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https://forem.com/tlakomy | Tomasz Łakomy - Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Follow User actions Tomasz Łakomy Frontend Engineer at Stedi. https://cloudash.dev co-founder. Tech speaker, egghead.io instructor, lifelong learner. Location Poznań, Poland Joined Joined on Mar 18, 2019 Personal website https://cloudash.dev github website twitter website Work Frontend Engineer at Stedi Six Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least six years. Got it Close 2 Top 7 Awarded for having a post featured in the weekly "must-reads" list. 🙌 Got it Close Five Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least five years. Got it Close Writing Debut Awarded for writing and sharing your first DEV post! Continue sharing your work to earn the 4 Week Writing Streak Badge. Got it Close Four Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least four years. Got it Close Trusted Member 2022 Awarded for being a trusted member in 2022. Got it Close Three Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least three years. Got it Close Two Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least two years. Got it Close One Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least one year. Got it Close 8 Week Writing Streak The streak continues! You've written at least one post per week for 8 consecutive weeks. Unlock the 16-week badge next! Got it Close 4 Week Writing Streak You've posted at least one post per week for 4 consecutive weeks! Got it Close More info about @tlakomy Organizations AWS Heroes AWS Community Builders Skills/Languages JavaScript, React, Twitter Currently hacking on https://cloudash.dev Post 59 posts published Comment 30 comments written Tag 10 tags followed Quick guide to CSS Grid Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Dec 27 '23 Quick guide to CSS Grid # css # grid 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Want to connect with Tomasz Łakomy? Create an account to connect with Tomasz Łakomy. You can also sign in below to proceed if you already have an account. Create Account Already have an account? Sign in CloudFront Functions vs. Lambda@Edge: what's the difference? Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes Nov 22 '23 CloudFront Functions vs. Lambda@Edge: what's the difference? # aws # lambda # cloudfront 14 reactions Comments 1 comment 3 min read Full Stack TypeScript with AWS Cloud Development Kit v2 Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Nov 22 '23 Full Stack TypeScript with AWS Cloud Development Kit v2 # aws # cdk # typescript Comments Add Comment 1 min read Overview of AWS Lambda internal extensions Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes Nov 16 '23 Overview of AWS Lambda internal extensions # aws # lambda 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Creating a safe external HTML link - what's the deal with nofollow / noopener / norefferer ? Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Nov 8 '23 Creating a safe external HTML link - what's the deal with nofollow / noopener / norefferer ? # html 4 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Use patterns in CloudWatch Logs Insights to investigate production issues faster Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes Oct 16 '23 Use patterns in CloudWatch Logs Insights to investigate production issues faster # aws # cloudwatch 4 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Match case-insensitive patterns when using CloudWatch Logs Insights Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes Oct 10 '23 Match case-insensitive patterns when using CloudWatch Logs Insights # aws # cloudwatch 10 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Intro to CloudWatch Logs Live Tail Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes Sep 4 '23 Intro to CloudWatch Logs Live Tail # aws # cloudwatch 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read AWS Lambda storage options Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes Sep 21 '22 AWS Lambda storage options # aws # lambda # serverless 10 reactions Comments 3 comments 4 min read Guide to AWS Lambda Function URLs Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes Aug 23 '22 Guide to AWS Lambda Function URLs # aws # lambda # serverless 14 reactions Comments Add Comment 5 min read Guide to default AWS Lambda environment variables Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes Jun 6 '22 Guide to default AWS Lambda environment variables # aws # serverless # lambda 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Benefits of multi-account strategy on AWS Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes May 23 '22 Benefits of multi-account strategy on AWS # aws # lambda # serverless 17 reactions Comments Add Comment 5 min read 8 best practices for optimizing Lambda functions Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes Apr 18 '22 8 best practices for optimizing Lambda functions # aws # lambda # serverless 40 reactions Comments 1 comment 12 min read 10 CloudWatch Logs Insights examples for serverless applications Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes Apr 4 '22 10 CloudWatch Logs Insights examples for serverless applications # aws # serverless # cloudwatch 39 reactions Comments 2 comments 3 min read Optimizing Lambda Performance for Your Serverless Applications Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes Mar 9 '22 Optimizing Lambda Performance for Your Serverless Applications # aws # serverless # lambda 10 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Notes from Data modeling with Amazon DynamoDB – Part 1 with Alex DeBrie Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes Dec 2 '20 Notes from Data modeling with Amazon DynamoDB – Part 1 with Alex DeBrie # aws # dynamodb 18 reactions Comments 1 comment 3 min read Use VSCode debugger when working with AWS CDK Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Heroes Nov 21 '20 Use VSCode debugger when working with AWS CDK # aws # cdk # vscode 41 reactions Comments 1 comment 3 min read Notes from "The truth about cookies, tokens and APIs" by Phillipe de Ryck Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Nov 21 '20 Notes from "The truth about cookies, tokens and APIs" by Phillipe de Ryck # programming # security 8 reactions Comments Add Comment 5 min read 10 quick facts about AWS Lambda Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Community Builders Nov 15 '20 10 quick facts about AWS Lambda # aws # lambda 22 reactions Comments 2 comments 2 min read Build a file upload email subscription with CDK, S3 and SNS Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Community Builders Nov 15 '20 Build a file upload email subscription with CDK, S3 and SNS # aws # cdk 13 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Build a simple GraphQL server with Apollo Server and AWS CDK Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Community Builders Nov 13 '20 Build a simple GraphQL server with Apollo Server and AWS CDK # aws # cdk 21 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Why I don't like story-point-driven estimates Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Oct 5 '20 Why I don't like story-point-driven estimates # agile # career # estimation # scrum 70 reactions Comments 26 comments 6 min read CDK Made Simple: Managing S3 lifecycle policies with CDK Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Community Builders Aug 26 '20 CDK Made Simple: Managing S3 lifecycle policies with CDK # aws 15 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read AWS Made Simple: AWS KMS Envelope Encryption Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Community Builders Aug 26 '20 AWS Made Simple: AWS KMS Envelope Encryption # aws 14 reactions Comments 1 comment 3 min read A story of a biggest fuckup in my early career and what it taught me about taking ownership Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Aug 25 '20 A story of a biggest fuckup in my early career and what it taught me about taking ownership # career 32 reactions Comments 1 comment 4 min read How to get better at being appreciated for your hard work Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Aug 25 '20 How to get better at being appreciated for your hard work # career 29 reactions Comments 2 comments 5 min read AWS (?) made simple: What is a Netlify function? Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow May 28 '20 AWS (?) made simple: What is a Netlify function? # aws # netlify 16 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read AWS Made Simple: Introduction to Amazon EventBridge Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow for AWS Community Builders May 25 '20 AWS Made Simple: Introduction to Amazon EventBridge # aws # programming 29 reactions Comments 1 comment 3 min read Why I'm excited about serverless as a frontend engineer Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow May 23 '20 Why I'm excited about serverless as a frontend engineer # aws # development # serverless 125 reactions Comments 11 comments 4 min read What is AWS CDK (Cloud Development Kit) and why it's awesome Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Apr 1 '20 What is AWS CDK (Cloud Development Kit) and why it's awesome # aws # development 38 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Random notes taken while preparing for AWS Certified Developer Associate exam Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Mar 4 '20 Random notes taken while preparing for AWS Certified Developer Associate exam # aws 145 reactions Comments 10 comments 5 min read Recording 100 bite-sized screencasts - lessons learned Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Mar 1 '20 Recording 100 bite-sized screencasts - lessons learned # career # development # tech 63 reactions Comments 9 comments 6 min read Why (frontend) testing matters Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Feb 19 '20 Why (frontend) testing matters # testing # development 80 reactions Comments 1 comment 4 min read How do I add an API Gateway trigger to a AWS Lambda function? Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Feb 10 '20 How do I add an API Gateway trigger to a AWS Lambda function? # aws # programming # development # tutorial 18 reactions Comments 1 comment 3 min read Reasons why React is better than jQuery Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Feb 8 '20 Reasons why React is better than jQuery # discuss # javascript 41 reactions Comments 12 comments 1 min read "Crap, I broke production" - How do we ensure it never happens again? Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Feb 6 '20 "Crap, I broke production" - How do we ensure it never happens again? # development # programming # career 115 reactions Comments 13 comments 6 min read What do I write about? Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Jan 29 '20 What do I write about? # career # blogging 67 reactions Comments 7 comments 3 min read 5 reasons why you might use AWS Lambda for your next project Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Jan 23 '20 5 reasons why you might use AWS Lambda for your next project # aws # programming # development # tutorial 53 reactions Comments 2 comments 3 min read Create an AWS Lambda function from scratch Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Jan 20 '20 Create an AWS Lambda function from scratch # aws # programming # development # tutorial 51 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read WTF is AWS Lambda? Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Jan 19 '20 WTF is AWS Lambda? # aws # programming # development # tutorial 188 reactions Comments 6 comments 3 min read I am Tomasz Łakomy, Senior Frontend Engineer @ OLX Group, tech speaker, and egghead.io instructor, Ask Me Anything! Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Jan 18 '20 I am Tomasz Łakomy, Senior Frontend Engineer @ OLX Group, tech speaker, and egghead.io instructor, Ask Me Anything! # ama 19 reactions Comments 4 comments 1 min read Prototype. Ship. Amend. Repeat. Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Jan 16 '20 Prototype. Ship. Amend. Repeat. # development # career # productivity 40 reactions Comments 3 comments 3 min read Best tweet-sized programming career lessons Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Jan 6 '20 Best tweet-sized programming career lessons # career # development 86 reactions Comments 6 comments 2 min read 7 CSS properties I had no idea about Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Jan 3 '20 7 CSS properties I had no idea about # css # development 563 reactions Comments 29 comments 4 min read Code is meaningless Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Dec 18 '19 Code is meaningless # development # career 27 reactions Comments 2 comments 3 min read Architecting for the Cloud - AWS Best Practices (part 1) Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Dec 2 '19 Architecting for the Cloud - AWS Best Practices (part 1) # aws 67 reactions Comments 2 comments 6 min read Quick question: "How did you learn to code?" Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Nov 26 '19 Quick question: "How did you learn to code?" # development # career 41 reactions Comments 18 comments 3 min read WTF is Amazon S3? Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Nov 21 '19 WTF is Amazon S3? # aws # webdev 22 reactions Comments 2 comments 2 min read So, what does it mean to be a senior developer? Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Nov 14 '19 So, what does it mean to be a senior developer? # career 260 reactions Comments 32 comments 5 min read 10 rules of a successful meeting in a tech company Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Nov 1 '19 10 rules of a successful meeting in a tech company # meetings 93 reactions Comments 6 comments 2 min read What I've Learned About Testing React Apps - Unit Tests Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Nov 1 '19 What I've Learned About Testing React Apps - Unit Tests # testing # react 109 reactions Comments 7 comments 5 min read Become a +10% engineer Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Oct 2 '19 Become a +10% engineer # development 107 reactions Comments 7 comments 6 min read Passing AWS Solutions Architect Associate exam Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Sep 18 '19 Passing AWS Solutions Architect Associate exam # development # aws 223 reactions Comments 14 comments 5 min read What is the coolest thing you’ve learned this week? Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Sep 15 '19 What is the coolest thing you’ve learned this week? # discuss 4 reactions Comments 6 comments 1 min read Sleeping better at night with cypress.io Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow Jul 29 '19 Sleeping better at night with cypress.io # testing # e2e # cypress # development 45 reactions Comments 1 comment 5 min read In defence of meetings Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow May 27 '19 In defence of meetings # meetings # software # development 18 reactions Comments 4 comments 4 min read In your opinion, what is the most confusing part of JavaScript? Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow May 16 '19 In your opinion, what is the most confusing part of JavaScript? # discuss 8 reactions Comments 14 comments 1 min read 7 years as a developer - lessons learned Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow May 13 '19 7 years as a developer - lessons learned # software # development # lessons # learned 710 reactions Comments 46 comments 4 min read What I wish someone told me about speaking at tech conferences Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Tomasz Łakomy Follow May 12 '19 What I wish someone told me about speaking at tech conferences # conference # speaking # career 202 reactions Comments 10 comments 5 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — Your community HQ Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://opensource.org/programs | Programs – Open Source Initiative Skip to content Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Open Main Menu Home Programs We define Open Source For developers, lawyers and users To simplify software development and procurement Explore our activities Our programs License and legal Prevents any corporation or trade association from controlling and directing Open Source. We provide an anchor for open community consensus on what constitutes Open Source. As a charity, we protect the Open Source principles, enforcing the marks “Certified Open Source” and “Open Source Approved License”. Policy and standards Support the community, monitoring policy and standards setting organizations. As the importance of Open Source grows, so has our support for legislators and policy makers educating them about the Open Source ecosystem, its role in innovation and its value for an open future. Advocacy and research Convene global conversations with stakeholders, non-profits, corporations and individuals. Aware that software technologies change, OSI investigates the impacts with its wide network of Affiliate organizations providing a well-informed voice to the ongoing debates around Open Source, from artificial intelligence to security. Enable permission-less development Keeping the list of Open Source Approved License® Developers and lawyers can assume that software released licenses approved by the OSI conform to the Open Source Definition and is indeed Open Source software. Learn more Support compliance managers Maintaining a crowdsourced database of licensing metadata for every software component A global community contributes, corrects and curates licensing information found in public repositories for the common good. Learn more Educate communities about policies Studying legislation as it’s developed and providing public commentary Our team collaborates with the network of Affiliates to study the impact of upcoming regulations on the Open Source ecosystem. Learn more Join the Alliance to educate and inform US public policy decisions Learn more Latest from the Policy team January 8, 2026 Open Policy Alliance Welcomes the Open Source Technology Improvement Fund as New Member December 17, 2025 Top Open Source licenses in 2025 December 12, 2025 Celebrating Generosity and Growth in the OSI Community Spreading the word about Open Source Providing a neutral place to discuss and share best practices We’re hosting meetings, and joining conversations where they happen. Deep Dive Deep Dive is a new series where OSI dives deep into the topics shaping the future of open source business, ethics and practice. The first Deep Dive focused on AI to help OSI stakeholders frame a conversation to discover what’s acceptable for AI systems to be “Open Source.” View recordings State of the source The State of the source encourages a global conversation on the current state of open source software: non-technical issues that foster development and community, the licenses that enable collaboration, the practices that promote contribution, and the issues confronting cooperation. View recordings Support Open Source As a public charity organization, OSI is supported by donations of corporations and individuals. Thanks to our sponsors that support our vision to be the leading voice on policies and principles of Open Source. Book time with us Get involved Mastodon Twitter LinkedIn Reddit About About Our team Board of directors Sponsors Programs Blog Press mentions Trademark Bylaws Licenses Open Source Definition Licenses License Review Process Open Standards Requirement for Software Open Source AI Open Source AI OSAI Definition Process Timeline Open Weights FAQ Checklist Forum Community Become an Individual Member Become an OSI Affiliate Affiliate Organizations Maintainers Events Forum OpenSource.net The content on this website, of which Opensource.org is the author, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . Opensource.org is not the author of any of the licenses reproduced on this site. Questions about the copyright in a license should be directed to the license steward. Read our Privacy Policy Proudly powered by WordPress. Hosted by Pressable. 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https://opensource.org/ai/open-weights | Open Weights: not quite what you’ve been told – Open Source Initiative Skip to content Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Open Source AI Open Source AI OSAID 1.0 Process Timeline Open Weights FAQ Endorsements Open Main Menu In the rapidly evolving landscape of artificial intelligence, Open Weights have emerged as a buzzword indicating incremental progress in AI transparency. By sharing the final parameters of a trained model, developers offer some insight into how a neural network operates. However, these weights reveal only a fraction of the information required for full accountability. While Open Weights represent a milestone in opening up AI systems, they still stop short of delivering the level of transparency many researchers and regulators deem essential. What are Open Weights? Open Weights refer to the final weights and biases of a trained neural network. These values, once locked in, determine how the model interprets input data and generates outputs. When AI developers share these parameters under an OSI Approved License , they empower others to fine-tune, adapt, or deploy the model for their own projects. However, Open Weights differ significantly from Open Source AI because they do not include: Training code – The scripts or frameworks used to create and curate the training dataset. Training dataset – The full dataset used for training, when legally possible. As an alternative, when distribution of the training dataset is not legally possible, Comprehensive data transparency – Full details about dataset composition, such as source domains, cleaning methods, or balancing techniques. By withholding these critical elements, developers only provide a glimpse into the final state of the model, making it difficult for others to replicate, audit, or deeply understand the training process. Is Open Weights a new concept? Far from it. Over the past decade, AI practitioners have experimented with different ways of sharing or withholding information, often balancing trade secrets with mounting calls for AI transparency . The renewed interest in Open Weights arose in response to regulatory scrutiny and growing awareness that completely opaque systems can embed biases and discriminatory behaviors. In 2023, Heather Meeker , a recognized expert in Open Source licensing, published an Open Weights Definition that formalized many of these conversations. Her work clarifies permissible usage and distribution of final model parameters while highlighting a gap: the full process behind model creation still remains undisclosed. As discussions on Open Source AI intensify, so does the debate around whether Open Weights alone can deliver the transparency needed for ethical and responsible AI. The limitations of Open Weights While Open Weights stand out as more transparent than purely proprietary AI , they still lack several key elements of Open Source AI . 1. Lack of reproducibility Reproducibility is critical in scientific and technological progress. Without training code or intermediate checkpoints , researchers and auditors cannot replicate the model’s development process. This gap hinders efforts to identify when and where biases might have been introduced, making it nearly impossible to rectify errors or vulnerabilities. 2. Data opacity The phrase “garbage in, garbage out” applies strongly to AI. If the training data is not representative or ethically sourced, the model’s outputs can exhibit harmful biases. However, Open Weights often do not clarify how the dataset was constructed or cleaned. This oversight leaves a significant blind spot, preventing anyone outside the original development team from fully assessing the dataset’s quality or diversity. 3. Regulatory hurdles Governments worldwide are formulating policies that mandate higher standards of transparency in AI, especially for systems deployed in sensitive areas such as finance, healthcare, and public administration. Disclosing only the final weights may not meet these emerging regulations, as the lack of training code or dataset details could violate requirements for fairness, privacy, or explainability. 4. Limited community collaboration One of the core strengths of Open Source AI lies in the collaborative potential it unlocks. When the entire pipeline—training scripts, dataset composition, and intermediate checkpoints—is openly available, a global community can work together to improve the model, fix bugs, or address ethical concerns. By contrast, Open Weights significantly reduce these possibilities, limiting meaningful contributions to superficial fine-tuning rather than in-depth improvements. Open Weights vs. Open Source AI Open Source AI’s four freedoms Following the same idea behind open source software, an Open Source AI is made available under terms that grant users the following freedoms: Use – The freedom to use the system for any purpose without seeking additional permission. Study – The freedom to study how the system works and understand how its results are generated. Modify – The freedom to modify the system for any purpose, including changing its outputs. Share – The freedom to share the system with others, with or without modifications, for any purpose. A fundamental precondition to exercise these freedoms is having access to the preferred form needed to make modifications, and the practical means to use it. Open Weights alone fall short of this because they do not provide the underlying training process, code, or comprehensive data details required for full-fledged use, study, modification, and sharing. To better understand why Open Weights and Open Source AI differ so drastically, consider the following comparison: Feature Open Weights Open Source AI Weights & Biases Released Released Training Code Not Shared Fully Shared Intermediate Checkpoints Withheld Nice to have Training dataset Not Shared/Not disclosed Released* Training Data Composition Partially/Not Disclosed Fully Disclosed Clearly, Open Weights mark a notable advancement over fully proprietary solutions by offering the final model parameters. However, Open Source AI goes further by unlocking the entire development process. This holistic openness enables complete reproducibility, thorough bias audits, and robust community-driven improvements. * When legally allowed. See Open Source AI Definition FAQ . Why transparency in AI matters Ethical AI development A model’s fairness depends heavily on data quality and balanced training procedures. Open source AI allows reviewers to spot and address potential biases early, while Open Weights alone can’t provide enough context to guarantee ethical performance. Regulatory compliance Policymakers need concrete proof that AI models comply with laws on privacy, discrimination, and consumer protection. With Open Weights , regulators see only the end result, not the steps taken to reach it. Full openness eases the burden of proving a model’s compliance across various jurisdictions. Innovation and collaboration When experts worldwide can inspect training code , dataset details , and, ideally, intermediate checkpoints , they can collectively refine algorithms, fix bugs, and broaden the model’s applicability. This communal effort drives forward innovation in a way that Open Weights alone cannot match. Trust and public perception In an era of data breaches and algorithmic controversies, public trust in AI remains fragile. Models that offer complete transparency—which is the hallmark of Open Source AI —are more likely to gain acceptance from stakeholders who worry about issues such as hidden biases or unaccountable decision-making. The role of Open Weights: a lesser evil? Many see Open Weights as a compromise—a lesser evil than completely proprietary AI . By at least making the final parameters accessible, developers provide some degree of insight into the model’s decision logic. This can be enough for certain low-stakes applications where minimal accountability suffices. However, for industries like healthcare, autonomous vehicles, or financial underwriting—where AI decisions carry significant consequences—the partial transparency of Open Weights is insufficient. Full accountability demands understanding not just the final model, but also how it was built, the data it relied on, and the points at which it might have diverged from ethical best practices. The bottom line Open Weights might seem revolutionary at first glance, but they’re merely a starting point. While they do move the needle closer to transparency than strictly closed, proprietary models, they lack the detailed insights found in Open Source AI . For AI to be both accountable and scalable , every part of the pipeline—from the initial dataset to the final set of parameters—needs to be open to scrutiny, validation, and collective improvement. If you care about AI systems that are trustworthy, fair, and compliant with upcoming regulations, look beyond Open Weights. Learn more about Open Source AI , where full reproducibility and transparency foster a healthier, more innovative ecosystem. By championing this evolution, we can move closer to AI solutions that benefit everyone, not just a select few. Stay informed, stay involved Join us in our discussion forum to connect with researchers, developers, and policymakers who are shaping the future of Open Source AI. This is where you can share insights, learn from others’ experiences, and stay updated on the latest breakthroughs and regulatory changes in the AI space. 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https://docs.devcycle.com/cli-mcp/mcp-getting-started/ | MCP Getting Started | DevCycle Docs Skip to main content Home SDKs APIs Management API Bucketing API Integrations CLI / MCP Best Practices Community Blog Discord Search Sign Up CLI / MCP Overview CLI CLI Reference CLI User Guides Projects Environments SDK Keys Features Variables Variations Targeting Rules Self-Targeting CLI User Guides MCP MCP Getting Started MCP Reference MCP User Guides Incident Investigation MCP On this page DevCyle MCP Getting Started The DevCycle Model Context Protocol (MCP) Server is based on the DevCycle CLI, it enables AI-powered code editors like Cursor and Windsurf, or general-purpose tools like Claude Desktop, to interact directly with your DevCycle projects and make changes on your behalf. Quick Setup The DevCycle MCP is hosted so there is no need to set up a local server. We'll walk you through installation and authentication with your preferred AI tools. Direct Connection: For clients that natively support the MCP specification with OAuth authentication, you can connect directly to our hosted server: https://mcp.devcycle.com/mcp Protocol Support : Our MCP server supports both SSE and HTTP Streaming protocols, automatically negotiating the best option based on your client's capabilities. Alternative Endpoint : If your client has issues with protocol negotiation, use the SSE-only endpoint: https://mcp.devcycle.com/sse MCP Registry : If you're using registry.modelcontextprotocol.io , the DevCycle MCP is listed as: com.devcycle/mcp info These instructions use the remote DevCycle MCP server. For installation of the local MCP server, see the reference docs . Configure Your AI Client Cursor VS Code Claude Code Claude Desktop Windsurf Codex CLI Gemini CLI 📦 Install in Cursor To open Cursor and automatically add the DevCycle MCP, click the install button above. Alternatively, add the following to your ~/.cursor/mcp_settings.json file. To learn more, see the Cursor documentation . { "mcpServers" : { "DevCycle" : { "url" : "https://mcp.devcycle.com/mcp" } } } Authentication in Cursor: After configuration, you'll see DevCycle MCP listed as "Needs login" with a yellow indicator Click on the DevCycle MCP server to initiate the authorization process This opens a browser authorization page at mcp.devcycle.com Review and click "Allow Access" to grant permissions If you have multiple organizations, select your desired organization at auth.devcycle.com You'll be redirected back to Cursor with the server now active 📦 Install in VS Code To open VS Code and automatically add the DevCycle MCP, click the install button above. Alternatively, add the following to your .continue/config.json file. To learn more, see the Continue documentation . { "mcpServers" : { "DevCycle" : { "url" : "https://mcp.devcycle.com/mcp" } } } Authentication in VS Code: After configuration, open the MCP settings panel in VS Code Find the DevCycle MCP server and click "Start Server" VS Code will show a dialog: "The MCP Server Definition 'DevCycle' wants to authenticate to mcp.devcycle.com" Click "Allow" to proceed with authentication This opens a browser authorization page at mcp.devcycle.com Review and click "Allow Access" to grant permissions If you have multiple organizations, select your desired organization at auth.devcycle.com You'll be redirected back to VS Code with the server now active Step 1: Open Terminal Open your terminal to access the Claude CLI. Step 2: Add DevCycle MCP Server claude mcp add --transport http devcycle https://mcp.devcycle.com/mcp Step 3: Manage MCP Connection In the Claude CLI, enter the MCP management interface: /mcp Step 4: Authentication You'll see the DevCycle server listed as "disconnected • Enter to login": Select the DevCycle server and press Enter to login Follow the CLI prompts to initiate the Authentication process This will open a browser page at mcp.devcycle.com for authorization Review and click "Allow Access" to grant permissions If you have multiple organizations, select your desired organization at auth.devcycle.com Return to Claude Code where the server will show as connected For more details, see the Claude Code MCP documentation . Step 1: Access MCP Configuration Option 1: Through Claude Desktop Settings (Recommended) Open Claude Desktop and go to Settings Navigate to Developer → Local MCP servers Click "Edit Config" to open the configuration file directly Option 2: Manual Configuration File Alternatively, locate and edit your Claude Desktop configuration file: macOS : ~/Library/Application Support/Claude/claude_desktop_config.json Windows : %APPDATA%\Claude\claude_desktop_config.json Step 2: Add DevCycle Configuration Add or merge the following configuration: { "mcpServers" : { "devcycle" : { "command" : "npx" , "args" : [ " [email protected] " , "https://mcp.devcycle.com/mcp" ] } } } Step 3: Restart Claude Desktop Close and reopen Claude Desktop for the changes to take effect. Step 4: Authentication When you first use DevCycle MCP tools, Claude Desktop will prompt for authentication This will open a browser page at mcp.devcycle.com for authorization Review and click "Allow Access" to grant permissions If you have multiple organizations, select your desired organization at auth.devcycle.com Return to Claude Desktop where the MCP tools will be active Step 1: Access MCP Configuration Open Windsurf and go to Settings > Winsurf Settings Scroll to the Cascade section Click "Manage MCPs" Step 2: Edit Raw Configuration In the "Manage MCP servers" interface, click "View raw config" Add the following configuration to the JSON file: { "mcpServers" : { "DevCycle" : { "serverUrl" : "https://mcp.devcycle.com/mcp" } } } Step 3: Refresh and Authenticate Save the configuration file Click "Refresh" in the "Manage MCP servers" interface The DevCycle server will appear and prompt for authentication Follow the authentication flow: Browser opens at mcp.devcycle.com for authorization Click "Allow Access" to grant permissions If you have multiple organizations, select your desired organization at auth.devcycle.com Return to Windsurf where DevCycle will show as "Enabled" with all tools available which can be configured independently Step 1: Access MCP Configuration Locate and edit your OpenAI Codex CLI configuration file: All platforms : ~/.codex/config.toml Step 2: Add DevCycle MCP Server Add the following TOML configuration to enable the DevCycle MCP server: [mcp_servers.devcycle] url = "https://mcp.devcycle.com/mcp" Step 3: Restart Codex CLI Restart your Codex CLI session for the changes to take effect. Step 4: Authentication When you first use DevCycle MCP tools, the Codex CLI will prompt for authentication This will open a browser page at mcp.devcycle.com for authorization Review and click "Allow Access" to grant permissions If you have multiple organizations, select your desired organization at auth.devcycle.com Return to the Codex CLI where the DevCycle MCP tools will be active For more details, see the OpenAI Codex MCP documentation . Step 1: Access MCP Configuration Locate and edit your Gemini CLI settings file: All platforms : ~/.gemini/settings.json Step 2: Add DevCycle MCP Server Add or merge the following configuration to enable the DevCycle MCP server: { "mcpServers" : { "devcycle" : { "url" : "https://mcp.devcycle.com/mcp" } } } Step 3: Restart Gemini CLI Restart your Gemini CLI session for the changes to take effect. Step 4: Authentication When you first use DevCycle MCP tools, the Gemini CLI will prompt for authentication This will open a browser page at mcp.devcycle.com for authorization Review and click "Allow Access" to grant permissions If you have multiple organizations, select your desired organization at auth.devcycle.com Return to the Gemini CLI where the DevCycle MCP tools will be active For more details, see the Gemini CLI MCP documentation . Available Tools The DevCycle MCP Server provides comprehensive feature flag management tools organized into 6 categories : Category Tools Description Feature Management list_features , create_feature , update_feature , update_feature_status , delete_feature , cleanup_feature , get_feature_audit_log_history Create and manage feature flags Variable Management list_variables , create_variable , update_variable , delete_variable Manage feature variables Project Management list_projects , get_current_project , select_project Project selection and details Self-Targeting & Overrides get_self_targeting_identity , update_self_targeting_identity , list_self_targeting_overrides , set_self_targeting_override , clear_feature_self_targeting_overrides Testing and overrides Results & Analytics get_feature_total_evaluations , get_project_total_evaluations Usage analytics SDK Installation install_devcycle_sdk SDK install guides and examples Try It Out Once configured, try asking your AI assistant: "Create a new feature flag called 'new-checkout-flow'" "List all features in my project" "Enable targeting for the header-redesign feature in production" "Show me evaluation analytics for the last 7 days" Next Steps MCP Reference - Complete tool documentation with all parameters CLI Reference - Learn about the underlying CLI commands Getting Help GitHub Issues : GitHub Issues General Documentation : DevCycle Docs DevCycle Community : Discord Support : Contact Support Edit this page Last updated on Jan 9, 2026 Previous CLI User Guides Next MCP Getting Started Quick Setup Configure Your AI Client Available Tools Try It Out Next Steps Getting Help DevCycle Dashboard Blog Privacy Policy Twitter Discord GitHub Copyright © 2026 DevCycle. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close # interview Follow Hide Create Post Older #interview posts 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Best resources for preparing a Frontend Interview in 2022 👨🏻💻🙋🏼♀️ (No W3Schools) Gionatha Gionatha Gionatha Follow Sep 12 '22 Best resources for preparing a Frontend Interview in 2022 👨🏻💻🙋🏼♀️ (No W3Schools) # career # webdev # programming # interview 3 reactions Comments 1 comment 3 min read Function Currying: Javascript Questions Soumava Banerjee Soumava Banerjee Soumava Banerjee Follow Sep 11 '22 Function Currying: Javascript Questions # javascript # interview # webdev 24 reactions Comments 3 comments 4 min read Product design interview. 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https://www.npopov.com/2026/01/11/LLVM-The-bad-parts.html#fnref:review_value | LLVM: The bad parts Blog by nikic . Find me on GitHub , StackOverflow , Twitter and Mastodon . Learn more about me . « Back to article overview. LLVM: The bad parts 11. January 2026 A few years ago, I wrote a blog post on design issues in LLVM IR . Since then, one of these issues has been fixed fully (opaque pointers migration), one has been mostly fixed (constant expression removal), and one is well on the way towards being fixed (ptradd migration). This time I’m going to be more ambitious and not stop at three issues. Of course, not all of these issues are of equal importance, and how important they are depends on who you ask. In the interest of brevity, I will mostly just explain what the problem is, and not discuss what possible solutions would be. Finally, I should probably point out that this is written from my perspective as the lead maintainer of the LLVM project: This is not a list of reasons to not use LLVM, it’s a list of opportunities to improve LLVM. High level issues Review capacity Unlike many other open-source projects, LLVM certainly does not suffer from a lack of contributors. There are thousands of contributors and the distribution is relatively flat (that is, it’s not the case that a small handful of people is responsible for the majority of contributions.) What LLVM does suffer from is insufficient review capacity. There are a lot more people writing code than reviewing it. This is somewhat unsurprising, as code review requires more expertise than writing code, and may not provide immediate value 1 to the person reviewing (or their employer). Lack of review capacity makes for a bad contributor experience, and can also result in bad changes making their way into the codebase. The way this usually works out is that someone puts up a PR, then fails to get a qualified review for a long period of time, and then one of their coworkers (who is not a qualified reviewer for that area) ends up rubberstamping the PR. A related problem is that LLVM has a somewhat peculiar contribution model where it’s the responsibility of the PR author to request reviewers. This is especially problematic for new contributors, who don’t know whom to request. Often relevant reviewers will become aware of the PR thanks to a label-based notification system, but this is not apparent from the UI, and it’s easy for PRs to fall through the cracks. A potential improvement here would be a Rust-style PR assignment system . Churn Both the LLVM C++ API and LLVM IR are not stable and undergo frequent changes. This is simultaneously a great strength and weakness of LLVM. It’s a strength because LLVM does not stagnate and is willing to address past mistakes even at significant cost. It’s a weakness because churn imposes costs on users of LLVM. Frontends are somewhat insulated from this because they can use the largely stable C API. However, it does not cover everything, and most major frontends will have additional bindings that use the unstable C++ API. Users that integrate with LLVM more tightly (for example downstream backends) don’t have that option, and have to keep up with all API changes. This is part of LLVM’s general development philosophy, which I’ll express somewhat pointedly as “upstream or GTFO”. LLVM is liberally licensed and does not require you to contribute changes upstream. However, if you do not upstream your code, then it will also not factor into upstream decision-making. This point is somewhat unlike the rest, in that I’m not sure it’s possible to make things “strictly better” here. It’s possible that LLVM’s current point on the stability scale is not optimal, but moving it somewhere else would come with significant externalities. Making major changes in LLVM is already extremely hard due to the sheer scale of the project, without adding additional stability constraints on top. Build time LLVM is a huge project. LLVM itself is >2.5 million lines of C++ and the entire monorepo is something like 9 million. C++ is not exactly known for fast build times, and compiling all that code takes time. This is bearable if you either have fast hardware or access to a build farm, but trying to build LLVM on a low-spec laptop is not going to be fun. An additional complication is building with debug info (which I always recommend against), in which case you’ll add the extra gotchas of slow link times, high risk of OOM and massive disk usage. There are ways to avoid that (using shared libs or dylib build, using split dwarf, using lld), but it takes some expertise. Promising changes in this area are the use of pre-compiled headers (which significantly improves build time), and changing to use a dylib build by default (which reduces disk usage and link time, esp. for debuginfo builds). Another is to reduce test overhead using daemonization (not strictly part of the “build time”, but relevant for the development cycle). CI stability LLVM CI consists of over 200 post-commit buildbots that test LLVM in lots of different configurations on lots of different hardware. Commits that turn a buildbot from green to red result in an email to the commit author. Unfortunately, this CI is never fully green, and flaky on top. This is in part due to flaky tests (typically in lldb or openmp), but can also be due to buildbot-specific issues. The end result is that it’s “normal” to get buildbot failure notifications for any given commit, even if it is perfectly harmless. This dilutes the signal, and makes it easier to miss the real failures. The introduction of pre-merge testing on PRs did significantly improve the overall CI situation, but not the buildbot problem as such. I think we need to start taking flaky tests/buildbots more seriously before we can really make progress here. Because someone is definitely going to mention how this is not rocket science , and we just need to start using bors / merge queues to guarantee an always-green build: It’s a problem of scale. There are >150 commits on a typical workday, which would be more than one commit every 10 minutes even if they were uniformly distributed. Many buildbots have multi-hour runs. This is hard to reconcile. 2 End-to-end testing In some respects, LLVM has very thorough test coverage. We’re quite pedantic about making sure that new optimizations have good coverage of both positive and negative tests. However, these tests are essentially unit tests for a single optimization pass or analysis. We have only a small amount of coverage for the entire optimization pipeline (phase ordering tests), so optimizations sometimes regress due to pass interactions. Tests for the combination of the middle-end and backend pipelines are essentially nonexistent. There is likely room for improvement here, though it comes with tradeoffs. However, what actually concerns me are end-to-end executable tests. LLVM’s test suite proper does not feature these at all. Executable tests are located in a separate llvm-test-suite repo, which is typically not used during routine development, but run by buildbots. It contains a lot of different code ranging from benchmarks to unit tests. However, llvm-test-suite has quite few tests (compared to LLVM lit tests) and does not comprehensively cover basic operations. Things like testing operations on different float formats, on integers of different sizes, vectors of different sizes and element types, etc. In part this is because of limitations of testing through C/C++, which is very heterogeneous in type support (C compilers don’t like exposing types that don’t have a defined psABI for the target). But that’s no excuse to delegate this testing to Zig instead (which exposes everything, everywhere, and has the corresponding test coverage). Backend divergence While LLVM’s middle-end is very unified, backend implementations are very heterogeneous, and there is a tendency to fix issues (usually performance, but sometimes even correctness) only for the backend you’re interested in. This takes many forms, like implementing target-specific DAG combines instead of generic ones. Though my definite favorite is to introduce lots of target hooks for optimizations – not because the optimization is actually only beneficial for one target, but because the person introducing it just doesn’t want to deal with the fallout on other targets. This is understandable – after all, they may lack the knowledge to evaluate a change for other targets, so it may require working with many other maintainers, which can slow progress a lot. But the end result is still increasing divergence and duplication. Lack of end-to-end testing compounds this issue, because that would act as something of a forcing function that at least all operations compile without crashing and produce correct results for all tested targets. Compilation time Because I’ve complained about this enough in the past, I’ll keep it short: LLVM is slow, which is an issue both for JIT use cases, and anything that tends to produce huge amounts of IR (like Rust or C++). Since I’ve started tracking compile-times , the situation has significantly improved, both through targeted improvements and avoidance of regressions. However, there is still a lot of room for improvement: LLVM still isn’t fast, it’s just less slow. One thing that LLVM is particularly bad at are -O0 compile-times. The architecture is optimized for optimization, and lots of costs remain even if no optimization takes place. The LLVM TPDE alternative backend shows that it’s possible to do better by an order of magnitude. Performance tracking The flip side of the compile-time coin is runtime performance. This is something that LLVM obviously cares a lot about. Which is why I find it rather surprising that LLVM does not have any “official” performance tracking infrastructure. Of course, there are lots of organizations which track performance of LLVM downstream, on their own workloads. In some ways this is good, because it means there is more focus on real-world workloads than on synthetic benchmarks like SPEC. However, not having readily accessible, public performance tracking also makes it hard for contributors to evaluate changes. To be fair, LLVM does have an LNT instance, but a) it’s currently broken, b) LNT is one of the worst UX crimes ever committed, c) little data gets submitted there, and d) it’s not possible to request a test run for a PR, or something like that. This point is frankly just baffling to me. I don’t personally care about SPEC scores, but I know plenty of people do, so why there is no first-class tracking for this is a mystery to me. IR design Undef values Undef values take an arbitrary value from a certain set. They are used to model uninitialized values, and have historically been used to model deferred undefined behavior. The latter role has been replaced by poison values, which have much simpler propagation rules and are more amenable to optimization. However, undef is still used for uninitialized memory to this day. There are two main problems with undef values. The first is the multi-use problem: An undef value can take a different value at each use. This means that transforms that increase the use count are generally invalid, and care has to be taken when optimizing based on value equality. The mere existence of undef values prevents us from performing optimizations we want to do, or greatly increases their complexity. The second issue is that undef is very hard to reason about. Humans have trouble understanding it, and for proof-checkers it is computationally expensive. Most likely, uninitialized memory will be represented using poison values instead in the future, but this runs into the problem that LLVM currently is not capable of correctly treating poison in memory. Proper support for poison in memory requires additional IR features, like the byte type . Unsoundness and specification incompleteness While most miscompilations (that is, correctness bugs) in LLVM are resolved quickly, there are quite a few that remain unfixed despite having been known for a long time. These issues usually combine the qualities of being largely theoretical (that is, appearing only in artificially constructed examples rather than real-world code) and running up against issues in LLVM’s IR design. Some of them are cases where we have a good idea of how the IR design needs to change to address the issue, but these changes are complex and often require a lot of work to recover optimization parity. There is often a complexity cliff where you can do something that’s simple and nearly correct, or you can do something very complex that is fully correct. Then there are other cases, where just deciding on how things should work is a hard problem. The provenance model is a prime example of this. The interaction of provenance with integer casts and type punning is a difficult problem with complex tradeoffs. However, at some point these issues do need to be resolved. The recently formed formal specification working group aims to tackle these problems. Constraint encoding A key challenge for optimizing compilers is encoding of constraints (like “this value is non-negative” or “this add will not overflow”). This includes both frontend-provided constraints (based on language undefined behavior rules), but also compiler-generated ones. In particular, there are many different analyses that can infer facts about the program, but keeping these up-to-date throughout optimization is challenging. One good way to handle this is to encode facts directly in the IR. Correctly updating or discarding these annotations then becomes part of transform correctness. LLVM has many different ways to encode additional constraints (poison flags, metadata, attributes, assumes), and these all come with tradeoffs in terms of how much information can be encoded, how reliably it is retained during optimization and to what degree it can negatively affect optimization. Information from metadata is lost too often, while information from assumes is not lost often enough. Floating-point semantics There are various issues with floating-point (FP) semantics once we move outside the nice world of “strictly conforming IEEE 754 floats in the default environment”. A few that come to mind are: Handling of signaling NaN and FP exceptions, and non-default FP environment in general. LLVM represents this using constrained FP intrinsics. This is not ideal, as all the FP handling is split into two parallel universes. Handling of denormals. LLVM has a function attribute to not assume IEEE denormal behavior, but this is only suitable for cases where flush to zero (FTZ) is used globally. It does not help with modeling cases like ARM, where scalar ops are IEEE, while vector ops use FTZ. Handling of excess precision, in particular when using the x87 FPU. Other technical issues Partial migrations LLVM is a very large project, and making any significant changes to it is hard and time consuming. Migrations often span years, where two different implementations of something coexist, until all code has been migrated. The two prime examples of this are: New pass manager: The “new” pass manager was first introduced more than a decade ago. Then about five years ago, we started using it for the middle-end optimization pipeline by default, and support for the legacy PM was dropped. However, the back-end is still using the legacy pass manager. There is ongoing work to support the new pass manager in codegen, and we’re pretty close to the point where it can be used end-to-end for a single target. However, I expect it will still take quite a while for all targets to be ported and the legacy pass manager to be completely retired. GlobalISel: This is an even more extreme case. GlobalISel is the “new” instruction selector that is intended to replace SelectionDAG (and FastISel). It was introduced approximately one decade ago, and to this day, none of the targets that originally used SelectionDAG have been fully migrated to GlobalISel. There is one new target that’s GlobalISel-only, and there is one that uses GlobalISel by default for unoptimized builds. But otherwise, SelectionDAG is still the default everywhere. There are two backends (AMDGPU and AArch64) that have somewhat complete GlobalISel support, but it’s not clear when/if they’ll be able to switch to using it by default. A big problem here is that new optimizations are continually being implemented on the SDAG side, so it’s hard to keep parity. ABI / calling convention handling Essentially everything about the handling of calling conventions in LLVM is a mess. The responsibility for handling calling conventions is split between the frontend and the backend. There are good reasons why LLVM can’t do this by itself (LLVM IR sits at a too low level of abstraction to satisfy the extremely arcane ABI rules). This is not a problem in itself – however, there is zero documentation of what the calling convention contract between the frontend and LLVM is, and the proper way to implement C FFI is essentially to look at what Clang does and copy that (invariably with errors, because the rules can be very subtle). I’ve proposed to fix this by introducing an ABI lowering library and vortex73 has implemented a prototype for it as part of GSoC. So we’re well on the way to resolving this side of the problem. There are more problems though. One that Rust has struggled with a lot is the interaction of target features with the calling convention. Enabling additional target features can change the call ABI, because additional float/vector registers start getting used for argument/return passing. This means that calls between functions with a feature enabled and disabled may be incompatible, because they assume different ABIs. Ideally, ABI and target features would be orthogonal, and only coupled in that some ABIs require certain target features (e.g. you can’t have a hard float ABI without enabling FP registers). Target features are a per-function choice, while the ABI should be per-module. Some of the newer architectures like Loongarch and RISC-V actually have proper ABI design, but most of the older ones don’t. For example, it’s currently not possible to target AArch64 with a soft float ABI but hard float implementation. Builtins / libcalls Somewhat related to this is the handling of compiler builtins/libcalls, which are auxiliary functions that the compiler may emit for operations that are not natively supported by the target. This covers both libcalls provided by libc (or libm), and builtins provided by compiler runtime libraries like libgcc, compiler-rt or compiler-builtins. There are two sources of truth for this, TargetLibraryInfo (TLI) and RuntimeLibcalls. The former is used by the middle-end, primarily to recognize and optimize C library calls (this mostly covers only libc, but not libgcc). The latter is used by the backend, primarily to determine which libcalls may be emitted by the compiler and how they are spelled (this covers libgcc, and the subset of libc covered by LLVM intrinsics). A problem with RuntimeLibcalls is that it currently largely works off only the target triple, which means that we have to make “lowest common denominator” assumptions about which libcalls are available, where the lowest common denominator is usually libgcc. If --rtlib=compiler-rt is used, LLVM does not actually know about that, and cannot make use of functions that are in compiler-rt but not libgcc. This also means that we’re missing a customization point for other runtime libraries. For example, there is no way for Rust to say that it provides f128 suffix libcalls via compiler-builtins, overriding target-specific naming and availability assumptions based on which type long double in C maps to. There is a lot of ongoing work in this area (by arsenm), so the situation here will hopefully improve in the near-ish future. Context / module dichotomy LLVM has two high-level data holders. A module corresponds to a compilation unit (e.g. pre-LTO, a single file in C/C++). The LLVM context holds various “global” data. There’s usually one context per thread, and multiple modules can (in principle) use a single context. Things like functions and globals go into the module, while constants and types go into the context. The module also contains a data layout, which provides important type layout information like “how wide is a pointer”. The fact that constants and types do not have access to the data layout is a constant source of friction. If you have a type, you cannot reliably tell its size without threading an extra parameter through everything. We have subsystems (like ConstantFold vs. ConstantFolding) that are separated entirely by whether data layout is available or not. At the same time, I feel like this split is not actually buying us a lot. Having shared types and constants is somewhat convenient when it comes to module linking, because they can be directly shared, but I think performing explicit remapping in that one place would be better than having complexity everywhere else. Additionally, this would also allow cross-context linking, which is currently only possible by going through a bitcode roundtrip. In theory, the context could also allow some memory reuse when compiling multiple modules, but I think in practice there is usually a one-to-one correspondence between those. LICM register pressure This is getting a bit down in the weeds, but I’ll mention it anyway due to how often I’ve run across this in recent times. LLVM considers loop invariant code motion (LICM) to be a canonicalization transform. This means that we always hoist instructions out of loops, without any target specific cost modelling. However, LICM can increase the live ranges of values, which can increase register pressure, which can lead to a large amount of spills and reloads. The general philosophy behind this is that LICM hoists everything, all middle-end transforms can work with nicely loop invariant instructions, and then instructions will get sunk back into the loop by the backend, which can precisely model register pressure. Except… that second part doesn’t actually happen. I believe that (for non-PGO builds) instructions only get sunk back into loops either through rematerialization in the register allocator, or specialized sinking (typically of addressing modes), but for anything not falling into those buckets, no attempt to sink into loops in order to reduce register pressure is made. Other This list is not exhaustive. There’s more I could mention, but we’d get into increasingly narrow territory. I hope I covered most of the more important things – please do let me know what I missed! If you’re not concerned with overall project health, the primary value of reviews is reciprocity. People are more likely to review your PR, if you reviewed theirs. ↩ The way Rust reconciles this is via a combination of “rollups” (where multiple PRs are merged as a batch, using human curation), and a substantially different contribution model. Where LLVM favors sequences of small PRs that do only one thing (and get squash merged), Rust favors large PRs with many commits (which do not get squashed). As getting an approved Rust PR merged usually takes multiple days due to bors, having large PRs is pretty much required to get anything done. This is not necessarily bad, just very different from what LLVM does right now. ↩ If you liked this article, you may want to browse my other articles or follow me on Twitter or Mastodon . | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
https://www.npopov.com/2021/06/02/Design-issues-in-LLVM-IR.html | Design issues in LLVM IR Blog by nikic . Find me on GitHub , StackOverflow , Twitter and Mastodon . Learn more about me . « Back to article overview. Design issues in LLVM IR 02. June 2021 On the whole, LLVM has a well-designed intermediate representation (IR), which is specified in the language reference . However, there are a number of areas where design mistakes have been made. And while the LLVM project is generally open to addressing such issues, mistakes in core IR design tend to be firmly embedded in the code base, making them hard to fix in practice. This blog post discusses some of the problems. Canonicalization In the middle-end, we commonly view transformations not as optimizations, but as canonicalizations. There are many different ways to write the same program, and the purpose of target-independent middle-end transforms is to reduce them to a single form. Of course, the chosen form will often (but not always) coincide with the more efficient form. (This does not apply to all transforms, for example runtime unrolling and vectorization are certainly not canonicalization transforms.) Why do we care about canonicalization? The main reason is that it reduces the number of permutations that other passes need to deal with. If 1 + a is canonicalized to a + 1 , everything else only needs to handle the latter form. Another reason is that it improves the effectiveness of redundancy-elimination transforms (like common subexpression elimination and global value numbering). Let’s look at an example: define i1 @test ( i32 %x ) { %y = sub i32 %x , 1 %z = add i32 %x , -1 %c = icmp eq i32 %y , %z ret i1 %c } Instruction combining will canonicalize x - 1 to x + (-1) : define i1 @test ( i32 %x ) { %y = add i32 %x , -1 %z = add i32 %x , -1 %c = icmp eq i32 %y , %z ret i1 %c } At this point it becomes trivial to detect that %y and %z are in fact the same, so we can replace %z with %y : define i1 @test ( i32 %x ) { %y = add i32 %x , -1 %c = icmp eq i32 %y , %y ret i1 %c } Once that is done, we can also see that the equality comparison is trivially true: define i1 @test ( i32 %x ) { ret i1 true } So, what does this have to do with IR design? A good IR design can make certain redundancies non-existent by design. Primarily, this is “just” a matter of not encoding any unnecessary information. For example, early LLVM versions distinguished between signed and unsigned integers, while later versions only have a single integer type (for a given bitwidth) and signedness is only encoded in the few places it matters: comparisons, extensions and overflow flags. This means that there is only one representation of x + 1 regardless of whether x is signed or not. This is an outcome of the core IR design, and does not require additional canonicalization. You will notice that the problems discussed in the following are quire similar in flavor. Pointer element types Currently, LLVM pointer types look a lot like C pointer types: i8* is a pointer to an 8-bit integer. Let’s copy around an i8* pointer: define void @copy.i8ptr ( i8 ** %dst , i8 ** %src ) { %val = load i8 *, i8 ** %src store i8 * %val , i8 ** %dest ret void } Now let’s copy an i32* pointer instead: define void @copy.i32ptr ( i32 ** %dst , i32 ** %src ) { %val = load i32 *, i32 ** %src store i32 * %val , i32 ** %dest ret void } The astute reader will notice that these two pieces of code do exactly the same thing. They copy a pointer-sized value from one location to another, and the fact that this happens to be a pointer to i8 or i32 is wholly irrelevant. If we detect this fact and want to merge these functions by implementing one in terms of the other, we have to insert bitcast s: define void @copy.i32ptr ( i32 ** %dst , i32 ** %src ) { %dst.i8ptr = bitcast i32 ** %dst to i8 * %src.i8ptr = bitcast i32 ** %src to i8 * call void @copy.i8ptr ( i8 ** %dst.i8ptr , i8 ** %src.i8ptr ) ret void } Bitcasts are LLVMs way of representing a cast that reinterprets a value in different type, without changing its binary representation. These pointer bitcasts are only needed because LLVM encodes an unnecessary pointer element type. Pointer type conversions are pervasive and often occur when data goes through different layers. A pointer may start out as [8 x i32]* when representing a specific object of known size, then become [0 x i32]* when interpreted as a slice, then i8* when passed to a memcpy as a generic pointer. Thankfully, LLVM is in the process of removing pointer element types and switching to opaque pointers . With opaque pointers, the above code would like this: define void @copy.ptr ( ptr %dst , ptr %src ) { %val = load ptr , ptr %src store ptr %val , ptr %dest ret void } This renders both functions equivalent by-design, and removes any need for pointer bitcasts. An interesting question to ask here is: Can’t we go one step further, and just treat a pointer as an integer? Say i64 on a platform with 64-bit address space: define void @copy.i64 ( i64 %dst , i64 %src ) { %val = load i64 , i64 %src store i64 %val , i64 %dest ret void } This is not possible for two main reasons. The first is that pointers carry provenance, which is important for alias analysis . A pointer has an “underlying object” it is based on, and dereferencing it is only valid if it points into that object. Integers do not track provenance, and as such conversions between integers and pointers are not considered no-ops (and are not represented as bitcasts). The second is that there are different kinds of pointers: Even with opaque pointers, LLVM still distinguishes pointers in different address spaces. While these would be the same on a von Neumann architecture, some targets may have separate address spaces for data and instructions, which might be represented as ptr and ptr addrspace(1) . Pointers may even be non-integral , in which case they don’t have an integer representation at all. The migration to opaque pointers is already “in progress” for many years, though that progress has been rather slow and has only recently picked up again . The state of opaque pointers in LLVM itself is actually fairly okay, because there is a general awareness of the issue, and any optimization that tries to make use of pointer element types will not pass review. However, the state in clang is, diplomatically speaking, less than stellar. I especially like this cute comment – “simply” indeed. Type-based GetElementPtr LLVM performs address calculations using the getelementptr instruction , which accepts a base pointer and a number of indices: %struct = type { i32 , { i32 , { [ 2 x i32 ] } } } define i32 * @test ( %struct * %base ) { %ptr = getelementptr %struct , %struct * %base , i64 1 , i32 1 , i32 1 , i32 0 , i64 1 ret i32 * %ptr } The first i64 means that we take the second element from the pointer, akin to &base[1] in C. The following indices drill down to a specific element in the nested struct and array structure. Assuming that i32 is 4-byte aligned, if you add up all the offsets, it turns out that this getelementptr is equivalent to the following one: %struct = type { i32 , { i32 , { [ 2 x i32 ] } } } define i32 * @test ( %struct * %base ) { %base.i8 = bitcast %struct * %base to i8 * %ptr = getelementptr i8 , i8 * %base.i8 , i64 11 ret i32 * %ptr } These two GEPs compute the same address in two different ways, which adds up to another canonicalization problem. It also means that analyses usually need to decompose type-based GEPs into offset-based calculations. This is surprisingly expensive, because it requires computing the alloc size of all involved types from data layout information, including potential alignment constraints. It is not atypical for a couple percent of total compile-time to be spent in nothing but GEP offset calculations. The better alternative is to make GEPs directly offset based, which works best in conjunction with opaque pointers: define ptr @test ( ptr %base ) { %ptr = getelementptr ptr %base.i8 , i64 11 ret ptr %ptr } What is not entirely clear is how variable indices should be encoded. Either the necessary scale could be part of the GEP instruction: define ptr @test ( ptr %base , i64 %index ) { %ptr = getelementptr ptr %base.i8 , 4 * %index ret ptr %ptr } Or else the index calculation could be explicit in IR: define ptr @test ( ptr %base , i64 %index ) { %offset = shl i64 %offset , 2 %ptr = getelementptr ptr %base.i8 , i64 %offset ret ptr %ptr } The latter variant is once again beneficial from a canonicalization perspective, as there is no choice between an explicit offset calculation and an offset calculation embedded in the GEP. However, inbounds GEPs carry additional constraints on the offset calculation, which would be lost with such an encoding. GEP instructions are not the only kind of instruction afflicted by too much type information. For example, the alloca instruction , which is used to reserve stack space, accepts a type, while it really only needs to know the number of bytes to reserve: %ptr = alloca [ 8 x i32 ], align 4 ; should be %ptr = alloca i64 32 , align 4 However, canonicality is not particularly important for allocas in practice, as they are typically not subject to redundancy elimination or structural equality checks. Constant Expressions Next to instructions, LLVM also supports constant expressions . The add instruction in this function define i64 @test () { %res = add i64 1 , 2 ret i64 %res } can be equivalently written using a constant expression: define i64 @test () { ret i64 add ( i64 1 , i64 2 ) } A nice thing about constant expressions is that they are maximally folded and uniqued at time of construction. So this example will actually be converted into define i64 @test () { ret i64 3 } when the file is parsed. Isn’t this great for canonicalization? By construction, we can’t have different representations of the same constant expression, because it is always fully folded! Unfortunately, things aren’t that simple. Constant expressions are unique per LLVM context, which is not data layout aware. This means that at time of construction, only folds that do not depend on data layout can be performed. For example, it’s not possible to fold an expression like this: define i64 @sizeof_int64 () { ret i64 ptrtoint ( i64 * getelementptr ( i64 , i64 * null , i64 1 ) to i64 ) } This expression is the encoding for the alloc size of i64 , and requires knowing the ABI alignment of i64 , which is provided by the data layout, and not known by the constant expression itself. This means that there are two levels of constant folding: One that is target-independent and happens on construction, and one that is target-dependent and performed by certain passes like instruction combining. This second folding needs to recursively walk all referenced constant expressions and attempt to fold them at all levels, essentially defeating the benefits of the “always folded” representation. It goes beyond that, however. Instructions and constant expressions typically have the same constraints to permit uniform treatment, which means that we can’t enforce IR validity constraints that depend on data layout. For example, the ptrtoint instruction/expression allows the integer type to have a different size than the pointer type and performs an implicit truncation or zero extension if they don’t match. Such IR does not occur in practice, because it will be canonicalized to an explicit trunc or zext , but all passes still need to deal with the possibility. We can’t actually enforce that the sizes are the same, because constant expressions don’t have data layout. However, data layout is only part of the problem. The other issue is the simple fact that operations can be represented either using an instruction or a constant expression. This means that code generally needs to be able to deal with both representations, to avoid pessimizing optimizations if constant folding (into an expression) has occurred. LLVM is generally fairly good about doing this, thanks to many generic pattern matchers that treat instructions and constant expressions transparently. One significant complication is that a lot of code assumes that performing an operation on a constant is “free”. For example, an optimization that pushes a negation through an instruction sequence might assume that pushing a negation into a constant operand is free, because it will just turn 1 into -1 , or similar. Of course, this is not true for constant expressions, where the negation may not be folded, and you’ll be left with a sub (i64 0, i64 ...) . This is one of the most common sources of infinite loops in the optimizer. A transform pushes an operation into a constant, on the assumption that it will get folded. Thanks to constant expressions, it doesn’t. A different transform may see the new constant expression and perform the reverse change, resulting in an infinite combine loop. Constant expressions also have pathological cases in IR printing: define i64 @test ( i64 %x1 ) { %x2 = mul i64 %x1 , %x1 %x3 = mul i64 %x2 , %x2 %x4 = mul i64 %x3 , %x3 %x5 = mul i64 %x4 , %x4 ret i64 %x5 } Written in instructions, this is a nice linear chain, where each instruction is used twice. Using constant expressions, the same also holds for the in-memory representation. However, printed out as textual IR, there is no way to reuse a constant sub-expression that appears multiple times, so the root value %x1 will end up being repeated 2^4 times. It is easy to construct IR that cannot be printed in any reasonable amount of time. Finally, as divisions can occur inside constant expressions, it’s possible for a constant materialization to trigger undefined behavior. This has odd implications: For example, an instruction may be rendered non-speculatable due to a “constant” operand. This will essentially never occur in practice, but still needs to be considered and accounted for. So what is the alternative here? Having data layout available during construction (even if the resulting constant is data layout independent) would resolve a part of the problem. The remainder would require removing the concept of constant expressions, or rather reducing their scope. Constant expressions do exist for a reason: global initializers, which only accept constants. However, while these initializers can hold arbitrary constant expressions on the LLVM IR level, only limited “relocatable” expressions will be accepted during lowering. The constant expression mechanism is only really needed for such relocatable expressions. LLVM’s mistake was to combine the representation of these relocatable expressions together with the constant folding machinery. Closing thoughts The design issues discussed here are evident with the benefit of hindsight. Of course, there tend to be sensible historical reasons why these choices were made in the first place. For example, having pointer element types and type-based GEPs makes it convenient to implement a front-end that lowers directly to LLVM IR – in other words, clang. It means that the task of keeping track of types is delegated to LLVM. Similarly, I believe that the constant expression design dates back to a time where LLVM still supported a concept of target-independent modules without an associated data layout. The issues covered in this post are related to IR canonicality. There is a separate class of issues related to correctness. The biggest of these is the concept of undef values , which represent a quantum superposition state of all possible bit patterns. Yes, this is exactly as bad as it sounds. Thankfully, undef values are in the process of being replaced by poison values . But all this is a discussion for another time. If you liked this article, you may want to browse my other articles or follow me on Twitter or Mastodon . | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
https://tatanotes.com/blog/glaucoma-awareness-month-2026/ | TataNotes – Web Accessibility Personal Blog Glaucoma Awareness Month – TataNotes Skip to main content TataNotes… …all about a11y Blog About me Raising Awareness Glaucoma Awareness Month January is Glaucoma Awareness Month, dedicated to raising awareness about glaucoma — a group of eye diseases that can lead to blindness if not treated. Learn what you can do to support people with glaucoma. Reading time: around 2 min Publication date January 11, 2026 Glaucoma is one of the leading causes of blindness worldwide, affecting millions of people. It is estimated that approximately 80 million people globally have glaucoma, and the number is projected to grow to over 111 million by 2040 . Glaucoma is commonly known as the “silent thief of sight” because it usually has no symptoms in its early stages. With this condition, the optic nerve gets damaged slowly, leading to vision field reduction and, if left untreated, blindness. High intraocular pressure (IOP) is a major risk factor for glaucoma. Elevated IOP can damage the optic nerve fibers, leading to progressive vision loss, resulting in glaucoma. However, glaucoma can also occur in individuals with normal IOP levels, known as normal-tension glaucoma. High IOP alone is not a definitive indicator of glaucoma. Unfortunately, due to late diagnosis, one person I know lost their vision. Even though glaucoma has no cure yet, blindness could be prevented with regular eye exams and early treatment, such as applying eye drops, or performing an SLT procedure that helps lower IOP to prevent further damage to the optic nerve. What can you do to support people with glaucoma? Learn more about needs of people with glaucoma Glaucoma affects the way people perceive the environment. Use vision simulators like Glaucoma Vision Simulator or NoCoffee vision simulator for Firefox to understand how glaucoma affects vision. Adapt your digital and physical projects so that they’re easy to use with visual impairments. Similar simulators exist for other visual impairments as well. For digital content, follow WCAG and PDF/UA standards WCAG criteria like 1.1.1. Non-text Content (Level A) , 1.4.4 Resize Text (Level AA) , and 4.1.2 Name, Role, Value (Level A) address needs of people with visual impairments, including glaucoma. This is not an exhaustive list, and you should aim to follow other WCAG criteria to ensure your digital content is accessible to people with disabilities. To ensure PDF accessibility, follow PDF/UA (PDF for Universal Access) standard. This will help make your documents accessible by users of assistive technologies, such as screen readers. Ensure compliance with EN 301 549 standard for a wider range of products European standard EN 301 549 specifies accessibility requirements for a broad range of products and services, including hardware, software, websites, and electronic documents. By following this standard, you can make your digital content is accessible to people with disabilities, including those with visual impairments like glaucoma. Complying with these standards is a great first step, but keep in mind that no guideline or automated tool guarantees accessibility. An effective way to ensure accessibility is to conduct accessibility user testing with people with disabilities. Accomodate for people with visual impairments, including glaucoma Adopt accessible practices in the physical world. Design physical spaces with accessibility in mind — for example, provide printed materials and signage in Braille or large print, whenever possible. To help people with glaucoma navigate the environment, install tactile paving. Support your local glaucoma organizations There are many organizations around the world that support glaucoma research, provide guidance and support groups for people with glaucoma. You can find a glaucoma society in your country on the World Glaucoma Association’s list of member societies . Here are some glaucoma organizations you can support: European Glaucoma Society National Glaucoma Patient Support Groups American Glaucoma Society Glaucoma Research Society of Canada Glaucoma Australia By keeping accessibility barriers in mind, we can help ensure that individuals with glaucoma and other visual impairments can access and benefit from the great variety of products and public services. Sources How fast does glaucoma progress without treatment? Global prevalence of glaucoma and projections of glaucoma burden through 2040: a systematic review and meta-analysis Glaucoma Vision Simulator NoCoffee vision simulator for Firefox WCAG (Web Content Accessibility Guidelines) PDF/UA (PDF for Universal Access) European standard EN 301 549 Tatyana Bayramova © 2024–present Important: All rights reserved | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
https://www.npopov.com/2020/05/10/Make-LLVM-fast-again.html | Make LLVM fast again Blog by nikic . Find me on GitHub , StackOverflow , Twitter and Mastodon . Learn more about me . « Back to article overview. Make LLVM fast again 10. May 2020 The front page of the LLVM website proudly claims that: Clang is an “LLVM native” C/C++/Objective-C compiler, which aims to deliver amazingly fast compiles […] I’m not sure whether this has been true in the past, but it certainly isn’t true now. Each LLVM release is a few percent slower than the last. LLVM 10 put some extra effort in this area, and somehow managed to make Rust compilation a whole 10% slower , for as yet unknown reasons. One might argue that this is expected, as the optimization pipeline is continuously being improved, and more aggressive optimizations have higher compile-time requirements. While that may be true, I don’t think it is a desirable trend: For the most part, optimization is already “good enough”, and additional optimizations have the unfortunate trend to trade large compile-time increases for very minor (and/or very rare) improvements to run-time performance. The larger problem is that LLVM simply does not track compile-time regressions. While LNT tracks run-time performance over time, the same is not being done for compile-time or memory usage. The end result is that patches introduce unintentional compile-time regressions that go unnoticed, and can no longer be easily identified by the time the next release rolls out. Tracking LLVM compile-time performance The first priority then is to make sure that we can identify regressions accurately and in a timely manner. Rust does this by running a set of benchmarks on every merge, with the data available on perf.rust-lang.org . Additionally, it is possible to run benchmarks against pull requests using the @rust-timer bot. This helps evaluate changes that are intended to improve compile-time performance, or are suspected of having non-trivial compile-time cost. I have set up a similar service for LLVM, with the results viewable at llvm-compile-time-tracker.com . Probably the most interesting part are the relative instructions and max-rss graphs, which show the percentual change relative to a baseline. I want to briefly describe the setup here. The measurements are based on CTMark , which is a collection of some larger programs that are part of the LLVM test suite. These were added as part of a previous attempt to track compile-time. For every tested commit, the programs are compiled in three different configurations : O3 , ReleaseThinLTO and ReleaseLTO-g . All of these use -O3 in three different LTO configurations (none, thin and fat), with the last one also enabling debuginfo generation. Compilation and linking statistics are gathered using perf (most of them), GNU time (max-rss and wall-time) and size (binary size). The following statistics are available: instructions (stable and useful) max-rss (stable and useful) task-clock (way too noisy) cycles (noisy) branches (stable) branch-misses (noisy) wall-time (way too noisy) size-total (completely stable) size-text (completely stable) size-data (completely stable) size-bss (completely stable) The most useful statistics are instructions, max-rss and size-total/size-text, and these are the only ones I really look at. “instructions” is a stable proxy metric for compile-time. Instructions retired is not a perfect metric, because it discounts issues like cache/memory latency, branch misprediction and ILP, but most of the performance problems affecting LLVM tend to be simpler than that. The actual time metrics task-clock and wall-time are too noisy to be useful and also undergo “seasonal variation”. This could be mitigated by running benchmarks many times, but I don’t have the compute capacity to do that. Instructions retired on the other hand is very stable, and allows us to confidently identify compile-time changes as small as 0.1%. Max-rss is the maximum resident set size, which is one possible measure of memory usage (a surprisingly hard concept to pin down). In aggregate, this metric is also relatively stable, with the exception of the ThinLTO configuration. The binary size metrics are not really useful to judge compile time, but they do help to identify whether a change has impact on codegen. A compile-time regression that results in a code-size change is at least doing something . And the amount and structure of IR during optimization can have a significant impact on compile-time. Different benchmarks have different variance. The detailed comparison pages for individual commits, like this max-rss comparison , highlight changes in red/green that are likely to be significant. Highlighting starts at 3 sigma (no color) and ends at 4 sigma (a clear red/green). The highlighting has no relation to the size of the change, only to its significance. Sometimes a 0.1% change is significant, and sometimes a 10% change is not significant. In addition to the three configurations, the comparison view also shows link-only data for the ThinLTO/LTO configurations, as these tend to be a build bottleneck. It’s also possible to show data for all the individual files (the “per-file details” checkbox). The benchmark server communicates exclusively over Git: Whenever it is idle, it fetches the master branch of LLVM upstream, as well as any branches starting with perf/ from a number of additional LLVM forks on GitHub. These perf/ branches can be used to run experiments without committing to upstream. If anyone is interested in doing LLVM compile-time work, I can easily add additional forks to listen to. After measurements have been performed, the data is pushed to the llvm-compile-time-data repository, which stores the raw data. The website displays data from that repository. The server this runs on only has 2 cores, so a full LLVM build can take more than two hours. For smaller changes, building LLVM from ccache and compiling the benchmarks takes about 20 minutes. This is too slow to test every single commit, but we don’t really need to do that, as long as we automatically bisect any ranges with significant changes. Compile-time improvements Since I started tracking, the geomean compile-time on CTMark has been reduced by 8-9%, as the following graph shows. Most compile-time improvements and regressions tend to be small, with only few large jumps. A change of 0.25% is already worth looking at. A change of 1% is large. In the following I’ll describe some of the improvements that I have implemented over the last few weeks. The largest one, and a complete outlier in terms of impact, was switching string attributes to use a map , which gave a 3% improvement . Attributes in LLVM come in two forms: Enum attributes, which are predefined (e.g. nonnull or dereferenceable ), and string attributes, which can be free-form ( "use-soft-float"="true" ). While enum attributes are stored in a bitset for efficient lookup, string attributes are only accessible by scanning through the whole attribute list and comparing attribute names one by one. As Clang tends to generate quite a few function attributes (20 enum and string attributes are normal) this has a large cost, especially when it comes to lookup of attributes which are not actually set. The patch introduces an additional map from name to attribute to make this lookup more efficient. A related change that is still under review is to convert the "null-pointer-is-valid" string attribute into an enum attribute, which will give another 0.4% improvement. This is one of the most commonly queried string attributes, because it influences pointer semantics fundamentally. One common source of performance issues in LLVM are computeKnownBits() queries. These are recursive queries that determine whether any bits of a value are known to be zero or one. While the query is depth-limited, it can still explore quite a few instructions. There’s two ways to optimize this: Make the query cheaper, or make less calls to it. To make the query cheaper, the most useful technique is to skip additional recursive queries if we already know that we cannot further improve the result. Short-circuiting GEP calculations gives us a 0.65% improvement . Getelementptr essentially adds type-scaled offsets to a pointer. If we don’t know any bits of the base pointer, we shouldn’t bother computing bits of the offsets. Doing the same for add/sub instructions gives a more modest 0.3% improvement . Of course, it is best if we can avoid calling computeKnownBits() calls in the first place. InstCombine used to perform a known bits calculation for each instruction, in the hope that all bits are known and the instruction can be folded to a constant. Predictably, this happens only very rarely, but takes up a lot of compile-time. Removing this fold resulted in a 1% improvement . This required a good bit of groundwork to ensure that all useful cases really are covered by other folds. More recently, I’ve removed the same fold in InstSimplify , for another 0.8% improvement . Using a SmallDenseMap in hot LazyValueInfo code resulted in a 0.5% improvement . This prevents an allocation for a map that usually only has one element. While looking into sqlite3 memory profiles, I noticed that the ReachingDefAnalysis machine pass dominated peak memory usage, which I did not expect. The core problem is that it stores information for each register unit (about 170 on x86) for each machine basic block (about 3000 for this test case). I applied a number of optimizations to this code, but two had the largest effect: First, avoiding full reprocessing of loops , which was a 0.4% compile-time improvement and 1% memory usage improvement on sqlite. This is based on the observation that we don’t need to recompute instruction defs twice, it is enough to propagate the already computed information across blocks. Second, storing reaching definitions inside a TinyPtrVector instead of a SmallVector, which was a 3.3% memory usage improvement on sqlite. The TinyPtrVector represents zero or one reaching definitions (by far the most common) in 8 bytes, while the SmallVector used 24 bytes. Changing MCExpr to use subclass data was a 2% memory usage improvement for the LTO with debuginfo link step. This change made previously unused padding bytes in MCExpr available for use by subclasses. Finally, clearing value handles in BPI was a 2.5% memory usage improvement on the sqlite benchmark. This was a plain bug in analysis management. One significant compile-time improvement that I did not work on is the removal of waymarking in LLVMs use-list implementation. This was a 1% improvement to compile-time, but also a 2-3% memory usage regression on some benchmarks. Waymarking was previously employed to avoid explicitly storing the user (or “parent”) corresponding to a use. Instead, the position of the user was encoded in the alignment bits of the use-list pointers (across multiple pointers). This was a space-time tradeoff and reportedly resulted in major memory usage reduction when it was originally introduced. Nowadays, the memory usage saving appears to be much smaller, resulting in the removal of this mechanism. (The cynic in me thinks that the impact is lower now, because everything else uses much more memory.) Of course, there were also other improvements during this time, but this is the main one that jumped out. Regressions prevented Actively improving compile-times is only half of the equation, we also need to make sure that regressions are reverted or mitigated. Here are some regressions that did not happen: A change to the dominator tree implementation caused a 3% regression . This was reverted due to build failures, but I also reported the regression. To be honest I don’t really understand what this change does. A seemingly harmless TargetLoweringInfo change resulted in a 0.4% regression . It turned out that this was caused by querying a new "veclib" string attribute in hot code, and this was the original motivation for the attribute improvement mentioned previously. This change was also reverted for unrelated reasons, but should have much smaller performance impact when it relands. A change to the SmallVector implementation caused a 1% regression to compile-time and memory usage. This patch changed SmallVector to use uintptr_t size and capacity for small element types like char , while normally uint32_t is used to save space. It turned out that this regression was caused by moving the vector grow implementation for POD types into the header, which (naturally) resulted in excessive inlining. The memory usage did not increase because SmallVectors take up more space, but because the clang binary size increased so much. An improved version of the change was later reapplied with essentially no impact. The emission of alignment attributes for sret parameters in clang caused a 1.4% regression on a single benchmark . It turned out that this was caused by the emission of alignment-preserving assumptions during inlining. These assumptions provide little practical benefit, while both increasing compile-time and pessimizing optimizations (this is a general LLVM issue in the process of being addressed with a new operand-bundle based assumption system). We previously ran into this issue with Rust and disabled the functionality there, because rustc emits alignment information absolutely everywhere. This is contrary to Clang, which only emits alignment for exception cases. The referenced sret change is the first deviation from that approach, and thus also the first time alignment assumptions became a problem. This regression was mitigated by disabling alignment assumptions by default. One regression that I failed to prevent is a steady increase in max-rss. This increase is caused primarily by an increase in clang binary size. I have only started tracking this recently (see the clang binary size graph ) and in that time binary size increased by nearly 2%. This has been caused by the addition of builtins for ARM SVE, such as this commit . I’m not familiar with the builtins tablegen system and don’t know if they can be represented more compactly. Conclusion I can’t say a 10% improvement is making LLVM fast again, we would need a 10x improvement for it to deserve that label. But it’s a start… One key problem here is the choice of benchmarks. These are C/C++ programs compiled with Clang, which generates very different IR from rustc. Improvements for one may not translate to improvements for the other. Changes that are neutral for one may be large regressions for the other. It might make sense to include some rustc bitcode outputs in CTMark to give non-Clang frontends better representation. I think there is still quite a lot of low-hanging fruit when it comes to LLVM compile-time improvements. There’s also some larger ongoing efforts that have mostly stalled, such as the migration to the new pass manager, the migration towards opaque pointers (which will eliminate many bitcast instructions), or the NewGVN pass. Conversely, there are some ongoing efforts that might make for large compile-time regressions when they do get enabled, such as the attributor framework, the knowledge retention framework and MemorySSA-based DSE. We’ll see how things look by the time of the LLVM 11 release. If you liked this article, you may want to browse my other articles or follow me on Twitter or Mastodon . | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close # interview Follow Hide Create Post Older #interview posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Spring Security Implementation Overview asked in 3 yoe interview Er. Bhupendra Er. Bhupendra Er. 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https://www.npopov.com/2026/01/11/LLVM-The-bad-parts.html#fn:bors | LLVM: The bad parts Blog by nikic . Find me on GitHub , StackOverflow , Twitter and Mastodon . Learn more about me . « Back to article overview. LLVM: The bad parts 11. January 2026 A few years ago, I wrote a blog post on design issues in LLVM IR . Since then, one of these issues has been fixed fully (opaque pointers migration), one has been mostly fixed (constant expression removal), and one is well on the way towards being fixed (ptradd migration). This time I’m going to be more ambitious and not stop at three issues. Of course, not all of these issues are of equal importance, and how important they are depends on who you ask. In the interest of brevity, I will mostly just explain what the problem is, and not discuss what possible solutions would be. Finally, I should probably point out that this is written from my perspective as the lead maintainer of the LLVM project: This is not a list of reasons to not use LLVM, it’s a list of opportunities to improve LLVM. High level issues Review capacity Unlike many other open-source projects, LLVM certainly does not suffer from a lack of contributors. There are thousands of contributors and the distribution is relatively flat (that is, it’s not the case that a small handful of people is responsible for the majority of contributions.) What LLVM does suffer from is insufficient review capacity. There are a lot more people writing code than reviewing it. This is somewhat unsurprising, as code review requires more expertise than writing code, and may not provide immediate value 1 to the person reviewing (or their employer). Lack of review capacity makes for a bad contributor experience, and can also result in bad changes making their way into the codebase. The way this usually works out is that someone puts up a PR, then fails to get a qualified review for a long period of time, and then one of their coworkers (who is not a qualified reviewer for that area) ends up rubberstamping the PR. A related problem is that LLVM has a somewhat peculiar contribution model where it’s the responsibility of the PR author to request reviewers. This is especially problematic for new contributors, who don’t know whom to request. Often relevant reviewers will become aware of the PR thanks to a label-based notification system, but this is not apparent from the UI, and it’s easy for PRs to fall through the cracks. A potential improvement here would be a Rust-style PR assignment system . Churn Both the LLVM C++ API and LLVM IR are not stable and undergo frequent changes. This is simultaneously a great strength and weakness of LLVM. It’s a strength because LLVM does not stagnate and is willing to address past mistakes even at significant cost. It’s a weakness because churn imposes costs on users of LLVM. Frontends are somewhat insulated from this because they can use the largely stable C API. However, it does not cover everything, and most major frontends will have additional bindings that use the unstable C++ API. Users that integrate with LLVM more tightly (for example downstream backends) don’t have that option, and have to keep up with all API changes. This is part of LLVM’s general development philosophy, which I’ll express somewhat pointedly as “upstream or GTFO”. LLVM is liberally licensed and does not require you to contribute changes upstream. However, if you do not upstream your code, then it will also not factor into upstream decision-making. This point is somewhat unlike the rest, in that I’m not sure it’s possible to make things “strictly better” here. It’s possible that LLVM’s current point on the stability scale is not optimal, but moving it somewhere else would come with significant externalities. Making major changes in LLVM is already extremely hard due to the sheer scale of the project, without adding additional stability constraints on top. Build time LLVM is a huge project. LLVM itself is >2.5 million lines of C++ and the entire monorepo is something like 9 million. C++ is not exactly known for fast build times, and compiling all that code takes time. This is bearable if you either have fast hardware or access to a build farm, but trying to build LLVM on a low-spec laptop is not going to be fun. An additional complication is building with debug info (which I always recommend against), in which case you’ll add the extra gotchas of slow link times, high risk of OOM and massive disk usage. There are ways to avoid that (using shared libs or dylib build, using split dwarf, using lld), but it takes some expertise. Promising changes in this area are the use of pre-compiled headers (which significantly improves build time), and changing to use a dylib build by default (which reduces disk usage and link time, esp. for debuginfo builds). Another is to reduce test overhead using daemonization (not strictly part of the “build time”, but relevant for the development cycle). CI stability LLVM CI consists of over 200 post-commit buildbots that test LLVM in lots of different configurations on lots of different hardware. Commits that turn a buildbot from green to red result in an email to the commit author. Unfortunately, this CI is never fully green, and flaky on top. This is in part due to flaky tests (typically in lldb or openmp), but can also be due to buildbot-specific issues. The end result is that it’s “normal” to get buildbot failure notifications for any given commit, even if it is perfectly harmless. This dilutes the signal, and makes it easier to miss the real failures. The introduction of pre-merge testing on PRs did significantly improve the overall CI situation, but not the buildbot problem as such. I think we need to start taking flaky tests/buildbots more seriously before we can really make progress here. Because someone is definitely going to mention how this is not rocket science , and we just need to start using bors / merge queues to guarantee an always-green build: It’s a problem of scale. There are >150 commits on a typical workday, which would be more than one commit every 10 minutes even if they were uniformly distributed. Many buildbots have multi-hour runs. This is hard to reconcile. 