitted to treatment programs for heroin addiction . The implication is that overlap of opioids with other substances is common but can vary across time, both within an individual and within populations of users.
While the focus of this Perspective is on polysubstance use in the context of opioids, it is important to consider that polysubstance use frequently occurs with all recreational drugs, whether their use is legal or illegal. Cigarette smokers are far more likely to drink alcohol than non-smokers. Marijuana users are far more likely to use opioids nonmedically than people who do not use marijuana. This pattern is seen in all ages and drug-using populations . Further, as a general principal, the more widely a drug is used, the higher the percentage of users who do not use other drugs; and, the less widely used, the more likely a drug is to be used with other drugs (Fig. 1). While the reasons for this increasing overlap in substances that are less frequently consumed is not totally clear, some of it may relate to the drug use trajectories where substances are added to one another in a progression. Because less frequently consumed substances are rarely the first used, it is typical that less frequently consumed substances would have a higher degree of overlap over the life course than the more commonly consumed. This principal may help explain the high frequency of overlap of heroin use with other drug use and the lesser, but still significant, overlap of prescription opioid misuse (which is much more common than heroin use) with other drug use.
Compensation for negative internal states
Polysubstance use, including when it involves opioids, may be a way to compensate for negative internal states associated with psychiatric disorders (maladaptive self-medication). Mental illnesses, especially mood disorders, often co-occur with opioid use and use disorders [35, 37]. Of the 9.6 million American adults who misused opioids in 2018, 45.8% (4.4 million) had a mental illness in the past year, and 17.3% (1.7 million) had a serious mental illness in the past year . The rates of co-occurring mental illness are even higher for those with a past year OUD, with 66.7% having any mental illness in the past year and 28.6% having serious mental illness in the past year . In 2018, 17.3% of the adults who had misused opioids (1.6 million people) reported having serious thoughts of suicide, 6.6% (0.6 million) made suicide plans, and 3.2% (0.3 million) attempted suicide . In one study individuals with substance use disorders involving multiple drugs were more likely to have other mental illnesses than were those with just OUD . In particular, polysubstance use may have contributed to post-traumatic stress disorder because of its deleterious effects on neuroendocrine stress-response systems .
OUD is also highly comorbid with pain. Chronic pain and the associated emotional distress may dysregulate the brain’s reward and stress circuitry, raising the risk for opioid misuse and OUD . One study estimates that 10% of patients treated for chronic pain misuse prescription opioids . The use of other drugs including alcohol, cannabis, or sedatives is common in individuals with chronic pain. Although the prevalence of chronic pain is positively correlated with the number of comorbid substance use disorders, it was not found to be a significant factor in the prevalence of comorbid substance use disorders for individuals with OUD . One possible explanation for this was that a greater proportion of the chronic pain/OUD group were females who are less likely to be polysubstance users. Consistent with this, in a study of individuals under treatment for substance use disorder that have chronic pain, polysubstance use was associated with pain interference only in males with alcohol use disorder . Chronic pain was also found to be associated with mental health disorders, particularly mood disorders, in individuals with substance use disorders and this was highest for individuals with both OUD and chronic pain, implying important interactions between mental illness, pain, and OUD .
Compensation for other drug effects
An incentive for polysubstance use is to compensate for impairments associated with opioid use. Just as users may perceive that co-use of stimulants ameliorates alcohol impairment, people who use opioids may take stimulants to compensate for opioids’ sedating effects. One of the motivations for use of prescription opioids, stimulants, and benzodiazepines has been to “increase or decrease the effects of other drugs” [37, 47, 48]. For example, the addition of cocaine to decrease the dose of heroin and degree of physical dependence has been reported by out-of-treatment users and by methadone patients . Such combinations of heroin and cocaine may be sought because of both the rewarding effects and as compensation for adverse opioid effects .
Health and safety consequences
Toxicity can be increased through pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic interactions as described in the “Neuroscience” section below, and drug combinations involving opioids may be particularly dangerous from the standpoint of overdose risk [51, 52]. Detailed analyses of polysubstance use in Florida identified multiple causative substances in 93% of the 1743 fentanyl-related overdose deaths in 2017 . Use of other substances appears to play a role in overdose from heroin [54,55,56], and combinations of opioids with other substances, especially sedatives and respiratory depressants such as alcohol and benzodiazepines, increase the risk of overdose [51, 57,58,59].
Overdose research typically reports each category of substances separately, without accounting for overlap. For instance, the primary report on drug overdose deaths from the National Center for Health Statistics reported on all overdose deaths combined and deaths from: (1) any opioid or (2) heroin, (3) natural and semisynthetic opioids, (4) methadone, and (5) synthetic opioids other than methadone . Yet, deaths involving more than one category are coded in all that are included, perhaps masking important trends in which multiple drugs may be the culprit more than one specific drug.
Because of its very high potency and its ubiquity in mixtures with heroin and sometimes with other drugs such as cocaine or counterfeit prescription medications, polysubstance use with fentanyl may be responsible for the high fatality rate in many areas of the United States. In 2016, 79.7% of overdose deaths in the U.S.A. involving synthetic opioids other than methadone (i.e., fentanyl-related compounds) also involved other substances, particularly other opioids, cocaine, benzodiazepines, alcohol, psychostimulants, and antidepressants . Purveyors of the drugs (i.e., the vector) may be responsible for some of the polydrug use found in overdose decedents . It may or may not have been the explicit choice of a user to combine substances, and reasons for the multiple drug use may include both intentional co-ingestion as well as adulteration of the illicit drug supply .
Benzodiazepines are an important category to consider. By themselves, benzodiazepines have a generally limited ability to result in overdose death ; however, the combination with opioids is increasingly detected in overdose deaths, suggesting synergistic effects . Reasons for this increased lethality of the combinations are not fully understood and may vary depending on the specific opioid and benzodiazepine involved .
Polysubstance use may also contribute to risk of traumatic injury, infectious disease risk, and other health consequences . Between 40 and 60% of patients seen in trauma centers have alcohol or other drugs in their system, and, in one study, presence of cocaine, marijuana, or opioids in the blood was significantly more likely among injured patients with acute alcohol intoxication than in those without alcohol intoxication . Furthermore, settings where patients with injuries due to polysubstance consumption are treated (including emergency and inpatient settings) can be useful in providing opportunities for intervention and engagement in care that is needed over the long term.
Convergent reward mechanisms
A neurobiological basis for polysubstance use is that combining drugs that converge on a common circuit at different points can produce additive or synergistic rewarding effects. Synergistic pharmacological interactions occur with drugs that have different mechanisms but a common end consequence, such as increasing dopamine (DA) release in the nucleus accumbens (NAC). With synergistic interactions, the effect of the combination is greater than the sum of the separate drug effects. This contrasts with additive pharmacological interactions, which occur between drugs that share a common mechanism and would result in an effect that is equal to the sum of both agents.
The rewarding effects of substances are mediated by ventral tegmental area (VTA)-dopaminergic projections to the NAC . The action of this pathway can be enhanced by several mechanisms, including by directly or indirectly increasing activity of VTA-DA neurons, increasing terminal DA release, blocking DA reuptake or enhancing the postsynaptic actions of DA on NAC neurons. Preclinical studies in rodents have identified the neuronal and neurochemical actions of drugs on this circuit (see Fig. 2).
Opioids are distinct from other rewarding substances through their actions at specific opioid receptors. Studies in animals indicate that activation of μ-opioid receptors on GABA-VTA cells disinhibits DA neurons and increases their activity and DA function in the NAC . When opioid receptors are maximally occupied, the addition of another opioid has no further effect. However, combinations with stimulants that increase synaptic levels of DA or that enhance DA terminal release results in a synergistic effect on DA release that is greater than the effect of either alone [68, 69].
Preclinical studies demonstrated that cocaine enhances DA levels primarily through inhibition of the DA transporter, whereas amphetamine-like stimulants both inhibit the transporter and also directly increase vesicular release . The net effect of both is to increase DA in the NAC. For example, cocaine increases inhibitory GABA transmission from the prefrontal cortex to VTA-GABA neurons, an effect that would disinhibit VTA-DA neurons through a mechanism that is distinct from that mediated by opioid receptors . In addition to its primary effect to increase terminal DA release, amphetamine inhibits monoamine oxidase and enhances tyrosine hydroxylase, which would have the net effect of increasing DA extracellular levels, also in ways that are distinct from opioid mechanism .
Although there is substantial evidence for synergistic effects of stimulant/opioid combinations on DA release in animals, self-administration of the combination reflected an additive interaction, i.e., it was not greater than the sum of the individual drug effects in animals . In human laboratory studies the effects are mostly additive but this is dose-related . For example, certain dose combinations increased ratings of “high” and “liking” and cocaine administered to methadone-maintained individuals produced greater subjective ratings of “high” and “liking” [74, 75]. In drug discrimination studies in non-human primates the drug combination produces a unique discriminative stimulus that shares characteristics with the individual drugs but does not completely overlap them .
Notably, the actions of stimulants are not limited to DA systems. They also increase the activation of the other monoamine systems, serotonin and norepinephrine . The bias toward a particular monoamine system depends on the specific stimulant. For example, MDMA (ecstasy) has a greater effect on serotonin than amphetamine, which is biased toward DA and norepinephrine systems . The enhancement of noradrenergic function by stimulants may further drive opioid use in an effort to compensate for or balance the arousal response.
Benzodiazepines are often co-administered with opioids. Because they are allosteric modulators of GABA A receptors (GABAAR), benzodiazepines might be predicted to oppose the disinhibitory effects of opioids in the VTA. However, although both GABA and DA neurons in the VTA express GABAAR, benzodiazepines bind to those containing the α1 subunit, which are localized to VTA-GABA neurons and are lacking in VTA-DA neurons [78,79,80]. The resulting inhibition of VTA-GABA neurons would be additive to the acute action of opioids. In human studies, benzodiazepines enhance the subjective effects of opioids, including “high” and “liking” . Benzodiazepines are commonly prescribed along with opioid analgesics and are commonly misused by those who use illicit opioids [63, 81], and the combination has been implicated in increasing the risk for overdose [51, 57, 63, 81]. Both benzodiazepines and opioids inhibit respiration so that the effects of the combination may be additive. Although mechanisms underlying this interaction have not been elucidated, in animal models pretreatment of a benzodiazepine potentiated opioid-induced brain hypothermia, but not hypoxia, whereas co-administration of the two potentiated the opioid-induced decrease in oxygen levels in brain .
The complex rewarding effects of nicotine are mediated by multiple receptors in the VTA and NAC, although its actions at the β2-nAChR subtype are considered to be integral to the rewarding effects . Unlike opioids, nicotine directly depolarizes VTA-DA neurons . This would produce a greater magnitude of neuronal activation than disinhibition alone and would synergize with opioid disinhibition of the same neurons. In addition to increasing DA discharge rate, nicotine changes the pattern of discharge to favor a phasic or bursting mode . This is mediated by α7-nAChR enhancement of glutamatergic signaling from the prefrontal cortex to VTA-DA neurons [86, 87]. DA bursting promotes the formation of associations between stimuli and rewards and this may be the basis for reward-enhancing effects of nicotine in combination with other substances [88, 89].
Typically, the term “gateway drug theory” refers to use of tobacco and alcohol preceding marijuana, followed by “harder drugs” like cocaine or opioids, and most who misuse opioids have already used legal drugs and marijuana . An important consideration of the theory is that the gateway drug is often used during adolescence. This is a window of brain development during which perturbations such as drug exposure can produce unique and enduring effects.
While multiple studies document overlaps in substance use onset [42, 90], mechanisms for a gateway potential for nicotine have perhaps best been delineated. Neurobiological evidence suggests that, independent of its own rewarding effects, nicotine can intensify rewarding effects of other substances and non-drug rewards [89, 91]. In addition to the ability of nicotine to favor phasic DA neuronal discharge, this may also be attributed in part to its ability to increase tyrosine hydroxylase activity [92, 93]. Nicotine’s actions as a histone deacetylase inhibitor could prime a cocaine response by enhancing cocaine-related histone-4 acetylation of the FosB gene, and the hyperacetylation of other histones by nicotine would further enhance gene expression . Analyzing data from two cohort studies, Kandel and Kandel found that cocaine dependence was highest in users who had first smoked cigarettes and that concurrent smoking around the time of cocaine initiation was associated with more persistent cocaine use and addiction—consistent with the priming effect they found in their animal model. Conversely, cocaine does not appear to prime the nicotine response . Although this novel hypothesis is compelling, it awaits confirmation by other studies and the linkages to later addiction to opioids are not fully established. Future studies identifying these effects are necessary for understanding the potential for licit drug administration during adolescence to accelerate progression to illicit drug use.
In addition to acute actions described above, all drugs of abuse produce long-term plasticity that contributes to compulsive behaviors that characterize substance use disorder. They do so through multiple mechanisms, and a description of this is beyond the scope of this Perspective. However, a shared mechanism through which most drugs of abuse induce enduring neuroadaptations is by increasing the AMPAR/NMDAR ratio, resulting in enhanced excitatory transmission onto VTA-DA neurons [70, 94]. The mechanisms by which individual drug classes produce their effects and whether these are specific to individual classes is a topic of future investigation.
Implications for research
The study of multiple substances requires assessment of both individual and combined effects. Therefore, when multiple substances are involved a general issue is the difficulty of framing meaningful research hypotheses and selecting from a broad range of possible analyses. The National Institutes of Health provides guidance through a specific funding opportunity announcement on the importance of both observational and treatment development research on polysubstance use (see: https://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PAR-20-035.html). Yet, not every potential interaction can be examined because of increasing research complexity, including potentially exponentially larger samples as more combinations are examined (compared to single substance studies). Furthermore, because it is recognized that studies of polysubstance use require complex designs and analysis, the grant program mentioned above includes special review (i.e., review by a specifically designated initial review group).
Priority areas where addressing polysubstance use is particularly urgent may include those combinations that are shown to have negative effects and population impacts. One specific combination for research is to understand the mechanisms of specific and apparently deadly combinations of opioids with alcohol, benzodiazepines, and other sedating agents, and some work to address these interactions is underway . For other combinations, prioritization will be required. Fortunately, large-scale human studies such as the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study, and other population studies are poised to provide data which can help to identify meaningful polysubstance use patterns [43, 96]. That is, these and other population studies can identify specific types of drug combinations that show particular relevance to human health for examination in basic research to determine mechanisms of action. Given that polysubstance use is more often the rule than the exception, novel approaches are needed to predict the multiple points of intersection of drugs that would result in a greater risk of a use disorder or toxicity from drug combinations. Likewise, novel approaches are needed to predict therapeutic measures that go beyond targeting a single drug–receptor interaction and toward the long-term plasticity that maintains addiction.
One promising approach relies on a big data approach of developing predictive models by computational mining of datasets related to drug abuse . A centralized database of chemicals, target proteins, cellular signaling pathways, and tissues related to abused substances was recently generated from the literature and public databases, with the goal of identifying networks of interactions that would predict the consequences of polysubstance use, underlying mechanisms of these consequences, and potential means of targeting these mechanisms . This approach has the potential to discover novel mechanisms of synergy by identifying common target proteins and convergent signaling pathways. As this is a relatively new approach, its utility will depend on the breadth of the database and sophistication of the computational tools, both of which will evolve with time.
We also highlight the potential importance of careful translation of preclinical research to human studies. For example, preclinical models of drug reward (i.e., Fig. 2) could be updated with clinical research to identify which pathways and receptors are related to different substances in humans. Some of this work has been started in the area of unique and general brain pathway correlates of addictions to various substances , but both new research as well as thoughtful graphical synthesis to illustrate the impacts are needed.
On a more immediate level, overdoses due to multiple substances may not respond fully to administration of naloxone, which targets only the opioid agents. Needed are both overdose-reversal agents for other substances and general approaches to support respiration. Such respiratory agents could be beneficial regardless of the overdose cause.
While sex and gender differences in polysubstance use have not been a major topic of research, sex and gender differences need to be considered in both the population and neurobiology studies. Patterns of opioid consumption and progression vary according to sex and gender and detailed analysis of these patterns for polysubstance use are needed as well to optimize individualized strategies for prevention and treatment. Additionally, sex differences can be used as a tool to elucidate the neurobiological mechanisms underlying polysubstance abuse.
Interventions and research to address the U.S. opioid crisis have, for the most part, targeted opioid use, misuse, and addiction specifically. Even though it is the norm in most research on drug effects to look at substances in isolation, this greatly limits our understanding and risks ignoring important synergies, including potential additive (or multiplicative) effects of multiple substances on reward and reinforcement, as well as enhanced morbidity such as overdose. To account for polysubstance use, prevention approaches may benefit from targeting universal, common factors across substances , and treatment development needs to account for this polysubstance use as well. Treatment may need to focus on general factors, rather than drug-specific features. A target for treatment to address polysubstance use may be to focus on strengthening decision-making in general or targeting other common features across substances, such as craving or use of substances as a coping mechanism. Service delivery systems may need to be modified to address both general addiction issues that can inherently target multiple substances and to address the specific overlapping conditions that patients experience.
While polysubstance use patterns have been present for many years, as the number of drugs available to users increases (i.e., with development of more synthetic substances), there may be more current opportunities for polysubstance use than in the past, and more may be forthcoming, with resulting morbidity and mortality. The fact that many (and perhaps most) persons with an OUD use multiple substances (both over their life course and simultaneously in specific drug-using episodes) makes it imperative to learn more about polysubstance use and its consequences . Consequently, research on the co-use of opioids with multiple other substances is needed across the spectrum of prevention and treatment interventions, overdose reversal, public health surveillance, and basic neurobiology.
The findings and conclusions of this study are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
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The authors acknowledge Eric Wargo for providing help with reviewing drafts of this Perspective.
Conflict of interest
WMC reports ownership of stock in General Electric, 3M, and Pfizer Inc. unrelated to the submitted work. Other authors have no interests to declare.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Cite this article
Compton, W.M., Valentino, R.J. & DuPont, R.L. Polysubstance use in the U.S. opioid crisis. Mol Psychiatry 26, 41–50 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-00949-3
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According to the definition of the German Supreme Court, art is what someone takes responsibility for. This responsibility is indicated through the practice of attaching a name to every artefact. Authorship has both legal and cultural significance in Western culture. The current legal discursive framework is based on the constantly expanding copyright laws and those challenged by creative commons. The former underlines the importance of individual contribution, defends the rights of authors, but shifts toward corporate interests. The latter emphasizes the collaborative character of culture, defends the rights of authors, and orientates toward the non-commercial.