2 End-to-end testing In some respects, LLVM has very thorough test coverage. We’re quite pedantic about making sure that new optimizations have good coverage of both positive and negative tests. However, these tests are essentially unit tests for a single optimization pass or analysis. We have only a small amount of coverage for the entire optimization pipeline (phase ordering tests), so optimizations sometimes regress due to pass interactions. Tests for the combination of the middle-end and backend pipelines are essentially nonexistent. There is likely room for improvement here, though it comes with tradeoffs. However, what actually concerns me are end-to-end executable tests. LLVM’s test suite proper does not feature these at all. Executable tests are located in a separate llvm-test-suite repo, which is typically not used during routine development, but run by buildbots. It contains a lot of different code ranging from benchmarks to unit tests. However, llvm-test-suite has quite few tests (compared to LLVM lit tests) and does not comprehensively cover basic operations. Things like testing operations on different float formats, on integers of different sizes, vectors of different sizes and element types, etc. In part this is because of limitations of testing through C/C++, which is very heterogeneous in type support (C compilers don’t like exposing types that don’t have a defined psABI for the target). But that’s no excuse to delegate this testing to Zig instead (which exposes everything, everywhere, and has the corresponding test coverage). Backend divergence While LLVM’s middle-end is very unified, backend implementations are very heterogeneous, and there is a tendency to fix issues (usually performance, but sometimes even correctness) only for the backend you’re interested in. This takes many forms, like implementing target-specific DAG combines instead of generic ones. Though my definite favorite is to introduce lots of target hooks for optimizations – not because the optimization is actually only beneficial for one target, but because the person introducing it just doesn’t want to deal with the fallout on other targets. This is understandable – after all, they may lack the knowledge to evaluate a change for other targets, so it may require working with many other maintainers, which can slow progress a lot. But the end result is still increasing divergence and duplication. Lack of end-to-end testing compounds this issue, because that would act as something of a forcing function that at least all operations compile without crashing and produce correct results for all tested targets. Compilation time Because I’ve complained about this enough in the past, I’ll keep it short: LLVM is slow, which is an issue both for JIT use cases, and anything that tends to produce huge amounts of IR (like Rust or C++). Since I’ve started tracking compile-times , the situation has significantly improved, both through targeted improvements and avoidance of regressions. However, there is still a lot of room for improvement: LLVM still isn’t fast, it’s just less slow. One thing that LLVM is particularly bad at are -O0 compile-times. The architecture is optimized for optimization, and lots of costs remain even if no optimization takes place. The LLVM TPDE alternative backend shows that it’s possible to do better by an order of magnitude. Performance tracking The flip side of the compile-time coin is runtime performance. This is something that LLVM obviously cares a lot about. Which is why I find it rather surprising that LLVM does not have any “official” performance tracking infrastructure. Of course, there are lots of organizations which track performance of LLVM downstream, on their own workloads. In some ways this is good, because it means there is more focus on real-world workloads than on synthetic benchmarks like SPEC. However, not having readily accessible, public performance tracking also makes it hard for contributors to evaluate changes. To be fair, LLVM does have an LNT instance, but a) it’s currently broken, b) LNT is one of the worst UX crimes ever committed, c) little data gets submitted there, and d) it’s not possible to request a test run for a PR, or something like that. This point is frankly just baffling to me. I don’t personally care about SPEC scores, but I know plenty of people do, so why there is no first-class tracking for this is a mystery to me. IR design Undef values Undef values take an arbitrary value from a certain set. They are used to model uninitialized values, and have historically been used to model deferred undefined behavior. The latter role has been replaced by poison values, which have much simpler propagation rules and are more amenable to optimization. However, undef is still used for uninitialized memory to this day. There are two main problems with undef values. The first is the multi-use problem: An undef value can take a different value at each use. This means that transforms that increase the use count are generally invalid, and care has to be taken when optimizing based on value equality. The mere existence of undef values prevents us from performing optimizations we want to do, or greatly increases their complexity. The second issue is that undef is very hard to reason about. Humans have trouble understanding it, and for proof-checkers it is computationally expensive. Most likely, uninitialized memory will be represented using poison values instead in the future, but this runs into the problem that LLVM currently is not capable of correctly treating poison in memory. Proper support for poison in memory requires additional IR features, like the byte type . Unsoundness and specification incompleteness While most miscompilations (that is, correctness bugs) in LLVM are resolved quickly, there are quite a few that remain unfixed despite having been known for a long time. These issues usually combine the qualities of being largely theoretical (that is, appearing only in artificially constructed examples rather than real-world code) and running up against issues in LLVM’s IR design. Some of them are cases where we have a good idea of how the IR design needs to change to address the issue, but these changes are complex and often require a lot of work to recover optimization parity. There is often a complexity cliff where you can do something that’s simple and nearly correct, or you can do something very complex that is fully correct. Then there are other cases, where just deciding on how things should work is a hard problem. The provenance model is a prime example of this. The interaction of provenance with integer casts and type punning is a difficult problem with complex tradeoffs. However, at some point these issues do need to be resolved. The recently formed formal specification working group aims to tackle these problems. Constraint encoding A key challenge for optimizing compilers is encoding of constraints (like “this value is non-negative” or “this add will not overflow”). This includes both frontend-provided constraints (based on language undefined behavior rules), but also compiler-generated ones. In particular, there are many different analyses that can infer facts about the program, but keeping these up-to-date throughout optimization is challenging. One good way to handle this is to encode facts directly in the IR. Correctly updating or discarding these annotations then becomes part of transform correctness. LLVM has many different ways to encode additional constraints (poison flags, metadata, attributes, assumes), and these all come with tradeoffs in terms of how much information can be encoded, how reliably it is retained during optimization and to what degree it can negatively affect optimization. Information from metadata is lost too often, while information from assumes is not lost often enough. Floating-point semantics There are various issues with floating-point (FP) semantics once we move outside the nice world of “strictly conforming IEEE 754 floats in the default environment”. A few that come to mind are: Handling of signaling NaN and FP exceptions, and non-default FP environment in general. LLVM represents this using constrained FP intrinsics. This is not ideal, as all the FP handling is split into two parallel universes. Handling of denormals. LLVM has a function attribute to not assume IEEE denormal behavior, but this is only suitable for cases where flush to zero (FTZ) is used globally. It does not help with modeling cases like ARM, where scalar ops are IEEE, while vector ops use FTZ. Handling of excess precision, in particular when using the x87 FPU. Other technical issues Partial migrations LLVM is a very large project, and making any significant changes to it is hard and time consuming. Migrations often span years, where two different implementations of something coexist, until all code has been migrated. The two prime examples of this are: New pass manager: The “new” pass manager was first introduced more than a decade ago. Then about five years ago, we started using it for the middle-end optimization pipeline by default, and support for the legacy PM was dropped. However, the back-end is still using the legacy pass manager. There is ongoing work to support the new pass manager in codegen, and we’re pretty close to the point where it can be used end-to-end for a single target. However, I expect it will still take quite a while for all targets to be ported and the legacy pass manager to be completely retired. GlobalISel: This is an even more extreme case. GlobalISel is the “new” instruction selector that is intended to replace SelectionDAG (and FastISel). It was introduced approximately one decade ago, and to this day, none of the targets that originally used SelectionDAG have been fully migrated to GlobalISel. There is one new target that’s GlobalISel-only, and there is one that uses GlobalISel by default for unoptimized builds. But otherwise, SelectionDAG is still the default everywhere. There are two backends (AMDGPU and AArch64) that have somewhat complete GlobalISel support, but it’s not clear when/if they’ll be able to switch to using it by default. A big problem here is that new optimizations are continually being implemented on the SDAG side, so it’s hard to keep parity. ABI / calling convention handling Essentially everything about the handling of calling conventions in LLVM is a mess. The responsibility for handling calling conventions is split between the frontend and the backend. There are good reasons why LLVM can’t do this by itself (LLVM IR sits at a too low level of abstraction to satisfy the extremely arcane ABI rules). This is not a problem in itself – however, there is zero documentation of what the calling convention contract between the frontend and LLVM is, and the proper way to implement C FFI is essentially to look at what Clang does and copy that (invariably with errors, because the rules can be very subtle). I’ve proposed to fix this by introducing an ABI lowering library and vortex73 has implemented a prototype for it as part of GSoC. So we’re well on the way to resolving this side of the problem. There are more problems though. One that Rust has struggled with a lot is the interaction of target features with the calling convention. Enabling additional target features can change the call ABI, because additional float/vector registers start getting used for argument/return passing. This means that calls between functions with a feature enabled and disabled may be incompatible, because they assume different ABIs. Ideally, ABI and target features would be orthogonal, and only coupled in that some ABIs require certain target features (e.g. you can’t have a hard float ABI without enabling FP registers). Target features are a per-function choice, while the ABI should be per-module. Some of the newer architectures like Loongarch and RISC-V actually have proper ABI design, but most of the older ones don’t. For example, it’s currently not possible to target AArch64 with a soft float ABI but hard float implementation. Builtins / libcalls Somewhat related to this is the handling of compiler builtins/libcalls, which are auxiliary functions that the compiler may emit for operations that are not natively supported by the target. This covers both libcalls provided by libc (or libm), and builtins provided by compiler runtime libraries like libgcc, compiler-rt or compiler-builtins. There are two sources of truth for this, TargetLibraryInfo (TLI) and RuntimeLibcalls. The former is used by the middle-end, primarily to recognize and optimize C library calls (this mostly covers only libc, but not libgcc). The latter is used by the backend, primarily to determine which libcalls may be emitted by the compiler and how they are spelled (this covers libgcc, and the subset of libc covered by LLVM intrinsics). A problem with RuntimeLibcalls is that it currently largely works off only the target triple, which means that we have to make “lowest common denominator” assumptions about which libcalls are available, where the lowest common denominator is usually libgcc. If --rtlib=compiler-rt is used, LLVM does not actually know about that, and cannot make use of functions that are in compiler-rt but not libgcc. This also means that we’re missing a customization point for other runtime libraries. For example, there is no way for Rust to say that it provides f128 suffix libcalls via compiler-builtins, overriding target-specific naming and availability assumptions based on which type long double in C maps to. There is a lot of ongoing work in this area (by arsenm), so the situation here will hopefully improve in the near-ish future. Context / module dichotomy LLVM has two high-level data holders. A module corresponds to a compilation unit (e.g. pre-LTO, a single file in C/C++). The LLVM context holds various “global” data. There’s usually one context per thread, and multiple modules can (in principle) use a single context. Things like functions and globals go into the module, while constants and types go into the context. The module also contains a data layout, which provides important type layout information like “how wide is a pointer”. The fact that constants and types do not have access to the data layout is a constant source of friction. If you have a type, you cannot reliably tell its size without threading an extra parameter through everything. We have subsystems (like ConstantFold vs. ConstantFolding) that are separated entirely by whether data layout is available or not. At the same time, I feel like this split is not actually buying us a lot. Having shared types and constants is somewhat convenient when it comes to module linking, because they can be directly shared, but I think performing explicit remapping in that one place would be better than having complexity everywhere else. Additionally, this would also allow cross-context linking, which is currently only possible by going through a bitcode roundtrip. In theory, the context could also allow some memory reuse when compiling multiple modules, but I think in practice there is usually a one-to-one correspondence between those. LICM register pressure This is getting a bit down in the weeds, but I’ll mention it anyway due to how often I’ve run across this in recent times. LLVM considers loop invariant code motion (LICM) to be a canonicalization transform. This means that we always hoist instructions out of loops, without any target specific cost modelling. However, LICM can increase the live ranges of values, which can increase register pressure, which can lead to a large amount of spills and reloads. The general philosophy behind this is that LICM hoists everything, all middle-end transforms can work with nicely loop invariant instructions, and then instructions will get sunk back into the loop by the backend, which can precisely model register pressure. Except… that second part doesn’t actually happen. I believe that (for non-PGO builds) instructions only get sunk back into loops either through rematerialization in the register allocator, or specialized sinking (typically of addressing modes), but for anything not falling into those buckets, no attempt to sink into loops in order to reduce register pressure is made. Other This list is not exhaustive. There’s more I could mention, but we’d get into increasingly narrow territory. I hope I covered most of the more important things – please do let me know what I missed! If you’re not concerned with overall project health, the primary value of reviews is reciprocity. People are more likely to review your PR, if you reviewed theirs. ↩ The way Rust reconciles this is via a combination of “rollups” (where multiple PRs are merged as a batch, using human curation), and a substantially different contribution model. Where LLVM favors sequences of small PRs that do only one thing (and get squash merged), Rust favors large PRs with many commits (which do not get squashed). As getting an approved Rust PR merged usually takes multiple days due to bors, having large PRs is pretty much required to get anything done. This is not necessarily bad, just very different from what LLVM does right now. ↩ If you liked this article, you may want to browse my other articles or follow me on Twitter or Mastodon . | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
https://www.npopov.com/2026/01/11/LLVM-The-bad-parts.html#fnref:bors | LLVM: The bad parts Blog by nikic . Find me on GitHub , StackOverflow , Twitter and Mastodon . Learn more about me . « Back to article overview. LLVM: The bad parts 11. January 2026 A few years ago, I wrote a blog post on design issues in LLVM IR . Since then, one of these issues has been fixed fully (opaque pointers migration), one has been mostly fixed (constant expression removal), and one is well on the way towards being fixed (ptradd migration). This time I’m going to be more ambitious and not stop at three issues. Of course, not all of these issues are of equal importance, and how important they are depends on who you ask. In the interest of brevity, I will mostly just explain what the problem is, and not discuss what possible solutions would be. Finally, I should probably point out that this is written from my perspective as the lead maintainer of the LLVM project: This is not a list of reasons to not use LLVM, it’s a list of opportunities to improve LLVM. High level issues Review capacity Unlike many other open-source projects, LLVM certainly does not suffer from a lack of contributors. There are thousands of contributors and the distribution is relatively flat (that is, it’s not the case that a small handful of people is responsible for the majority of contributions.) What LLVM does suffer from is insufficient review capacity. There are a lot more people writing code than reviewing it. This is somewhat unsurprising, as code review requires more expertise than writing code, and may not provide immediate value 1 to the person reviewing (or their employer). Lack of review capacity makes for a bad contributor experience, and can also result in bad changes making their way into the codebase. The way this usually works out is that someone puts up a PR, then fails to get a qualified review for a long period of time, and then one of their coworkers (who is not a qualified reviewer for that area) ends up rubberstamping the PR. A related problem is that LLVM has a somewhat peculiar contribution model where it’s the responsibility of the PR author to request reviewers. This is especially problematic for new contributors, who don’t know whom to request. Often relevant reviewers will become aware of the PR thanks to a label-based notification system, but this is not apparent from the UI, and it’s easy for PRs to fall through the cracks. A potential improvement here would be a Rust-style PR assignment system . Churn Both the LLVM C++ API and LLVM IR are not stable and undergo frequent changes. This is simultaneously a great strength and weakness of LLVM. It’s a strength because LLVM does not stagnate and is willing to address past mistakes even at significant cost. It’s a weakness because churn imposes costs on users of LLVM. Frontends are somewhat insulated from this because they can use the largely stable C API. However, it does not cover everything, and most major frontends will have additional bindings that use the unstable C++ API. Users that integrate with LLVM more tightly (for example downstream backends) don’t have that option, and have to keep up with all API changes. This is part of LLVM’s general development philosophy, which I’ll express somewhat pointedly as “upstream or GTFO”. LLVM is liberally licensed and does not require you to contribute changes upstream. However, if you do not upstream your code, then it will also not factor into upstream decision-making. This point is somewhat unlike the rest, in that I’m not sure it’s possible to make things “strictly better” here. It’s possible that LLVM’s current point on the stability scale is not optimal, but moving it somewhere else would come with significant externalities. Making major changes in LLVM is already extremely hard due to the sheer scale of the project, without adding additional stability constraints on top. Build time LLVM is a huge project. LLVM itself is >2.5 million lines of C++ and the entire monorepo is something like 9 million. C++ is not exactly known for fast build times, and compiling all that code takes time. This is bearable if you either have fast hardware or access to a build farm, but trying to build LLVM on a low-spec laptop is not going to be fun. An additional complication is building with debug info (which I always recommend against), in which case you’ll add the extra gotchas of slow link times, high risk of OOM and massive disk usage. There are ways to avoid that (using shared libs or dylib build, using split dwarf, using lld), but it takes some expertise. Promising changes in this area are the use of pre-compiled headers (which significantly improves build time), and changing to use a dylib build by default (which reduces disk usage and link time, esp. for debuginfo builds). Another is to reduce test overhead using daemonization (not strictly part of the “build time”, but relevant for the development cycle). CI stability LLVM CI consists of over 200 post-commit buildbots that test LLVM in lots of different configurations on lots of different hardware. Commits that turn a buildbot from green to red result in an email to the commit author. Unfortunately, this CI is never fully green, and flaky on top. This is in part due to flaky tests (typically in lldb or openmp), but can also be due to buildbot-specific issues. The end result is that it’s “normal” to get buildbot failure notifications for any given commit, even if it is perfectly harmless. This dilutes the signal, and makes it easier to miss the real failures. The introduction of pre-merge testing on PRs did significantly improve the overall CI situation, but not the buildbot problem as such. I think we need to start taking flaky tests/buildbots more seriously before we can really make progress here. Because someone is definitely going to mention how this is not rocket science , and we just need to start using bors / merge queues to guarantee an always-green build: It’s a problem of scale. There are >150 commits on a typical workday, which would be more than one commit every 10 minutes even if they were uniformly distributed. Many buildbots have multi-hour runs. This is hard to reconcile. 2 End-to-end testing In some respects, LLVM has very thorough test coverage. We’re quite pedantic about making sure that new optimizations have good coverage of both positive and negative tests. However, these tests are essentially unit tests for a single optimization pass or analysis. We have only a small amount of coverage for the entire optimization pipeline (phase ordering tests), so optimizations sometimes regress due to pass interactions. Tests for the combination of the middle-end and backend pipelines are essentially nonexistent. There is likely room for improvement here, though it comes with tradeoffs. However, what actually concerns me are end-to-end executable tests. LLVM’s test suite proper does not feature these at all. Executable tests are located in a separate llvm-test-suite repo, which is typically not used during routine development, but run by buildbots. It contains a lot of different code ranging from benchmarks to unit tests. However, llvm-test-suite has quite few tests (compared to LLVM lit tests) and does not comprehensively cover basic operations. Things like testing operations on different float formats, on integers of different sizes, vectors of different sizes and element types, etc. In part this is because of limitations of testing through C/C++, which is very heterogeneous in type support (C compilers don’t like exposing types that don’t have a defined psABI for the target). But that’s no excuse to delegate this testing to Zig instead (which exposes everything, everywhere, and has the corresponding test coverage). Backend divergence While LLVM’s middle-end is very unified, backend implementations are very heterogeneous, and there is a tendency to fix issues (usually performance, but sometimes even correctness) only for the backend you’re interested in. This takes many forms, like implementing target-specific DAG combines instead of generic ones. Though my definite favorite is to introduce lots of target hooks for optimizations – not because the optimization is actually only beneficial for one target, but because the person introducing it just doesn’t want to deal with the fallout on other targets. This is understandable – after all, they may lack the knowledge to evaluate a change for other targets, so it may require working with many other maintainers, which can slow progress a lot. But the end result is still increasing divergence and duplication. Lack of end-to-end testing compounds this issue, because that would act as something of a forcing function that at least all operations compile without crashing and produce correct results for all tested targets. Compilation time Because I’ve complained about this enough in the past, I’ll keep it short: LLVM is slow, which is an issue both for JIT use cases, and anything that tends to produce huge amounts of IR (like Rust or C++). Since I’ve started tracking compile-times , the situation has significantly improved, both through targeted improvements and avoidance of regressions. However, there is still a lot of room for improvement: LLVM still isn’t fast, it’s just less slow. One thing that LLVM is particularly bad at are -O0 compile-times. The architecture is optimized for optimization, and lots of costs remain even if no optimization takes place. The LLVM TPDE alternative backend shows that it’s possible to do better by an order of magnitude. Performance tracking The flip side of the compile-time coin is runtime performance. This is something that LLVM obviously cares a lot about. Which is why I find it rather surprising that LLVM does not have any “official” performance tracking infrastructure. Of course, there are lots of organizations which track performance of LLVM downstream, on their own workloads. In some ways this is good, because it means there is more focus on real-world workloads than on synthetic benchmarks like SPEC. However, not having readily accessible, public performance tracking also makes it hard for contributors to evaluate changes. To be fair, LLVM does have an LNT instance, but a) it’s currently broken, b) LNT is one of the worst UX crimes ever committed, c) little data gets submitted there, and d) it’s not possible to request a test run for a PR, or something like that. This point is frankly just baffling to me. I don’t personally care about SPEC scores, but I know plenty of people do, so why there is no first-class tracking for this is a mystery to me. IR design Undef values Undef values take an arbitrary value from a certain set. They are used to model uninitialized values, and have historically been used to model deferred undefined behavior. The latter role has been replaced by poison values, which have much simpler propagation rules and are more amenable to optimization. However, undef is still used for uninitialized memory to this day. There are two main problems with undef values. The first is the multi-use problem: An undef value can take a different value at each use. This means that transforms that increase the use count are generally invalid, and care has to be taken when optimizing based on value equality. The mere existence of undef values prevents us from performing optimizations we want to do, or greatly increases their complexity. The second issue is that undef is very hard to reason about. Humans have trouble understanding it, and for proof-checkers it is computationally expensive. Most likely, uninitialized memory will be represented using poison values instead in the future, but this runs into the problem that LLVM currently is not capable of correctly treating poison in memory. Proper support for poison in memory requires additional IR features, like the byte type . Unsoundness and specification incompleteness While most miscompilations (that is, correctness bugs) in LLVM are resolved quickly, there are quite a few that remain unfixed despite having been known for a long time. These issues usually combine the qualities of being largely theoretical (that is, appearing only in artificially constructed examples rather than real-world code) and running up against issues in LLVM’s IR design. Some of them are cases where we have a good idea of how the IR design needs to change to address the issue, but these changes are complex and often require a lot of work to recover optimization parity. There is often a complexity cliff where you can do something that’s simple and nearly correct, or you can do something very complex that is fully correct. Then there are other cases, where just deciding on how things should work is a hard problem. The provenance model is a prime example of this. The interaction of provenance with integer casts and type punning is a difficult problem with complex tradeoffs. However, at some point these issues do need to be resolved. The recently formed formal specification working group aims to tackle these problems. Constraint encoding A key challenge for optimizing compilers is encoding of constraints (like “this value is non-negative” or “this add will not overflow”). This includes both frontend-provided constraints (based on language undefined behavior rules), but also compiler-generated ones. In particular, there are many different analyses that can infer facts about the program, but keeping these up-to-date throughout optimization is challenging. One good way to handle this is to encode facts directly in the IR. Correctly updating or discarding these annotations then becomes part of transform correctness. LLVM has many different ways to encode additional constraints (poison flags, metadata, attributes, assumes), and these all come with tradeoffs in terms of how much information can be encoded, how reliably it is retained during optimization and to what degree it can negatively affect optimization. Information from metadata is lost too often, while information from assumes is not lost often enough. Floating-point semantics There are various issues with floating-point (FP) semantics once we move outside the nice world of “strictly conforming IEEE 754 floats in the default environment”. A few that come to mind are: Handling of signaling NaN and FP exceptions, and non-default FP environment in general. LLVM represents this using constrained FP intrinsics. This is not ideal, as all the FP handling is split into two parallel universes. Handling of denormals. LLVM has a function attribute to not assume IEEE denormal behavior, but this is only suitable for cases where flush to zero (FTZ) is used globally. It does not help with modeling cases like ARM, where scalar ops are IEEE, while vector ops use FTZ. Handling of excess precision, in particular when using the x87 FPU. Other technical issues Partial migrations LLVM is a very large project, and making any significant changes to it is hard and time consuming. Migrations often span years, where two different implementations of something coexist, until all code has been migrated. The two prime examples of this are: New pass manager: The “new” pass manager was first introduced more than a decade ago. Then about five years ago, we started using it for the middle-end optimization pipeline by default, and support for the legacy PM was dropped. However, the back-end is still using the legacy pass manager. There is ongoing work to support the new pass manager in codegen, and we’re pretty close to the point where it can be used end-to-end for a single target. However, I expect it will still take quite a while for all targets to be ported and the legacy pass manager to be completely retired. GlobalISel: This is an even more extreme case. GlobalISel is the “new” instruction selector that is intended to replace SelectionDAG (and FastISel). It was introduced approximately one decade ago, and to this day, none of the targets that originally used SelectionDAG have been fully migrated to GlobalISel. There is one new target that’s GlobalISel-only, and there is one that uses GlobalISel by default for unoptimized builds. But otherwise, SelectionDAG is still the default everywhere. There are two backends (AMDGPU and AArch64) that have somewhat complete GlobalISel support, but it’s not clear when/if they’ll be able to switch to using it by default. A big problem here is that new optimizations are continually being implemented on the SDAG side, so it’s hard to keep parity. ABI / calling convention handling Essentially everything about the handling of calling conventions in LLVM is a mess. The responsibility for handling calling conventions is split between the frontend and the backend. There are good reasons why LLVM can’t do this by itself (LLVM IR sits at a too low level of abstraction to satisfy the extremely arcane ABI rules). This is not a problem in itself – however, there is zero documentation of what the calling convention contract between the frontend and LLVM is, and the proper way to implement C FFI is essentially to look at what Clang does and copy that (invariably with errors, because the rules can be very subtle). I’ve proposed to fix this by introducing an ABI lowering library and vortex73 has implemented a prototype for it as part of GSoC. So we’re well on the way to resolving this side of the problem. There are more problems though. One that Rust has struggled with a lot is the interaction of target features with the calling convention. Enabling additional target features can change the call ABI, because additional float/vector registers start getting used for argument/return passing. This means that calls between functions with a feature enabled and disabled may be incompatible, because they assume different ABIs. Ideally, ABI and target features would be orthogonal, and only coupled in that some ABIs require certain target features (e.g. you can’t have a hard float ABI without enabling FP registers). Target features are a per-function choice, while the ABI should be per-module. Some of the newer architectures like Loongarch and RISC-V actually have proper ABI design, but most of the older ones don’t. For example, it’s currently not possible to target AArch64 with a soft float ABI but hard float implementation. Builtins / libcalls Somewhat related to this is the handling of compiler builtins/libcalls, which are auxiliary functions that the compiler may emit for operations that are not natively supported by the target. This covers both libcalls provided by libc (or libm), and builtins provided by compiler runtime libraries like libgcc, compiler-rt or compiler-builtins. There are two sources of truth for this, TargetLibraryInfo (TLI) and RuntimeLibcalls. The former is used by the middle-end, primarily to recognize and optimize C library calls (this mostly covers only libc, but not libgcc). The latter is used by the backend, primarily to determine which libcalls may be emitted by the compiler and how they are spelled (this covers libgcc, and the subset of libc covered by LLVM intrinsics). A problem with RuntimeLibcalls is that it currently largely works off only the target triple, which means that we have to make “lowest common denominator” assumptions about which libcalls are available, where the lowest common denominator is usually libgcc. If --rtlib=compiler-rt is used, LLVM does not actually know about that, and cannot make use of functions that are in compiler-rt but not libgcc. This also means that we’re missing a customization point for other runtime libraries. For example, there is no way for Rust to say that it provides f128 suffix libcalls via compiler-builtins, overriding target-specific naming and availability assumptions based on which type long double in C maps to. There is a lot of ongoing work in this area (by arsenm), so the situation here will hopefully improve in the near-ish future. Context / module dichotomy LLVM has two high-level data holders. A module corresponds to a compilation unit (e.g. pre-LTO, a single file in C/C++). The LLVM context holds various “global” data. There’s usually one context per thread, and multiple modules can (in principle) use a single context. Things like functions and globals go into the module, while constants and types go into the context. The module also contains a data layout, which provides important type layout information like “how wide is a pointer”. The fact that constants and types do not have access to the data layout is a constant source of friction. If you have a type, you cannot reliably tell its size without threading an extra parameter through everything. We have subsystems (like ConstantFold vs. ConstantFolding) that are separated entirely by whether data layout is available or not. At the same time, I feel like this split is not actually buying us a lot. Having shared types and constants is somewhat convenient when it comes to module linking, because they can be directly shared, but I think performing explicit remapping in that one place would be better than having complexity everywhere else. Additionally, this would also allow cross-context linking, which is currently only possible by going through a bitcode roundtrip. In theory, the context could also allow some memory reuse when compiling multiple modules, but I think in practice there is usually a one-to-one correspondence between those. LICM register pressure This is getting a bit down in the weeds, but I’ll mention it anyway due to how often I’ve run across this in recent times. LLVM considers loop invariant code motion (LICM) to be a canonicalization transform. This means that we always hoist instructions out of loops, without any target specific cost modelling. However, LICM can increase the live ranges of values, which can increase register pressure, which can lead to a large amount of spills and reloads. The general philosophy behind this is that LICM hoists everything, all middle-end transforms can work with nicely loop invariant instructions, and then instructions will get sunk back into the loop by the backend, which can precisely model register pressure. Except… that second part doesn’t actually happen. I believe that (for non-PGO builds) instructions only get sunk back into loops either through rematerialization in the register allocator, or specialized sinking (typically of addressing modes), but for anything not falling into those buckets, no attempt to sink into loops in order to reduce register pressure is made. Other This list is not exhaustive. There’s more I could mention, but we’d get into increasingly narrow territory. I hope I covered most of the more important things – please do let me know what I missed! If you’re not concerned with overall project health, the primary value of reviews is reciprocity. People are more likely to review your PR, if you reviewed theirs. ↩ The way Rust reconciles this is via a combination of “rollups” (where multiple PRs are merged as a batch, using human curation), and a substantially different contribution model. Where LLVM favors sequences of small PRs that do only one thing (and get squash merged), Rust favors large PRs with many commits (which do not get squashed). As getting an approved Rust PR merged usually takes multiple days due to bors, having large PRs is pretty much required to get anything done. This is not necessarily bad, just very different from what LLVM does right now. ↩ If you liked this article, you may want to browse my other articles or follow me on Twitter or Mastodon . | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