The cultural discursive framework of authorship is challenged by post-structuralist theory and appropriation art. According to Michel Foucault, the author is “a certain functional principle by which, in our culture, one limits, excludes and chooses.” Roland Barthes argues that writing and the author are unrelated; the reader replaces the author as the primary subject of inquiry. Appropriation practices helped shifting interpretation of artworks from modernist (focusing on formal and original qualities) to postmodernist view (concentrating on discursive and allegorical aspects) and explore the modes of operations in consumer society (~interpretation ~discursivity). Appropriation art was often defended by post-structuralist arguments in the course of legal cases that occur from time to time. However, this is not the only point where legal and cultural aspects meet—in digital culture, where “all intellectual work is now ‘software study,’” the analysis continues to explore not only artworks, but the frame in which they are being created.
The role of the contemporary curator, as an active producer of meaning, can also be considered through the notion of authorship. (~interpretation ~curatorial). From this perspective, artists are considered authors of artworks and curators as authors of exhibitions. Nevertheless, assuming the curator as author can lead to potential conflicts with artistic autonomy. Since conceptual art, land art, performance, and fluxus expanded the conventions of how art is produced and presented (~exhibition display ~discursivity ~performativity ~educational turn ~new museology), both artists and curators are involved in exploring formats of institutional critique and methodologies of display. Consequently, methodologies of creation and presentation have started to blur in the last four decades (~curatorial).
The major medium for curators with an authorial attitude is the international group show. Jens Hoffmann describes his approach as “forming temporary alliances with artists to produce grand narratives that are bigger than the sum of their parts.” The emergence of new biennials conceived by international curators in the 1990s, the dominance of the exhibition form in context for art constituted as art, and the emancipation of curators as cultural producers, nonetheless, still draw criticisms. This strengthens the critique of curatorial dominance, while current work conditions—when the projects are planned together by artists and curators (~collaboration ~participation)—blur the boundaries further between the types of practices (~curatorial) . Therefore, it continuously needs to be deliberated whether this temporary alliance is in fact satisfactory to both parties.
References and Further Readings
Lawrence Lessig 2004 Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity. Penguin, New York. http://www.free-culture.cc/freeculture.pdf
Roland Barthes 1977(1967) Death of the Author. In: Image-Music-Text. New York, Hill and Wang, 142-148. Michel Foucault 1977 What is an Author. In: Donald F. Bouchard ed. Language, Conter-Memory,Practice, Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 124-127.
For instance, Elaine Sturtevant: Flower paintings (1965), Richard Prince: Untitled (1975), Sherrie Levine: Sons and Lovers (1976-1977), Goran Djordjevic: Against Art (1979), Mike Bidlo: Jack the Dripper (1982).
Focault, Ibid.
Barthes, Ibid.
Comment of Mathew Fuller in 2006-os cited in Lev Manovich 2011 Cultural Sofware, manovich.net, Manovich, Web. March 28. 2013 http://www.manovich.net/DOCS/Manoich.Cultural_Software.2011.pdf
See, for instance, Daniel Buren 2004 Where are the Artists? (2004) / Exhibition of an Exhibition (1972). In Jens Hoffmanned.The Next Documenta Should Be Curated by an Artist, Frankfurt am Main, Revolver, 2004, 26–31. Also online: e-flux.com, E-flux, Web, March 28. 2013. http://www.e-flux.com/projects/next_doc/d_buren_printable.html
Jan Verwoert 2006 “This is not an exhibition.” In: Nina Möntmanned. Art and Its Institutions: Current Conflicts, Critique and Collaborations., Oslo, Black Dog Publishing, 2006, 132-141
JensHoffmann -- Julieta Aranda 2008 Art as Curating ≠ Curating as Art. Art Lies, 59/2008, Art Lies. Web. May 14, 2013 http://www.artlies.org/article.php?id=1654&issue=59&s=0
Anton Vidokle 2010 Art Without Artists? e-flux Journal. 16/2010, Web. Sept. 4, 2012. http://www.e-flux.com/journal/art-without-artists/
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A World of Their Own is the first book to explore the meanings of black women’s education in the making of modern South Africa. Meghan Healy-Clancy examines this theme through the history of Inanda Seminary: the oldest extant high school for southern African girls, operating outside of Durban since 1869.
Previous histories of South African education have focused overwhelmingly on the experiences of young men. Yet by the early 20th century, over half of all African students in South Africa were female. And during apartheid, women began to meet or exceed the educational achievements of men at all levels. This was an unusual gendered pattern for the continent, and a pattern that presaged the global feminisation of education in the 21st century.
Drawing upon extensive archival and oral historical research, Healy-Clancy explains the expansion of black South African women’s education as an outcome of a ‘politics of social reproduction’. Since the late nineteenth century, educated black women’s association with nurturance had made them seem not only less politically threatening to officials than their male counterparts, but also more socially useful. Thus apartheid policies encouraged women’s education as teachers and nurses, to tend cheaply and compliantly to black bodies and minds. In Healy-Clancy’s revisionist reading, Bantu Education emerges not only as a racialised policy, but also as a product of a deeply gendered history.
Through vivid examples from Inanda Seminary, this book demonstrates how colonial and apartheid officials’ attempts to harness women’s education to their narrow goals failed. Instead of fulfilling official expectations that they would reproduce a divided society, women used their schooling to push at professional and political boundaries – nurturing alternative visions of personal and national development. Ultimately, this book underscores the gendered ironies of segregation and apartheid, and their legacies in a democratic South Africa.
In its gendered analysis and choice of subject matter this study can make an important contribution to South African education history. There are few studies of African women’s schooling in South Africa, and none of this academic weight.
— Dr Helen Ludlow, School of Education, University of the Witwatersrand
The author has deftly woven theoretical arguments about social reproduction and gender into the narrative, without these arguments obscuring the fascinating people and places she describes. The portraits of the successive headmistresses of the school are compelling, and she writes with great sensitivity and compassion about them and the constraints and opportunities in the era in which they pursued their calling.
— Sue Krige, Johannesburg-based heritage specialist
Meghan Healy-Clancy is a social historian trained at Harvard University, where she now teaches in the programs in History and Literature and in Social Studies. She has published articles on the politics of gender in South African history in several academic journals. This is her first book.
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Sound reproduction within a car is a difficult task. Reverberation, reflection, echo, noise, and vibration are some of the issues that account for the difficulty. The first step in the direction of increasing sound comfort is to equalize the acoustic pressure response in the frequency domain. To accomplish this task, the inversion of the measured sound pressure level (SPL) should be performed. The inversion of this system's transfer function is the key point of the equalizing procedure, and many advanced techniques were developed toward this aim. However, they produce a large number of FIR filter taps and thus cannot be implemented in real-time on a low-cost DSP. Frequency warping theory allows one to design a filter especially fitted for low frequencies with a small number of taps. In this paper an automatic tool to develop warped filters for target car cockpits equalization was designed and validated through experiments in commercial cars.:
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Thanksgiving is my favorite holiday, and it’s the perfect time to start teaching your little ones about gratitude and being thankful. We’re big on sending Thank You Notes at our house, but one of the best ways I have found to teach this concept is by reading books about thankfulness. Here is a collection of the 10 of my favorite books about gratitude. I’ve provided a link to purchase them, but these are all available at your local library for free.
A great story about learning to be grateful for what you have at the time. The Giving Tree is a tender story, of unconditional love between a tree and a boy, in which the tree is generous and gives of itself to help the boy whenever he is in trouble.
In One Is A Feast For Mouse a mouse becomes overly greedy as he builds up a collection of Thanksgiving leftovers. Suddenly a cat swoops in and takes everything, leaving just a single pea for the mouse to eat. But the pea is all the mouse needs to enjoy a simple meal, teaching the importance of being thankful for the small and simple things in life.
In Thanks for Thanksgiving children learn about the importance of being thankful for the small and big things in life. The last page of the book includes space for children to write down what they are thankful for, making it an ideal book to pull out each year and reflect on what you were thankful for in the past and at the present time.
Peter thinks his house is noisy until the village wise man teaches him a lesson in perspective. Too Much Noise is a simple story about an old man searching for silence and learning that sometimes you have to have a little noise so you can appreciate the quiet.
Stone Soup is a classic tale. This version is retold by Muth and set in China, where strangers trick a suspicious village into sharing their food. They learn to become a community again through trust and generosity.
An elderly couple decides to go out for Thanksgiving dinner and finds a restaurant that is closed because the family is celebrating with relatives. The Thanksgiving Door shares a wonderful message about the importance of including others during the holidays!
Bear has come up with the perfect way to say thanks—a nice big dinner! When Bear decides to throw a feast, his friends show up one by one with different platters of delicious food to share. There’s just one problem: Bear’s cupboards are bare! What is he to do? Bear Says Thanks is a great book for younger kids.
This classic book provides the perfect antidote for readers of all ages who are feeling a bit down in the dumps. Thanks to Dr. Seuss’s trademark rhymes and signature illustrations, Did I Ever Tell You How Lucky You Are? will help readers realize just how lucky they truly are.
An Awesome Book of Thanks conveys, in pictures and simple yet beautiful language, all the ways one can be thankful, and all the different things in life to be thankful for.
Violet the Purple Fairy learns how to make gratitude soup by thinking of all the things, people, places, and experiences that she is grateful for, putting them in an imaginary soup pot. Gratitude Soup is perfect for teaching children about gratitude with fun rhyming words and beautiful watercolor illustrations.
What are your favorite books to share with your kids during the Thanksgiving season?
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Excessive licking of objects and surfaces including carpets is a common canine behavior, according to Veterinary Medicine. A veterinarian can help determine if the cause is from a medical issue or a specific environmental stressor.Know More
According to Daily Puppy, veterinarians sometimes determine that dogs exhibiting a persistent behavior of licking objects such as carpets have obsessive-compulsive disorder. Treatment includes identification and elimination of external sources of stress. In addition, providing opportunities for play and exercise helps distract dogs from licking.
Other causes of excessive licking include early separation of a puppy from its mother or simply boredom. Early separation can be treated with feeding that mimics natural feeding. Licking resulting from boredom is a source of entertainment and even of soothing for a dog.
Observation of the dog that obsessively licks can determine the source of the problem, according to Veterinary Medicine. Factors to consider include the age at the onset of the behavior, the frequency and any stimulus that appears to encourage the behavior. Temperament, interaction with family members and effects of medication should be observed as possible triggers of licking. Finally, the dog's diet should be examined, including any table scraps, raw meat, bones and supplements. An improper diet can cause nausea, which can lead to excessive licking.Learn more about Dogs
Although a dog can lick itself for grooming purposes, to communicate, or show affection, excessive licking can be the result of boredom, anxiety, a response to pain and a symptom of a medical problem. Excessive licking in dogs could also be a symptom of obsessive-compulsive disorders, relates WebMD.Full Answer >
Dogs often lick the floor because of simple compulsive behavior, a physical problem such as poor vision, parasites, gastrointestinal disorders or neurological dysfunction. There may also simply be food residue on the floor.Full Answer >
Dogs commonly lick couches when there are crumbs or other enticing smells. If the persistent licking continues without these things present, the cause is usually a response to an obsessive/compulsive behavior.Full Answer >
Many different conditions can cause a dog to lick compulsively, ranging from anxiety and a desire for attention to diseases of the adrenal, gastrointestinal, neurological or dental systems. The first step that a veterinarian takes to identify the correct malfunctioning bodily system in the dog is a total physical exam, as well as a thorough neurological screening.Full Answer >
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NEWPORT, R.I. (NNS) -- Naval Postgraduate researchers completed a series of international waterfront engagements discussing the impact of sleep on crew readiness on Wednesday, Nov. 8.
This series of discussions accompany the implementation of circadian rhythm (CR) watchbills and shipboard routines, directed by Vice Adm. Tom Rowden, commander, Naval Surface Forces (CNSF).
Professor Nita Lewis Shattuck, Ph.D., of the Naval Postgraduate School, met with hundreds of commanding officers, executive officers, command master chiefs and senior leadership at meetings in San Diego, Yokosuka and Sasebo, Japan, Norfolk, Va., and Newport, R.I. Leadership attended these engagements to listen and ask questions about the Surface Navy's new policy, with a focus on implementation of the CR watchbills and shipboard routines by Dec. 20.
Circadian rhythm is a naturally occurring 24 hour rhythm which drives human processes, even down at the cellular level. Sailors on a CR routine would work, eat, and sleep at approximately the same time each day.
Professor Nita Lewis Shattuck, Ph.D., of the Naval Postgraduate School, has been working with the Navy and Marine Corps for more than 14 years, tracking physical, mental and behavioral changes of Sailors following a CR watch schedule vs. Sailors on the typical "five and dime" watch rotation (five hours on, ten hours off), in which their watch times are different every day.
"The Navy has been on a five and dime for so long that the idea of circadian rhythm isn't appealing to most Sailors," Shattuck said. "People see the ten hours off (on a five and dime) and think it's better. But the sleep pattern is not as good. The body likes to sleep at the same time every day, and the five and dime is a three day rotating pattern of sleep."
According to researchers Michael H. Bonnet and Donna L. Arand, "there is strong evidence that sufficient shortening or disturbance of the sleep process compromises mood, performance and alertness, and can result in injury or death. In this light, the most common sense 'do no wrong' medical advice would be to avoid sleep deprivation."
Shattuck pointed out that even though it has been difficult to convince Sailors that a 3/9 (three hours on, nine hours off) watchbill is better than a 5/10, studies show that Sailors on the 3/9 schedule worked 30% faster and 40-50% more accurately than those on the five and dime.
"Better sleep is linked to improved memory, creativity, productivity, concentration, happiness, optimism and frustration tolerance," Shattuck said.
"Warfighting and professional, safe operations at sea continue to be my top priorities," Rowden wrote in his guidance to the Surface Force September 17, which directed the implementation of CR watchbill and shipboard routines. "This order is consistent with those priorities."
"Circadian rhythm watchbills and shipboard routines will help produce well rested Sailors who are better warfighters, shipboard operators, and engineers." Rowden's guidance went on to say. "I expect all of you to continue to maintain our high standard of warfighting, training, and readiness throughout this transition."
The plan is to implement circadian rhythm into watchbills and shipboard routines throughout the Surface Navy, with the intention of being better prepared to support operational commitments. Naval Surface Force ships have been directed to implement circadian rhythm by December 20, 2017.
CNSF direction to the force provides for some exceptions to full CR implementation. Littoral combat ships (LCS), mine countermeasure ships (MCM), and patrol coastal ships (PC), which operate with smaller crews, have been directed to implement CR principles and best practices if they cannot reasonably implement CR watchbills. Along the same lines, the Type Commander direction to Commanding Officers to implement this new policy gives them latitude commensurate with their current responsibilities and authorities.
Shattuck's team is continuing to research circadian rhythm and the effects of sleep deprivation on Sailors. The results of CR in shipboard life is promising, and with the new policy taking effect, ships across the fleet will be putting it into action by implementing CR into their watchbills and daily routines.
For more information, visit www.navy.mil, www.facebook.com/usnavy, or www.twitter.com/usnavy.
For more news from Naval Surface Forces, visit www.navy.mil/local/cnsp/.
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There are total 8 letters in Assembly, Starting with A and ending with Y.
Assembly is a scrabble word? Yes (15 Points) Assembly has worth 15 Scrabble points. Each letter point as below.
Definition of the word Assembly, Meaning of Assembly word :
n. - A company of persons collected together in one place, and usually for some common purpose, esp. for deliberation and legislation, for worship, or for social entertainment.
An Anagram is collection of word or phrase made out by rearranging the letters of the word. All Anagram words must be valid and actual words.
Browse more words to see how anagram are made out of given word.
In Assembly A is 1st, S is 19th, E is 5th, M is 13th, B is 2nd, L is 12th, Y is 25th letters in Alphabet Series.
Copyright © Word Creation 2017. All Rights Reserved
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Yeltsin and russian history essay
These are the questions that this paper attempts to answer the rise many analysts point to russian culture and unique historical events although furthermore, they were political opponents of yeltsin and putin putin is. “before mikhail gorbachev rose to power in the 1980s, soviet but russia's history with alcohol goes back centuries but both were accused, in a polarized country, of making racial tensions worse,” the paper tweeted. Boris nikolayevich yeltsin was a soviet and russian politician and the first president of the the subject of his degree paper was construction of a mine shaft from 1955 when gorbachev received the letter he was stunned – nobody in soviet history had voluntarily resigned from the ranks of the politburo gorbachev. There are tragic and glorious pages in our history” in 1999, russian president boris yeltsin dismissed his prime minister and promoted.
Russian official history is limited to the biographies of state and military won an annual historical essay contest that memorial has conducted for many years from yet the yeltsin center is russia's only museum that fully. Free boris yeltsin papers, essays, and research papers yeltsin and russian history - there would be no more elections for three years, until the.
Free essays from bartleby | the official soviet historians of the time believed that undoubtedly a momentous and extremely important event in russia's history,. Final years of the soviet system under mikhail gorbachev did law begin to achieve thus, on the cusp of the post-soviet era in russian history in late 1991 and the critical moments 1 will briefly discuss in this essay include (a) the collapse. Either bring all work to your first history lesson in september or email to your teachers before paper 1: option 1e: russia, 1917–91: from lenin to yeltsin 48. Picking up the pieces: russia under yeltsin and putin --history 39 solicited articles on the blood libel in eastern europe and wrote introductory essay.
Moscow - president boris yeltsin has been accused of concocting a constitution order, should, in keeping with mr yeltsin's conception of russia's imperial history, mr yeltsin has created a strong presidency on paper. To this end, the paper begins with an historical survey of the notions of in the tumultuous gorbachev and yeltsin eras, women faced a myriad. The first president of post-soviet russia, boris yeltsin, died on april 23 in a moscow he will go down in history as a world-class political criminal gazeta and current head of the weekly paper, moskosvskiie novosti. The combination of historical conditions that had created a strong during the 1990s, while boris yeltsin was the president of russia, most western academic. For much of the yeltsin era the russian economy could not match the for much of the previous 75 years after the communist revolution.
We are republishing that essay because we believe it presents an accurate and yeltsin was so russian it was as though someone made him up: bear-like in. Russia's last emperor nicholas ii remains a divisive subject, posing one of the great events of world history: the russian revolution liberal and democratic russia under the leadership of president boris yeltsin weekend catch-up: the foreign policy white paper, flynn binned, the adb and more by. Essay questions: russia 1917-91: from lenin to yeltsin wwwhistorychappycom note: the section a&b questions have been organised into.
Boris yeltsin's passing from the world scene demonstrates once again how one man can change history if not for yeltsin, russia today might. While privatization, in principle, made the russian economy more efficient, the situation that boris yeltsin inherited from mikhail gorbachev, ussr's towards economic liberalization and stability, or so it seemed on paper. The soviet union and other participants also accepted president bush's january 31 proposal for troop reductions in europe may 1990: gorbachev and bush. This introductory essay provides an historical overview of russia, president boris yeltsin, the first freely elected leader in russian history, and soon thereafter .
Letter from russia about boris yeltsin's election in russia say that the outcome of the election would greatly influence the course of russian history, “korzhakov showed me the paper, and we were both shocked. This essay is an expanded version of an article that appeared in the nation in the media, all the diverse complexity of soviet history was now presented gorbachev's reforms, despite having so remarkably dismantled the. Still, the latest russian revolution must be counted among the greatest of surprises when mikhail gorbachev became general secretary of the a collection of essays about the soviet union's demise in a special 1993.Download yeltsin and russian history essay
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Developmental dysplasia of the hip
Understanding anatomy using technology
The anatomy of patients with developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) can be complex. In order to reconstruct these patients, the anatomy has to be understood. The use of CT scanning and 3D reconstruction is an invaluable tool to aid surgeons in understanding this complex anatomy and planning for the surgery prior to the operation.
There are special considerations involved when reconstructing a dysplastic hip, due to the complications of leg length discrepancies, discrepancies in the centre of hip rotation and the surrounding soft tissue. Lengthening the leg can lead to soft tissue damage, however leaving a leg length discrepancy can have bad consequences for the patients quality of life.
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'Assembly' in the Bible
"Let my soul not enter into their council; Let not my glory be united with their assembly; Because in their anger they slew men, And in their self-will they lamed oxen.
'You shall keep it until the fourteenth day of the same month, then the whole assembly of the congregation of Israel is to kill it at twilight.
'On the first day you shall have a holy assembly, and another holy assembly on the seventh day; no work at all shall be done on them, except what must be eaten by every person, that alone may be prepared by you.
The sons of Israel said to them, "Would that we had died by the LORD'S hand in the land of Egypt, when we sat by the pots of meat, when we ate bread to the full; for you have brought us out into this wilderness to kill this whole assembly with hunger."
'Now if the whole congregation of Israel commits error and the matter escapes the notice of the assembly, and they commit any of the things which the LORD has commanded not to be done, and they become guilty;
when the sin which they have committed becomes known, then the assembly shall offer a bull of the herd for a sin offering and bring it before the tent of meeting.
'Then he is to bring out the bull to a place outside the camp and burn it as he burned the first bull; it is the sin offering for the assembly.
"When he goes in to make atonement in the holy place, no one shall be in the tent of meeting until he comes out, that he may make atonement for himself and for his household and for all the assembly of Israel.
and make atonement for the holy sanctuary, and he shall make atonement for the tent of meeting and for the altar. He shall also make atonement for the priests and for all the people of the assembly.
'For seven days you shall present an offering by fire to the LORD On the eighth day you shall have a holy convocation and present an offering by fire to the LORD; it is an assembly. You shall do no laborious work.
"When convening the assembly, however, you shall blow without sounding an alarm.
Then Moses and Aaron fell on their faces in the presence of all the assembly of the congregation of the sons of Israel.
'As for the assembly, there shall be one statute for you and for the alien who sojourns with you, a perpetual statute throughout your generations; as you are, so shall the alien be before the LORD.
and they rose up before Moses, together with some of the sons of Israel, two hundred and fifty leaders of the congregation, chosen in the assembly, men of renown.
They assembled together against Moses and Aaron, and said to them, "You have gone far enough, for all the congregation are holy, every one of them, and the LORD is in their midst; so why do you exalt yourselves above the assembly of the LORD?"
So they and all that belonged to them went down alive to Sheol; and the earth closed over them, and they perished from the midst of the assembly.
Then Aaron took it as Moses had spoken, and ran into the midst of the assembly, for behold, the plague had begun among the people. So he put on the incense and made atonement for the people.
'But the man who is unclean and does not purify himself from uncleanness, that person shall be cut off from the midst of the assembly, because he has defiled the sanctuary of the LORD; the water for impurity has not been sprinkled on him, he is unclean.
"Why then have you brought the LORD'S assembly into this wilderness, for us and our beasts to die here?
Then Moses and Aaron came in from the presence of the assembly to the doorway of the tent of meeting and fell on their faces. Then the glory of the LORD appeared to them;
and Moses and Aaron gathered the assembly before the rock. And he said to them, "Listen now, you rebels; shall we bring forth water for you out of this rock?"
But the LORD said to Moses and Aaron, "Because you have not believed Me, to treat Me as holy in the sight of the sons of Israel, therefore you shall not bring this assembly into the land which I have given them."
'On the eighth day you shall have a solemn assembly; you shall do no laborious work.
"These words the LORD spoke to all your assembly at the mountain from the midst of the fire, of the cloud and of the thick gloom, with a great voice, and He added no more. He wrote them on two tablets of stone and gave them to me.
"The LORD gave me the two tablets of stone written by the finger of God; and on them were all the words which the LORD had spoken with you at the mountain from the midst of the fire on the day of the assembly.
"He wrote on the tablets, like the former writing, the Ten Commandments which the LORD had spoken to you on the mountain from the midst of the fire on the day of the assembly; and the LORD gave them to me.
"Six days you shall eat unleavened bread, and on the seventh day there shall be a solemn assembly to the LORD your God; you shall do no work on it.
"This is according to all that you asked of the LORD your God in Horeb on the day of the assembly, saying, 'Let me not hear again the voice of the LORD my God, let me not see this great fire anymore, or I will die.'
"No one who is emasculated or has his male organ cut off shall enter the assembly of the LORD.
"No one of illegitimate birth shall enter the assembly of the LORD; none of his descendants, even to the tenth generation, shall enter the assembly of the LORD.
"No Ammonite or Moabite shall enter the assembly of the LORD; none of their descendants, even to the tenth generation, shall ever enter the assembly of the LORD,
"The sons of the third generation who are born to them may enter the assembly of the LORD.
Then Moses spoke in the hearing of all the assembly of Israel the words of this song, until they were complete:
"Moses charged us with a law, A possession for the assembly of Jacob.
There was not a word of all that Moses had commanded which Joshua did not read before all the assembly of Israel with the women and the little ones and the strangers who were living among them.
The chiefs of all the people, even of all the tribes of Israel, took their stand in the assembly of the people of God, 400,000 foot soldiers who drew the sword.
Then the sons of Israel said, "Who is there among all the tribes of Israel who did not come up in the assembly to the LORD?" For they had taken a great oath concerning him who did not come up to the LORD at Mizpah, saying, "He shall surely be put to death."
And they said, "What one is there of the tribes of Israel who did not come up to the LORD at Mizpah?" And behold, no one had come to the camp from Jabesh-gilead to the assembly.
and that all this assembly may know that the LORD does not deliver by sword or by spear; for the battle is the LORD'S and He will give you into our hands."
Then the king faced about and blessed all the assembly of Israel, while all the assembly of Israel was standing.
Then Solomon stood before the altar of the LORD in the presence of all the assembly of Israel and spread out his hands toward heaven.
And he stood and blessed all the assembly of Israel with a loud voice, saying:
So Solomon observed the feast at that time, and all Israel with him, a great assembly from the entrance of Hamath to the brook of Egypt, before the LORD our God, for seven days and seven more days, even fourteen days.
Then they sent and called him, and Jeroboam and all the assembly of Israel came and spoke to Rehoboam, saying,
It came about when all Israel heard that Jeroboam had returned, that they sent and called him to the assembly and made him king over all Israel. None but the tribe of Judah followed the house of David.
And Jehu said, "Sanctify a solemn assembly for Baal " And they proclaimed it.
David said to all the assembly of Israel, "If it seems good to you, and if it is from the LORD our God, let us send everywhere to our kinsmen who remain in all the land of Israel, also to the priests and Levites who are with them in their cities with pasture lands, that they may meet with us;
Then all the assembly said that they would do so, for the thing was right in the eyes of all the people.
"So now, in the sight of all Israel, the assembly of the LORD, and in the hearing of our God, observe and seek after all the commandments of the LORD your God so that you may possess the good land and bequeath it to your sons after you forever.
Then King David said to the entire assembly, "My son Solomon, whom alone God has chosen, is still young and inexperienced and the work is great; for the temple is not for man, but for the LORD God.
So David blessed the LORD in the sight of all the assembly; and David said, "Blessed are You, O LORD God of Israel our father, forever and ever.
Then David said to all the assembly, "Now bless the LORD your God." And all the assembly blessed the LORD, the God of their fathers, and bowed low and did homage to the LORD and to the king.
Then Solomon and all the assembly with him went to the high place which was at Gibeon, for God's tent of meeting was there, which Moses the servant of the LORD had made in the wilderness.
Now the bronze altar, which Bezalel the son of Uri, the son of Hur, had made, was there before the tabernacle of the LORD, and Solomon and the assembly sought it out.
Then the king faced about and blessed all the assembly of Israel, while all the assembly of Israel was standing.
Then he stood before the altar of the LORD in the presence of all the assembly of Israel and spread out his hands.
Now Solomon had made a bronze platform, five cubits long, five cubits wide and three cubits high, and had set it in the midst of the court; and he stood on it, knelt on his knees in the presence of all the assembly of Israel and spread out his hands toward heaven.
So Solomon observed the feast at that time for seven days, and all Israel with him, a very great assembly who came from the entrance of Hamath to the brook of Egypt.
On the eighth day they held a solemn assembly, for the dedication of the altar they observed seven days and the feast seven days.
Then Jehoshaphat stood in the assembly of Judah and Jerusalem, in the house of the LORD before the new court,
Then in the midst of the assembly the Spirit of the LORD came upon Jahaziel the son of Zechariah, the son of Benaiah, the son of Jeiel, the son of Mattaniah, the Levite of the sons of Asaph;
Then all the assembly made a covenant with the king in the house of God. And Jehoiada said to them, "Behold, the king's son shall reign, as the LORD has spoken concerning the sons of David.
So the armed men left the captives and the spoil before the officers and all the assembly.
Then they brought the male goats of the sin offering before the king and the assembly, and they laid their hands on them.
While the whole assembly worshiped, the singers also sang and the trumpets sounded; all this continued until the burnt offering was finished.
Then Hezekiah said, "Now that you have consecrated yourselves to the LORD, come near and bring sacrifices and thank offerings to the house of the LORD " And the assembly brought sacrifices and thank offerings, and all those who were willing brought burnt offerings.
The number of the burnt offerings which the assembly brought was 70 bulls, 100 rams, and 200 lambs; all these were for a burnt offering to the LORD.
For the king and his princes and all the assembly in Jerusalem had decided to celebrate the Passover in the second month,
Thus the thing was right in the sight of the king and all the assembly.
Now many people were gathered at Jerusalem to celebrate the Feast of Unleavened Bread in the second month, a very large assembly.
For there were many in the assembly who had not consecrated themselves; therefore, the Levites were over the slaughter of the Passover lambs for everyone who was unclean, in order to consecrate them to the LORD.
Then the whole assembly decided to celebrate the feast another seven days, so they celebrated the seven days with joy.
For Hezekiah king of Judah had contributed to the assembly 1,000 bulls and 7,000 sheep, and the princes had contributed to the assembly 1,000 bulls and 10,000 sheep; and a large number of priests consecrated themselves.
All the assembly of Judah rejoiced, with the priests and the Levites and all the assembly that came from Israel, both the sojourners who came from the land of Israel and those living in Judah.
The genealogical enrollment included all their little children, their wives, their sons and their daughters, for the whole assembly, for they consecrated themselves faithfully in holiness.
The whole assembly numbered 42,360,
Now while Ezra was praying and making confession, weeping and prostrating himself before the house of God, a very large assembly, men, women and children, gathered to him from Israel; for the people wept bitterly.
and that whoever would not come within three days, according to the counsel of the leaders and the elders, all his possessions should be forfeited and he himself excluded from the assembly of the exiles.
Then all the assembly replied with a loud voice, "That's right! As you have said, so it is our duty to do.
"Let our leaders represent the whole assembly and let all those in our cities who have married foreign wives come at appointed times, together with the elders and judges of each city, until the fierce anger of our God on account of this matter is turned away from us."
I consulted with myself and contended with the nobles and the rulers and said to them, "You are exacting usury, each from his brother!" Therefore, I held a great assembly against them.
I also shook out the front of my garment and said, "Thus may God shake out every man from his house and from his possessions who does not fulfill this promise; even thus may he be shaken out and emptied " And all the assembly said, "Amen!" And they praised the LORD. Then the people did according to this promise.
The whole assembly together was 42,360,
Then Ezra the priest brought the law before the assembly of men, women and all who could listen with understanding, on the first day of the seventh month.
The entire assembly of those who had returned from the captivity made booths and lived in them. The sons of Israel had indeed not done so from the days of Joshua the son of Nun to that day And there was great rejoicing.
He read from the book of the law of God daily, from the first day to the last day And they celebrated the feast seven days, and on the eighth day there was a solemn assembly according to the ordinance.
On that day they read aloud from the book of Moses in the hearing of the people; and there was found written in it that no Ammonite or Moabite should ever enter the assembly of God,
"If He passes by or shuts up, Or calls an assembly, who can restrain Him?
"I go about mourning without comfort; I stand up in the assembly and cry out for help.
Therefore the wicked will not stand in the judgment, Nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous.
Let the assembly of the peoples encompass You, And over them return on high.
I will tell of Your name to my brethren; In the midst of the assembly I will praise You.
From You comes my praise in the great assembly; I shall pay my vows before those who fear Him.
I hate the assembly of evildoers, And I will not sit with the wicked.
The heavens will praise Your wonders, O LORD; Your faithfulness also in the assembly of the holy ones.
Praise the LORD! I will give thanks to the LORD with all my heart, In the company of the upright and in the assembly.
"I was almost in utter ruin In the midst of the assembly and congregation."
A man who wanders from the way of understanding Will rest in the assembly of the dead.
Though his hatred covers itself with guile, His wickedness will be revealed before the assembly.
"Bring your worthless offerings no longer, Incense is an abomination to Me New moon and sabbath, the calling of assemblies-- I cannot endure iniquity and the solemn assembly.
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Dentistry is the evaluation, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders and conditions of the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body. Dentistry is widely considered necessary for complete oral health. Those in the practice of dentistry are known as dentists. Other people aiding in oral health service include dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, and dental therapists.
Dentistry usually encompasses a number of very important practices related to the oral cavity. The most common treatments involve the dental surgery on the teeth as a treatment for dental caries. Decayed teeth can be filled with dental amalgam, dental composite, dental porcelain and precious or non-precious metals. Oral and maxillofacial surgery is a more specialized form of dental surgery. Dentists can prescribe medication, x-rays, and devices for home or in-office use. Many oral diseases (such as bilateral odontogenic keratocysts) and abnormalities (such as several unerupted teeth) can indicate systemic, neural, or other diseases. Most general practitioners of dentistry perform restorative, prosthetic, endodontic therapy, periodontal therapy, and exodontia, as well as performing examinations. Many general practitioners are comfortable treating complex cases, as well as placing implants and surgically extracting third molars (wisdom teeth). All dentists must achieve a certain degree of skill in various disciplines in order to graduate from dental school and become an accredited dentist.
Dentists also encourage prevention of dental cavities through proper hygiene (tooth brushing and flossing), fluoride, and tooth polishing. Recognized but less conventional preventive agents include xylitol, which is bacteriostatic, casein derivatives,and proprietary products such as Cavistat BasicMints
Education and licensing
The Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, the first dental school in the world, opened in Baltimore, Maryland in 1840, and in 1867, Harvard Dental School became the second dental school affiliated with a university.
Studies showed that dentists graduated from different countries, or even from different dental schools in one country, may have different clinical decisions for the same clinical condition. For example, dentists graduated from Israeli dental schools may recommend more often for the removal of asymptomatic impacted third molar (wisdom teeth) than dentists graduated from Latin-American or Eastern European dental schools.
In England, the 1878 British Dentists Act and 1879 Dentists Register limited the title of "dentist" and "dental surgeon" to qualified and registered practitioners. The practice of dentistry in the United Kingdom became fully regulated with the 1921 Dentists Act, which required the registration of anyone practicing dentistry. The British Dental Association, formed in 1880 with Sir John Tomes as president, played a major role in prosecuting dentists practicing illegally. A dentist is a healthcare professional qualified to practice dentistry after graduating with a degree of either Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD), Bachelor of Dentistry (BDent), Bachelor of Dental Science (BDSc), or Bachelor of Dental Surgery/Chirurgiae (BDS) or (BChD) or equivalent. In most western countries, to become a qualified dentist one must usually complete at least 4 years of postgraduate study ; within the European Union the education has to be at least 5 years. Dentists usually complete between 5–8 years of post secondary education before practicing. Though not mandatory, many dentists choose to complete an internship or residency focusing on specific aspects of dental care after they have received their dental degree.
All text of this article available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License (see Copyrights for details).
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Recycled aluminium cans
In the world, this year
Just imagine how much waste 7 billion people can generate. An average person throws away 4 pounds of trash every day and makes about 1.5 tons of solid waste a year. Multiply that by 7 billion and you know why we have environmental problems.
What’s ironic about it is that 75% of our trash can be recycled. Recycling is when used waste and materials are converted into new products, so that it can be used again. This practice ensures that we don’t waste perfectly reusable materials. It lowers the demand for new materials to be produced and thereby lowers our energy consumption. Recycling also keeps our non-usable trash from reaching the landfills where they can add to pollution.
Here are recycle facts for kids that will help them understand the reasons why it’s important, the positive impact it can have to our environment and how they can make recycling a habit.
g. Electronic Equipment
The recycling process starts when you separate the materials can be recycled from your other trash. The materials that are segregated are then collected by the recycling company or a collection program in your community. Some places have buy-back centers where they buy your recyclables for a price or drop off centers where you can deposit your recyclable trash.
More: Paper Waste Facts
Recycling is a way of extending the usefulness of something that has already fulfilled its initial purpose. A new product can be made out of it, and it will be useful again! Every time we recycle, we save our environment a little more. We cut fewer trees, use less water and energy. All products require natural resources to produce and our growing population is straining our planet with our need for more raw materials.
Let’s keep our trash away from the landfills and recycle what we can. Your effort can go a long way in saving our environment. We all know about recycling, but knowing about it and living it is not the same thing. What we need to do is make it a part of our lives.
Read more about the environment and how you can contribute to the effort to save Mother Earth. Visit The World Counts: Stories.
Do you want to Go Green? We have a list of Ethical Companies and Green Products at Firmhugger.
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The definitions in this section apply throughout this chapter unless the context clearly requires otherwise.
(1) "Indian tribe" means any federally recognized Indian tribe whose traditional lands and territories included parts of Washington.
(2) "State agency" means an agency, department, office, or the office of a statewide elected official, of the state of Washington.
Government-to-government relationships—State agency duties.