https://docs.suprsend.com/docs/getting-started | What is SuprSend? - SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams Skip to main content SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Community Trust Center Platform Status Postman Collection GETTING STARTED What is SuprSend? Quick Start Guide Best Practices Plan Your Integration Go-live checklist CORE CONCEPTS Templates Users Events Workflow Notification Categories Preferences Tenants Lists Broadcast Objects Translations DLT Guidelines Whatsapp Template Guidelines WORKFLOW BUILDER Design Workflow Node List Workflow Settings Trigger Workflow Validate Trigger Payload Tenant Workflows Notification Inbox Overview Multi Tabs React Javascript (Angular, Vuejs etc) React Native Flutter (Headless) PREFERENCE CENTRE Embedded Preference Centre Javascript Angular React VENDOR INTEGRATION GUIDE Overview Email Integrations SMS Integrations Android Push Whatsapp Integrations iOS Push Chat Integrations Vendor Fallback Tenant Vendor INTEGRATIONS Webhook Connectors MONITORING & DEBUGGING Logs Audit Logs Error Guides MANAGE YOUR ACCOUNT Authentication Methods Contact Us Get Started SuprSend, Notification infrastructure for Product teams home page Search... ⌘ K Ask AI Contact Us Get Started Get Started Search... Navigation GETTING STARTED What is SuprSend? Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog Documentation API Reference Management API CLI Reference Developer Resources Changelog GETTING STARTED What is SuprSend? OpenAI Open in ChatGPT Learn about SuprSend and how you can use it to power multi-channel product notifications. OpenAI Open in ChatGPT SuprSend has all the features set which enable you to send notifications in a reliable and scalable manner, as well as take care of end-user experience, thereby eliminating the need to build any notification service in-house. Benefits of using SuprSend as your notification stack: You do not have to do any vendor integrations for channels in your code. You can easily add/remove/prioritise vendors and channels from your SuprSend account, You can design powerful templates for all channels together and manage them from a single place, You can leverage powerful features to experiment fast with notifications as well as take care of end user experience without writing a single line of code. Introduction to Workflows Communications are made up of multiple components - trigger, logic, content, variables, target user, channels, vendors, etc. Typical communication solutions have one or more components intertwined with each other. SuprSend solves communications from a different and more powerful approach, which we call Workflows. At SuprSend, all the constituent components are decoupled from each other, making it modular in nature. The components can come from any source. All these components are configured as nodes in Workflows, where the processing happens for delivery and optimisation. This allows Workflows to handle any complexity possible in your communication use cases. How do you trigger notifications? You can trigger notifications in one of the two ways: Send events to SuprSend from your frontend clients (android app, website, etc) via SuprSend Client SDK, and create a Workflow on SuprSend platform to trigger notification on an event. Create workflow and trigger notification from your backend itself using an omni-channel HTTPS API method, or you can use our Backend SDK. All the other components (like vendors, templates, optimisation, scaling, etc.) are created and managed on SuprSend platform. You can check the ‘Core Concepts’ section that lists down the components used in the platform, so you can navigate the platform and use all the features with ease. SuprSend APIs You can try out SuprSend APIs from our Postman collection Was this page helpful? Yes No Suggest edits Raise issue Overview Start setting up your notifications with SuprSend by following quick start guides for one of the mentioned channels. Next ⌘ I x github linkedin youtube Powered by On this page Benefits of using SuprSend as your notification stack: Introduction to Workflows How do you trigger notifications? SuprSend APIs | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
https://www.npopov.com/ | nikic's Blog Blog by nikic . Find me on GitHub , StackOverflow , Twitter and Mastodon . Learn more about me . LLVM: The bad parts 11. January 2026 A collection of issues with LLVM, ranging from social and infrastructure problems to specific technical challenges. This year in LLVM (2024) 05. January 2025 Summary of my work on LLVM in 2024. External: Making memcpy(NULL, NULL, 0) well-defined 11. December 2024 C2y makes memcpy(NULL, NULL, 0) and various other zero-length operations on null pointers well defined. This year in LLVM (2023) 01. January 2024 Summary of my work on LLVM in 2023. External: How single-iteration InstCombine improves LLVM compile time 07. December 2023 Avoiding multiple iterations of InstCombine results in large compilation time improvements in LLVM 18. How to reduce LLVM crashes 22. October 2023 Step-by-step guide on how to reduce LLVM crashes. LLVM: Scalar evolution 03. October 2023 A brief introduction to LLVM's scalar evolution analysis, which models how values change inside loops. LLVM: Canonicalization and target-independence 10. April 2023 This documents LLVM's design philosophy when it comes to target-dependence in the middle-end optimizer. LLVM: The middle-end optimization pipeline 07. April 2023 A high-level overview of LLVM's middle-end optimization pipeline and some of the design considerations behind it. This year in LLVM (2022) 20. December 2022 Summary of my work on LLVM in 2022. The opcache optimizer 22. May 2022 An introduction to the inner workings of the opcache optimizer, or at least some parts of it. Type variance in PHP 08. November 2021 Type variance allows types to change during inheritance in a way that is compatible with the Liskov substitution principle. This article describes how this works on a technical level. Early binding in PHP 20. October 2021 Early binding allows using a class before its declaration in the same file. However, the precise behavior is rather arcane. How opcache works 13. October 2021 A brief overview of how the PHP opcache extension works, covering the caching-related aspects only. Design issues in LLVM IR 02. June 2021 Discusses a number of design issues related to IR canonicality: Pointer element types, type-based GEP, and constant expressions. Make LLVM fast again 10. May 2020 Introduces a compile-time tracking service for LLVM, and some specific compile-time improvements I have implemented. PHP 7 Virtual Machine 14. April 2017 An overview of the PHP virtual machine. Internal value representation in PHP 7 - Part 2 19. June 2015 Covers the implementation of complex types like strings and objects in PHP 7, as well as a number of special types like indirect zvals. Internal value representation in PHP 7 - Part 1 05. May 2015 Describes and compares the zval implementations used by PHP 5 and PHP 7, including a discussion of references. Other types are covered in the next part. PHP's new hashtable implementation 22. December 2014 In this article we'll explore how the new hashtable implementation used by PHP 7 improved memory usage and performance. Methods on primitive types in PHP 14. March 2014 This article discusses the merits of allowing method calls on primitive PHP types, like strings and arrays. Fast request routing using regular expressions 18. February 2014 This article describes a number of techniques to improve performance of regular expression based dispatch processes, as used in request routing or lexing. The case against the ifsetor function 10. January 2014 The ifsetor function can be used to suppress notices when accessing array indices. This post discusses some of the issues this function has and how to resolve them. Cooperative multitasking using coroutines (in PHP!) 22. December 2012 This post explains how coroutines can be used for task scheduling and handling asynchronous operations in a synchronous-seeming way. Are PHP developers functophobic? 10. August 2012 PHP developers don't seem to like normal functions much. I think that this is related to the one-to-one class to file mapping that PHP has inherited from Java. How to add new (syntactic) features to PHP 27. July 2012 In this post I'm describing how one can add new syntax to PHP. At the same time, this post can be seen as a general introduction to the workings of the Zend Engine. What PHP 5.5 might look like 10. July 2012 PHP 5.5 is still in an early development stage, but there are already many proposals that are being worked on. This post gives some insights into the recent developments. A plea for less (XML) configuration files 09. July 2012 Configuration files typically use XML or some other domain specific language. But why? Why not just use the usual programming language instead? PHP solves problems. Oh, and you can program with it too! 29. June 2012 PHP is a great language to start programming. And once you started, PHP is also good for "real" programming. So what's the problem? The true power of regular expressions 15. June 2012 There is a major misunderstanding about what modern regular expression implementation can or cannot do. This article analyses the situation by walking through the different grammar classes. Understanding PHP's internal array implementation (PHP's Source Code for PHP Developers - Part 4) 28. March 2012 The fourth part of the "PHP's Source Code for PHP Developers" series, covering how arrays are internally implemented in PHP and how they are used in the source code. PHP's Source Code for PHP Developers - Part 3 - Variables 21. March 2012 Cross-link to the third part of the "PHP's Source Code for PHP Developers" series, covering how PHP values are represented internally and used throughout the source code. Understanding PHP's internal function definitions (PHP's Source Code for PHP Developers - Part 2) 16. March 2012 The second part of the "PHP's Source Code for PHP Developers" series, covering how to find functions in the PHP source code and how they are structured. Scalar type hinting is harder than you think 06. March 2012 A quick overview of the different scalar type hinting proposals and why PHP is having such a hard time deciding. Pointer magic for efficient dynamic value representations 02. February 2012 JS implementations use some neat tricks to achieve good performance. One of those tricks is a good bit of pointer magic to make dynamically typed values more efficient. htmlspecialchars() improvements in PHP 5.4 28. January 2012 There is some nice new stuff for htmlspecialchars() in PHP 5.4, which hasn't yet got the attention it deserves. Careful: XDebug can skew your performance numbers 19. January 2012 In some cases XDebug can significantly skew your benchmarking and profiling numbers. So make sure that you do measurements without it. Disproving the Single Quotes Performance Myth 09. January 2012 One of the oldest myths around PHP is that single quotes are faster than double quotes. And. It. Is. Not. True. Supercolliding a PHP array 28. December 2011 Inserting 65536 specially crafted values into a PHP array can take 30 seconds, whereas normally it would only take 0.01 seconds. Don't be STUPID: GRASP SOLID! 27. December 2011 Introducing STUPID: Singleton, Tight Coupling, Untestability, Premature Optimization, Indescriptive Naming, Duplication. How big are PHP arrays (and values) really? (Hint: BIG!) 12. December 2011 PHP's memory usage might seem atrocious to some - twenty times more than the optimum you would have in C. This post tries to explain those numbers and why they are necessary. PCRE and newlines 10. December 2011 There is a huge number of newline related features in PCRE (regular expressions) that nearly nobody knows about. I want to shed light on some of those. Manually installing PEAR on Windows 03. December 2011 If you ever tried to install PEAR on Windows you probably know what a woeful task it is. This is a short instruction on how to manually install PEAR (without using go-pear.phar). PHP internals: When does foreach copy? 11. November 2011 PHP's foreach language construct sometimes copies the array it iterates and sometimes does not. This post analyzes when and why this happens. Improving lexing performance in PHP 23. October 2011 Some thoughts on improving lexing performance in PHP by compiling the individual token regexes into one big super-regex. | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
https://blog.python.org | Python Insider Python core development news and information. Tuesday, December 16, 2025 Python 3.15.0 alpha 3 This is an early developer preview of Python 3.15 www.python.org/downloads/release/python-3150a3/ Major new features of the 3.15 series, compared to 3.14 Python 3.15 is still in development. This release, 3.15.0a3, is the third of seven planned alpha releases. Alpha releases are intended to make it easier to test the current state of new features and bug fixes and to test the release process. During the alpha phase, features may be added up until the start of the beta phase (2026-05-05) and, if necessary, may be modified or deleted up until the release candidate phase (2026-07-28). Please keep in mind that this is a preview release and its use is not recommended for production environments. Many new features for Python 3.15 are still being planned and written. Among the new major new features and changes so far: PEP 799 : A new high-frequency, low-overhead, statistical sampling profiler and dedicated profiling package PEP 686 : Python now uses UTF-8 as the default encoding PEP 782 : A new PyBytesWriter C API to create a Python bytes object Improved error messages (Hey, fellow core developer, if a feature you find important is missing from this list, let Hugo know.) The next pre-release of Python 3.15 will be 3.15.0a4, currently scheduled for 2026-01-13. More resources Online documentation PEP 790 , 3.15 release schedule Report bugs at https://github.com/python/cpython/issues Help fund Python directly (or via GitHub Sponsors ) and support the Python community And now for something completely different Instantly the captain ran forward, and in a loud voice commanded his crew to desist from hoisting the cutting-tackles, and at once cast loose the cables and chains confining the whales to the ship. “What now?” said the Guernsey-man, when the Captain had returned to them. “Why, let me see; yes, you may as well tell him now that—that—in fact, tell him I’ve diddled him, and (aside to himself) perhaps somebody else.” Enjoy the new release Thanks to all of the many volunteers who help make Python Development and these releases possible! Please consider supporting our efforts by volunteering yourself or through organisation contributions to the Python Software Foundation . Regards from an even deeper darker Helsinki, Your release team, Hugo van Kemenade Ned Deily Steve Dower Łukasz Langa Posted by Hugo at 9:44 AM Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Labels: releases Friday, December 5, 2025 Python 3.14.2 and 3.13.11 are now available! Two more, just three days after the last? Yes! We found some regressions, so here’s an expedited pair of releases. They also come with some bonus security fixes. Python 3.14.2 www.python.org/downloads/release/python-3142/ Python 3.14.2 is the second maintenance release of 3.14, containing 18 bugfixes, build improvements and documentation changes since 3.14.1. This is an expedited release to fix the following regressions: gh-142206 : Exceptions in multiprocessing in running programs while upgrading Python. gh-142214 : Exceptions in dataclasses without __init__ method. gh-142218 : Segmentation faults and assertion failures in insertdict. gh-140797 : Crash when using multiple capturing groups in re.Scanner And these security fixes: gh-142145 : Remove quadratic behavior in node ID cache clearing ( CVE-2025-12084 ) gh-119452 : Fix a potential virtual memory allocation denial of service in http.server See the full changelog . Python 3.13.11 www.python.org/downloads/release/python-31311/ Python 3.13.11 is the eleventh maintenance release of 3.13. This is an expedited release to fix the following regressions: gh-142206 : Exceptions in multiprocessing in running programs while upgrading Python. gh-142218 : Segmentation faults and assertion failures in insertdict. gh-140797 : Crash when using multiple capturing groups in re.Scanner And these security fixes: gh-142145 : Remove quadratic behavior in node ID cache clearing ( CVE-2025-12084 ) gh-119451 : Fix a potential denial of service in http.client gh-119452 : Fix a potential virtual memory allocation denial of service in http.server See the full changelog . Enjoy the new release Thanks to all of the many volunteers who help make Python Development and these releases possible! Please consider supporting our efforts by volunteering yourself or through organisation contributions to the Python Software Foundation . Regards from deeper darker Helsinki, Your release team, Hugo van Kemenade Thomas Wouters Ned Deily Steve Dower Łukasz Langa Posted by Hugo at 4:29 PM Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Labels: releases Tuesday, December 2, 2025 Python 3.13.10 is now available, too, you know! The latest version of Python 3.13 is now available! Python 3.13.10 https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-31310/ This is the tenth maintenance release of Python 3.13 Python 3.13.10 is the tenth maintenance release of 3.13, containing around 300 bugfixes, build improvements and documentation changes since 3.13.9. Full Changelog More resources Online Documentation PEP 719 , 3.13 Release Schedule Report bugs at https://github.com/python/cpython/issues . Help fund Python directly (or via GitHub Sponsors ), and support the Python community . Enjoy the new releases Thanks to all of the many volunteers who help make Python Development and these releases possible! Please consider supporting our efforts by volunteering yourself or through organization contributions to the Python Software Foundation. Regards from your package managers, Thomas Wouters Ned Deily Steve Dower Łukasz Langa Posted by Thomas Wouters at 1:50 PM Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Labels: releases Python 3.14.1 is now available! This is first maintenance release of Python 3.14 Python 3.14.1 is the first maintenance release of 3.14, containing around 558 bugfixes, build improvements and documentation changes since 3.14.0. Major new features of the 3.14 series, compared to 3.13 Some of the major new features and changes in Python 3.14 are: New features PEP 779 : Free-threaded Python is officially supported PEP 649 : The evaluation of annotations is now deferred, improving the semantics of using annotations. PEP 750 : Template string literals (t-strings) for custom string processing, using the familiar syntax of f-strings. PEP 734 : Multiple interpreters in the stdlib. PEP 784 : A new module compression.zstd providing support for the Zstandard compression algorithm. PEP 758 : except and except* expressions may now omit the brackets. Syntax highlighting in PyREPL , and support for color in unittest , argparse , json and calendar CLIs. PEP 768 : A zero-overhead external debugger interface for CPython. UUID versions 6-8 are now supported by the uuid module, and generation of versions 3-5 are up to 40% faster. PEP 765 : Disallow return / break / continue that exit a finally block. PEP 741 : An improved C API for configuring Python. A new type of interpreter . For certain newer compilers, this interpreter provides significantly better performance. Opt-in for now, requires building from source. Improved error messages. Builtin implementation of HMAC with formally verified code from the HACL* project. A new command-line interface to inspect running Python processes using asynchronous tasks. The pdb module now supports remote attaching to a running Python process . For more details on the changes to Python 3.14, see What’s new in Python 3.14 . Build changes PEP 761 : Python 3.14 and onwards no longer provides PGP signatures for release artifacts. Instead, Sigstore is recommended for verifiers. Official macOS and Windows release binaries include an experimental JIT compiler . Official Android binary releases are now available. Incompatible changes, removals and new deprecations Incompatible changes Python removals and deprecations C API removals and deprecations Overview of all pending deprecations Python install manager The installer we offer for Windows is being replaced by our new install manager, which can be installed from the Windows Store or from its download page . See our documentation for more information. The JSON file available for download contains the list of all the installable packages available as part of this release, including file URLs and hashes, but is not required to install the latest release. The traditional installer will remain available throughout the 3.14 and 3.15 releases. More resources Online documentation PEP 745 , 3.14 Release Schedule Report bugs at github.com/python/cpython/issues Help fund Python directly (or via GitHub Sponsors ) and support the Python community And now for something completely different Seki Takakazu (関 孝和; c. March 1642 – December 5, 1708) was a Japanese mathematician and samurai who laid the foundations of Japanese mathematics, later known as wasan (和算, from wa (“Japanese”) and san (“calculation”). Seki was a contemporary of Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz but worked independently. He created a new algebraic system, worked on infinitesimal calculus, and is credited with the discovery of Bernoulli numbers (before Bernoulli’s birth). Seki also calculated π to 11 decimal places using a polygon with 131,072 sides inscribed within a circle, using an acceleration method now known as Aitken’s delta-squared process, which was rediscovered by Alexander Aitken in 1926. Enjoy the new release Thanks to all of the many volunteers who help make Python Development and these releases possible! Please consider supporting our efforts by volunteering yourself or through organisation contributions to the Python Software Foundation . Regards from deepest darkest Helsinki, Your release team, Hugo van Kemenade Ned Deily Steve Dower Łukasz Langa Posted by Hugo at 11:43 AM Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Labels: releases Wednesday, November 19, 2025 Python 3.15.0 alpha 2 This is an early developer preview of Python 3.15 https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-3150a2/ Major new features of the 3.15 series, compared to 3.14 Python 3.15 is still in development. This release, 3.15.0a2, is the second of seven planned alpha releases. Alpha releases are intended to make it easier to test the current state of new features and bug fixes and to test the release process. During the alpha phase, features may be added up until the start of the beta phase (2026-05-05) and, if necessary, may be modified or deleted up until the release candidate phase (2026-07-28). Please keep in mind that this is a preview release and its use is not recommended for production environments. Many new features for Python 3.15 are still being planned and written. Among the new major new features and changes so far: PEP 799 : A new high-frequency, low-overhead, statistical sampling profiler and dedicated profiling package PEP 686 : Python now uses UTF-8 as the default encoding PEP 782 : A new PyBytesWriter C API to create a Python bytes object Improved error messages (Hey, fellow core developer, if a feature you find important is missing from this list, let Hugo know.) The next pre-release of Python 3.15 will be 3.15.0a3, currently scheduled for 2025-12-16. More resources Online documentation PEP 790 , 3.15 release schedule Report bugs at https://github.com/python/cpython/issues Help fund Python directly (or via GitHub Sponsors ) and support the Python community And now for something completely different “An hour,” said Ahab, standing rooted in his boat’s stern; and he gazed beyond the whale’s place, towards the dim blue spaces and wide wooing vacancies to leeward. It was only an instant; for again his eyes seemed whirling round in his head as he swept the watery circle. The breeze now freshened; the sea began to swell. “The birds!—the birds!” cried Tashtego. Enjoy the new release Thanks to all of the many volunteers who help make Python Development and these releases possible! Please consider supporting our efforts by volunteering yourself or through organisation contributions to the Python Software Foundation . Regards from a crisp and sunny subzero Helsinki, Your release team, Hugo van Kemenade Ned Deily Steve Dower Łukasz Langa Posted by Hugo at 4:56 AM Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Labels: releases Wednesday, October 15, 2025 Python 3.15.0 alpha 1 This is an early developer preview of Python 3.15 https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-3150a1/ Major new features of the 3.15 series, compared to 3.14 Python 3.15 is still in development. This release, 3.15.0a1, is the first of seven planned alpha releases. Alpha releases are intended to make it easier to test the current state of new features and bug fixes and to test the release process. During the alpha phase, features may be added up until the start of the beta phase (2026-05-05) and, if necessary, may be modified or deleted up until the release candidate phase (2026-07-28). Please keep in mind that this is a preview release and its use is not recommended for production environments. Many new features for Python 3.15 are still being planned and written. Among the new major new features and changes so far: PEP 799 : A dedicated profiling package for Python profiling tools PEP 686 : Python now uses UTF-8 as the default encoding PEP 782 : A new PyBytesWriter C API to create a Python bytes object Improved error messages (Hey, fellow core developer, if a feature you find important is missing from this list, let Hugo know.) The next pre-release of Python 3.15 will be 3.15.0a2, currently scheduled for 2025-11-18. More resources Online documentation PEP 790 , 3.15 Release Schedule Report bugs at https://github.com/python/cpython/issues Help fund Python directly (or via GitHub Sponsors ) and support the Python community And now for something completely different And hence not only at substantiated times, upon well known separate feeding-grounds, could Ahab hope to encounter his prey; but in crossing the widest expanses of water between those grounds he could, by his art, so place and time himself on his way, as even then not to be wholly without prospect of a meeting. Enjoy the new release Thanks to all of the many volunteers who help make Python Development and these releases possible! Please consider supporting our efforts by volunteering yourself or through organisation contributions to the Python Software Foundation . Regards from Helsinki before the first PyCon Finland in 9 years, Your release team, Hugo van Kemenade Ned Deily Steve Dower Łukasz Langa Posted by Hugo at 2:13 AM Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Labels: releases Tuesday, October 14, 2025 Python 3.13.9 is now available! Python 3.13.9 https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-3139/ 3.13.9 is an expedited release containing a fix for one specific regression in Python 3.13.8: gh-139783 : Fix inspect.getsourcelines for the case when a decorator is followed by a comment or an empty line. There are no other changes in this release, compared to 3.13.8. More resources 3.13 online documentation PEP 745 , 3.13 release schedule Report bugs at github.com/python/cpython/issues Help fund Python and its community Enjoy the new releases Thanks to all of the many volunteers who help make Python Development and this release possible! Please consider supporting our efforts by volunteering yourself or through organisation contributions to the Python Software Foundation . Your expedited release team, Your release team, Thomas Wouters Ned Deily Steve Dower Łukasz Langa Posted by Thomas Wouters at 3:07 PM Email This BlogThis! Share to X Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest Labels: releases Older Posts Home Subscribe to: Comments (Atom) Subscribe Subscribe to Python Insider via RSS , or Twitter Related Links python.org Python-Dev mailing list Python Developer's Guide Translations Chinese (Simplified) Chinese (Traditional) French German Japanese Korean Portuguese Romanian Russian Spanish Python-Dev Blogs Eli Bendersky Summary of reading: October - December 2025 1 week ago PyPy Status Blog HPy kick-off sprint report 6 years ago Pumpichank Creating Python Snaps 10 years ago Tim Golden London Python Dojo December 2014 11 years ago R. 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Right menu I Fired the "One-Click" AI Builders: How I Built a React Portfolio with Gemini (Without Knowing React) Aaditya Thakur Aaditya Thakur Aaditya Thakur Follow Jan 13 I Fired the "One-Click" AI Builders: How I Built a React Portfolio with Gemini (Without Knowing React) # ai # webdev # career # beginners Comments Add Comment 3 min read PLI 7.10 - Bypassing AI Knowledge Cutoffs with Auto-Data Synthesis seridarivus 13 seridarivus 13 seridarivus 13 Follow Jan 10 PLI 7.10 - Bypassing AI Knowledge Cutoffs with Auto-Data Synthesis # ai # devops # api # tdd 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 1 min read Vibecoding as a Legitimate Way to Bring Ideas to Life Jaclyn McMillan Jaclyn McMillan Jaclyn McMillan Follow Jan 10 Vibecoding as a Legitimate Way to Bring Ideas to Life # ai # vibecoding # chatgpt # vscode Comments Add Comment 3 min read 20 Plus AI Coding Tools for Dev Workflows in 2026 Devin Rosario Devin Rosario Devin Rosario Follow Jan 7 20 Plus AI Coding Tools for Dev Workflows in 2026 # ai # devops # opensource # programming Comments Add Comment 6 min read 🚀 I shipped 47 features in ONE WEEK with Claude and it was INSANE 🔥 Niclas Olofsson Niclas Olofsson Niclas Olofsson Follow Jan 5 🚀 I shipped 47 features in ONE WEEK with Claude and it was INSANE 🔥 # vibecoding # ai # claudecode # programming 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Help Us Understand How LLM Hallucinations Impact Their Use in Software Development! 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Memory in claude CLI /memory: Finally Context That Survives! Launch Your First AWS AI App Code Free In 7 Steps I’m Not Technical But I’m Rebuilding Random Video Chat by Fixing the Parts Code Never Touched 🌟 SaijinOS Part 16 — Unified Persona Kernel Architecture (Silent-Civ Integration) MCP servers I use for vibecoding in my daily life Puzzleet: When Algorithms Meet Play A Day in the Life of a Marketing Manager Using Microsoft Planner Vibe coded free SEO long-tail keyword research tool in 5hrs with Google AI Studio Help Me Build the Future: Test My AI Developer Kit (Free Product Inside) The State of Vibe Coding 2026: Blueprint for Founders GhostFrame — How Kiro Helped Me Build Faster, Learn Faster, and Think Like a Real Engineer Vibe Coding Isn’t Dumb — You’re Just Overthinking It (Especially With Tools Like ToolJet & Lovabl... 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Career Follow Hide This tag is for anything relating to careers! Job offers, workplace conflict, interviews, resumes, promotions, etc. Create Post submission guidelines All articles and discussions should relate to careers in some way. Pretty much everything on dev.to is about our careers in some way. Ideally, though, keep the tag related to getting, leaving, or maintaining a career or job. about #career A career is the field in which you work, while a job is a position held in that field. Related tags include #resume and #portfolio as resources to enhance your #career Older #career posts 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Build Once, Reuse Forever: Why Developers Need Customizable Tools & Templates for Faster, Smarter Projects Abxe.h Abxe.h Abxe.h Follow Dec 18 '25 Build Once, Reuse Forever: Why Developers Need Customizable Tools & Templates for Faster, Smarter Projects # discuss # webdev # productivity # career 1 reaction Comments 2 comments 2 min read Stop Setting Goals, Start Tracking Wins Natália Spencer Natália Spencer Natália Spencer Follow Jan 5 Stop Setting Goals, Start Tracking Wins # career # motivation # productivity # developer 8 reactions Comments 1 comment 6 min read Advice to Junior–Mid Level Engineers: Reality of the Job Market Today Olawale Afuye Olawale Afuye Olawale Afuye Follow Jan 6 Advice to Junior–Mid Level Engineers: Reality of the Job Market Today # discuss # career # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 2 min read Shipping Meaningful Open Source Work Aubrey D Aubrey D Aubrey D Follow Dec 12 '25 Shipping Meaningful Open Source Work # opensource # career # api # python Comments Add Comment 3 min read Experience Matters: Job Search Tips and Strategies for Overcoming Ageism Michael J. 