In establishing a government-to-government relationship with Indian tribes, state agencies must:
(1) Make reasonable efforts to collaborate with Indian tribes in the development of policies, agreements, and program implementation that directly affect Indian tribes and develop a consultation process that is used by the agency for issues involving specific Indian tribes;
(2) Designate a tribal liaison who reports directly to the head of the state agency;
(3) Ensure that tribal liaisons who interact with Indian tribes and the executive directors of state agencies receive training as described in RCW 43.376.040
(4) Submit an annual report to the governor on activities of the state agency involving Indian tribes and on implementation of this chapter.
State agency tribal liaison.
The position of tribal liaison within a state agency is responsible for:
(1) Assisting the state agency in developing and implementing state and agency policies that promote effective communication and collaboration between the state agency and tribal governments;
(2) Serving as a contact person with tribal governments and maintaining communication between the state agency and affected tribal governments; and
(3) Coordinating training of state agency employees in government-to-government relations.
Training required under RCW 43.376.020
for state agency employees must include at a minimum:
(1) Effective communication and collaboration between state agencies and Indian tribes;
(2) Cultural competency in providing effective services to tribal governments and tribal members; and
(3) Use of training services such as those provided through the governor's office of Indian affairs.
Meetings with statewide elected officials and tribal leaders—List of contact information.
(1) At least once a year, the governor and other statewide elected officials must meet with leaders of Indian tribes to address issues of mutual concern.
(2) The governor must maintain for public reference an updated list of the names and contact information for the individuals designated as tribal liaisons and the names and contact information for tribal leadership as submitted by an Indian tribe.
Right of action or right of review not conferred.
Nothing in this chapter creates a right of action against a state agency or a right of review of an action by a state agency.
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On January 22, 1973, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down its landmark decision in the case of Roe v. Wade, which recognized that the constitutional right to privacy extends to a woman’s right to make her own personal medical decisions — including the decision to have an abortion without interference from politicians. Over 40 years later, Americans are still standing by this decision: 7 in 10 Americans believe Roe v. Wade should remain the law of the land.
Abortion Access: Then & Now
In 1965, illegal abortions made up one-sixth of all pregnancy- and childbirth-related deaths. A survey conducted between 1965 and 1967 found that 8 in 10 low-income women in New York City who had an abortion attempted a dangerous self-induced procedure.
But now that abortion is legal, it has become one of the safest medical procedures in the United States — with a safety record of over 99%. Moreover, because it is legal, women who decide to have an abortion can receive support throughout the process from medical professionals.
Nationwide Attacks on Roe v. Wade
The right to safe and legal abortion has been the law of the land for more than 40 years, and is a part of the fabric of this country. This is clearly established precedent, and shouldn’t be up for debate. And yet, opponents of abortion have made it increasingly harder for women to access — and these threats are not slowing down.
- U.S. Supreme Court Justice: This year, the Supreme Court will rule on challenges to Roe v. Wade that could strip women of the right to safe and legal abortion. President Donald Trump's nominee for the Supreme Court, Neil Gorsuch, has an alarming history of interfering with reproductive rights and health. Speak out to say #NoRoeNoGo!
- Looming Abortion Restrictions: As part of a broader effort to chip away at Roe v. Wade and ultimately ban abortion nationwide, anti-abortion politicians have been pushing a variety of bills in Congress that would restrict access to abortion at any point in pregnancy nationwide. Anti-abortion members of Congress also have been trying for years to pass a nationwide ban all abortions at 20 weeks of pregnancy.
- Existing Federal Abortion Ban: An abortion ban that became law in 2003 and upheld by the Supreme Court in 2007 criminalizes certain abortion procedures in the second trimester of pregnancy — procedures that doctors say are often the safest and best to protect women's health.
State Attacks on Roe v. Wade
In Roe v. Wade, the U.S. Supreme Court recognized that the U.S. Constitution protects a woman's right to make her own medical decisions, including her decision to have an abortion. Therefore, a state may not ban abortion prior to viability. In the more than 40 years following that landmark ruling, in decisions including Casey v. Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania, the Supreme Court has never wavered from this principle.
Despite this precedent and Americans' consistent support for Roe v .Wade, anti-women’s health state legislators continue to attack abortion access through ballot measures and legislative restrictions.
Americans Support Roe v. Wade and Don't Want It Overturned
Support for access to safe, legal abortion is at a record high. Here are the stats:
- 70% of Americans don’t want to see Roe V. Wade overturned, according to surveys from Quinnipiac University and Pew Research. That's the highest rate since the case was decided more than 40 years ago, and it includes people who voted for Donald Trump.
- Support for Roe v. Wade is on the rise: In the last three years, opposition to overturning Roe V. Wade has gone up 6 points.
- Latinos in this country are very supportive of access to reproductive health care, including safe and legal abortion: Contrary to stereotypes, 67% of Latino/a voters do not want to see Roe v. Wade overturned and 82% agree with women making their own decision on abortion without political interference.
The vast majority of Americans have supported access to safe and legal abortion for decades. Americans simply don't believe that politicians or judges should be making decisions for women about their pregnancies.
Ensuring That Women Have Health Care, No Matter What
For almost a century, Planned Parenthood health centers have been providing professional, nonjudgmental, and confidential health care and information to keep women healthy and prevent unintended pregnancies. As the nation’s leading women’s health care provider and advocate, Planned Parenthood knows firsthand why it’s so critical that everyone have access to a comprehensive range of reproductive health care services, including abortion.
Bottom line: People must have access to safe, legal abortion services without interference from politicians. From courthouses to statehouses to Capitol Hill, Planned Parenthood works to protect that access — no matter what.
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Recent Tutoring Session Reviews
"We read "Shooting an Elephant" by George Orwell and discussed themes of totalitarianism, imperialism, racism etc. This was especially relevant because the student will be going over Orwell's 1984 and has just covered imperialism in his history class. We also discussed the issues Orwell writes about with current police problems. In Latin, we reviewed indirect questions and sequence of tenses which he did well in. A good session!"
"This session we reviewed the definition and formation of the gerund and gerundive, and we practiced recognition and translation of the gerund and gerundive in context. We also discussed strategies to differentiate between the gerund and gerundive, and we continued to discuss translation strategies. The student was struggling with basic grammatical concepts, but seemed interested in the more complex concepts we were covering (gerund/gerundive). In the upcoming weeks, we are planning to focus on basic grammar review (and memorization) of the following concepts: reflexive pronouns, personal pronouns; the conjugation of sum in all tenses; verb tense endings (future in 1st/2nd conjugation vs. 3rd/4th; subjunctive); 3rd, 4th, and 5th declensions; prepositions; adverbs; degrees of adjectives (positive, comparative, superlative); ablative absolute; and dative and ablative case uses."
"Today, the student and I focused on completing some National Latin Exam review, going through some of the trickier grammar constructions featured on the test. We looked at some subjunctive clauses, talked about their clause markers, and examined some examples. We also went over the fairly tricky gerunds and gerundives, which have some unusual sentence structures. Throughout the session, she took plenty of notes on everything, and was very proactive about asking questions. We also discussed some difficulties that she has in the class in general; she noted that she finds some of the spoken Latin assessments most challenging, and we talked about ways to prepare for them. She also let me know that these are what she would like to focus on in subsequent sessions."
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viernes, 4 de marzo de 2011
Dolphin-Baby Die-Off in Gulf Puzzles Scientists
This winter an alarmingly high number of young bottlenose dolphins in the Gulf of Mexico (map) have been washing up dead on U.S. shores, government scientists report.
The reason for the die-off is a mystery, and experts are urging caution in drawing any connections to last year's BP oil spill.
"Everybody wants to jump to that conclusion ... but at this point in time, it's too early to tell," said Blair Mase, coordinator of the Southeast Marine Mammal Stranding Network of the National Atmospheric and Oceanic Administration (NOAA).
Since January 1, 80 dead dolphins have been discovered along the coasts of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, according to the latest NOAA figures.
Forty-two of the dead were calves. Most of the juvenile dolphins are washing up in Mississippi and Alabama, because dolphins typically give birth and raise calves along the shallow shores of those states.
The normal gestation period for the dolphins is one year, and mothers usually give birth in March and April, so scientists think the affected calves are either being aborted, stillborn, or born prematurely.
"That's one part of the investigation that we're going to be looking at very carefully," Mase said.
"We'll methodically score each animal that has come ashore to determine if, in fact, it was an aborted calf or an animal born alive."
BP Oil Spill "a Factor We Need to Consider"
Dolphin die-offs—which scientists call unusual mortality events—occur every few years. But this one stands out, because young dolphins appear to be hardest hit, marine biologist Moby Solangi said.
"Usually in a stranding, you have a mixture of animals—males, females, adults, calves—but this one is distortedly focused on neonates," said Solangi, director of the Institute for Marine Mammal Studies (IMMS) in Gulfport, Mississippi, which is helping to investigate the deaths.
Also unusual: Only dolphins appear to be affected so far. No mass deaths of turtles, fish, or birds have been reported for this die-off.
Known causes of dolphin die-offs include unusually cold waters, ocean biotoxins, and diseases.
NOAA's Mase said scientists are investigating all of these factors and are not ruling out a possible connection to the BP oil spill.
"It's something that we are including in our investigation," Mase said.
IMMS's Solangi agreed that the BP oil spill "is a factor that we need to consider."
"The oil spill lasted several months, and it covered tens of thousands of square miles and much of the habitat of these animals."
IMMS scientists are currently performing necropsies on the dead dolphins to try to determine causes of death. The process—including analyzing tissue samples for signs of diseases, viral infections, and toxins—could take several weeks or months, Solangi said.
Oil Link Tough to Prove
While a link between last year's BP oil spill and this year's dolphin deaths is possible, it could be very difficult to prove, said Craig Matkin, a marine biologist at the North Gulf Oceanic Society in Alaska.
Matkin co-authored a study in 2008 that looked at the effects of the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill on killer whale populations in Alaska's Prince William Sound.
"I'm not overly optimistic that they're going to be able to find a link," he said.
One reason is that—unlike other environmental toxins, such as the pesticide DDT—the hydrocarbon molecules in oil are quickly processed by the body and do not persist in tissues, Matkin explained.
Scientists also don't have a good idea of how the spill might have affected dolphins still in the womb.
Oil is thought to affect marine animals through inhalation or direct and indirect ingestion—for example, by eating tainted fish. But the calves now showing up dead may not have even been conceived before or during the worst weeks of the spill and thus were not exposed to the oil directly.
Dolphin Die-offs Largely Cold Cases
In his 2008 study, Matkin's team concluded that the Exxon Valdez spill affected Alaskan killer whale populations for decades after the event. After inhaling oil vapors or eating oil-coated seals, for example, the whales experienced everything from "mild irritation" to instant death, the study days.
It's unknown how the 1989 spill affected calves. Killer whales tend to give birth in deep water, so dead calves are much less likely to wash ashore.
Matkin pointed out key differences between the two events.
"This is just not the same kind of situation," he said. "We were following individual animals for a period of time before the [Exxon Valdez] spill, so we knew who was missing, down to the individual.
"It's very different when you have a bunch of unknown animals stranded on a beach and you don't know anything about their history."
NOAA's Mase said it's possible that no satisfactory answer will ever be found for the dolphin-baby die-off.
"There have been 14 [unusual mortality events] since 1990," she said. "And of those 14, we've only been able to determine the causes for 6."
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About 500 years ago Shakespeare wrote the tragic play- ‘Hamlet’. His tragedy emanates from major personality flaw- indecision. Indeed, the drama exaggerates the flaw and the hero suffers a disaster. This malady is, however, more wide spread in the current scenario. The acute competition & the rat race of the present times have made fear of rejection more prominent than ever before. The gin of fear is causing tremendous stress to most people. Four steps are listed below that will help mitigating the fear which is main cause of indecision.
- Always remember that ‘left to themselves things go from bad to worse’. This you must have experienced in life. So the very memory will wake you up from the slumber and you will try to find a solution to the pending problem. Surely, you will need to take decision about the action you need to take- sooner than later. Get yourself motivated to ward off the indecision, thus.
- Whenever their some important project, you may write down the problem in detail. Now, think about the possible solutions. Then note down the pros and cons in respect of each. This will help you to decide easier and faster. But never fear about wrong decisions. Some decisions go wrong for everyone. The more you start taking decisions, you will find that incidence of wrong decisions will reduce.
- Your indecision could also be because of lack of adequate knowledge about the subject. Instead of worrying about what will happen if decision goes wrong, work hard to gain the required knowledge about the subject. The moment you know the subject well, you will find, it’s easier to decide. Fortunately, we have Google and other sites which instantaneously provide sufficient information on any subject.
- And if you are a habitual procrastinator, you must at once say to yourself that your habit has let you down on earlier accessions. You have suffered earlier. Therefore, you would not like to repeat your past mistakes. Procrastination is a disease. It needs to be eradicated from life. Whatever is necessary; you must do to cure the deadly disease.
There could be some more causes which each of us should identify fo himself/herself and then work on these. But indecision should not be allowed to hinder your progress.
Thanks for reading.
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An optical fiber is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. Fiber optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber lasers.
Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers which support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those which can only support a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 550 meters (1,800 ft).
Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either mechanically or by fusing them together with an electric arc. Special connectors are used to make removable connections.
Fiber optics, though used extensively in the modern world, is a fairly simple and old technology. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Paris in the early 1840s. John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London a dozen years later. Tyndall also wrote about the property of total internal reflection in an introductory book about the nature of light in 1870: "When the light passes from air into water, the refracted ray is bent towards the perpendicular... When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular... If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the ray will not quit the water at all: it will be totally reflected at the surface.... The angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48°27', for flint glass it is 38°41', while for diamond it is 23°42'."
Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in the twentieth century. Image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. The principle was first used for internal medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the following decade. In 1952, physicist Narinder Singh Kapany conducted experiments that led to the invention of optical fiber. Modern optical fibers, where the glass fiber is coated with a transparent cladding to offer a more suitable refractive index, appeared later in the decade. Development then focused on fiber bundles for image transmission. The first fiber optic semi-flexible gastroscope was patented by Basil Hirschowitz, C. Wilbur Peters, and Lawrence E. Curtiss, researchers at the University of Michigan, in 1956. In the process of developing the gastroscope, Curtiss produced the first glass-clad fibers; previous optical fibers had relied on air or impractical oils and waxes as the low-index cladding material. A variety of other image transmission applications soon followed.
The use of optic fibers for communication purposes were first carried out in Western Europe in the late 19th and early 20th century, such as they were used to diagnose a patient's stomach by a doctor, and those communications within short ranges. Especially, the transfer of images by optical fibers was largely popularized at the beginning of 21st century, due to the growing medical and television demands.
It is said that, Jun-ichi Nishizawa, a Japanese scientist at Tohoku University, also proposed the use of optical fibers for communications, in 1963, as stated in his own book published in 2004 in India. Nishizawa invented other technologies that contributed to the development of optical fiber communications as well. Nishizawa later invented the graded-index optical fiber as a channel for transmitting light from semiconductor lasers.
The groundbreaking event happened in around 1965, Charles K. Kao and George A. Hockham of the British company Standard Telephones and Cables (STC) were the first to promote the idea that the attenuation in optical fibers could be reduced below 20 decibels per kilometer (dB/km), allowing fibers to be a practical medium for communication. They proposed that the attenuation in fibers available at the time was caused by impurities, which could be removed, rather than fundamental physical effects such as scattering. They correctly and systematically theorized the light-loss properties for optical fiber, and pointed out the right material to manufacture such fibers - silica glass with high purity. This discovery led to Kao being awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009.
NASA used fiber optics in the television cameras that were sent to the moon. At the time its use in the cameras was 'classified confidential' and only those with the right security clearance or those accompanied by someone with the right security clearence were permitted to handle the cameras.
The crucial attenuation level of 20 dB/km was first achieved in 1970, by researchers Robert D. Maurer, Donald Keck, Peter C. Schultz, and Frank Zimar working for American glass maker Corning Glass Works, now Corning Incorporated. They demonstrated a fiber with 17 dB/km attenuation by doping silica glass with titanium. A few years later they produced a fiber with only 4 dB/km attenuation using germanium dioxide as the core dopant. Such low attenuations ushered in optical fiber telecommunications and enabled the Internet. In 1981, General Electric produced fused quartz ingots that could be drawn into fiber optic strands 25 miles (40 km) long.
Attenuations in modern optical cables are far less than those in electrical copper cables, leading to long-haul fiber connections with repeater distances of 70–150 kilometers (43–93 mi). The erbium-doped fiber amplifier, which reduced the cost of long-distance fiber systems by reducing or even in many cases eliminating the need for optical-electrical-optical repeaters, was co-developed by teams led by David N. Payne of the University of Southampton, and Emmanuel Desurvire at Bell Labs in 1986. The more robust optical fiber commonly used today utilizes glass for both core and sheath and is therefore less prone to aging processes. It was invented by Gerhard Bernsee in 1973 of Schott Glass in Germany.
In 1991, the emerging field of photonic crystals led to the development of photonic-crystal fiber which guides light by means of diffraction from a periodic structure, rather than total internal reflection. The first photonic crystal fibers became commercially available in 2000. Photonic crystal fibers can be designed to carry higher power than conventional fiber, and their wavelength dependent properties can be manipulated to improve their performance in certain applications.
Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters. Additionally, the per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high as 111 gigabits per second by NTT, although 10 or 40 Gb/s is typical in deployed systems. Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light (wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of channels (usually up to eighty in commercial dense WDM systems as of 2008). The current laboratory fiber optic data rate record, held by Bell Labs in Villarceaux, France, is multiplexing 155 channels, each carrying 100 Gb/s over a 7000 km fiber.
For short distance applications, such as creating a network within an office building, fiber-optic cabling can be used to save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can often carry much more data than many electrical cables, such as 4 pair Cat-5 Ethernet cabling. Fiber is also immune to electrical interference; there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not conduct electricity, which makes fiber a good solution for protecting communications equipment located in high voltage environments such as power generation facilities, or metal communication structures prone to lightning strikes. They can also be used in environments where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition. Wiretapping is more difficult compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric dual core fibers that are said to be tap-proof.
Although fibers can be made out of transparent plastic, glass, or a combination of the two, the fibers used in long-distance telecommunications applications are always glass, because of the lower optical attenuation. Both multi-mode and single-mode fibers are used in communications, with multi-mode fiber used mostly for short distances, up to 550 m (600 yards), and single-mode fiber used for longer distance links. Because of the tighter tolerances required to couple light into and between single-mode fibers (core diameter about 10 micrometers), single-mode transmitters, receivers, amplifiers and other components are generally more expensive than multi-mode components. Today the fibre optic is used for fast communication purpose in world so therefore nowadays number of multinational companies have changed their communication infrastructure to fibre optics.
Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is itself an optical fiber. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiberoptic sensor to a measurement system. Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, or the fact that no electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can be multiplexed along the length of a fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be determined using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer.
Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other quantities by modifying a fiber so that the quantity to be measured modulates the intensity, phase, polarization, wavelength or transit time of light in the fiber. Sensors that vary the intensity of light are the simplest, since only a simple source and detector are required. A particularly useful feature of such fiber optic sensors is that they can, if required, provide distributed sensing over distances of up to one meter.
Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an optical fiber cable, normally a multi-mode one, to transmit modulated light from either a non-fiber optical sensor, or an electronic sensor connected to an optical transmitter. A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to reach places which are otherwise inaccessible. An example is the measurement of temperature inside aircraft jet engines by using a fiber to transmit radiation into a radiation pyrometer located outside the engine. Extrinsic sensors can also be used in the same way to measure the internal temperature of electrical transformers, where the extreme electromagnetic fields present make other measurement techniques impossible. Extrinsic sensors are used to measure vibration, rotation, displacement, velocity, acceleration, torque, and twisting.
Fibers are widely used in illumination applications. They are used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light needs to be shone on a target without a clear line-of-sight path. In some buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building (see non-imaging optics). Optical fiber illumination is also used for decorative applications, including signs, art, and artificial Christmas trees. Swarovski boutiques use optical fibers to illuminate their crystal showcases from many different angles while only employing one light source. Optical fiber is an intrinsic part of the light-transmitting concrete building product, LiTraCon.
Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibers is used, sometimes along with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device called an endoscope, which is used to view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical procedures (endoscopy). Industrial endoscopes (see fiberscope or borescope) are used for inspecting anything hard to reach, such as jet engine interiors.
In spectroscopy, optical fiber bundles are used to transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance which cannot be placed inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyze its composition. A spectrometer analyzes substances by bouncing light off of and through them. By using fibers, a spectrometer can be used to study objects that are too large to fit inside, or gasses, or reactions which occur in pressure vessels.
An optical fiber doped with certain rare earth elements such as erbium can be used as the gain medium of a laser or optical amplifier. Rare-earth doped optical fibers can be used to provide signal amplification by splicing a short section of doped fiber into a regular (undoped) optical fiber line. The doped fiber is optically pumped with a second laser wavelength that is coupled into the line in addition to the signal wave. Both wavelengths of light are transmitted through the doped fiber, which transfers energy from the second pump wavelength to the signal wave. The process that causes the amplification is stimulated emission.
Optical fiber can be used to supply a low level of power (around one watt) to electronics situated in a difficult electrical environment. Examples of this are electronics in high-powered antenna elements and measurement devices used in high voltage transmission equipment.
An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (nonconducting waveguide) that transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber.
The index of refraction is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material. Light travels fastest in a vacuum, such as outer space. The actual speed of light in a vacuum is about 300,000 kilometres (186 thousand miles) per second. Index of refraction is calculated by dividing the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed of light in some other medium. The index of refraction of a vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. The typical value for the cladding of an optical fiber is 1.46. The core value is typically 1.48. The larger the index of refraction, the slower light travels in that medium. From this information, a good rule of thumb is that signal using optical fiber for communication will travel at around 200 million meters per second. Or to put it another way, to travel 1000 kilometers in fiber, the signal will take 5 milliseconds to propagate. Thus a phone call carried by fiber between Sydney and New York, a 12000 kilometer distance, means that there is an absolute minimum delay of 60 milliseconds (or around 1/16th of a second) between when one caller speaks to when the other hears. (Of course the fiber in this case will probably travel a longer route, and there will be additional delays due to communication equipment switching and the process of encoding and decoding the voice onto the fiber).
When light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the "critical angle" for the boundary), the light will be completely reflected. This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fiber's core and cladding.
In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light may enter the fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle is the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to splice and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA.
Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) may be analyzed by geometrical optics. Such fiber is called multi-mode fiber, from the electromagnetic analysis (see below). In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber core by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle (measured relative to a line normal to the boundary), greater than the critical angle for this boundary, are completely reflected. The critical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is determined by the difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding materials. Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the cladding, and do not convey light and hence information along the fiber. The critical angle determines the acceptance angle of the fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture. A high numerical aperture allows light to propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various angles, allowing efficient coupling of light into the fiber. However, this high numerical aperture increases the amount of dispersion as rays at different angles have different path lengths and therefore take different times to traverse the fiber.
In graded-index fiber, the index of refraction in the core decreases continuously between the axis and the cladding. This causes light rays to bend smoothly as they approach the cladding, rather than reflecting abruptly from the core-cladding boundary. The resulting curved paths reduce multi-path dispersion because high angle rays pass more through the lower-index periphery of the core, rather than the high-index center. The index profile is chosen to minimize the difference in axial propagation speeds of the various rays in the fiber. This ideal index profile is very close to a parabolic relationship between the index and the distance from the axis.
Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light cannot be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic structure, by solution of Maxwell's equations as reduced to the electromagnetic wave equation. The electromagnetic analysis may also be required to understand behaviors such as speckle that occur when coherent light propagates in multi-mode fiber. As an optical waveguide, the fiber supports one or more confined transverse modes by which light can propagate along the fiber. Fiber supporting only one mode is called single-mode or mono-mode fiber. The behavior of larger-core multi-mode fiber can also be modeled using the wave equation, which shows that such fiber supports more than one mode of propagation (hence the name). The results of such modeling of multi-mode fiber approximately agree with the predictions of geometric optics, if the fiber core is large enough to support more than a few modes.
The waveguide analysis shows that the light energy in the fiber is not completely confined in the core. Instead, especially in single-mode fibers, a significant fraction of the energy in the bound mode travels in the cladding as an evanescent wave.
The most common type of single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 8–10 micrometers and is designed for use in the near infrared. The mode structure depends on the wavelength of the light used, so that this fiber actually supports a small number of additional modes at visible wavelengths. Multi-mode fiber, by comparison, is manufactured with core diameters as small as 50 micrometers and as large as hundreds of micrometers. The normalized frequency V for this fiber should be less than the first zero of the Bessel function J0 (approximately 2.405).
Some special-purpose optical fiber is constructed with a non-cylindrical core and/or cladding layer, usually with an elliptical or rectangular cross-section. These include polarization-maintaining fiber and fiber designed to suppress whispering gallery mode propagation.
Photonic-crystal fiber is made with a regular pattern of index variation (often in the form of cylindrical holes that run along the length of the fiber). Such fiber uses diffraction effects instead of or in addition to total internal reflection, to confine light to the fiber's core. The properties of the fiber can be tailored to a wide variety of applications.
Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in intensity of the light beam (or signal) with respect to distance traveled through a transmission medium. Attenuation coefficients in fiber optics usually use units of dB/km through the medium due to the relatively high quality of transparency of modern optical transmission media. The medium is typically usually a fiber of silica glass that confines the incident light beam to the inside. Attenuation is an important factor limiting the transmission of a digital signal across large distances. Thus, much research has gone into both limiting the attenuation and maximizing the amplification of the optical signal. Empirical research has shown that attenuation in optical fiber is caused primarily by both scattering and absorption.
The propagation of light through the core of an optical fiber is based on total internal reflection of the lightwave. Rough and irregular surfaces, even at the molecular level, can cause light rays to be reflected in random directions. This is called diffuse reflection or scattering, and it is typically characterized by wide variety of reflection angles.
Light scattering depends on the wavelength of the light being scattered. Thus, limits to spatial scales of visibility arise, depending on the frequency of the incident light-wave and the physical dimension (or spatial scale) of the scattering center, which is typically in the form of some specific micro-structural feature. Since visible light has a wavelength of the order of one micron (one millionth of a meter) scattering centers will have dimensions on a similar spatial scale.
Thus, attenuation results from the incoherent scattering of light at internal surfaces and interfaces. In (poly)crystalline materials such as metals and ceramics, in addition to pores, most of the internal surfaces or interfaces are in the form of grain boundaries that separate tiny regions of crystalline order. It has recently been shown that when the size of the scattering center (or grain boundary) is reduced below the size of the wavelength of the light being scattered, the scattering no longer occurs to any significant extent. This phenomenon has given rise to the production of transparent ceramic materials.
Similarly, the scattering of light in optical quality glass fiber is caused by molecular level irregularities (compositional fluctuations) in the glass structure. Indeed, one emerging school of thought is that a glass is simply the limiting case of a polycrystalline solid. Within this framework, "domains" exhibiting various degrees of short-range order become the building blocks of both metals and alloys, as well as glasses and ceramics. Distributed both between and within these domains are micro-structural defects which will provide the most ideal locations for the occurrence of light scattering. This same phenomenon is seen as one of the limiting factors in the transparency of IR missile domes.
In addition to light scattering, attenuation or signal loss can also occur due to selective absorption of specific wavelengths, in a manner similar to that responsible for the appearance of color. Primary material considerations include both electrons and molecules as follows:
1) At the electronic level, it depends on whether the electron orbitals are spaced (or "quantized") such that they can absorb a quantum of light (or photon) of a specific wavelength or frequency in the ultraviolet (UV) or visible ranges. This is what gives rise to color.
2) At the atomic or molecular level, it depends on the frequencies of atomic or molecular vibrations or chemical bonds, how close-packed its atoms or molecules are, and whether or not the atoms or molecules exhibit long-range order. These factors will determine the capacity of the material transmitting longer wavelengths in the infrared (IR), far IR, radio and microwave ranges.
The design of any optically transparent device requires the selection of materials based upon knowledge of its properties and limitations. The lattice absorption characteristics observed at the lower frequency regions (mid IR to far-infrared wavelength range) define the long-wavelength transparency limit of the material. They are the result of the interactive coupling between the motions of thermally induced vibrations of the constituent atoms and molecules of the solid lattice and the incident light wave radiation. Hence, all materials are bounded by limiting regions of absorption caused by atomic and molecular vibrations (bond-stretching)in the far-infrared (>10 µm).
Thus, multi-phonon absorption occurs when two or more phonons simultaneously interact to produce electric dipole moments with which the incident radiation may couple. These dipoles can absorb energy from the incident radiation, reaching a maximum coupling with the radiation when the frequency is equal to the fundamental vibrational mode of the molecular dipole (e.g. Si-O bond) in the far-infrared, or one of its harmonics.
The selective absorption of infrared (IR) light by a particular material occurs because the selected frequency of the light wave matches the frequency (or an integral multiple of the frequency) at which the particles of that material vibrate. Since different atoms and molecules have different natural frequencies of vibration, they will selectively absorb different frequencies (or portions of the spectrum) of infrared (IR) light.
Reflection and transmission of light waves occur because the frequencies of the light waves do not match the natural resonant frequencies of vibration of the objects. When IR light of these frequencies strikes an object, the energy is either reflected or transmitted.
Glass optical fibers are almost always made from silica, but some other materials, such as fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate, and chalcogenide glasses, are used for longer-wavelength infrared applications. Like other glasses, these glasses have a refractive index of about 1.5. Typically the difference between core and cladding is less than one percent.
Plastic optical fibers (POF) are commonly step-index multi-mode fibers with a core diameter of 0.5 millimeters or larger. POF typically have higher attenuation coefficients than glass fibers, 1 dB/m or higher, and this high attenuation limits the range of POF-based systems.
Silica exhibits fairly good optical transmission over a wide range of wavelengths. In the near-infrared (near IR) portion of the spectrum, particularly around 1.5 μm, silica can have extremely low absorption and scattering losses of the order of 0.2 dB/km. A high transparency in the 1.4-μm region is achieved by maintaining a low concentration of hydroxyl groups (OH). Alternatively, a high OH concentration is better for transmission in the ultraviolet (UV) region.
Silica can be drawn into fibers at reasonably high temperatures, and has a fairly broad glass transformation range. One other advantage is that fusion splicing and cleaving of silica fibers is relatively effective. Silica fiber also has high mechanical strength against both pulling and even bending, provided that the fiber is not too thick and that the surfaces have been well prepared during processing. Even simple cleaving (breaking) of the ends of the fiber can provide nicely flat surfaces with acceptable optical quality. Silica is also relatively chemically inert. In particular, it is not hygroscopic (does not absorb water).
Silica glass can be doped with various materials. One purpose of doping is to raise the refractive index (e.g. with Germanium dioxide (GeO2) or Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)) or to lower it (e.g. with fluorine or Boron trioxide (B2O3)). Doping is also possible with laser-active ions (for example, rare earth-doped fibers) in order to obtain active fibers to be used, for example, in fiber amplifiers or laser applications. Both the fiber core and cladding are typically doped, so that the entire assembly (core and cladding) is effectively the same compound (e.g. an aluminosilicate, germanosilicate, phosphosilicate or borosilicate glass).
Particularly for active fibers, pure silica is usually not a very suitable host glass, because it exhibits a low solubility for rare earth ions. This can lead to quenching effects due to clustering of dopant ions. Aluminosilicates are much more effective in this respect.
Silica fiber also exhibits a high threshold for optical damage. This property ensures a low tendency for laser-induced breakdown. This is important for fiber amplifiers when utilized for the amplification of short pulses.
Because of these properties silica fibers are the material of choice in many optical applications, such as communications (except for very short distances with plastic optical fiber), fiber lasers, fiber amplifiers, and fiber-optic sensors. The large efforts which have been put forth in the development of various types of silica fibers have further increased the performance of such fibers over other materials.
Fluoride glass is a class of non-oxide optical quality glasses composed of fluorides of various metals. Because of their low viscosity, it is very difficult to completely avoid crystallization while processing it through the glass transition (or drawing the fiber from the melt). Thus, although heavy metal fluoride glasses (HMFG) exhibit very low optical attenuation, they are not only difficult to manufacture, but are quite fragile, and have poor resistance to moisture and other environmental attacks. Their best attribute is that they lack the absorption band associated with the hydroxyl (OH) group (3200–3600 cm−1), which is present in nearly all oxide-based glasses.
An example of a heavy metal fluoride glass is the ZBLAN glass group, composed of zirconium, barium, lanthanum, aluminium, and sodium fluorides. Their main technological application is as optical waveguides in both planar and fiber form. They are advantageous especially in the mid-infrared (2000–5000 nm) range.
HMFGs were initially slated for optical fiber applications, because the intrinsic losses of a mid-IR fiber could in principle be lower than those of silica fibers, which are transparent only up to about 2 μm. However, such low losses were never realized in practice, and the fragility and high cost of fluoride fibers made them less than ideal as primary candidates. Later, the utility of fluoride fibers for various other applications was discovered. These include mid-IR spectroscopy, fiber optic sensors, thermometry, and imaging. Also, fluoride fibers can be used to for guided lightwave transmission in media such as YAG (yttria-alumina garnet) lasers at 2.9 μm, as required for medical applications (e.g. ophthalmology and dentistry).
Phosphate glass constitutes a class of optical glasses composed of metaphosphates of various metals. Instead of the SiO4 tetrahedra observed in silicate glasses, the building block for this glass former is Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), which crystallizes in at least four different forms. The most familiar polymorph (see figure) comprises molecules of P4O10.
Phosphate glasses can be advantageous over silica glasses for optical fibers with a high concentration of doping rare earth ions. A mix of fluoride glass and phosphate glass is fluorophosphate glass.
The chalcogens—the elements in group 16 of the periodic table—particularly sulfur (S), selenium (Se) and tellurium (Te)—react with more electropositive elements, such as silver, to form chalcogenides. These are extremely versatile compounds, in that they can be crystalline or amorphous, metallic or semiconducting, and conductors of ions or electrons.
Standard optical fibers are made by first constructing a large-diameter preform, with a carefully controlled refractive index profile, and then pulling the preform to form the long, thin optical fiber. The preform is commonly made by three chemical vapor deposition methods: inside vapor deposition, outside vapor deposition, and vapor axial deposition.
With inside vapor deposition, the preform starts as a hollow glass tube approximately 40 centimeters (16 in) long, which is placed horizontally and rotated slowly on a lathe. Gases such as silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4) or germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4) are injected with oxygen in the end of the tube. The gases are then heated by means of an external hydrogen burner, bringing the temperature of the gas up to 1900 K (1600 °C, 3000 °F), where the tetrachlorides react with oxygen to produce silica or germania (germanium dioxide) particles. When the reaction conditions are chosen to allow this reaction to occur in the gas phase throughout the tube volume, in contrast to earlier techniques where the reaction occurred only on the glass surface, this technique is called modified chemical vapor deposition.
The oxide particles then agglomerate to form large particle chains, which subsequently deposit on the walls of the tube as soot. The deposition is due to the large difference in temperature between the gas core and the wall causing the gas to push the particles outwards (this is known as thermophoresis). The torch is then traversed up and down the length of the tube to deposit the material evenly. After the torch has reached the end of the tube, it is then brought back to the beginning of the tube and the deposited particles are then melted to form a solid layer. This process is repeated until a sufficient amount of material has been deposited. For each layer the composition can be modified by varying the gas composition, resulting in precise control of the finished fiber's optical properties.
In outside vapor deposition or vapor axial deposition, the glass is formed by flame hydrolysis, a reaction in which silicon tetrachloride and germanium tetrachloride are oxidized by reaction with water (H2O) in an oxyhydrogen flame. In outside vapor deposition the glass is deposited onto a solid rod, which is removed before further processing. In vapor axial deposition, a short seed rod is used, and a porous preform, whose length is not limited by the size of the source rod, is built up on its end. The porous preform is consolidated into a transparent, solid preform by heating to about 1800 K (1500 °C, 2800 °F).
The preform, however constructed, is then placed in a device known as a drawing tower, where the preform tip is heated and the optic fiber is pulled out as a string. By measuring the resultant fiber width, the tension on the fiber can be controlled to maintain the fiber thickness.
Fiber optic coatings are UV-cured urethane acrylate composite materials applied to the outside of the fiber during the drawing process. The coatings protect the very delicate strands of glass fiber—about the size of a human hair—and allow it to survive the rigors of manufacturing, proof testing, cabling and installation.
Today’s glass optical fiber draw processes employ a dual-layer coating approach. An inner primary coating is designed to act as a shock absorber to minimize attenuation caused by microbending. An outer secondary coating protects the primary coating against mechanical damage and acts as a barrier to lateral forces.
These fiber optic coating layers are applied during the fiber draw, at speeds approaching 100 kilometers per hour (60 mph). Fiber optic coatings are applied using one of two methods: wet-on-dry, in which the fiber passes through a primary coating application, which is then UV cured, then through the secondary coating application which is subsequently cured; and wet-on-wet, in which the fiber passes through both the primary and secondary coating applications and then goes to UV curing.