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https://future.forem.com/om_shree_0709/i-almost-fell-for-a-last-wish-scam-heres-what-you-need-to-know-4g4i#unmasking-the-scam-a-common-fraudulent-tactic | I Almost Fell for a “Last Wish” Scam : Here’s What You Need to Know - Future Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Future Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Om Shree Posted on Jan 12 • Originally published at Medium I Almost Fell for a “Last Wish” Scam : Here’s What You Need to Know # discuss # scam # security # privacy Recently, I received an unsolicited email that initially seemed like a heartfelt plea for help but quickly revealed itself as a classic scam. By sharing my experience, I hope to educate others on recognizing and avoiding these deceptive schemes, which have trapped countless victims worldwide. The Email That Started It All " A few days ago, I received an email from someone named Lucía Martina, claiming to be a 58-year-old woman from New Zealand battling terminal breast cancer. She wrote from a Gmail address ( luciamartina757@gmail.com ), introducing herself with a polite inquiry: "How are you doing? I have something to discuss with you." Nothing unusual. So I replied politely. Curious, I responded briefly, asking for more details. Her reply painted a tragic picture: orphaned and raised in a motherless babies' home, married for 20 years to her late husband Alexandra Paul (supposedly a U.S. Embassy worker in Washington, D.C., who died in a 2017 car accident), and childless. She claimed to have sold all her belongings after his death, depositing $4.3 million into a "non-residential" bank account. Now, confined to a hospital bed in London, unable to speak, and given only two months to live, she sought a "God-fearing" partner to donate at least 60% of the funds to charities or orphanages. In exchange, she promised I wouldn't regret it if my "heart is pure and sincere," and she'd provide bank details upon my agreement. Emotional Hooks and Red Flags The email tugged at the heartstrings. References to faith, charity, and impending death are designed to evoke sympathy. But I saw some red flags: grammatical errors, inconsistent details (e.g., a New Zealander in a London hospital with U.S. ties), and the unsolicited nature of the contact. It felt too scripted and just too urgent. Unmasking the Scam: A Common Fraudulent Tactic Upon reflection and research, this email matches the blueprint of an "Advance-fee fraud" or "419 scam" (named after the Nigerian criminal code section often associated with it, though perpetrators operate globally). In this variant, known as the "dying widow" or "inheritance scam," the sender poses as a terminally ill person (often a widow with cancer) offering a fortune in exchange for help distributing it to charities. The goal? To lure victims into providing personal information, paying "fees" for transfers, or even traveling abroad, only to be fleeced. Similar scams have been documented extensively. For instance, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and Interpol report thousands of such cases annually, with variations involving names like "Mrs. Mary Williams" or "Dr. John Smith." In my case, searches for "Lucia Martina inheritance scam" reveal identical emails circulating since at least 2020, often with the same backstory but slight tweaks to names or amounts. Cybersecurity firms like Kaspersky and Norton have flagged these as phishing attempts, where the next steps typically involve requests for bank details, "processing fees," or legal documents, leading to identity theft or financial loss. According to the FTC's 2023 Consumer Sentinel Network report, advance-fee scams cost Americans over $300 million that year alone, with global figures likely in the billions. Victims are often empathetic individuals, targeted via harvested email lists from data breaches or public directories. The emotional manipulation: appeals to religion, charity, and urgency, makes it particularly insidious. Red Flags to Watch For If you've received a similar email, here are key warning signs I noticed: Unsolicited Contact: Legitimate opportunities don't arrive out of the blue via email from strangers. Emotional Manipulation: Stories of terminal illness, orphanhood, or faith-based pleas are common hooks to bypass skepticism. Promises of Easy Money: Offers of millions for minimal effort, especially tied to "last wishes," scream fraud. Grammatical Errors and Inconsistencies: Poor English, mismatched details (e.g., a New Zealand resident with U.S. embassy ties in London), and generic phrasing. Urgency and Secrecy: Pressure to act quickly, often with claims of limited time due to health. Requests for Personal Info: They'll eventually ask for bank details, IDs, or fees, never share these. In my interaction, the sender's insistence on my "pure heart" and quick response was a telltale sign. Fortunately, I didn't proceed further. How to Protect Yourself and Report Scams Knowledge is your best defense. Here's what experts recommend: Verify Claims Use search engines to check names, stories, or email addresses. Tools like ScamAdviser or WhoIs can reveal fake domains. Don't Engage Reply only if necessary, but avoid sharing details. Mark as spam and delete. Report It In India, file a complaint via the National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (cybercrime.gov.in) or your email provider. Globally, inform the FTC (reportfraud.ftc.gov) or IC3 (ic3.gov). Educate Others Share experiences on forums like Reddit's r/Scams or social media, but anonymize sensitive info. Use Security Tools Enable two-factor authentication, use antivirus software, and be wary of attachments. If you've fallen victim, contact your bank immediately and report to authorities, recovery is possible in some cases. Final Thoughts: Turning Awareness into Action My brush with this scam was a stark reminder that compassion can be weaponized. While I emerged unscathed, many aren't so lucky, losing savings or suffering emotional distress. By exposing these tactics, we can collectively dismantle them. If this article resonates, share it widely, let's make the internet a safer space for genuine connections, not exploitation. Remember, if it sounds too good (or too tragic) to be true, it probably is. Stay vigilant. This article is based on personal experience and publicly available scam reports as of January 2026. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Om Shree Follow Technical Evangelist | AI Researcher | Simplifying Complex AI & Agent Workflows for Developers Location India Education Jaypee University Of Information Technology Pronouns He/Him Work Founder of Shreesozo Joined Feb 27, 2025 More from Om Shree Tech Pulse – Weekly Tech Digest January 11, 2026 # ai # blockchain # security # science Tech Pulse: Wrapping 2025, Igniting 2026 # discuss # ai # security # science 📰 Tech Takes: A Whirlwind Day in Innovation on November 20, 2025 # ai # security # blockchain # discuss 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Future — News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. 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Right menu GTK4 DropDown with .NET Kashif Soofi Kashif Soofi Kashif Soofi Follow Jan 8 GTK4 DropDown with .NET # dotnet # tutorial # ui Comments Add Comment 5 min read The Command Pattern Simplified: How Modern Java (21–25) Makes It Elegant Jitin Jitin Jitin Follow Jan 8 The Command Pattern Simplified: How Modern Java (21–25) Makes It Elegant # architecture # java # tutorial Comments Add Comment 7 min read Build an Engagement Rate Calculator That Actually Works Olamide Olaniyan Olamide Olaniyan Olamide Olaniyan Follow Jan 8 Build an Engagement Rate Calculator That Actually Works # webdev # programming # ai # tutorial Comments Add Comment 8 min read Understanding if, elif, and else in Python with Simple Examples Shahrouz Nikseresht Shahrouz Nikseresht Shahrouz Nikseresht Follow Jan 8 Understanding if, elif, and else in Python with Simple Examples # python # beginners # tutorial # programming Comments Add Comment 2 min read Building a QR Code Generator: Dynamic vs Static Architecture Timo Timo Timo Follow Jan 8 Building a QR Code Generator: Dynamic vs Static Architecture # webdev # javascript # tutorial # qrcode Comments Add Comment 2 min read Day 12: Understanding Constructors in Java Karthick Narayanan Karthick Narayanan Karthick Narayanan Follow Jan 8 Day 12: Understanding Constructors in Java # java # programming # beginners # tutorial Comments Add Comment 2 min read Day 11: Understanding `break` and `continue` Statements in Java Karthick Narayanan Karthick Narayanan Karthick Narayanan Follow Jan 8 Day 11: Understanding `break` and `continue` Statements in Java # beginners # java # programming # tutorial Comments Add Comment 2 min read Building Persistent Memory for Voice AI Agents with MongoDB Pash10g Pash10g Pash10g Follow for MongoDB Jan 8 Building Persistent Memory for Voice AI Agents with MongoDB # agents # ai # mongodb # tutorial Comments Add Comment 8 min read You Don’t Need More Tutorials, You Need Better Problems Shamim Ali Shamim Ali Shamim Ali Follow Jan 9 You Don’t Need More Tutorials, You Need Better Problems # programming # workplace # tutorial # webdev Comments 1 comment 1 min read I Thought Creating My Browser Extension Course Would Take a Weekend. 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It Took 4 Months # extensions # webdev # tutorial Comments Add Comment 4 min read Creating a Node.js API with Express (Students Example) Boutheina Remadi Boutheina Remadi Boutheina Remadi Follow Jan 8 Creating a Node.js API with Express (Students Example) # api # javascript # node # tutorial 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read SecurePass Desktop: A Privacy-First Offline Password Generator with Python & Tkinter 🛡️ Mate Technologies Mate Technologies Mate Technologies Follow Jan 8 SecurePass Desktop: A Privacy-First Offline Password Generator with Python & Tkinter 🛡️ # python # securepass # opensource # tutorial Comments Add Comment 6 min read Modernizing Legacy ERP Systems with Machine Learning: A Practical Implementation Guide Genco Divrikli Genco Divrikli Genco Divrikli Follow Jan 8 Modernizing Legacy ERP Systems with Machine Learning: A Practical Implementation Guide # architecture # machinelearning # tutorial Comments Add Comment 4 min read Why Markdown Is The Secret To Better AI Karishma Shukla Karishma Shukla Karishma Shukla Follow Jan 8 Why Markdown Is The Secret To Better AI # webdev # ai # tutorial # programming 6 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Solved: Why do project-management refugees think a weekend AWS course makes them engineers? Darian Vance Darian Vance Darian Vance Follow Jan 8 Solved: Why do project-management refugees think a weekend AWS course makes them engineers? # devops # programming # tutorial # cloud Comments Add Comment 7 min read Trigger Logic Causing Recursive Updates or Data Duplication Selavina B Selavina B Selavina B Follow Jan 8 Trigger Logic Causing Recursive Updates or Data Duplication # architecture # backend # codequality # tutorial Comments Add Comment 3 min read Course Launch: Writing Is an Important Part of Coding Prasoon Jadon Prasoon Jadon Prasoon Jadon Follow Jan 8 Course Launch: Writing Is an Important Part of Coding # programming # learning # tutorial # beginners 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read Best Practices for Training LoRA Models with Z-Image: Complete 2026 Guide Garyvov Garyvov Garyvov Follow Jan 8 Best Practices for Training LoRA Models with Z-Image: Complete 2026 Guide # ai # deeplearning # tutorial Comments Add Comment 6 min read How My Company Automate Meeting Notes to Jira A.I. 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Follow Jan 8 How My Company Automate Meeting Notes to Jira # ai # webdev # tutorial # productivity 1 reaction Comments 1 comment 3 min read Building a Centralized Keyboard Shortcut System in React: A Priority-Based Approach Hasnaat Iftikhar Hasnaat Iftikhar Hasnaat Iftikhar Follow Jan 6 Building a Centralized Keyboard Shortcut System in React: A Priority-Based Approach # react # typescript # webdev # tutorial Comments Add Comment 17 min read Working with Categorical Data in R: Creating Frequency Tables as Data Frames (Modern Approaches) Anshuman Anshuman Anshuman Follow Jan 8 Working with Categorical Data in R: Creating Frequency Tables as Data Frames (Modern Approaches) # programming # ai # javascript # tutorial Comments Add Comment 4 min read Clone Graph: Coding Problem Solution Explained Stack Overflowed Stack Overflowed Stack Overflowed Follow Jan 8 Clone Graph: Coding Problem Solution Explained # programming # coding # tutorial # learning Comments Add Comment 4 min read LLM Data Leaks: Exposing Hidden Risks in ETL/ELT Pipelines Malik Abualzait Malik Abualzait Malik Abualzait Follow Jan 8 LLM Data Leaks: Exposing Hidden Risks in ETL/ELT Pipelines # ai # tech # programming # tutorial Comments Add Comment 4 min read Sliding window (Fixed length) Jayaprasanna Roddam Jayaprasanna Roddam Jayaprasanna Roddam Follow Jan 6 Sliding window (Fixed length) # programming # beginners # tutorial # learning Comments Add Comment 2 min read 港美主流期货 API 接入全指南：TradingView 看盘策略 San Si wu San Si wu San Si wu Follow Jan 8 港美主流期货 API 接入全指南：TradingView 看盘策略 # tutorial # python # api # github Comments Add Comment 3 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://opensource.org/maintainers | Maintainers – Open Source Initiative Skip to content Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Open Main Menu Home Maintainers Supporting maintainers and protecting the Open Source ecosystem Download the book How the OSI supports maintainers OSI Approved Licenses We provide a venue for the community to discuss Open Source licenses and we maintain the OSI Approved Licenses database. Policy & Standards We defend maintainers by educating legislators and policy makers about the Open Source ecosystem, its role in innovation and its value for an open future. We have engaged with NTIA, CISA, and policy makers of the EU Cyber Resilience Act, the EU AI Act, and the US Securing Open Source Software Act. Advocacy & Research We lead global conversations with maintainers, developers, non-profits, and lawyers to improve the understanding of Open Source. OSI investigates the impacts of ongoing debates from artificial intelligence to security. Join OSI and help maintainers too The generous contributions of people like you are the driving force behind OSI’s initiatives. Every dollar you donate directly supports our efforts to strengthen the OSI and protect the Open Source ecosystem. Join OSI Download the book Get involved Mastodon Twitter LinkedIn Reddit About About Our team Board of directors Sponsors Programs Blog Press mentions Trademark Bylaws Licenses Open Source Definition Licenses License Review Process Open Standards Requirement for Software Open Source AI Open Source AI OSAI Definition Process Timeline Open Weights FAQ Checklist Forum Community Become an Individual Member Become an OSI Affiliate Affiliate Organizations Maintainers Events Forum OpenSource.net The content on this website, of which Opensource.org is the author, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . Opensource.org is not the author of any of the licenses reproduced on this site. Questions about the copyright in a license should be directed to the license steward. Read our Privacy Policy Proudly powered by WordPress. Hosted by Pressable. Manage Cookie Consent To provide the best experiences, we use technologies like cookies to store and/or access device information. Consenting to these technologies will allow us to process data such as browsing behavior or unique IDs on this site. Not consenting or withdrawing consent, may adversely affect certain features and functions. Functional Functional Always active The technical storage or access is strictly necessary for the legitimate purpose of enabling the use of a specific service explicitly requested by the subscriber or user, or for the sole purpose of carrying out the transmission of a communication over an electronic communications network. Preferences Preferences The technical storage or access is necessary for the legitimate purpose of storing preferences that are not requested by the subscriber or user. Statistics Statistics The technical storage or access that is used exclusively for statistical purposes. The technical storage or access that is used exclusively for anonymous statistical purposes. Without a subpoena, voluntary compliance on the part of your Internet Service Provider, or additional records from a third party, information stored or retrieved for this purpose alone cannot usually be used to identify you. Marketing Marketing The technical storage or access is required to create user profiles to send advertising, or to track the user on a website or across several websites for similar marketing purposes. Manage options Manage services Manage {vendor_count} vendors Read more about these purposes Accept Deny View preferences Save preferences View preferences {title} {title} {title} Manage consent | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
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https://opensource.org/blog/open-source-without-borders-reflections-from-coscon25 | Open Source Without Borders: Reflections from COSCon’25 – Open Source Initiative Skip to content Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Open Main Menu December 10, 2025 Events Nick Vidal Open Source Without Borders: Reflections from COSCon’25 Last week, I had the honor of delivering the opening keynote at the China Open Source Conference (COSCon’25) in Beijing, as Kaiyuanshe celebrated its 10th anniversary. Standing before a community that this year is witnessing a “Deepseek moment” driven by open innovation was both humbling and inspiring. The conference offered rich opportunities for engagement: from a panel discussion about “AI as a Global Digital Public Good” to a meeting with the Kaiyuanshe Advisory Committee exploring opportunities for global collaboration. I also enjoyed meeting with many members of the community at the hallway track and at the amazing fair. Challenges and Opportunities My keynote, “ Open Source Without Borders: The OSI and Kaiyuanshe Journey and the Road Ahead ,” traced the interconnected histories of the Free Software and Open Source movements that emerged in response to a fundamental challenge developers were facing at the time: restrictions and constraints imposed by proprietary software. Those early fights for freedom laid the foundation for today’s global, collaborative ecosystem. As we stand at the crossroads of emerging challenges, from AI to cybersecurity and digital sovereignty, the role of Open Source and the fight for freedom have never been more critical. Throughout my presentation, I emphasized how the OSI continues to anchor community consensus on what constitutes Open Source, protect the principles and communities that depend on them, and lead global conversations about the future of our ecosystem. I shared OSI’s work across three pillars: License & Legal (maintaining the OSI Approved Licenses database), Policy & Standards (including the Open Policy Alliance), and Advocacy & Research (e.g. our participation at events like the Open Source Congress and the DPGA’s Annual Members Meeting). One of the highlights of the keynote was the presentation of the Open Source AI Definition , being developed as a co-design process in which global experts establish a shared set of principles that can recreate the permissionless, pragmatic and simplified collaboration for AI practitioners. An Open Source AI system must grant the freedoms to use, study, modify, and share, supported by access to data information, code, and parameters. I also highlighted the data governance challenges we face in Open Source AI: Openness, fair use, copyright and community compensation Bias, diversity and real-world harms Transparency, privacy and security tradeoffs Interoperability and technical barriers AI’s environmental and climate impact Cross-border collaboration amid geopolitics Policies that ensure auditability and public trust But challenges present opportunities. The timing felt particularly significant: China’s “Deepseek moment” is a powerful demonstration of how the hacker mindset and the collaborative nature is helping the global AI community to overcome many of the challenges shared above. I concluded my keynote with a poem inspired by an ancient Chinese wisdom: “穷则变，变则通，通则久” When circumstances reach a limit, change brings opportunity; with change comes solutions; with solutions comes continuity. Follow the hacker mindset: seek new ways and work in the open; bypass all limits and constraints; build solutions and fix what’s broken. The road ahead is full of obstacles, but every barrier is a doorway. Open Source is the key; let the community light the way. The Road Ahead I’m deeply grateful to Kaiyuanshe for the invitation to join COSCon’25 . A very special thank you to Emily Chen, Nadia Jiang, Richard Lin, the Kaiyuanshe Board, and all the organizers and volunteers who made the event a great success. Witnessing China’s Deepseek moment firsthand and learning about Kaiyuanshe’s dedication for over a decade building and championing China’s Open Source community with such vision and commitment is truly inspiring. The OSI is honored to be walking this road alongside communities like Kaiyuanshe, building Open Source without borders. The future of Open Source will not be defined by the obstacles we face, but by the collective strength we bring to overcoming them. Challenges are simply the gateways to new opportunities. And with communities like Kaiyuanshe, we have every reason to believe that the journey ahead will be one of greater openness, deeper collaboration, and shared triumph. OSI_COSCon Download DPGA’s Annual Members Meeting: Advancing Open Source & DPGs for the Public Good Celebrating Generosity and Growth in the OSI Community Keep up with Open Source Please leave this field empty. Δ We’ll never share your details and you can unsubscribe with a click! Get involved Mastodon Twitter LinkedIn Reddit About About Our team Board of directors Sponsors Programs Blog Press mentions Trademark Bylaws Licenses Open Source Definition Licenses License Review Process Open Standards Requirement for Software Open Source AI Open Source AI OSAI Definition Process Timeline Open Weights FAQ Checklist Forum Community Become an Individual Member Become an OSI Affiliate Affiliate Organizations Maintainers Events Forum OpenSource.net The content on this website, of which Opensource.org is the author, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License . Opensource.org is not the author of any of the licenses reproduced on this site. Questions about the copyright in a license should be directed to the license steward. Read our Privacy Policy Proudly powered by WordPress. Hosted by Pressable. Manage Cookie Consent To provide the best experiences, we use technologies like cookies to store and/or access device information. 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https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide/Programmers | BeginnersGuide/Programmers - Python Wiki Search: BeginnersGuide Programmers Programmers FrontPage RecentChanges FindPage HelpContents Programmers Page Immutable Page Comments Info Attachments More Actions: Raw Text Print View Delete Cache ------------------------ Check Spelling Like Pages Local Site Map ------------------------ Rename Page Delete Page ------------------------ ------------------------ Remove Spam Revert to this revision ------------------------ SlideShow User Login Please Note This is a Wiki page. Users with edit rights can edit it. You are, therefore, encouraged to add details of material that other Python users will find useful. It is not an advertising page and is here to serve the whole Python community. Users who continually edit pages to give their own materials (particularly commercial materials) prominence, or spam the listing with multiple entries which point to resources with only slightly altered material, may subsequently find their editing rights disabled. You have been warned . On a cheerier note - there is a constant stream of new and updated information on Python as the language is exploding in popularity. Only enthusiastic volunteers can keep this page current, so if something helps you, feel free to link it here. If a link doesn't work, remove it unless there's an obvious new location for the same content. Python for Programmers The tutorials on this page aim at people with previous experience with other programming languages (C, Perl, Lisp, Visual Basic, etc.). Also of potential interest are related pages BeginnersGuide/Overview and BeginnersGuide/NonProgrammers (it's not always easy to distinguish "for experienced programmers" and "for first-time programmers" and there's likely some overlap). Also see the tips in MovingToPythonFromOtherLanguages . Books, Websites, Tutorials (non-interactive) Resources A beginner-friendly Python course with interactive, bite-size lessons, and over 100 challenges. A beginner-friendly Python tutorial that starts with the absolute basics but also covers more advanced stuff like Python software deployment. A Byte of Python , by Swaroop C.H. An introductory text for beginners and experienced programmers looking to learn Python. After Hours Programming's Python Introduction A beginners introduction into Python. Awesome Python A curated list of awesome Python frameworks, libraries, software and resources. CheckiO interactive learning resource Creative way to improve Python skills with interesting tasks, it also supports Python 3|2. Classpert - Python - A collection of free and paid Python online courses from a wide range of providers. Codédex - A learn to code platform for K-12 and college students. CodersLegacy A website + blog geared towards both new and experienced programmers. Mainly focused on teaching Python. Dive Into Python 3 by Mark Pilgrim. Effective Python - Paid book by Brett Slatkin; Practical best practices and idiomatic patterns to write cleaner, safer Python. Elements of Python Style This document goes beyond PEP8 to cover the core of what the author thinks of as great Python style. Finxter - Solve Python puzzles and test your Python skill level (beginner to grandmaster level). Full Stack Python Once you know the basics, learn how to build, deploy and operate Python Applications. ItsMyCode A Python Programming Blog which teaches Python basics and helps to solve various issues which developers face in day to day Programming Kaggle Learn Hands-on Python and data skills using real datasets and notebooks. Learn Python Step by Step - Start learning python from the basics to pro-level and attain proficiency. OverIQ Learn Python OverIQ - Site has additional tutorials on Django, Flask, SQLAlchemy and MySQL Connector. An entry-level course to get you started with Python Programming. Learn Python - Tutorial for Beginners A comprehensive Python guide to get started, Python tutorials, and examples for beginners. Free python tips and tutorials Python tips and tutorials for beginners and professional programmers. Intro to Python - A Brief Presentation about Python mainly aimed at experienced programmers. Might be nice as a first pass over the language. Learn Python in 10 minutes Pytest documentation Learn testing, fixtures, and clean API design through practical examples. Python 3 Patterns, Recipes, and Idioms by Bruce Eckel and Friends. Python Cookbook - Paid book by David Beazley & Brian K. Jones Recipe-based solutions to common real-world Python problems. Python Course - This online Python course is aiming at beginners and with advanced topics at experienced programmers as well. Python Koans Learn Python through TDD Python Programming for Beginners A short introduction to writing command-line applications in Python by Jacek Artymiak. PythonSpeed.com Great resource with insightful ways to speed up your Python code Python Essential Reference (book) If you want a highly compressed K&R-style 'just the facts' overview, David Beazley's "Python Essential Reference" covers practically all of the language in about a hundred pages. A version that covers Python 3.7 is in progress. Resources for Learning Python 10 of the most popular / recommended platforms in the World when it comes to learning Python, either as a complete beginner or someone who knows their way around. Python Tutorial This tutorial is part of Python's documentation set and is updated with each new release. Wikiversity:Python The Wiki(anything) information about Python. Python Programming Tutorials Python programming tutorials. Python Tutorials Python in plain English. Learn Python - Programming Made Easy Simplified tutorials for beginners (Learn with relevant examples). Pandas Cookbook A newbie friendly introduction to pandas with real-life examples. Ultimate Python study guide Ultimate Python study guide for newcomers and professionals alike. Learn coding with Python notebooks A place where users can learn lot about Python coding with Python notebooks. Learn Python Programming Easy to understand Python tutorial explained with examples for beginners and professionals alike. Interactive Tools and Lessons Computer Science Circles - University of Waterloo Computer programming online tutor HackInScience - free and open-source Python training website LabEx - Hands-on Labs - Practice Python programming with interactive exercises in a web-based coding environment, offering hands-on labs and real-world scenarios. Learn Python - A no install Python course with interactive exercises powered by Pyodide. Python Tutor - online code visualizer/debugger tool with AI support Thonny - Python IDE for beginners. Has intuitive features for program runtime visualization PyFlo - A free, interactive guide to becoming a Python Programmer learnpy.dev - A kid-oriented, interactive, web-based introduction to coding in Python Python Video Tutorials Python in 4 hours Learn Python - Full Course for Beginners by FreeCodeCamp Intermediate Python in 6 hours - Intermediate Course by FreeCodeCamp MIT OpenCourseWare - Introduction to Computer Science and Programming in Python Khan Academy computer science playlist teaches Python (free, donations requested) Python Exception Handling for beginners - Exception handling with Python. Python Lists and Object Tutorial for Beginners - Sorting Objects with Python. Python OOP Tutorial for Beginners - Getting started with OOP programming with Python. Frank A's Python YouTube chanel - Learn Python Programming (45 videos) Corey Schafer YouTube channel - Python tutorials and other topics like Django, Pandas, Matplotlib, Flask, Tkinter Python video tutorial (commercial/paid) Learn to Code with Python - Introductory Python, also courses on Django, data handling, database connection, and projects like a web crawler or news aggregator. Webucator Python Essentials - also courses in Django, Spark, AI and Data Science, etc. Free Python Courses Free Python 3 email course (almost daily Python lesson + cheat sheets, email required) Other Python Resource Aggregators Learn Python - Best Python Tutorials and Courses Python tutorials & courses recommended by the programming community. Learn Python - Best Python Courses Python tutorials submitted and ranked by Python developers with the best rising to the top Paid Python 3 course (almost daily Python lesson + cheat sheets) CategoryPythonWebsite CategoryCategory CategoryDocumentation BeginnersGuide/Programmers (last edited 2026-01-08 18:28:33 by MatsWichmann ) MoinMoin Powered Python Powered GPL licensed Valid HTML 4.01 Unable to edit the page? See the FrontPage for instructions. | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
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https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide/NonProgrammers | BeginnersGuide/NonProgrammers - Python Wiki Search: BeginnersGuide NonProgrammers NonProgrammers FrontPage RecentChanges FindPage HelpContents NonProgrammers Page Immutable Page Comments Info Attachments More Actions: Raw Text Print View Delete Cache ------------------------ Check Spelling Like Pages Local Site Map ------------------------ Rename Page Delete Page ------------------------ ------------------------ Remove Spam Revert to this revision ------------------------ SlideShow User Login Python for New Programmers If you've never programmed before, the tutorials on this page are recommended for you; they don't assume that you have previous experience. If you have programming experience, also check out the BeginnersGuide/Programmers page. Books Each of these books can be purchased online but is also available as free textual, website, or video content. please keep this list alphabetized Automate the Boring Stuff with Python - Practical Programming for Total Beginners by Al Sweigart is "written for office workers, students, administrators, and anyone who uses a computer to learn how to code small, practical programs to automate tasks on their computer." || website || print version || How To Think Like a Computer Scientist is a classic open-source book by Allen Downey with contributions from Jeffrey Elkner and Chris Meyers . It was updated to Python 3 by Peter Wentworth. || website || print version || Making Games with Python & Pygame by Al Sweigart introduces the Pygame framework for novices and intermediate programmers to make graphical games. || website || print version || Python One-Liners by Christian Mayer teaches you how to read and write "one-liners": concise statements of useful functionality packed into a single line of code. || website with free one-liner explainer videos || print version || Think Python by Allen B. Downey teaches you how to think like a computer scientist. || website || print version || You can find many free Python books online. For example, check out this article with 101 free Python books . Interactive Courses These sites give you instant feedback on programming problems that you can solve in your browser. please keep this list alphabetized A beginner-friendly and free Python tutorial with interactive code examples, explaining the Python language in an easy-to-understand way. A beginner-friendly Python course that teaches to learn to code through bite-size lessons, quizzes and 100+ challenges. A beginner-friendly Python course with exercises covering 100+ key topics, quizzes, and hands-on practice. CheckiO is a gamified website containing programming tasks that can be solved in Python 3. Codédex is a learn to code platform for K-12 and college students. Codecademy ( Python) Code the blocks combines Python programming with a 3D environment where you "place blocks" and construct structures. It also comes with Python tutorials that teach you how to create progressively elaborate 3D structures. Codevisionz Python 10+ hrs of Python learning material - Learn common programming concepts through code examples, quizzes, and challenges Computer Science Circles has 30 lessons, 100 exercises, and a message system where you can ask for help. Teachers can use it with their students. It is also available in Dutch, French, German, and Lithuanian. DataCamp Python Tutorial Unlike most other Python tutorials, this 4 hour tutorial by DataCamp focuses on Python specifically for Data Science. It has 57 interactive exercises and 11 videos. Finxter - How good are your Python skills? Test and Training with >300 hand-picked Python puzzles. HackInScience - 50+ Python exercises on a free, adless, simple, and open-source platform. How to Think Like a Computer Scientist: Interactive Edition is an interactive reimagination of Elkner, Downey and Meyer's book with visualizations and audio explanations. LabEx - Hands-on Labs - Practice Python programming with interactive exercises in a web-based coding environment, offering hands-on labs and real-world scenarios. LearnPython is an interactive Python tutorial that is suitable for absolute beginners. Learn Python - A no install Python course with interactive exercises powered by Pyodide. Resources for Younger Learners (This section was previously called "K-12 Oriented", K-12 being a USA-centric term which refers to the primary and secondary educational stages; through level 3 on the UNESCO ISCED education levels list.) please keep this list alphabetized Guido van Robot A teaching tool in which students write simple programs using a Python-like language to control a simulated robot. Field-tested at Yorktown High School, the project includes a lesson plan. Python for Kids by Jason R Briggs. Book with sample code and puzzles. PythonTurtle A learning environment for Python suitable for beginners and children, inspired by Logo. Geared mainly towards children, but known to be successful with adults as well. Webucator's self-paced Python 3 course free for homeschoolers and other students (use HOMESCHOOL as the coupon code when checking out). This course is appropriate for students 13 and up. From our experience, these students can learn at least as quickly as adults new to programming. Tutorials and Websites please keep this list alphabetized A Byte of Python , by Swaroop C.H., is also an introductory text for people with no previous programming experience. Afternerd , by Karim Elghamrawy, is a Python tutorials blog that is geared towards Python beginners. Ask Python Absolute Beginners Python Tutorial. Hands-on Python Tutorial Beginners' Python, graphics, and simple client/server introduction, with videos. Learning to Program An introduction to programming for those who have never programmed before, by Alan Gauld. It introduces several programming languages but has a strong emphasis on Python. (Python 2 and 3) ItsMyCode A Python Blog and tutorials built for developers who love coding After Hours Programming Python 3 Tutorial Letsfindcourse - Python : Best Python tutorials and courses recommended by experts. The Wikibooks Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python by Josh Cogliati Online Python Courses Compare online Python courses from learning providers from across the UK Learn Python An Introductory yet in-depth tutorial for Python beginners. The Python tips blog includes Python tips and tutorials for beginners and professional programmers. Python Tutorial in Python's documentation set . It's not written with non-programmers in mind, but it will give you an idea of the language's flavor and style. The Python-Course.eu's extensive tutorial for complete beginners , with lots of illustrations. Pythonspot Tutorials Python tutorials. The Python Guru A beginner-friendly guide for aspiring programmers. CodersLegacy A website + blog geared towards both new and experienced programmers. Mainly focused on teaching Python. Discover Python & Patterns with game programming Discover Python by programming video games. QuizCure: A Python Learning Platform Contains a list of Commonly asked Python Questions and Answers with Examples. Tutorial Aggregators / lists Gitconnected Python tutorials submitted and ranked by Python developers with the best rising to the top Coursesity - Python - Curated list of the best python courses and tutorials for beginners. Classpert - Python - A large collection of free and paid Python online courses, from a wide range of providers. Hackr.io - Python : Programming community-recommended best Python tutorials and courses Tutorials for Scientific Audiences please keep this list alphabetized These websites are written in support of science courses but are general enough that anyone can learn from them. Beginning Python for Bioinformatics by Patrick O'Brien. An introduction to Python aimed at biologists that introduces the PyCrust shell and Python's basic data types. Python for Number Theory is a series of Python notebooks (for Jupyter) for applications to number theory and cryptography. They assume no prior programming experience and are suitable for someone learning elementary number theory at the same time. They conclude with an introduction to primality testing and cryptography (Diffie-Hellman, RSA). Apps Programiz App to Learn Python - A beginner-friendly app on Android and iOS to learn Python step by step with an in-built interpreter and quizzes. Videos please keep this list alphabetized Python Programming Tutorials for Beginners : Installation, IDE, variables, functions, strings, lists, OOP The Young Programmers Podcast contains video lessons on Python, Pygame, Jython, Scratch, Alice, Java, and Scala (somewhat outdated content!) Email Academies Python courses in your INBOX - please add only free resources Finxter Email Computer Science Academy : 20+ free Python and computer science courses delivered in email video lessons. Content : cheat sheets, Python basics, data structures, NumPy , data science, career advancement, coding productivity, and machine learning. Tools Thonny, Python IDE for beginners Dead Links / Broken Sites If these sites come back to life, feel free to move them back up. Perhaps after 6 months, it would be reasonable to delete them. Free Python video lectures are also available as a course titled Intro to programming with Python and Tkinter , Unix users can view the video using mplayer once you have downloaded the files. Windows users will need to have a DivX player, available from http://www.divx.com/divx/windows/ . (One user reports success viewing the videos on OS X 10.4 using the VLC player -- http://www.videolan.org/ ) -- 1/3/14: This is not a dead link but it is a dead option. These videos have been dropped from Blip.tv so the link gets you nothing. Bioinformatics course in Python focuses on preparing people with some programming background for using the Biopython modules. Khan Academy computer science (Python 2, not actively maintained) -- 20/4/14: This link now leads to the Khan Academy sign-on page. Python material seems to have been disappeared from Khan Academy. Python tutorials on TalkIT (Python 3) 7/10/15: it is almost all behind a paywall LiveWires A set of Python lessons used during 1999, 2000, 2001, and 2002 children's summer camps in Britain by Richard Crook, Gareth McCaughan , Mark White, and Rhodri James. Aimed at children 12-15 years old. 7/10/15: Site not up when clicked. Débuter avec Python au lycée A french tutorial intended to secondary school pupils. 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https://www.algolia.com/use-cases/documentation-search | Documentation Search | Algolia Niket --> Deutsch English français News: Meet us at NRF 2026 Learn more Company Partners Support Login Logout Algolia mark blue Algolia logo blue Products AI Search & Retrieval Overview Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Artificial Intelligence OVERVIEW Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. Intelligent Data Kit Overview Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Integrations Connect to your existing stack via pre-built libraries and APIs. Integrations Connect to your existing stack via pre-built libraries and APIs. Infrastructure Overview Data Centers Choose from 70+ data centers across 17 regions. Data Centers Choose from 70+ data centers across 17 regions. Security & Compliance Built for peace of mind. Security & Compliance Built for peace of mind. Solutions Industries SEE ALL Ecommerce Ecommerce B2B Commerce B2B Commerce Fashion Fashion Grocery Grocery Media Media Marketplaces Marketplaces SaaS SaaS Higher Education Higher Education Use Cases SEE ALL Documentation search Documentation search Enterprise search Enterprise search Headless commerce Headless commerce Image search Image search Mobile & App search Mobile & App search Retail Media Network Retail Media Network Site search Site search Visual search Visual search Voice search Voice search Departments Digital Experience Digital Experience Ecommerce Ecommerce Engineering Engineering Merchandising Merchandising Product Management Product Management Pricing Developers Get started Developer Hub Developer Hub Documentation Documentation Integrations Integrations UI Components UI Components Autocomplete Autocomplete Resources Code Exchange Code Exchange Engineering Blog Engineering Blog MCP MCP Discord Discord Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Quick Links Quick Start Guide Quick Start Guide For Open Source For Open Source API Status API Status Support Support Resources Discover Algolia Blog Algolia Blog Resource Center Resource Center Customer Stories Customer Stories Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Newsroom Newsroom Customers Customer Hub Customer Hub What's New What's New Knowledge Base Knowledge Base Documentation Documentation Algolia Academy Algolia Academy Professional Services Professional Services Quick Access Company Partners Support Login Logout Request demo Get started Search Algolia Close Request demo Get started Other Types Filter --> Clear All Filters Filters Looking for our logo? We got you covered! Brand guidelines Download logo pack Documentation Search Find answers faster with conversational doc search Get lightning-fast, typo-tolerant, and language-aware search across your documentation Get a demo Start building for free Give your customers better results Whether you're supporting an open source library or a complex enterprise product, developers deserve fast, intuitive search and accurate results and answers to their queries from documentation. Smart indexing Pre-built crawler templates adapt to your doc structure automatically, with optimized relevance settings. Need more control? Use the DocSearch helper function to customize extraction and indexing logic. Learn more Reduce maintenance with reliable automation No need to worry about updating the search index when documentation changes. The crawler auto-updates as your site evolves, ensuring search results always reflect the latest content. Learn more Get insights with analytics With built-in analytics, your team can see what users are typing into the search bar—and where results might be lacking. This helps prioritize documentation updates and identify content gaps based on real usage. Learn more Customize usability The DocSearch UI library delivers a tailored search experience with autocomplete, Ask AI, and deep framework support—including Docusaurus, VuePress, and more. Learn more Integrate with any backend Whether you use a static site generator, a docs-as-code platform, or a hosted service — like Mintlify, Docusaurus, Vuepress, Next.js, or others — Algolia fits right in. See all integrations Try it on Algolia Docs! Free for public projects DocSearch is our way of giving back to the community. It’s free for open source projects and can be set up instantly. Learn more and apply today Learn more Natural language understood AI is changing how developers work. Ask AI brings your docs into the new era. Ask AI is an optional add-on that adds a conversational search experience to your documentation. Ask AI understands user questions and provides contextual answers grounded in your docs, reducing support tickets and boosting self-service. Learn more about Ask AI Documentation search FAQs What’s the difference between Smart Groups and Retail Media Platform integrations? 0 Smart Groups are best for merchandising teams that want to feature specific brands or products in defined placements, such as a brand partnership or themed promotion. These groups are updated manually. Retail Media Platform integrations , on the other hand, are used when you want real-time bidding for sponsored listings through external ad tech partners like CitrusAd or Criteo. Do sponsored results affect the relevance of our search experience? 0 Algolia applies AI-powered ranking and personalization even to sponsored content, ensuring that promoted listings remain relevant to shoppers’ intent and search context. What kind of reporting and performance insights are available? 0 When integrated with an RMP or analytics platform, Algolia enables tracking of impressions, clicks, conversions, and revenue impact from sponsored placements—helping you measure ROI and optimize campaigns. Will this work with our existing Retail Media Network? 0 Yes. Algolia’s sponsored listings solutions is platform-agnostic, working with popular Retail Media Networks like Criteo, CitrusAd, Kevel, or Zitcha. 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https://opensource.org/blog/celebrating-generosity-and-growth-in-the-osi-community | Celebrating Generosity and Growth in the OSI Community – Open Source Initiative Skip to content Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Open Main Menu December 12, 2025 Newsletter archive Nick Vidal Celebrating Generosity and Growth in the OSI Community Members Newsletter – December 2025 Dear OSI supporters, As we reach the final weeks of the year, I find myself reflecting on a season that invites both gratitude and giving, two values that feel especially resonant for our community. Serving as Interim Executive Director these past months has only deepened my appreciation for the people who make Open Source possible: the volunteers who share their expertise, the contributors who show up with curiosity and conviction, the board members who devote their time and energy to stewarding OSI’s mission. As for me personally, 2025 has marked my thirty years of engagement and contribution with the Open Source community, not possible without the help of many colleagues and friends made along the way in understanding how and where I might best make an impact. This month, I’m particularly grateful for the thoughtful leadership shown by OSI board members who have recently offered their insights through new blog posts. Ruth Suehle explores how we can sustain what we’ve built, Thierry Carrez warns about the fallacy of “regional Open Source,” and McCoy Smith provided an important and accessible guide to managing patent risk in Open Source projects — all pieces I encourage everyone to read if you haven’t already. These contributions exemplify the generosity that defines our community: expertise freely shared for the benefit of all. As you’ll see in the news that follows, this spirit of contribution and collaboration is reflected in the work OSI undertook globally this past month. At the Digital Public Goods Alliance Annual Members Meeting in Brasília, OSI helped lead a year-long effort culminating in a multisector discussion on data governance and public-interest AI, an essential step toward making AI systems more open, equitable, and globally accessible. We also joined OpenForum Europe and the Open Knowledge Foundation in Rio de Janeiro for the 2025 OpenForum Academy Symposium, where the announcement of the Open Technology Research Network marked a milestone in strengthening the research foundations needed for better policymaking around open technologies. OSI is proud to be part of this new partnership, which will shape an evidence-driven understanding of openness for years to come. In a season defined by giving, these accomplishments remind me that OSI’s impact is possible only because so many of you contribute what you can — your time, your expertise, your advocacy, and yes, your financial support. As we prepare for a new year filled with opportunity and challenge, I invite you to explore ways to support OSI through our new “ Get Involved ” page. Your involvement ensures that the values of transparency, inclusion, and collaboration remain at the heart of the technologies shaping our world. Thank you for being part of this vibrant and generous community. May the close of your year be restful, and may the new one bring renewed possibilities for OSI, for Open Source, and for all who rely on the freedoms it sustains. With gratitude, Deborah Bryant Interim Executive Director, OSI News from the OSI Open letter: Harnessing open source AI to advance digital sovereignty Joint letter prepared in collaboration with Mozilla and other organizations. Europe is at a crossroads. The Summit on European Digital Sovereignty marks an important milestone for the EU and its member states in aligning on a shared strategy for achieving real and lasting European digital sovereignty. As the EU pursues the goal of digital sovereignty, we urge you to harness open source — that is, technology that is free to use, inspect, adapt, and share — as a key enabler of this strategy. OSI Board articles Patents and Open Source: Understanding the Risks and Available Solutions (McCoy Smith) Open Source: A global commons to enable digital sovereignty (Thierry Carrez) Sustaining Open Source: The Next 25 Years Depend on What We Do Together Now (Ruth Suehle) Event updates Open Source Without Borders: Reflections from COSCon’25 DPGA’s Annual Members Meeting: Advancing Open Source & DPGs for the Public Good OFA Symposium 2025 and the Launch of the Open Technology Research Network (OTRN) Other news OSI in the news DHH & Open Source (Matt Mullenweg) ‘Source available’ is not open source (and that’s okay) (Dries Buytaert) Read all press mentions from this past month News from OSI affiliates and partners Apereo: Open Source in Higher Ed: Early Findings from Apereo’s OSSHE Study — and How You Can Get Involved APELL : Declaration of Digital Independence ASF : Celebrating 10,000 Committers: The People Who Power Apache Software Projects DPGA : Reflections from the 2025 Annual Members Meeting in Brasília Drupal Association : DrupalCon Vienna 2025: A Celebration of Open Source and Community Impact Eclipse Foundation : 2025 Open Source Congress Report Eclipse Foundation : Understanding Open Source Stewards and the Cyber Resilience Act Free Software Foundation : Hundreds of free software supporters tuned in for FSF40 hackathon Joomla (Open Source Matters) : Joomla Now Officially Recognized as a Digital Public Good Let’s Encrypt : 10 Years of Let’s Encrypt Certificates Linux Foundation : Collective Wisdom: Why the Future of AI Must Be Built in the Open Linux Foundation : Revealing the Hidden Economics of Open Models in the AI Era Mozilla Foundation : Open letter: Harnessing open source AI to advance digital sovereignty Mozilla Foundation : Rewiring Mozilla: Doing for AI what we did for the web OpenForum Europe : OpenForum Europe, Open Source Initiative, and Open Knowledge Foundation Announce Strategic Partnership to Advance Open Technology Research Open Future : Digital Commons on the EU’s Digital Sovereignty Agenda OpenSSF : Recap: Open Source Security Week in Belgium – Highlights from Ghent to Brussels Open Source Group Japan : Public Proposal for Building an Open AI Society and Digital Sovereignty Based on Open Source AI Python Software Foundation : Sovereign Tech Agency and PSF Security Partnership WordPress Foundation : State of the Word 2025: Innovation Shaped by Community Surveys Vertical Standards for the CRA As the deadline for the application of the CRA draws closer, the OSI is happy to announce the beginning of an Open consultation on many of the vertical standards. 2026 State of Open Source Survey Perforce OpenLogic and Zend, in collaboration with OSI and Eclipse Foundation, is seeking responses from OSS users to gather data for the next State of Open Source Report . Events Upcoming events FOSDEM (January 31 – February 1 – Brussels) SCALE (March 5-8 – Pasadena) All Things AI (March 23-24 – Durham) OCX (April 21-23 – Brussels) Thanks to our sponsors New sponsors and renewals Google Cisco Block See all sponsors Interested in sponsoring, or partnering with, the OSI? Please see our Sponsorship Prospectus and our Annual Report . Please contact the OSI to find out more about how your company can promote open source development, communities and software. Support OSI by becoming a full member Hundreds of individuals and organizations worldwide join as members and support as donors or sponsors of the OSI. They trust in our neutral stewardship of open source licensing and our role in enabling a global community. Get involved! Open Source Without Borders: Reflections from COSCon’25 Top Open Source licenses in 2025 Keep up with Open Source Please leave this field empty. Δ We’ll never share your details and you can unsubscribe with a click! 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https://www.algolia.com/developers/integrations | Integrations Niket --> Deutsch English français News: Meet us at NRF 2026 Learn more Company Partners Support Login Logout Algolia mark white Algolia logo white Products AI Search & Retrieval Overview Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Artificial Intelligence OVERVIEW Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. Intelligent Data Kit Overview Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Integrations Connect to your existing stack via pre-built libraries and APIs. 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Solutions Industries SEE ALL Ecommerce Ecommerce B2B Commerce B2B Commerce Fashion Fashion Grocery Grocery Media Media Marketplaces Marketplaces SaaS SaaS Higher Education Higher Education Use Cases SEE ALL Documentation search Documentation search Enterprise search Enterprise search Headless commerce Headless commerce Image search Image search Mobile & App search Mobile & App search Retail Media Network Retail Media Network Site search Site search Visual search Visual search Voice search Voice search Departments Digital Experience Digital Experience Ecommerce Ecommerce Engineering Engineering Merchandising Merchandising Product Management Product Management Pricing Developers Get started Developer Hub Developer Hub Documentation Documentation Integrations Integrations UI Components UI Components Autocomplete Autocomplete Resources Code Exchange Code Exchange Engineering Blog Engineering Blog MCP MCP Discord Discord Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Quick Links Quick Start Guide Quick Start Guide For Open Source For Open Source API Status API Status Support Support Resources Discover Algolia Blog Algolia Blog Resource Center Resource Center Customer Stories Customer Stories Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Newsroom Newsroom Customers Customer Hub Customer Hub What's New What's New Knowledge Base Knowledge Base Documentation Documentation Algolia Academy Algolia Academy Professional Services Professional Services Quick Access Company Partners Support Login Logout Request demo Get started Search Algolia Close Request demo Get started Other Types Filter --> Clear All Filters Filters Looking for our logo? We got you covered! Brand guidelines Download logo pack Scale with Integrations Use integrations and pre-built libraries to build scalable search experiences. --> --> --> No Products Found!!! “Search plays a huge part in user experience,” Saravana says. “These days no one wants to have a hierarchical navigation to find content. You don’t go to a library and look for fiction section and then drill down to try to find the Game of Thrones novel. It’s not going to work. You go to the help desk tool and type in ‘game of thrones.’ and locate the book right away!” Saravana Kumar CEO @ Document360 “The API and SDK options are really great, and the ability to handle traffic at scale. We have a high volume and Algolia is very fast — able to keep up with our level of traffic.” Matt Goorley Engineering Manager @ LTK “Algolia's powerful SaaS solution does the heavy lifting for our small development team. Indexing APIs and other functionalities come in handy when it comes to promo changes, price updates, and ranking. Also, Algolia's out-of-the-box UI integration provides a great base for developing complex UI use cases.” Hector Almaguer CTO @ Blindster “What’s nice about Algolia is that I can change the ranking algorithm and the UI without needing developer help,” Cho says. “Or, I can implement various rules. For example, ‘if the user types in YOSEM, the search function will always pin Yosemite National Park to the first ranked result.’ Those are things I can implement and see in action quickly.” Sydney Cho Senior Product Manager @ AllTrails Build faster and better AI search made simple. Index your content with our API clients or partner integrations, fine-tune your rankings and launch with our UI components. All in minutes. Front-end Back-end Analytics Dropdown JavaScript React Android Vue Angular IOS Ruby Rails Python Django Php Symfony Laravel JavaScript java Scala Go C# Kotlin Swift Php Ruby JavaScript Python Swift Android C# Java Go Scala <div id="searchbox"></div> <div id="refinement"></div> <div id="hits"></div> <script> const { searchBox, hits } = instantsearch.widgets; search.addWidgets([ searchBox({ container: "#searchbox" }), hits({ container: "#hits" }), refinementList({ container: "#refinement", attribute: "company" }), ]); search.start(); </script> Build with JavaScript const App = () => ( <InstantSearch> <SearchBox /> <Hits /> <Pagination /> <RefinementList attribute="company" /> </InstantSearch> ); Build with React <RelativeLayout xmlns:algolia="http://schemas.android.com/apk/res-auto" xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/res/android" android:layout_width="match_parent" android:layout_height="match_parent"> <com.algolia.instantsearch.ui.views.SearchBox android:id="@+id/search_box" android:layout_width="match_parent" android:layout_height="wrap_content"/> <com.algolia.instantsearch.ui.views.Stats android:id="@+id/search_box" android:layout_width="match_parent" android:layout_height="wrap_content"/> <com.algolia.instantsearch.ui.views.Hits android:layout_width="match_parent" android:layout_height="wrap_content" algolia:itemLayout="@layout/hits_item"/> </RelativeLayout> Build with Android <ais-instant-search> <ais-search-box /> <ais-refinement-list attribute="company" /> <ais-hits /> <ais-pagination /> </ais-instant-search> Build with Vue <ais-instantsearch> <ais-search-box></ais-search-box> <ais-refinement-list [attribute]="company" ></ais-refinement-list> <ais-hits></ais-hits> </ais-instantsearch> Build with Angular import InstantSearch override func viewDidLoad() { super.viewDidLoad() let searchBar = SearchBarWidget(frame: ...) let statsWidget = StatsLabelWidget(frame: ...) self.view.addSubview(searchBar) self.view.addSubview(statsWidget) InstantSearch.shared.registerAllWidgets(in: self.view)} Build with IOS my_index = client.init_index('contacts') my_index.save_object({ firstname: "Jimmie", lastname: "Barninger", company: "California Paint" }) Build with Ruby class Contact < ActiveRecord::Base include AlgoliaSearch algoliasearch do attribute :firstname, :lastname, :company end end Build with Rails myIndex = apiClient.init_index("contacts") myIndex.save_object({ "firstname": "Jimmie", "lastname": "Barninger", "company": "California Paint" }) Build with Python from algoliasearch_django import AlgoliaIndex from algoliasearch_django.decorators import register @register(YourModel) class YourModelIndex(AlgoliaIndex): fields = ('firstname', 'lastname', 'company') Build with Django $myIndex = $apiClient->initIndex("contacts"); $myIndex->saveObject([ "firstname" => "Jimmie", "lastname" => "Barninger", "company" => "California Paint", ]); Build with Php /** * @ORM\Entity */ class Contact { /** * @var string * * @ORM\Column(name="firstname", type="string") * @Group({searchable}) */ protected $firstname; /** * @var string * * @ORM\Column(name="lastname", type="string") * @Group({searchable}) */ protected $lastname; /** * @var string * * @ORM\Column(name="company", type="string") * @Group({searchable}) */ protected $company; } Build with Symfony use Illuminate\Database\Eloquent\Model; use Laravel\Scout\Searchable; class Contact extends Model { use Searchable; } Build with Laravel const myIndex = apiClient .initIndex('contacts'); myIndex.saveObject({ firstname: 'Jimmie', lastname: 'Barninger', company: 'California Paint', }); Build with JavaScript Index<Contact> index = client .initIndex("contacts", Contact.class); index.saveObject( new Contact() .setFirstname("Jimmie") .setLastname("Barninger") .setCompany("California Paint") ); Build with java import algolia.AlgoliaDsl._ import scala.concurrent.ExecutionContext.Implicits.global case class Contact( firstname: String, lastname: String, company: String ) val indexing: Future[Indexing] = client.execute { index into "contacts" `object` Contact( "Jimmie", "Barninger", "California Paint" ) } Build with Scala object := map[string]string{ "firstname": "Jimmie", "lastname": "Barninger", "company": "California Paint" } res, err := index.SaveObject(object) Build with Go SearchIndex index = client.InitIndex("contacts"); var contact = new Contact { FirstName = "Jimmie", LastName = "Barninger", Company = "California Paint" }; index.SaveObject(contact); Build with C# val index = client.initIndex(IndexName("contacts")) val json = json { "firstname" to "Jimmie" "lastname" to "Barninger" "company" to "California Paint" } index.saveObject(json) Build with Kotlin let myIndex = apiClient.getIndex("contacts") let n = [ "firstname": "Jimmie", "lastname": "Barninger", "company": "California Paint" ] myIndex.saveObject(n) Build with Swift Insights.register( appId: "ALGOLIA_APP_ID", apiKey: "ALGOLIA_API_KEY", userToken: "user-123456" ) Insights.shared?.clickedAfterSearch( eventName: "Product Clicked", indexName: "products", objectIDs: ["9780545139700"], positions: [7], queryID: "cba8245617aeace44" ) Build with Php insights = Algolia::Insights::Client.create('ALGOLIA_APP_ID', 'ALGOLIA_API_KEY') insights.user('user-123456').clicked_object_ids_after_search( 'Product Clicked', 'products', ['9780545139700'], [7], 'cba8245617aeace44' ) Build with Ruby // This requires installing the search-insights separate library: // https://github.com/algolia/search-insights.js // https://www.npmjs.com/package/search-insights aa('clickedObjectIDsAfterSearch', { userToken: 'user-123456', eventName: 'Product Clicked', index: 'products', queryID: 'cba8245617aeace44', objectIDs: ['9780545139700'], positions: [7], }); Build with JavaScript insights = client.init_insights_client().user('user-123456') insights.clicked_object_ids_after_search( 'Product Clicked', 'products', ['9780545139700'], [7], 'cba8245617aeace44' ) Build with Python Insights.register( appId: "ALGOLIA_APP_ID", apiKey: "ALGOLIA_API_KEY", userToken: "user-123456" ) Insights.shared?.clickedAfterSearch( eventName: "Product Clicked", indexName: "products", objectIDs: ["9780545139700"], positions: [7], queryID: "cba8245617aeace44" ) Build with Swift Insights.register( context, "ALGOLIA_APP_ID", "ALGOLIA_API_KEY", "user-123456" ) Insights.shared?.clickedAfterSearch( "Product Clicked", "products", "cba8245617aeace44", EventObjects.IDs("9780545139700"), listOf(7) ) Build with Android var insights = new InsightsClient( "ALGOLIA_APP_ID", "ALGOLIA_API_KEY" ).User("user-123456"); insights.ClickedObjectIDsAfterSearch( "Product Clicked", "products", new List<string> { "9780545139700" }, new List<uint> { 7 }, "cba8245617aeace44" ); Build with C# AsyncUserInsightsClient insights = new AsyncInsightsClient( "ALGOLIA_APP_ID", "ALGOLIA_API_KEY", client ).user("user-123456"); insights.clickedObjectIDsAfterSearch( "Product Clicked", "products", Arrays.asList("9780545139700"), new ArrayList<>(Arrays.asList(7l)), "cba8245617aeace44" ); Build with Java client := insights.NewClient( "ALGOLIA_APP_ID", "ALGOLIA_API_KEY", ).User("user-123456") res, err := client.ClickedObjectIDsAfterSearch( "Product Clicked", "products", []string{"9780545139700"}, []int{7}, "cba8245617aeace44", ) Build with Go client.execute { send event ClickedObjectIDsAfterSearch( "user-123456", "Product Clicked", "products", Seq("9780545139700"), Seq(7), "cba8245617aeace44" ) } Build with Scala Documentation 0 Learn from extensive developer documentation to implement search and discovery in your ecosystem. Learn more Developer Hub 0 Explore all the API clients, UI components & integrations to build search & discovery experiences. Learn more Code Exchange 0 Jumpstart your Algolia understanding with the building blocks of backend tools, composable UI and sample applications. Learn more Developer Discord 0 Join other developers building on Algolia platform and participate in discussions around building great search experiences. Learn more Sign up with Google Sign up with Github Enable anyone to build great Search & Discovery Get a demo Start Free Products Overview AI Search AI Browse AI Recommendations Ask AI Intelligent Data Kit Use cases Overview Enterprise search Headless commerce Mobile & app search Voice search Image search OEM Site search Developers Developer Hub Documentation Integrations Engineering blog Discord community API status DocSearch For Open Source Live demos GDPR AI Act Integrations Salesforce Commerce Cloud B2C Shopify Adobe Commerce Netlify Commercetools BigCommerce Distributed & secure Global infrastructure Security & compliance Azure AWS Industries Overview B2C ecommerce B2B ecommerce Marketplaces SaaS Media Startups Fashion Tools Search Grader Ecommerce Search Audit Company About Algolia Careers Newsroom Events Leadership Social impact Contact us Anti-Modern Slavery Statement Awards Social networks Developers Developer Hub Documentation Integrations Engineering blog Discord community API status DocSearch For Open Source Live demos GDPR AI Act Industries Overview B2C ecommerce B2B ecommerce Marketplaces SaaS Media Startups Fashion Tools Search Grader Ecommerce Search Audit Products Overview AI Search AI Browse AI Recommendations Ask AI Intelligent Data Kit Use cases Overview Enterprise search Headless commerce Mobile & app search Voice search Image search OEM Site search Integrations Salesforce Commerce Cloud B2C Shopify Adobe Commerce Netlify Commercetools BigCommerce Distributed & secure Global infrastructure Security & compliance Azure AWS Company About Algolia Careers Newsroom Events Leadership Social impact Contact us Anti-Modern Slavery Statement Awards Social networks Algolia mark white ©2026 Algolia - All rights reserved. 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https://opensource.org/ai | Open Source AI – Open Source Initiative Skip to content Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Open Source AI Open Source AI OSAID 1.0 Process Timeline Open Weights FAQ Endorsements Open Main Menu THE OPEN SOURCE AI DEFINITION 1.0 We have released the first stable version of the Definition. Read version 1.0 What’s Open Source AI? Following the same idea behind Open Source Software, an Open Source AI is a system made available under terms that grant users the freedoms to: Use Study Modify Share Use the system for any purpose and without having to ask for permission. Precondition to exercise these freedoms is to have access to the preferred form to make modifications to the system, and to the means to use it. Study how the system works and understand how its results were created. Precondition to exercise these freedoms is to have access to the preferred form to make modifications to the system, and to the means to use it. Modify the system for any purpose, including to change its output. Precondition to exercise these freedoms is to have access to the preferred form to make modifications to the system, and to the means to use it. Share the system for others to use with or without modifications, for any purpose. Precondition to exercise these freedoms is to have access to the preferred form to make modifications to the system, and to the means to use it. Benefits of Open Source AI Transparency & Safety Open Source AI provides information essential for auditing systems and to mitigate bias, ensures accountability and transparency of data sources, and accelerates AI safety research. Competition & Polyculture Open Source AI makes more models available, spurs innovation and quality due to increased competition and tackles AI monoculture by providing more stakeholders access to foundational technology. Diverse Applications Open Source AI gives developers access to resources crucial for developing context-specific, localized applications that are representative of cultural and linguistic diversity and allow for model aligned with different value systems. Read the white paper The Open Source Initiative and Open Future have taken a significant step toward addressing this challenge by releasing this white paper. The document is the culmination of a global co-design process, enriched by insights from a vibrant two-day workshop held in Paris in October 2024. Read the white paper Why Open Source AI needs a definition? Open Source Frontier The traditional view of Open Source code and licenses when applied to AI components are not sufficient to guarantee the freedoms to use, study, share and modify the systems. Informing Regulators Government regulations have begun in Europe, the United States, and elsewhere. Communities need a common understanding to educate policy makers. Combat Openwashing Companies are calling AI systems “Open Source” even though their licenses contain restrictions that go against the accepted principles and freedoms of Open Source. Who’s behind the Open Source AIDefinition View all Endorsers Overall process 0 Supporting Organizations 0 Supporting Individuals 0 Co-designers 0 Systems reviewed Representation in the co-design process 0 Nationalities 0 People Of Color 0 Global South 0 Femme, Trans, & Nonbinary Co-design 2023 – 2024 In 2023, we started the co-design process hosting several online and in-person activities around the world. Research 2022 – 2023 Alongside AI experts from various fields we produced a podcast , panels and webinars . Endorsements 2024 – 2025 Late 2024 into 2025, the OSI is gathering endorsements from various individuals and organizations, including Mozilla, Suse, Eleuther AI, Ai2, Eclipse Foundation, and the OpenInfra Foundation, among many others. Which AI systems comply with the OSAID 1.0? As part of our validation and testing of the OSAID, the volunteers checked whether the Definition could be used to evaluate if AI systems provided the freedoms expected. The list of models that passed the Validation phase are: Pythia (Eleuther AI), OLMo (AI2), Amber and CrystalCoder (LLM360), and T5 (Google). There are a couple of others that were analyzed and would probably pass if they changed their licenses/legal terms: BLOOM (BigScience), Starcoder2 (BigCode), Falcon (TII). Those that have been analyzed and don’t pass because they lack required components and/or their legal agreements are incompatible with the Open Source principles: Llama2 (Meta), Grok (X/Twitter), Phi-2 (Microsoft), Mixtral (Mistral). These results should be seen as part of the definitional process, a learning moment; they’re not certifications of any kind. OSI will continue to validate only legal documents, and will not validate or review individual AI systems, just as it does not validate or review software projects. If you are wondering about Open Weights models , please refer to our dedicated page . The OSAID co-design process was open to everyone interested in collaborating . How to participate There are many ways to get involved: Endorse the Open Source AI Definition : have your organization appended to the list of supporters of version 1.0. Join the forum : support and comment on the releases, record your approval or concerns to new and existing threads. Subscribe to our newsletter and read our blog to be kept up-to-date. Watch the town hall recordings to learn more about the process. Join the workshops and scheduled conferences : meet the OSI and other participants at in-person events around the world. Open Source AI Definition Governance Governance for the Open Source AI Definition is provided by the OSI Board of Directors . The OSI board members have expertise in business, legal, and open source software development, as well as experience across a range of commercial, public sector, and non-profit organizations. Formal progress reports including achievements, budget updates, and next steps are provided monthly by the Program Lead for advice and guidance as part of regular Board business. Additionally, informal updates on the outcomes of key meetings and milestones are provided via email to the Board as required. Supported by OSI’s efforts wouldn’t be possible without the support of our sponsors and thousands of individual members. 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https://zeroday.forem.com/shiva_c74698f901616e10e57 | shiva - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Follow User actions shiva 404 bio not found Joined Joined on Nov 27, 2025 More info about @shiva_c74698f901616e10e57 Badges Writing Debut Awarded for writing and sharing your first DEV post! Continue sharing your work to earn the 4 Week Writing Streak Badge. Got it Close Post 2 posts published Comment 0 comments written Tag 0 tags followed Tor or Onion Browser: Which One Truly Protects Your Privacy in 2025 shiva shiva shiva Follow Dec 1 '25 Tor or Onion Browser: Which One Truly Protects Your Privacy in 2025 # discuss # networksec Comments Add Comment 3 min read Why Medical Devices Are Now Prime Targets for Cyberattacks shiva shiva shiva Follow Nov 28 '25 Why Medical Devices Are Now Prime Targets for Cyberattacks # news # iot # networksec Comments Add Comment 2 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