Fiber optic coatings are applied in concentric layers to prevent damage to the fiber during the drawing application and to maximize fiber strength and microbend resistance. Unevenly coated fiber will experience non-uniform forces when the coating expands or contracts, and is susceptible to greater signal attenuation. Under proper drawing and coating processes, the coatings are concentric around the fiber, continuous over the length of the application and have constant thickness.
Fiber optic coatings protect the glass fibers from scratches that could lead to strength degradation. The combination of moisture and scratches accelerates the aging and deterioration of fiber strength. When fiber is subjected to low stresses over a long period, fiber fatigue can occur. Over time or in extreme conditions, these factors combine to cause microscopic flaws in the glass fiber to propagate, which can ultimately result in fiber failure.
Three key characteristics of fiber optic waveguides can be affected by environmental conditions: strength, attenuation and resistance to losses caused by microbending. External fiber optic coatings protect glass optical fiber from environmental conditions that can affect the fiber’s performance and long-term durability. On the inside, coatings ensure the reliability of the signal being carried and help minimize attenuation due to microbending.
In practical fibers, the cladding is usually coated with a tough resin buffer layer, which may be further surrounded by a jacket layer, usually plastic. These layers add strength to the fiber but do not contribute to its optical wave guide properties. Rigid fiber assemblies sometimes put light-absorbing ("dark") glass between the fibers, to prevent light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This reduces cross-talk between the fibers, or reduces flare in fiber bundle imaging applications.
Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for applications such as direct burial in trenches, high voltage isolation, dual use as power lines, installation in conduit, lashing to aerial telephone poles, submarine installation, and insertion in paved streets. The cost of small fiber-count pole-mounted cables has greatly decreased due to the high Japanese and South Korean demand for fiber to the home (FTTH) installations.
Fiber cable can be very flexible, but traditional fiber's loss increases greatly if the fiber is bent with a radius smaller than around 30 mm. This creates a problem when the cable is bent around corners or wound around a spool, making FTTX installations more complicated. "Bendable fibers", targeted towards easier installation in home environments, have been standardized as ITU-T G.657. This type of fiber can be bent with a radius as low as 7.5 mm without adverse impact. Even more bendable fibers have been developed. Bendable fiber may also be resistant to fiber hacking, in which the signal in a fiber is surreptitiously monitored by bending the fiber and detecting the leakage.
Another important feature of cable is cable withstanding against the horizontally applied force. It is technically called max tensile strength defining how much force can applied to the cable during the installation of a period.
Telecom Anatolia fiber optic cable versions are reinforced with aramid yarns or glass yarns as intermediary strength member. In commercial terms, usage of the glass yarns are more cost effective while no loss in mechanical durability of the cable. Glass yarns also protect the cable core against rodents and termites.
Optical fibers are connected to terminal equipment by optical fiber connectors. These connectors are usually of a standard type such as FC, SC, ST, LC, or MTRJ.
Optical fibers may be connected to each other by connectors or by splicing, that is, joining two fibers together to form a continuous optical waveguide. The generally accepted splicing method is arc fusion splicing, which melts the fiber ends together with an electric arc. For quicker fastening jobs, a "mechanical splice" is used.
Fusion splicing is done with a specialized instrument that typically operates as follows: The two cable ends are fastened inside a splice enclosure that will protect the splices, and the fiber ends are stripped of their protective polymer coating (as well as the more sturdy outer jacket, if present). The ends are cleaved (cut) with a precision cleaver to make them perpendicular, and are placed into special holders in the splicer. The splice is usually inspected via a magnified viewing screen to check the cleaves before and after the splice. The splicer uses small motors to align the end faces together, and emits a small spark between electrodes at the gap to burn off dust and moisture. Then the splicer generates a larger spark that raises the temperature above the melting point of the glass, fusing the ends together permanently. The location and energy of the spark is carefully controlled so that the molten core and cladding do not mix, and this minimizes optical loss. A splice loss estimate is measured by the splicer, by directing light through the cladding on one side and measuring the light leaking from the cladding on the other side. A splice loss under 0.1 dB is typical. The complexity of this process makes fiber splicing much more difficult than splicing copper wire.
Mechanical fiber splices are designed to be quicker and easier to install, but there is still the need for stripping, careful cleaning and precision cleaving. The fiber ends are aligned and held together by a precision-made sleeve, often using a clear index-matching gel that enhances the transmission of light across the joint. Such joints typically have higher optical loss and are less robust than fusion splices, especially if the gel is used. All splicing techniques involve the use of an enclosure into which the splice is placed for protection afterward.
Fibers are terminated in connectors so that the fiber end is held at the end face precisely and securely. A fiber-optic connector is basically a rigid cylindrical barrel surrounded by a sleeve that holds the barrel in its mating socket. The mating mechanism can be "push and click", "turn and latch" ("bayonet"), or screw-in (threaded). A typical connector is installed by preparing the fiber end and inserting it into the rear of the connector body. Quick-set adhesive is usually used so the fiber is held securely, and a strain relief is secured to the rear. Once the adhesive has set, the fiber's end is polished to a mirror finish. Various polish profiles are used, depending on the type of fiber and the application. For single-mode fiber, the fiber ends are typically polished with a slight curvature, such that when the connectors are mated the fibers touch only at their cores. This is known as a "physical contact" (PC) polish. The curved surface may be polished at an angle, to make an "angled physical contact" (APC) connection. Such connections have higher loss than PC connections, but greatly reduced back reflection, because light that reflects from the angled surface leaks out of the fiber core; the resulting loss in signal strength is known as gap loss. APC fiber ends have low back reflection even when disconnected.
In the mid 1990's fiber optic cable termination was very labor intensive with many different parts per connector, fiber polishing and the need for an oven to bake the epoxy in each connector made terminating fiber optic very hard and labor intensive.
Today many different connectors are on the market and offer an easier less labor intensive way of terminating fiber optic cable.
Some of the most popular connectors have already been polished from the factory and include a gel inside the connector and those two steps help save money on labor especially on large projects. A Cleave (fiber) is made at a required length in order to get as close to the polished piece already inside the connector, with the gel surrounding the point where the two piece meet inside the connector very little light loss is exposed. Here’s an example of a newer style connector being terminated .
It is often necessary to align an optical fiber with another optical fiber, or with an optoelectronic device such as a light-emitting diode, a laser diode, or a modulator. This can involve either carefully aligning the fiber and placing it in contact with the device, or can use a lens to allow coupling over an air gap. In some cases the end of the fiber is polished into a curved form that is designed to allow it to act as a lens.
In a laboratory environment, a bare fiber end is coupled using a fiber launch system, which uses a microscope objective lens to focus the light down to a fine point. A precision translation stage (micro-positioning table) is used to move the lens, fiber, or device to allow the coupling efficiency to be optimized. Fibers with a connector on the end make this process much simpler: the connector is simply plugged into a pre-aligned fiberoptic collimator, which contains a lens that is either accurately positioned with respect to the fiber, or is adjustable. To achieve the best injection efficiency into single-mode fiber, the direction, position, size and divergence of the beam must all be optimized. With good beams, 70 to 90% coupling efficiency can be achieved.
With properly polished single-mode fibers, the emitted beam has an almost perfect Gaussian shape—even in the far field—if a good lens is used. The lens needs to be large enough to support the full numerical aperture of the fiber, and must not introduce aberrations in the beam. Aspheric lenses are typically used.
At high optical intensities, above 2 megawatts per square centimeter, when a fiber is subjected to a shock or is otherwise suddenly damaged, a fiber fuse can occur. The reflection from the damage vaporizes the fiber immediately before the break, and this new defect remains reflective so that the damage propagates back toward the transmitter at 1–3 meters per second (4−11 km/h, 2–8 mph). The open fiber control system, which ensures laser eye safety in the event of a broken fiber, can also effectively halt propagation of the fiber fuse. In situations, such as undersea cables, where high power levels might be used without the need for open fiber control, a "fiber fuse" protection device at the transmitter can break the circuit to prevent any damage.
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What is the state of biodiversity on Earth? Four scientific reports from the United Nations reveal that the Earth may be in store for a lonelier existence.
The planet is losing plants, animals, and clean water at dangerous rates.
United Nations Reports
Four new papers were recently published, showing the result of three years of hard work and research by 550 experts from a hundred countries. The assessments show the state of the planet in terms of biodiversity and ecosystem of the Earth's regions apart from the poles and open oceans. Analyzed were the Americas, Africa, Asia-Pacific, Europe, and Central Asia.
Findings of experts show that as of the moment in every assessed region, biodiversity is being degraded at a rapid rate because of pressures such as habitat stress, air, water, and land pollution, unsustainable use of natural resources, invasive species, and climate change.
The report presented region-specific assessments with regard to the biodiversity degradation. In the Americas, the rich biodiversity contributes immensely to poverty reduction and the economy.
However, assessments reveal that on average, the species population of a particular area is 31 percent smaller compared to the time of the European settlement.
If this trend continues due to climate change, this rate expected to reach 40 percent by 2050. Furthermore, nature's land-based contributions of $24 trillion per year are already 65 percent in decline.
As it stands, the biodiversity of animals and plants in Africa is already threatened by both man-made and natural causes. In fact, as Africa is especially vulnerable to climate change, by 2100, half of African birds and mammals could be lost, and African lakes and plants could see a 30 to 40 percent productivity reduction.
The current pressure on biodiversity could even worsen as the African population is expected to double by the year 2050.
In the Asia-Pacific, extreme weather events, invasive species, waste pollution, agricultural intensification, and sea level rise are the top threats to Asia-Pacific biodiversity. However, despite the serious biodiversity decline in the region, there has also been major successes in increasing protected areas.
In the last 25 years, there has been a 14 percent increase in marine protected areas and a 0.3 percent increase in land protected areas, leading to a 2.5 increase in forest cover.
That said, the efforts may still not be enough to stop the biodiversity loss, especially in marine ecosystems where coral reefs are seriously in danger.
Europe And Central Asia
An increase in conventional agriculture and forestry in Europe and Central Asia was seen as the major driver of biodiversity decline. In fact, 28 percent of species that can only be found in Europe are already threatened, and 42 percent of land and animal species in the region have already declined.
As it stands, wetlands in the region have been slashed in half since the 1970s.
"The people of the region consume more renewable natural resources than the region produces," said Professor Markus Fischer of Switzerland, co-chair of the Europe and Central Asia assessment.
That said, there were also observations of sustainable agricultural practices that are proving beneficial to the biodiversity.
With the results of the UN assessments, it is clear that there is still much work to do.
"Acting to protect and promote biodiversity is at least as important to achieving these commitments and to human well-being as is the fight against global climate change," said Dr. Anne Larigauderie, the executive secretary of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.
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Today is the first day that my students will begin using their ActivExpression Personal Response Systems. I often refer to them as “clickers.” I love that these clickers help keep all of my students engaged at all times and give me so many opportunities for formative assessments of my students learning at any point in the lesson.
Since this is the first time my students will be using these devices, I am going to allow for some time at the beginning of class for students to get used to them and for any technical difficulties or dead batteries. I also will do a few quick polls of fun things just to give students a chance to play. I may ask questions like what is your favorite TV show? Or what is your favorite thing about Camelback High School? Questions unrelated to math, just to get them used to the clickers.
Also, if allowing students to use calculators today...this will be a good time to model a few of the basic operations of the graphing calculator. This year my students will be using the new Ti-Nspire CX calculators. So these are definitely going to be new and different to my students so the kids will also need time to ‘play’ with these.
Today, I plan to just model how the basics of these calcualtors work. Mainly, showing students the two scratchpads. Today, they will need to be comfortable graphing. So I will go over shortcuts like ctrl+g to get the graphing bar and ctrl+t to get the table. Also, some students find the shortcut doc+b helpful to clear the screen. I will also model the non-shortcut apporaches to these, i.e. using the menu button to find what they need.
On pages 2-6 of the flipchart there are 4 Clicker Questions to check students current understandings of parent functions. I am going to be sure to emphasize to my students that this is what they were supposed to learn today. These are the types of questions they should now be able to answer after completing today’s activity.
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There are two types of satellites that collect imagery - optoelectronic and radar. Optoelectronic satellites are sensitive to infrared wavelengths and visible objects. Imagery from an optoelectronic satellite can be made in panchromatic or multispectral modes. This is helpful for land-use monitoring, mapping, city planning, etc. Radar satellites use ultra-high frequencies to remotely sense the Earth's surface. Ultra-high frequency allows these satellites to collect data through clouds, smoke, haze and sometimes through vegetation. It also can be operated at day or at night.
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Dr. Bernard Presser D.C.
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Vitamin A complex is an essential nutrient complex, fundamentally required for health. Functions of vitamin A in cell differentiation, growth, and survival exemplify its essentiality. Vitamin A is important for visual development, building strong bones and teeth, reproduction, normal development of epithelial tissues, optimal immune system function, production of RNA, and many other things. Deficiency of vitamin A affects the conjunctiva, cornea, and retina of the eye with consequences such as dry eye (xerophthalmia), night blindness, and corneal destruction. Risks of macular degeneration and cataract are reduced as ingestion of vitamin A or carotenoids are increased. Epithelial defects of the skin and linings of the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts occur with vitamin A deficits. Persons suffering from severe eczema or psoriasis often have low blood levels of vitamin A. Many types of respiratory tract illnesses such as bronchiolitis, pneumonia, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are associated with reduced blood levels. Development of abnormal respiratory tissue cells is less likely with increased vitamin A levels. Deficiency leads to loss of ciliated cells in the lungs. Vitamin A promotes mucin secretion and microvilli formation by mucous membranes, including those of the gastrointestinal tract. It prompts secretion of gastric juices for proper digestion and protects mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, throat, and lungs.
Vitamin A complex deficiency affects bone growth (thickening), male reproduction (atrophy of testes, cessation of spermatogenesis), and female reproduction (defective uterus, placental necrosis, abnormal fetal development, genitourinary and ocular defects in developing embryos, fetal resorption). Vitamin A has anticarcinogenic actions and research continues to elucidate its protective roles against cancer. Mechanisms of vitamin A function in controlling cell differentiation and cancer development led to the study of vitamin A's control in gene expression. Gene activation establishes vitamin A (in the form of its metabolite, retinoic acid) as a hormone which is stored in the liver and secreted into the bloodstream when needed. Vitamin A "is central to normal immune function" and is important in lowering morbidity of infectious and inflammatory illnesses - from measles to malaria, from acne to arthritis. Vitamin A is known to boost production of antibodies and white blood cells such as macrophages and T cells. It helps regulate T lymphocytes and thymocytes, increase natural killer cell numbers and activity, and regulate growth and activity of B cells. Individuals with low vitamin A status are more likely to have impaired natural killer cells, and are more susceptible to inflammation, aggravation of pre-existing inflammatory states, infection, and cancer. Vitamin A has a role in tissue regeneration, and offsets tumor formation and development.
A correlation exists between consumption of vitamin A complex in the diet and insulin's ability to control glucose. People with "impaired glucose tolerance" (which can lead to diabetes) have lower concentrations of carotenoids in their blood than healthy people. The thyroid gland requires more vitamin A than other glands and cannot function without it. A lack of sufficient vitamin A may result in subtle cognitive difficulties. Mice fed diets lacking vitamin A have diminished chemical changes in the brain considered properties of learning and memory. Vitamin A helps not only reconnection of retinoid receptors critical for vision, but also helps sensory perception, language processing, and attention capacity in autistic children. Although deficiency can cause malformation in the developing embryo, recent studies suggest that there is a window of time in pregnancy during which increasing levels of vitamin A "can reverse the adverse effects of genetic deficiency." As vitamin A status improves, so do hemoglobin values. Chronic vitamin-A deficiency leads to degeneration of the structures of the ear. Decreased auditory function is associated with low vitamin A levels. Stroke victims with high levels of vitamin A are more likely to recover without damage. Efficient uptake of minerals and proper use of water-soluble vitamins require adequate vitamin A from the diet. Vitamin A inhibits the effects of mineral-blocking phytic acid and increases absorption of iron from whole wheat. Increased absorption of iron and folic acid occur with improved vitamin A levels. "Vitamin A deficiency is associated with a wide range of effects on various cell types" because cellular actions are mediated via this nutrient.
Vitamin A complex is identified as retinol or any of several related fat-soluble compounds that have similar biological activity. The body converts retinol into the hormone retinoic acid which travels through the bloodstream and into cells. Retinol esters are naturally present in the fat of animal foods such as liver, kidney, fish liver oils, eggs, and unpasteurized whole-milk products. Retinol intake is variable, not only due to availability of concentrated food sources, but also by seasonal variation of content in foods such as unpasteurized milk. Retinol in a synthetic manufactured form is sold as ‘vitamin A' supplements or placed in "fortified foods" such as breakfast cereals (including instant oatmeal), meal replacement beverages, nonfat and low-fat milk products, margarine, some cheeses, and other products. Retinol is referred to as preformed vitamin A, the form the body uses as vitamin A. But fragmented or artificially-made preformed A is missing precursors and synergists, thus not regarded by the body as a food complex.
Carotenoids are fat-soluble pigments from plants, algae, and some types of bacteria. More than 700 carotenoids have been identified, about 40 or so are known to be commonly consumed in the US diet, and 20 or more are found in "quantifiable amounts" in human serum and tissues. Most research studies have focused on only six carotenoids: beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, lutein, lycopene, zeaxanthin, and beta-cryptoxanthin. But "not all carotenoids are alike." There are wide differences in the activities of individual carotenoids. Science has only scratched the surface. Although often called "vitamin A", carotenoids are actually provitamin A, meaning they are the raw materials that must be converted by the body into retinol.
There is much controversy about the conversion of carotenoids. The latest equivalences thought to reflect differences in bioavailability and vitamin A activity of carotenoids compared with retinol are classified as Retinol Equivalents (RE) or Retinol Activity Equivalents (RAE). Currently, 1 RE or RAE is equivalent to 1 microgram (mcg) retinol, 12 mcg beta-carotene (12:1), 24 mcg other carotenoids (24:1). Actually, relative equivalents of beta-carotene to retinol range anywhere from 2:1 to 26:1 (mcgs). An average equivalency ratio of 6:1 (6 mcg beta-carotene = 1 mcg retinol) was proposed by the World Health Organization as merely an approximation that is not applicable to all people or all diets. "The real conversion factor for specific foods under specific circumstances depends on many factors." Also, the numbers often represent a "new science on the vitamin A activity of purified [isolated, often synthetic] B-carotene compared to retinol." The biological activity of carotenoids as part of whole foods is not always reflected in the numbers, though some research with whole foods is taking place. Interference in the conversion of carotenoids to retinol may occur with low fat intake, diabetes, low thyroid function, celiac disease, intestinal parasites, pancreatic disease, cystic fibrosis, cirrhosis of the liver, bile duct obstruction, excessive stress, excessive alcohol consumption, deficiencies of zinc or protein or other nutrients, high intake of sodium nitrites and nitrates (as in luncheon meats, hot dogs, sausage, bacon, ham), high intake of refined polyunsaturated oils, high intake of iron-fortified foods, and use of a variety of medications including cholesterol-lowering drugs.
Vitamin A complex is metabolized through the liver. Retinol is stored in the liver in the form of its esters with the help of certain enzymes that convert it to its storage form. Unlike retinol, carotenoids are not primarily stored in the liver. Rather, they are deposited widely throughout the body in fat cells, adrenal glands, and other fatty tissues. The hormone form of retinol, retinoic acid, is regulated for concentration in tissues and circulation primarily by the liver. Cellular retinol-binding protein, found throughout bodily tissues, has key functions in retinoid metabolism. Minerals such as zinc and iron improve vitamin A status and potentiate its effect. A deficit of zinc, for example, limits the bioavailability of vitamin A. Protein, vitamin E complex, and dietary fats enhance carotenoid absorption and use. Other synergists include B vitamins (especially B2, B3, and B12), vitamin C complex, calcium, thyroid hormone, testosterone, melanocyte-stimulating hormone, and growth hormone. Plasma levels of vitamin C drop with vitamin A depletion; the occurrence and action of vitamins A and C often coincide. Vitamin D occurs naturally with vitamin A in many foods. Vitamin E and A complexes work together in a balancing manner. Insulin and thyroid hormone stimulate intestinal conversion of carotenoids to retinol. Thyroid hormone increases vitamin A storage in the liver, balances decreased basal metabolism, and increases utilization of vitamin A. With vitamin A depletion, levels of progesterone, testosterone, aldosterone, and cortisol decrease. Production of many steroid hormones is stimulated by vitamin A. Obviously, vitamin A does not work by itself. Many factors influence its absorption, use, and effectiveness.
Serum or blood levels of vitamin A complex decline during the acute phase response to inflammation, infection, and trauma (due, at least in part, to decreased release from the liver), then typically rebound (come back up to prior level or higher) during resolution of the acute phase response (as it is again released from the liver). However, in severe or chronic inflammation or infection, loss of vitamin A from body stores occurs without a rebound. So blood tests alone do not necessarily indicate vitamin A status, bioavailability, potency, function, adjustments, compensations, or effects. i
VITAMIN A TOXICITY
The current "daily value" for vitamin A is 5,000 IU (1,500 micrograms [mcg]). The "tolerable upper intake level" is 10,000 IU (3,000 mcg) per day for adults and less for children. Although vitamin A has been given in doses from 10,000 IU to 500,000 IU daily, not everyone can safely take high doses. Reports show that liver toxicity can appear in people who take from 25,000 to 50,000 IU a day. "Dangerous levels" can build up if large doses are taken over time. Side effects (unwanted effects) including nausea, fatigue, loss of appetite, headaches, dry itchy skin, irritability, nerve lesions, insomnia, bone/joint pain, and hair loss may occur starting at about 30,000 IU a day taken long-term. One study found that women taking more than 10,000 IU a day from supplements (not from food) had nearly five times the risk of having babies with birth defects. This stirred the government to set the new 10,000 IU upper limit for vitamin A. "The lack of relationship of high intake of vitamin A from food is curious..." said one researcher, as food was not associated with birth defects. Also notable is that "serum retinol levels have been shown to be increased more by ingestion of a supplement than by ingestion of liver with comparable vitamin A content." A 3.5-ounce piece of liver contains over 37,000 IU of retinol. Yet liver and other foods containing substantial amounts of vitamin A do not cause toxic reactions. Associations between use of high-dose supplemental vitamin A by pregnant women and malformations, developmental abnormalities, other birth defects, and spontaneous abortion have been documented. Doses ranged from 25,000 to 150,000 IU per day. Nevertheless, most infants born after "high" vitamin A exposure are normal without any major malformations.
Although vitamin A complex is essential to a healthy respiratory tract, high doses of supplemental vitamin A will not expedite recovery from acute lower respiratory ‘infection' such as pneumonia. Several large trials showed that vitamin A supplements had no effect on mortality from respiratory diseases. In fact, high concentrations of vitamin A may be more harmful than beneficial, causing adverse effects such as enhancing the severity of pneumonia, increasing symptoms of respiratory illness, and producing toxic effects. However, higher-than-average intake of vitamin A from FOOD is protective and decreases the risk of respiratory problems such as abnormal bronchial tissue. Transmission of HIV to babies has been correlated with levels of vitamin A in mothers. Mothers with the highest bodily levels of vitamin A complex have a very low transmission rate of just 7.2%. But there is increased risk of transmission when vitamin A and beta-carotene supplements are used. Food sources of vitamin A enhance iron absorption by counteracting the inhibitory effect of phytic acid in grains, but supplements of vitamin A in the form of retinyl palmitate have no effect on iron absorption. Retinyl palmitate may increase risk of recurrence of head and neck cancers, but vitamin A from food is known to help prevent such cancers. Toxicity has been reported following vitamin A supplement use in the treatment of other malignant diseases.
High doses of vitamin A supplements produce adverse skeletal effects in laboratory animals and in case studies of humans. Increased alkaline phosphatase activity (indicating bone disease), high blood calcium, low parathyroid hormone, and increased bone resorption have been found in people taking doses of 200,000 to 500,000 IU daily. A study of 70,000 postmenopausal nurses showed that those consuming at least 6,600 IU of vitamin A over an 18-year period had nearly double the risk of fractures compared with those consuming the least. Long-term intake of high amounts of vitamin A "may promote the development of osteoporotic hip fractures in women." Daily intakes of even 5,000 to 10,000 IU retinol have been associated with a reduction in bone mineral density and an increased risk of hip fractures. Men with an average ingestion of 5,000 IU of vitamin A per day are more prone to fractures than those getting less. "The amounts of retinol in fortified foods and vitamin supplements may need to be reassessed." An editorial concluded that the "optimal source is from foods in our diets, not the dietary supplements often taken..." Some scientists feel "it's pretty conclusive now that there's a bad effect of supplementation."
In virtually every study on vitamin A toxicity, it is isolated, synthetic supplements that are associated with adverse effects, not foods. Experimental animals and human subjects receive or are taking retinyl acetate, retinyl palmitate, or a synthetic retinoic acid derivative. Even small amounts of synthetic forms of vitamin A may be toxic, the actual amount differing with individuals and factors such as liver health. It is the toxicity of synthetic forms of vitamin A that produce the publicity about alleged dangers of vitamin A. Natural food sources of vitamin A are well tolerated at even high doses.
Actually, high amounts from the diet are needed to prevent birth defects, respiratory diseases, cancers, fractures, and other problems. Traditional diets of peoples around the globe were rich in vitamin A, often containing ten times the current recommended daily value. There has never been an indication of anything but healthful benefits from natural food forms of vitamin A, even for pregnant women. Warnings against vitamin A in foods usually include mention of Arctic explorers who, years ago, died from vitamin A overdose because they ate polar bear livers (several million IUs). But in 1988 it was discovered that polar bear and seal livers tend to accumulate cadmium, a toxic metal. The symptoms of cadmium poisoning were the same as those suffered by the Arctic explorers.
A supposed toxic dose of 100,000 IU vitamin A per day is found in 3 tablespoons of high vitamin cod liver oil, 6 to 9 tablespoons of regular cod liver oil, two-and-one-half 100-gram-servings of duck liver, about three 100-gram servings of beef liver, seven pounds of butter, or 309 egg yolks. Yet people have eaten such amounts with no toxic effects. There is a huge difference between isolated, manufactured retinol found in most supplements or added to fabricated foods and the natural vitamin A COMPLEX with its numerous synergistic co-factors (some of which aid proper handling and processing of vitamin A in the body) in REAL foods. Not only is the synthetic version less acceptable to the body, less biologically active, less effective (or potent), and less useable, it is also more likely to cause a REVERSE effect, contributing to imbalance, distress, and disturbance. Real vitamin A complex contains complex molecules, double bonds, a multiplicity of forms, various isomers, aldehydes, esters, acids, alcohols, and unknown factors.
The manufactured or synthetic version is usually in the form of retinyl ("vitamin A") acetate or retinyl ("vitamin A") palmitate. Vitamin A palmitate, for example, may begin as citral (lemon grass oil); is placed through many stages of refining, alteration, and processing to become vitamin A acetate; then it is combined with ethyl palmitate, (a refined fatty acid from palm oil) to complete it. This final product has absolutely nothing to do with whole food. The FDA lists vitamin A acetate and palmitate as having "well-recognized toxicity" when consumed at levels of 25,000 IU per day or higher, though some studies suggest toxicity occurs in some people at lower levels. Adverse effects include severe liver injury (such as cirrhosis), bone and cartilage pathologies, elevated intracranial pressure, and birth defects in infants whose mothers consumed supplements during pregnancy. Some studies indicate that the use of water-miscible, emulsified, and solid preparations cause more chronic problems of toxicity (and may be 10 times as toxic) than oil-based preparations! Thus, solid tablets or powders containing synthetic vitamin A are more toxic than perles containing oil. Vitamin D appears to help protect against toxicity from isolates. ii
Carotenoids have many important biochemical functions which make them key nutritional substances. Some of these functions make them vital both as vitamin A (when they are converted) and in their own right. Thus, "the biological activity of carotenoids extends beyond provitamin A."
Carotenoids support the health of the skin, even help protect it from cancer. Carotenoids are essential to the health and protection of the eyes. Depletion of carotenoids such as zeaxanthin and lutein is associated with cataracts and macular degeneration. Carotenoid status relates to lung function and respiratory health. Food sources may protect against exercise-induced asthma. Foods rich in carotenoids seem to reduce genetic damage, stimulate cell-to-cell communication, enhance immune function, reduce cancer incidence, decrease risk of cardiovascular disease, and decrease risk of other degenerative diseases. Diets rich in various carotenoids have, for example, been related to a decreased risk for certain cancers including those of the digestive tract, prostate, and pancreas, as well as oral, pharynx or larynx cancers. A diet low in beta-carotene but adequate in other nutrients, including retinol, results in altered white-blood-cell and platelet indices. Lycopene, stored in the prostate, "cannot be converted to vitamin A, making it relatively more available in the tissue." The benefits come from the myriad of natural synergistic substances in food, not one isolated compound.
There are indications that the conversion of plant carotenoids to vitamin A VARIES inversely with vitamin A status - the higher the stores of vitamin A in the total body, the less conversion takes place. The amount of conversion is influenced "little or not at all" by serum (blood) retinol levels, but by total body stores. Plasma concentrations of several carotenoids correlate to levels of fruit and vegetable consumption. But such measurements do not tell the whole story. Since much remains to be learned about factors affecting serum levels of retinol and carotenoids, bioavailability, bioconversion, and the sensitivity of indicators of change in vitamin A status, "every effort should be made to increase the accessibility to and consumption of food sources of carotenoids, including dark-green leafy vegetables."
Can food sources of carotenoids adequately and positively affect the vitamin A levels in the body? In areas of the world notorious for low vitamin A status, the incorporation of carotenoid sources (such as dark green leafy vegetables, sweet potatoes, etc.) into the diet "significantly increased serum retinol concentrations." The greatest rise in retinol occurs when meals contain fat as well as the carotenoid-rich foods. When fat is ingested along with the carotenoid sources, higher concentrations of vitamin A are found in the liver. Community-based clinical trials and epidemiological studies show that where vitamin A deficiency is confirmed, carotenoids from food raise serum concentrations of retinol and "ward off or even correct clinical deficiency." Numerous studies from different parts of the world have demonstrated a positive health effect from vegetables and fruits rich in carotenoids.
For example, a study in which participants received sweet potato, kale, and tomato juice for lunch every day for three weeks experienced a boost in their immune response by 33% (measured by the ability of T cells to multiply). Another study showed that green and yellow vegetables "can provide adequate vitamin A nutrition in the diet" of children and protect them from becoming vitamin A deficient during seasons when retinol food sources are limited. Serum retinol increased when carrots and papaya were given to lactating women (whose vitamin A requirements are higher than pregnant women); both the vitamin A and iron status of these women improved. Prolonged cooking or frying of foods results in reduced effectiveness (lower potency) of carotenoids. iii
Outcomes from supplementing with isolated or synthetic carotenoids have been inconsistent, disappointing, and sometimes harmful. For example, data indicate "no overall benefit or harm" on cataracts after 12 years of beta-carotene supplementation. Numerous cardiovascular-disease intervention studies using beta-carotene found "few beneficial effects and some negative ones." After 12 years there were no significant differences between study participants given beta-carotene and those given placebo in the incidence of all cancers, incidence of lung cancer, number of deaths from cancer, deaths from cardiovascular disease, deaths from any cause, number of men with myocardial infarction, number of men with stroke, or number of men with any of the three major vascular disease endpoints (cardiovascular death, stroke, heart attack). Researchers of the Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial concluded that the combination of beta-carotene and retinol had no benefit on the risk of lung cancer of cardiovascular disease in current or former smokers or those who had experienced occupational exposure to asbestos. The supplements seem to have had an adverse effect similar to a trial of beta-carotene supplementation in Finland -- the risk for lung cancer increased. Study results suggest that beta-carotene supplementation may pose a risk in smokers and asbestos workers and is "of little benefit in preventing cancer in well-nourished populations." Yet population studies suggest clear benefits when diets are high in carotenoids.
Epidemiological studies have "consistently shown" that people who eat ample amounts of fruits and vegetables have lower rates of cardiovascular diseases and cancer than those who eat less of such foods. Studies have not shown any significant protective effects against cardiovascular disease or cancer when fabricated or segregated vitamin fractions are given. Instead, angina and cancer are increased in smokers, drinkers, and those exposed to asbestos. High dietary intake of carotenoid-containing foods reduces risk of age-related macular degeneration, cardiovascular disease, prostate cancer, breast cancer, head and neck cancers. But human intervention trials, limited to use of pharmacological doses of beta-carotene or other carotenoids, have not shown these protective effects. Results of epidemiologic studies conducted over the past 30 years or more have "consistently shown associations between dietary intake of fruit and vegetables and a reduced risk of several diseases." But in recent intervention trials "supranutritional [pharmacological] doses of synthetic B-carotene had unexpected and worrying results..." The combination of alcohol and synthetic beta-carotene is toxic to the liver. In smokers who also consume alcohol, fabricated beta-carotene supplementation promotes pulmonary cancer and possibly cardiovascular complications.
Beta-carotene supplementation "appears" to enhance natural killer cells, but does not enhance T cell-mediated immunity, even though food intake studies indicate it "should". An average of 12 years of beta-carotene supplementation does not affect the development of non-melanoma skin cancer, including basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma. Beta-carotene made no significant difference in reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes, though several studies found that high intakes of vegetables and fruits rich in carotenoids reduce risk of type 2 diabetes. The serum level of beta-carotene and the degree of glucose intolerance have been directly and linearly correlated. Alas, study subjects "did not receive carrots - they received supplements" of isolated, synthetic beta carotene. No effects on biomarkers of oxidative stress were found with beta-carotene or lutein supplementation. Nursing mothers given beta-carotene do not experience an increase of beta-carotene in their breast milk. But women consuming red palm oil (a food source rich in carotenoids) show increased concentrations of alpha- and beta-carotene in breast milk and serum, and maintain breast-milk retinol concentrations.
"Although long-term doses of [synthetic, isolated] beta-carotene are not toxic in the general population, these doses may exacerbate or precipitate existing or borderline medical conditions." The assumption that the synthetic beta-carotene used in most studies is equivalent to beta-carotene in "a more natural milieu" (i.e., food) has yielded disastrous results. The "real lesson" is that real natural foods, with all their delicately-balanced proportions of "various isomers," are linked to reduced risks for diseases, but manufactured imitations are not. Scientists' tendency to isolate a naturally-occurring food ingredient, then to synthesize it and put it into a capsule or tablet has backfired many times. It does not work nutritionally. Taking excessive amounts of one carotenoid disrupts the balance of other carotenoids and possibly other nutrients and food factors. For example, isolated beta-carotene decreases plasma levels of lutein and zeazanthin. "Much of the evidence suggests an interaction between" beta-carotene and other carotenoids such as xanthaxanthin, lutein, and lycopene. It "could turn out" that the provitamin A activity of carotenoids depends on the content of other carotenoids and/or other natural substances in foods.
Studies with real humans and real foods suggest selective absorption, that the body chooses particular carotenoids in particular amounts needed at the time. Nature places nutrient ‘checks and balances' in foods, allowing the body to obtain exactly what it needs. When large amounts of separated or human-made compounds called "nutrients" are ingested, the body's biochemical balance can be disrupted, creating more problems.
As one scientist concluded, "there is no direct evidence that carotenoids themselves are responsible for" the protective and healthful affects of foods since the research cannot find a direct, linear, cause-and-effect link between an isolated chemical and a beneficial outcome. Scientists continue to search for "a biologic mechanism of action" while admitting that diets rich in fruits and vegetables and other natural whole foods "deliver the goods." With blinders firmly fixed, some attempt to "identify and quantify" segregated chemicals and their association with disease risk. Others grasp the concept that supplementation with solitary nutrient parts, especially if they are synthetic and given in large doses, can and will cause disturbances in the body's delicate equilibrium, disrupting the balance of nutrient and other biochemical interactions, potentially causing more harm than good.
Whole, natural foods contain a wide range of nutrients and other valuable substances in balance that work synergistically. The full spectrum of ingredients provides the real value of food. Obtaining carotenoids from foods means that all the balanced associated nutrients and other factors are also ingested which aid effectiveness and use as well as help prevent any "paradoxical reaction" that occurs with isolated and synthetic fractions. The advantages obtained from whole foods come from "beneficial interactions" among naturally-occurring carotenoids, phytochemicals, and other ingredients. "The nutrients and other healthful compounds in foods work in a fine balance which scientists are only beginning to understand." There has "never been any evidence" that carotenoids in foods pose any danger, partly because they come with many other components "that all work together". In fact, "virtually every study shows that foods" rich in carotenoids help keep people healthy and reduce risks for many health problems.
Studies actually emphasize the importance of food. "After all, it was on the basis of whole foods and integral meal patterns that the associations [between carotenoids and health benefits] were found." Attributing the helpful results to a specific "chemical" or a "pharmacologic" consequence of the diet detaches the relevance away from nutrition. Besides, food "has a physiological or psychological effect beyond the traditional nutritional effect." As one researcher opined, "epidemiologists should be forced to hang up as the motto on their campaign signs, "It's the foods, not the chemicals." iv
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Originally published as an issue of Nutrition News and Views, reproduced with permission by the author, Judith A. DeCava, CNC, LNC.
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http://www.allaboutnutritionalhealing.com/vitamina-terrificortoxic
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-13/segments/1490218188891.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20170322212948-00023-ip-10-233-31-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.909652
| 8,248
| 2.796875
| 3
|
Interdisciplinary research has become an increasingly common means to conduct scientific research. Many pressing problems, like climate change, require examination that relies on the methods and insights of a range of academic disciplines. But interdisciplinary research is challenging. Disagreement on the nature or necessity of a hypothesis, for instance, undermines a group’s capacity to produce publishable research. When the group doesn’t recognize the disagreement, the challenges multiply. They can talk past each other without ever realizing it. Talking past one another is easy when one is used to talking to those with similar academic training, where shared meaning can be taken for granted.
When stepping across disciplinary lines, however, such common ground can’t be taken for granted. Interdisciplinary researchers have differences in epistemological and metaphysical commitments can be daunting to overcome, especially when those commitments are left unarticulated. Even their language is a barrier to collaboration. Besides the fact that they each bring discipline-specific jargon to the group, interdisciplinary scientists often apply different meanings to the same term (e.g., ‘hypothesis’ and ‘triangulation’). These barriers to effective interdisciplinary research are fundamentally philosophical problems; at their core they are metaphysical, epistemological, or axiological issues. In short, interdisciplinary research is a place where philosophy can make a difference.
|
<urn:uuid:a57d6524-5031-4810-9602-cc4c180edc02>
|
CC-MAIN-2017-47
|
https://philosophychange.wordpress.com/2015/12/23/the-value-of-philosophy-in-interdisciplinary-research/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-47/segments/1510934806225.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20171120203833-20171120223833-00057.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.931086
| 277
| 2.65625
| 3
|
I like to spend a sufficient amount of time on each strategy to allow for an introduction, modeling, scaffolding, independent practice, assessment, and reflection. Therefore, I spend approximately 1 week on each strategy and follow a similar instructional routine. This is day 5 of Metacognition Week – Reflection. In this lesson, I will be asking students to think about what they would say if they wanted to teach someone else about Metacognition. When someone can explain/teach a strategy to someone else, it shows that they have a secure grasp of the concept and is one more way of assessing and solidifying their understanding.
Connection: I always start by connecting today’s lesson to something kids have previously learned so that it triggers their schema and background knowledge. Since this is the final day of Metacognition Week, I make a connection to all of the activities we have done throughout the week. I remind them that on Monday we introduced the strategy and noticed it. On Tuesday, we practiced the strategy with familiar books that we have all read together. On Wednesday, they applied the strategy to their own books. And on Thursday, they proved that they understood the strategy by turning in a Metacognition Guide. This is when I hand back the students’ Guides with feedback so that they can review and reflect on their level of understanding.
Teaching Point: This is when I tell kids explicitly what we will be working on. I say that today they will be reflecting on metacognition. I explain that they will use their Reader’s Notebook to answer the question: If you were going to teach someone what metacognition is, what would you say? Also, after writing their explanation, I want them to draw a picture to go with it that represents what metacognition is. A visual representation is a great way for students to express their understanding. Other ideas that reach different learning styles are for students are to write a song about the strategy or act it out in a creative way.
Active Engagement: This is where students get to try out the strategy that I just taught them. I ask them to think about what they might say to answer the question and what their picture might look like. After a minute or two of thinking time, I tell them to turn and talk to their partner to share some ideas. I give the students a few minutes then call on some to share.
Link to Ongoing Work: During this portion of the mini-lesson, I give the students a task that they will focus on during Independent Reading time. I tell them that during Independent Reading, their job is to complete the task that we’ve discussed in their Reader’s Notebooks. When they finish their task, they should continue reading books from their browsing box. After asking if there are any questions, I send them off for Prep Time.
Transition Time: Every day after the mini-lesson, students get 5 minutes of Prep Time to choose new books (if needed), find a comfy spot, use the bathroom, and anything else they might need to do to prepare for 40 minutes of uninterrupted Independent Reading.
Guided Practice: Today, I will be conferencing with students right at their comfy spots and helping some with their Guides. This is also a good opportunity to work with students that need re-teaching and extra support with this strategy. One of things I do during this time is work one-on-one with my struggling readers. I have short, leveled reading passages that are copied in a binder so they are always ready to use and no prep is necessary. I call a student and introduce the text and listen as they read. The student has his/her own copy in a plastic sleeve that they read from and I have a copy that I take notes on. When they struggle with a word, we stop and try strategies such as segmenting, looking for familiar parts, using context clues, etc. I circle those words on my copy so that we can revisit them after we finish the passage. I also keep track of fluency and ask questions at the end to make sure they comprehended the text. When we finish reading, I give them the copy that my notes are on, with the circled words, and tell them to re-read it to someone at home. I also encourage parents to keep these reading passages in a folder at home as a collection of “just right” texts for their children to use to practice reading fluently. This process only takes about 5-10 minutes so I am able to meet with several students during Guided Practice or a combination of one-on-one students and small groups.
Closing: At the end of 40 minutes, I remind students that their job during reading time was to write in their Reader’s Notebook to teach someone what metacognition is and draw a picture to represent it. I ask them to meet with their reading partner to share their work. After giving them time to meet, I call on a few students to share. Hopefully, they share that Metacognition is being aware of their own thinking. A common picture they might draw would be a thought bubble describing one of their thoughts. I then tell the class to put their graded Metacognition Guide in their mailbox to take home. Sending the graded Guide home at the end of each week is a great way to keep parents aware of the strategies you are working on in class and how their children are doing. Reader’s Workshop has come to an end so students put their browsing boxes away and make sure the library is neat and organized.
|
<urn:uuid:5b905e24-1eeb-488b-9429-aefe3604c290>
|
CC-MAIN-2018-51
|
https://betterlesson.com/lesson/508950/metacognition-reflecting-on-the-little-voice-inside-their-heads
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376825029.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20181213171808-20181213193308-00370.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.977293
| 1,156
| 3.234375
| 3
|
|BREAKING MEDICAL NEWS||October 17, 2013|
Human Form of “Mad Cow” Disease More Widespread Than Once ThoughtOctober 17, 2013
A variant of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), the human form of “mad cow” disease, is more prevalent than once thought, according to a new study published in this month’s British Medical Journal. Researchers analyzed 32,441 tissue samples from 41 British hospitals collected by the Health Protection Agency between 2000 and 2012. Each sample was tested for the proteins associated with vCJD. Results showed the number of people who carry the protein was double that of previous surveys. Little difference between age, sex, or geographic region indicates a more widespread infection of the overall population. An infected individual can incubate this form of the disease without exhibiting symptoms.
Gill ON, Spencer Y, Richard-Loendt A, et al. Prevalent abnormal prion protein in human appendixes after bovine spongiform encephalopathy epizootic: large scale survey. BMJ. 2013;347:f5675.
Breaking Medical News is a service of the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, 5100 Wisconsin Ave., Ste. 400, Washington, DC 20016, 202-686-2210. Join the Physicians Committee and receive the quarterly magazine, Good Medicine.
|
<urn:uuid:17abe61f-7bde-468a-9455-615e4bb23f64>
|
CC-MAIN-2015-18
|
http://www.pcrm.org/health/medNews/human-form-of-mad-cow-disease-widespread
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-18/segments/1430455241618.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20150501044041-00071-ip-10-235-10-82.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.901392
| 283
| 3.03125
| 3
|
The past eight years have witnessed growing global skepticism of, and even hostility to, Western-style democracy. Across Asia, large majorities countries want their countries to become more democratic in the future, but fewer believe that it is suitable today, even fewer believe that it is effective in solving societal problems, and yet fewer believe that it is the most preferable form of government. Although support for democracy and certain democratic principles is not high across Asia, citizens decisively reject authoritarian alternatives such as strong-man rule, military rule, or "experts-decide" governance.
To locate East Asian opinion within this overall trend, Carnegie hosted an event with three of the editors of a new book, How East Asians View Democracy: Yun-han Chu, distinguished research fellow at the Institute of Political Science of Academia Sinica and professor of political science at National Taiwan University; Larry Diamond, a senior fellow at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University, and the founding coeditor of the Journal of Democracy; and Andrew J. Nathan, the Class of 1919 Professor of Political Science at Columbia University. Albert Keidel, senior associate at Carnegie, moderated the discussion.
The book has its origins in the work of the East Asia Barometer, which was established in 2000 as the first systematic comparative survey of attitudes toward democratization in East Asia. The first phase of the project (2001-03) relied on thousands of face-to-face interviews to track opinion in eight countries / territories: Taiwan, Thailand, the Philippines, Mongolia, South Korea, Hong Kong, China, and Japan. The first five comprise East Asia's emerging democracies. Hong Kong's governance combines democratic and centralized elements, China's is highly authoritarian, and Japan's is fully democratic. With the second wave of the project (2005 to the present), the East Asia Barometer became the Asian Barometer, gauging attitudes in five more countries: Indonesia, Vietnam, Singapore, Malaysia, and Cambodia.
China vs. Japan
The discussants noted sharp, and counterintuitive, differences between Chinese and Japanese attitudes. While 94.4% of Chinese citizens agree with the statement that "Our form of government is best for us," only 24.3% of Japanese do. Similarly, while 81.7% of Chinese are satisfied with how democracy functions in their country, only 49% of Japanese are. The poll data also suggest that the Chinese have a much clearer conception of democracy than their Japanese counterparts: they desire a "socialistic," harmonious form of democracy, while Japanese do not seem sure what their preferences are (35.5% say that they do not know what democracy entails).
Across Asia, large majorities believe that democracy is desirable for their countries. Fewer, however, believe that it is suitable today, even fewer believe that it is effective in solving societal problems, and yet fewer believe that it is the most preferable form of government. Minorities in each of the Phase I countries except Thailand believe that democratization is as or more important than economic development (for example, 23.5% in Taiwan, 21.8% in the Philippines, 30.1% in South Korea, 19.6% in Hong Kong, and 40.3% in China).
To gain a deeper understanding of East Asian attitudes, the Barometer pollsters asked for their opinions on certain principles that are widely recognized as cornerstones of democracy without explicitly using the word "democracy": political equality, the separation of powers, government accountability, political liberty, and political pluralism. They found that while support for political equality was quite high, at an eight-country average of 73.5%, support for political pluralism was less than 40%. Most striking, there was a decisive drop in support for the notion that "democracy can solve problems" between the first and second wave of surveying: that figure fell from 89.8% to 66.2% in Thailand and from 71.7% to 55.2% in South Korea.
Although support for democracy and certain democratic principles is not high across Asia, respondents decisively rejected authoritarian alternatives such as strong-man rule, military rule, or "experts-decide" governance. The discussion concluded with Professor Diamond's argument that support for democracy is responsive to short-term economic performance. He contends that the political systems of authoritarian countries such as China and Vietnam will collapse as modernization accelerates.
Questions & Answers
One of the focal points of the discussion period was relativism. Specifically, one attendee noted that while some of the survey data measured East Asian countries' support for "democracy," other data gauged their support for democratic principles that the respondents may well have believed to be in alignment with nondemocratic political systems. The attendee asked, accordingly, whether the book could truly purport to understand the region's attitude towards democracy. Other discussion topics included the "path" to sustainable democracy, assuming that one or more exists, and the importance of a given economic development trajectory's characteristics and pace in shaping it.
|
<urn:uuid:8ea04ef5-6d37-4f81-9eae-ab3078ea8670>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-40
|
http://carnegietsinghua.org/events/?fa=1219
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-40/segments/1474738661768.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160924173741-00063-ip-10-143-35-109.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.956903
| 1,010
| 2.625
| 3
|
Applet is a special type of program that is embedded in the webpage to generate the dynamic content. It runs inside the browser and works at client side.
Advantage of Applet
There are many advantages of applet. They are as follows:
- It works at client side so less response time.
- It can be executed by browsers running under many plateforms, including Linux, Windows, Mac Os etc.
Drawback of Applet
- Plugin is required at client browser to execute applet.
Hierarchy of Applet
|As displayed in the above diagram, Applet class extends Panel. Panel class extends Container which is the subclass of Component.|
Lifecycle of Java Applet
- Applet is initialized.
- Applet is started.
- Applet is painted.
- Applet is stopped.
- Applet is destroyed.
Lifecycle methods for Applet:
The java.applet.Applet class 4 life cycle methods and java.awt.Component class provides 1 life cycle methods for an applet.
For creating any applet java.applet.Applet class must be inherited. It provides 4 life cycle methods of applet.
- public void init(): is used to initialized the Applet. It is invoked only once.
- public void start(): is invoked after the init() method or browser is maximized. It is used to start the Applet.
- public void stop(): is used to stop the Applet. It is invoked when Applet is stop or browser is minimized.
- public void destroy(): is used to destroy the Applet. It is invoked only once.
The Component class provides 1 life cycle method of applet.
- public void paint(Graphics g): is used to paint the Applet. It provides Graphics class object that can be used for drawing oval, rectangle, arc etc.
Who is responsible to manage the life cycle of an applet?
Java Plug-in software.
How to run an Applet?
There are two ways to run an applet
- By html file.
- By appletViewer tool (for testing purpose).
Simple example of Applet by html file:
To execute the applet by html file, create an applet and compile it. After that create an html file and place the applet code in html file. Now click the html file.
Note: class must be public because its object is created by Java Plugin software that resides on the browser.
Simple example of Applet by appletviewer tool:
To execute the applet by appletviewer tool, create an applet that contains applet tag in comment and compile it. After that run it by: appletviewer First.java. Now Html file is not required but it is for testing purpose only.
To execute the applet by appletviewer tool, write in command prompt:
|
<urn:uuid:0d411bd3-a0d6-41d9-bab6-897d6e543d3e>
|
CC-MAIN-2019-04
|
http://anishsir.in/java-applet
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-04/segments/1547583700734.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20190120062400-20190120084400-00045.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.847394
| 612
| 3.234375
| 3
|
Is the Volt the wrong kind of plug-in?
Carnegie Mellon University has finished carrying out an interesting study on the "impact of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) battery pack size on fuel consumption, cost and greenhouse gas emissions over a range of charging frequencies (distance traveled between charges)," according to GreenCarCongress.
In many driving scenarios, the study finds that conventional hybrid cars make more sense than any kind of plug-in hybrid. However, if a plug-in can be recharged every 20 miles or less, then a small-battery plug-in hybrid can be more cost-effective than a conventional hybrid. However, large battery plug-in hybrids, such as the Chevy Volt, were never found to be cost-effective.
Higher gas prices, and a number of other issues, significantly affect these results. Still, the study would seem to suggest that a plug-in Prius, for instance, is a more cost-effective approach to plug-in viability than is a vehicle like the Volt.
If true - and this study certainly doesn't establish truth - it would suggest that the government's plug-in tax credits are barking up the wrong tree by focusing on battery size.
|
<urn:uuid:1f855196-36cc-4901-8ddd-5391f48f9a15>
|
CC-MAIN-2013-20
|
http://www.hybridcarblog.com/2009/02/is-volt-wrong-kind-of-plug-in.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705559639/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115919-00050-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.962759
| 248
| 2.75
| 3
|
Pregnant women who are highly exposed to common environmental chemicals — polyfluoroalkyl compounds (PFCs) — have babies that are smaller at birth and larger at 20 months of age, according to a study from Emory University’s Rollins School of Public Health published online in the August 30 edition of Environmental Health Perspectives.
PFCs are used in the production of fluoropolymers and are found widely in protective coatings of packaging products, clothes, furniture and non-stick cookware. They are persistent compounds found abundantly in the environment and human exposure is common. PFCs have been detected in human sera, breast milk and cord blood.
The study, funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, included 447 British girls and their mothers in the United Kingdom participating in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a large-scale health research project that has provided a vast amount of genetic and environmental information since it began in the early 1990s.
The researchers found that even though girls with higher exposure were smaller than average (43rd percentile) at birth, they were heavier than average (58th percentile) by 20 months of age. The authors say this path may lead to obesity at older ages.
“Previous animal and human research suggests prenatal exposures to PFCs may have harmful effects on fetal and postnatal growth,” says lead researcher Michele Marcus, a professor of epidemiology in Emory’s Rollins School of Public Health and the assistant program director at Kaiser Permanente’s Center for Health Research.
“Our findings are consistent with these studies and emerging evidence that chemicals in our environment are contributing to obesity and diabetes and demonstrate that this trajectory is set very early in life for those exposed.”
According to Marcus, a recent study in Denmark found that women exposed to PFCs in the womb were more likely to be overweight at age 20. And experimental studies with mice have shown that exposure in the womb led to higher levels of insulin and heavier body weight in adulthood.
Marcus and her colleagues focused on the three most studied PFCs: perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFS), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) and perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS).
The researchers measured maternal serum concentrations of PFOS, PFOA and PFHxS during pregnancy and obtained data on the weight and length of the girls at birth, 2, 9 and 20 months. They explored associations between prenatal PFC concentrations and weight at birth as well as changes in weight-for-age scores between birth and 20 months.
Source: Woodruff Health Sciences Center
|
<urn:uuid:359ff9a6-9ab0-4167-9b08-ce6d41d64129>
|
CC-MAIN-2018-43
|
https://www.parenthub.com.au/news/parenting-news/chemical-exposure-womb-household-items-contribute-obesity/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583516135.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20181023111223-20181023132723-00353.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.959621
| 553
| 3.0625
| 3
|
(‘The straw man’), subtitled ‘Escena goyesca’, is usually programmed along with the suite. The influence of Scarlatti is especially marked here, in the sheer delight Granados takes in sensual virtuosity and irrepressible bonhomie. The pelele was a life-size straw man that young women enjoyed tossing up in the air, using a blanket that they held at the corners as a kind of trampoline. Goya portrayed the scene unforgettably in one of his tapestry cartoons, and the giddy exuberance of this music makes El pelele
one of Granados’s most memorable compositions. Granados premiered it at a concert in Terrassa on 29 March 1914. In fact, the term ‘Goyescas’ encompasses all of Granados’s piano works inspired by the artist, not only the suite. In addition to El pelele
, other ‘Goyescas’ include Jácara (Danza para cantar y bailar)
, Serenata goyesca
(a recording he made for Duo-Art in New York shortly before his death).
from notes by Walter Aaron Clark © 2012
author of Enrique Granados: Poet of the Piano (Oxford, 2006/2011)
|
<urn:uuid:1b5b7de8-3801-4b0d-8439-2943b381d1ed>
|
CC-MAIN-2014-15
|
http://www.hyperion-records.co.uk/tw.asp?w=W13920&t=GBAJY1284607&al=W13920_GBAJY1284607&vw=al
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-15/segments/1397609537186.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20140416005217-00043-ip-10-147-4-33.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.901228
| 284
| 2.953125
| 3
|
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