https://www.highlight.io/customers/superpowered | How Superpowered Uses Highlight to Understand Their Product Funnel Star us on GitHub Star Migrate your Highlight account to LaunchDarkly by February 28, 2026. Learn more on our blog. Product Integrations Pricing Resources Docs Sign in Sign up All customers Customer Case Study How Superpowered Uses Highlight to Understand Their Product Funnel Understanding user behavior The main use case for Highlight at Superpowered is to understand points of friction in the user journey. Highlight gives us a high-fidelity understanding of what users are experiencing as they onboard Superpowered and use the product. By looking at a collection of individual user sessions, we can piece together a story of what is causing users to fall off in particular parts of the user journey. We’re especially interested in learning about where in the onboarding workflow we’re losing users, and why we’re losing them. Rather than reaching out to users for interviews, Highlight serves us the same intel on a silver platter, making it easy for us to recognize patterns of behavior amongst users who successfully onboard our product or not. “ Rather than reaching out to users for interviews, Highlight serves us the same intel on a silver platter, making it easy for us to recognize patterns of behavior amongst users who successfully onboard our product or not. ” Jordan Dearsley , Superpowered Understanding user issues We do the same sort of analysis for user complaints. The only difference here is that the user gives us a lead to an issue they’re experiencing in the application. With Highlight, we can quickly see what the user was doing when they ran into the issue, and this makes it dead simple to figure out a fix. “ With Highlight, we can quickly see what the user was doing when they ran into the issue, and this makes it dead simple to figure out a fix. ” Jordan Dearsley , Superpowered Designed to impress One of the things that stands out about Highlight is the beautiful and intuitive UI. I liked the product immediately and trusted the design. It’s modern and easy to use. For me, I have a filter for what kinds of services might be good or bad, based on how much work they put into their UX. With Highlight, they pass that test with flying colors. “ Highlight lets us deeply understand our user funnel and how users are using Superpowered. This helps us make the necessary product improvements to achieve our business goals. ” Jordan Dearsley , Superpowered Next Customer About the company A calendar app that *actually* keeps you on time. Founded 2020 Using Highlight since Jan 2020 Try Highlight Today Get the visibility you need Get started for free Product Pricing Sign up Features Privacy & Security Customers Session Replay Error Monitoring Logging Competitors LogRocket Hotjar Fullstory Smartlook Inspectlet Datadog Sentry Site24x7 Sprig Mouseflow Pendo Heap LogicMonitor Last9 Axiom Better Stack HyperDX Dash0 Developers Changelog Documentation Ambassadors Frameworks React Next.js Angular Gatsby.js Svelte.js Vue.js Express Golang Next.js Node.js Rails Hono Contact & Legal Terms of Service Privacy Policy Careers sales@highlight.io security@highlight.io [object Object] | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
https://www.algolia.com/products/ai-search | AI Search | Algolia Niket --> Deutsch English français News: Meet us at NRF 2026 Learn more Company Partners Support Login Logout Algolia mark white Algolia logo white Products AI Search & Retrieval Overview Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Artificial Intelligence OVERVIEW Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. Intelligent Data Kit Overview Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Integrations Connect to your existing stack via pre-built libraries and APIs. Integrations Connect to your existing stack via pre-built libraries and APIs. Infrastructure Overview Data Centers Choose from 70+ data centers across 17 regions. Data Centers Choose from 70+ data centers across 17 regions. Security & Compliance Built for peace of mind. Security & Compliance Built for peace of mind. Solutions Industries SEE ALL Ecommerce Ecommerce B2B Commerce B2B Commerce Fashion Fashion Grocery Grocery Media Media Marketplaces Marketplaces SaaS SaaS Higher Education Higher Education Use Cases SEE ALL Documentation search Documentation search Enterprise search Enterprise search Headless commerce Headless commerce Image search Image search Mobile & App search Mobile & App search Retail Media Network Retail Media Network Site search Site search Visual search Visual search Voice search Voice search Departments Digital Experience Digital Experience Ecommerce Ecommerce Engineering Engineering Merchandising Merchandising Product Management Product Management Pricing Developers Get started Developer Hub Developer Hub Documentation Documentation Integrations Integrations UI Components UI Components Autocomplete Autocomplete Resources Code Exchange Code Exchange Engineering Blog Engineering Blog MCP MCP Discord Discord Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Quick Links Quick Start Guide Quick Start Guide For Open Source For Open Source API Status API Status Support Support Resources Discover Algolia Blog Algolia Blog Resource Center Resource Center Customer Stories Customer Stories Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Newsroom Newsroom Customers Customer Hub Customer Hub What's New What's New Knowledge Base Knowledge Base Documentation Documentation Algolia Academy Algolia Academy Professional Services Professional Services Quick Access Company Partners Support Login Logout Request demo Get started Search Algolia Close Request demo Get started Other Types Filter --> Clear All Filters Filters Looking for our logo? We got you covered! Brand guidelines Download logo pack AI SEARCH AI search that simply works Show users precisely what they’re looking for with search that understands intent, context, and nuance—so people find what they want without friction Request demo Get started More than 18,000 customers in 150+ countries trust Algolia The AI Search advantage Deliver lightning-fast, highly relevant search and discovery experiences on your site or app. The Algolia AI Retrieval platform combines keyword precision with semantic understanding and behavioral learning—backed by years of unmatched expertise in search relevance and optimization. Help your customers find what they want faster, leading to stronger engagement, higher conversion rates, and reduced support costs. An API-first search solution for just about any use case, industry, or team Built for flexibility and scale, Algolia adapts to your architecture, workflows, and commercial goals. Industry Across retail, manufacturing, media, financial services and more, Algolia is a trusted solution for driving higher conversion rates, AOV, and better customer experience. See all industries Use case Whether you want to improve site-wide discovery, build a new visual search solution, or optimize results for mobile users, Algolia has an API to make it happen. See all use cases Teams Algolia is built for flexibility—easy to integrate anywhere and usable by teams across merchandising, ecommerce, engineering, and product to drive better results. See all departments Unsurpassed relevance drives revenue Deliver instantly relevant results with a hybrid keyword and vector retrieval engine that understands user intent and natural language. Real-time personalization adds another layer of intelligence so every visitor finds exactly what they’re looking for. Deliver the outcomes your business depends on With AI Search, you’re in control. Configure results for any query or campaign, or let machine learning automate to the KPIs your organization expects — whether that’s conversions, revenue, engagement, or efficiency. Improve KPIs with AI ranking AI Ranking turns your business goals into ranking logic. It evaluates real user behavior, learns what drives performance, and adjusts signals automatically—removing the manual tuning work that slows teams down. Curation and control at your fingertips Curate results for campaigns, A/B test different configurations, and adjust rankings with granular control. In the dashboard, you can see exactly why results are displayed and adjust the ranking logic as needed — no code required. Speed and scale Algolia processes more than 1 billion queries every 5 seconds with an average response time under 20 milliseconds, so you can sleep soundly knowing your most critical business systems are running smoothly. Features Everything you need to deploy AI-powered search. NeuralSearch Hybrid vector and keyword-powered search AI Ranking Boost results dynamically to drive KPIs Personalization Tailor results for each user AI Synonyms Automatically detects new synonyms to deliver better results InstantSearch Results that appear instantly Rules Optimize ranking for specific queries Analytics Understand your users to uncover opportunities A/B testing Design the best-performing relevance strategies. Rules: Optimize ranking for specific Merchandising Curate results for promotional campaigns Crawler Automatically extract and enrich your content Autocomplete Guide users to the right content with typo tolerance Query categorization Better results categorized for each query Trusted integrations and partnerships Get up and running quickly with pre-built integrations on some of the most popular platforms. See all integrations The future of search is agentic Add conversational search to your search bar, or build entirely new retrieval solutions powered by vector embeddings and LLMs. Agent Studio 0 Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Read more about Agent Studio Generative Experiences 0 Build content-rich, dynamic, and personalized LLM-based experiences that integrate directly with your search and product data. Learn more about Generative Experiences Ask AI 0 Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. Learn more about Ask AI MCP Server 0 Search, analyze, monitor, or modify your index within your agentic workflow. Learn more about MCP Algolia AI Search FAQs What is AI Search and how does it work? 0 Algolia AI Search is a cloud-based, API-first search solution that uses AI and keyword search technologies, like natural language processing, autocomplete, typo tolerance, and cosine similarity, to deliver a search experience that understands user intent and returns fast, highly relevant search results. How fast is Algolia AI Search? 0 Extremely fast. Most search queries return results in just 1 to 20 milliseconds, up to 200x faster than typical competitors. What types of content or data can AI Search handle? 0 Our AI Search API can handle any content you send into its hosted index, like product catalogs, blog posts, help articles, media, images, or API-Sourced data. It understands both keywords and meaning, so it works well with all kinds of data, from short titles to long documents How is Algolia different from other AI search engines? 0 Unlike many competitors , Algolia combines an API-first architecture with robust developer tools, global scalability, and fine-grained relevance controls. Instead of a black-box approach, Algolia gives you full visibility and control over how search works, letting you tailor results to your goals while still leveraging the power of AI. Its hybrid search approach ensures both precision and semantic understanding, so results are consistently high quality. What are the key features of Algolia AI Search? 0 Core capabilities include semantic search, AI-powered relevance tuning, vector embeddings, hybrid keyword and vector matching, real-time personalization, dynamic re-ranking, and multilingual search support. These features work together to make search faster, smarter, and more adaptable to business needs. What industries and use cases is Algolia’s AI Search best for? 0 Ecommerce, SaaS, media publishers, fashion, finance, marketplaces, agentic search, enterprises, mobile apps, headless commerce, voice search, and image search are just some of the use cases and industries where our AI Search drives faster discovery, better relevance, and increased conversions . How does Algolia’s AI Search improve conversion rates? 0 By delivering more relevant results faster, Algolia reduces friction in the customer journey, helping users find what they need before losing interest. Its semantic understanding interprets what users mean, not just what they type, leading to fewer “no results” pages and a better overall search experience that drives more engagement and conversions . Can Algolia AI Search handle multiple languages? 0 Yes, our AI search API is language-agnostic and trained to understand meaning and intent across dozens of languages, allowing businesses to serve global audiences without building separate search experiences for each region. Learn more about how Algolia handles multilingual search . How does personalization work in Algolia AI Search? 0 Algolia’s personalization captures user actions—such as clicks, views, or purchases—and translates them into category-based affinity profiles. These affinities boost search results at query time after textual and business relevance layers, allowing individualized results without overriding relevance. For deeper automation, the Advanced Personalization pipeline automatically builds and applies these profiles. Does AI Search require coding to implement? 0 Developers can integrate it using Algolia’s APIs and SDKs, giving full flexibility over the search experience. For non-technical teams, a low-code/no-code dashboard makes it easy to adjust relevance rules, analyze search performance, and launch changes without engineering resources. Is Algolia scalable for high-traffic websites? 0 Yes. Algolia’s globally distributed infrastructure is designed to deliver sub-50ms response times, even for sites processing millions of queries per day, making it a reliable choice for enterprise-scale search needs. How easy is it to implement AI Search? 0 Algolia can be implemented in just minutes using our APIs or dashboard,. making it fast to get up and running. Developers have full flexibility to customize search behavior, while non-technical teams can easily manage relevance, boost or bury results, and set up merchandising rules using our intuitive low-code or no-code interface. You can also track performance and optimize search with built-in analytics, no coding required How can I measure and optimize AI Search? 0 Algolia’s built-in analytics dashboard makes it easy to track key metrics like query performance, click-through rates, zero-result searches, and personalization impact. From there, you can fine-tune relevance, run A/B tests, and apply smart merchandising rules to continuously improve results and drive better business outcomes. How can I try Algolia AI Search? 0 You can start with a free trial that lets you explore Algolia AI Search using your own data or sample data. During the trial, you can upload your product listings, content, or documents, test the platform's features firsthand, and measure how it improves performance and user experience before making a commitment. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Follow User actions Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul I am a 2nd year CSE Student 😊 Location Dhaka,Bangladesh Joined Joined on Oct 17, 2020 github website twitter website Work Student Five Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least five years. Got it Close Four Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least four years. Got it Close Writing Debut Awarded for writing and sharing your first DEV post! Continue sharing your work to earn the 4 Week Writing Streak Badge. Got it Close Three Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least three years. 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Got it Close One Year Club This badge celebrates the longevity of those who have been a registered member of the DEV Community for at least one year. Got it Close Hacktoberfest 2020 Awarded for successful completion of the 2020 Hacktoberfest challenge. Got it Close Show all 13 badges More info about @mitul3737 Organizations AWS Community Builders Currently learning Python Post 152 posts published Comment 4 comments written Tag 30 tags followed DevOps Prerequisite (Part 9): SSL and TLS Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Oct 2 '24 DevOps Prerequisite (Part 9): SSL and TLS # devops # security Comments Add Comment 5 min read Want to connect with Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul? Create an account to connect with Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul. You can also sign in below to proceed if you already have an account. Create Account Already have an account? Sign in TinyML - Harvard University : Part 1 Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Jan 24 '24 TinyML - Harvard University : Part 1 # machinelearning 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Unlocking the Power of Auth0: Streamlining Authentication and Authorization for Modern Apps Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Jan 18 '24 Unlocking the Power of Auth0: Streamlining Authentication and Authorization for Modern Apps # auth0 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 9) Projecting Financial Management Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Jan 18 '24 MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 9) Projecting Financial Management # mba Comments Add Comment 5 min read Practice Optimizing Prompts Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Jan 5 '24 Practice Optimizing Prompts # ai # promptengineering Comments Add Comment 2 min read MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 7) Managing the Cash Flow Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Dec 4 '23 MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 7) Managing the Cash Flow # mba Comments Add Comment 3 min read MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 6) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Nov 29 '23 MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 6) # mba Comments Add Comment 8 min read Generative AI in Google Cloud Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Nov 11 '23 Generative AI in Google Cloud # ai 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 11 min read MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 5 ) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Oct 25 '23 MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 5 ) # mba 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 9 min read MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 4 ) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Oct 23 '23 MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 4 ) # mba Comments Add Comment 13 min read MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 3 ) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Oct 21 '23 MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 3 ) # mba 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 5 min read MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 2 ) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Oct 11 '23 MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 2 ) # mba Comments Add Comment 2 min read MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 1 ) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Oct 9 '23 MBA with me : Mitul Shahriyar ( Part 1 ) # mba Comments Add Comment 4 min read AWS IAM (Identity and Access Management) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Sep 19 '23 AWS IAM (Identity and Access Management) # aws Comments Add Comment 3 min read Unable to update X : status-code=409 kind=snap-changes-conflict message= snap "x" has "auto-refesh" change In Progress Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Apr 24 '23 Unable to update X : status-code=409 kind=snap-changes-conflict message= snap "x" has "auto-refesh" change In Progress # linux Comments Add Comment 1 min read Artificial Intelligence vs Machine learning vs Deep Learning vs Generative AI Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Apr 18 '23 Artificial Intelligence vs Machine learning vs Deep Learning vs Generative AI # machinelearning # ai # deeplearning # generativeai 8 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Activate your AWS Account Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Apr 17 '23 Activate your AWS Account # aws 1 reaction Comments 1 comment 3 min read Activate your AWS account Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow for AWS Community Builders Apr 17 '23 Activate your AWS account # aws 6 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Add existing remote repositories to your git bash Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Apr 6 '23 Add existing remote repositories to your git bash 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 1 min read AZ-104: Microsoft Azure Administrator Preparation (Part 1) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Mar 29 '23 AZ-104: Microsoft Azure Administrator Preparation (Part 1) # azure # identity # authentication 4 reactions Comments 3 comments 9 min read DevOps Prerequisite (Part 7): YAML & Json Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Mar 25 '23 DevOps Prerequisite (Part 7): YAML & Json # devops 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read DevOps Prerequisite (Part 6): Database Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Mar 24 '23 DevOps Prerequisite (Part 6): Database # devops 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 5 min read DevOps Prerequisite (Part 5): Web server Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Mar 23 '23 DevOps Prerequisite (Part 5): Web server # devops 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 7 min read DevOps Prerequisite (Part 4): Git and GitHub Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Mar 21 '23 DevOps Prerequisite (Part 4): Git and GitHub # devops 1 reaction Comments 1 comment 3 min read DevOps Prerequisite (Part 3): Application basics and Java Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Mar 20 '23 DevOps Prerequisite (Part 3): Application basics and Java # devops 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read DevOps Prerequisite (Part 3): Application basics (NodeJs & Python) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Mar 20 '23 DevOps Prerequisite (Part 3): Application basics (NodeJs & Python) # devops 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 5 min read DevOps Prerequisite (Part 2):Networking basics Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Mar 17 '23 DevOps Prerequisite (Part 2):Networking basics # devops 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 7 min read CKS Challenge 1 Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Mar 8 '23 CKS Challenge 1 # cks # kubernetes 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read CKS Exam prep (Part 1) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Mar 6 '23 CKS Exam prep (Part 1) # kubernetes 4 reactions Comments Add Comment 8 min read Transport Layer Security (TLS), Public & Private Keys Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Mar 5 '23 Transport Layer Security (TLS), Public & Private Keys # security 8 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Create a free Azure Account Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Feb 28 '23 Create a free Azure Account # azure 4 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read DevOps Pre-requisites (Part 1) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Feb 25 '23 DevOps Pre-requisites (Part 1) # devops Comments Add Comment 4 min read Enter into your folders which has space and command prompt or power shell gives error Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Feb 19 '23 Enter into your folders which has space and command prompt or power shell gives error # discuss # beginners # career # startup 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Configure your Windows to work with Azure Active Directory Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Feb 10 '23 Configure your Windows to work with Azure Active Directory # mcp # ai # howto Comments Add Comment 1 min read Claim 2 AWS Certification vouchers for free Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow for AWS Community Builders Feb 6 '23 Claim 2 AWS Certification vouchers for free # devto # announcement # web3 14 reactions Comments 1 comment 1 min read Claim 2 AWS Certifications for free Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Feb 6 '23 Claim 2 AWS Certifications for free # devto # announcement # community # contributorswanted 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 1 min read Change command prompt location from C to D Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Jan 29 '23 Change command prompt location from C to D # gratitude # devrel 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 1 min read Become Microsoft Certified for free Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Jan 15 '23 Become Microsoft Certified for free # career # devops # fullstack # systemdesign 53 reactions Comments 3 comments 4 min read Authenticate using Auth0 Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Jan 14 '23 Authenticate using Auth0 # gratitude 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Prepare for AZ-900: Azure App service Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Jan 13 '23 Prepare for AZ-900: Azure App service # showdev # hackathon # career 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read Prepare for AZ-900: Blob Storage with Labs. Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Jan 13 '23 Prepare for AZ-900: Blob Storage with Labs. # azure Comments Add Comment 7 min read GCP Architecture and Framework Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Dec 29 '22 GCP Architecture and Framework # emptystring 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read Reduce your steps to set up a VM Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Dec 22 '22 Reduce your steps to set up a VM # discuss # certification # aws # dataengineering 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Fix your external IP address for your VM using GCP Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Dec 22 '22 Fix your external IP address for your VM using GCP # gratitude 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read Difference between Internal and External IP address Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Dec 22 '22 Difference between Internal and External IP address # gratitude # webdev # cloudcomputing 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 1 min read Prepare for Google Cloud Professional Cloud Architect exam : Regions and Zones Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Dec 20 '22 Prepare for Google Cloud Professional Cloud Architect exam : Regions and Zones # docker # security 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read What is Continuous Integration (CI) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Nov 19 '22 What is Continuous Integration (CI) # discuss # react # webdev 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 4 min read Want to know what is DevOps through a story? Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Nov 19 '22 Want to know what is DevOps through a story? # watercooler Comments Add Comment 6 min read DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Bubble sort Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Nov 11 '22 DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Bubble sort # dsa 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Selection Sort Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Nov 11 '22 DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Selection Sort # dsa 6 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Insertion Sort Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Nov 11 '22 DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Insertion Sort 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Bucket sort Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Nov 11 '22 DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Bucket sort 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Merge Sort (Divide & Conquer Algorithm) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Nov 11 '22 DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Merge Sort (Divide & Conquer Algorithm) 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Quick Sort (Divide and conquer algorithm) Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Nov 11 '22 DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Quick Sort (Divide and conquer algorithm) 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 4 min read Run Jupyter notebook in any location Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Oct 29 '22 Run Jupyter notebook in any location # jupyter 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Sorting Algorithms Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Oct 25 '22 DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java : Sorting Algorithms # algorithms # dsa # sort 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Create an AWS Account in 4 easy steps ! Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Oct 10 '22 Create an AWS Account in 4 easy steps ! # aws 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Create a service account in the Google Cloud Platform using the command line: Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Oct 8 '22 Create a service account in the Google Cloud Platform using the command line: # googlecloud 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Create a Virtual Machine Using the command line in Google Cloud Platform Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Oct 8 '22 Create a Virtual Machine Using the command line in Google Cloud Platform # googlecloud 6 reactions Comments 1 comment 2 min read DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java (Part 1): Introduction to Data Structure and Algorithms Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Shahriyar Al Mustakim Mitul Follow Sep 27 '22 DSA by Mitul in C++, Python, and Java (Part 1): Introduction to Data Structure and Algorithms # dsa # ds # algorithms Comments Add Comment 3 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — Your community HQ Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://zeroday.forem.com/agardnerit/osquery-opentelemetry--55c | osquery + OpenTelemetry = ❤️ - Security Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Security Forem Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Adam Gardner Posted on Nov 16, 2025 osquery + OpenTelemetry = ❤️ # devsecops # tools # soc As you probably know by now, osquery effectively turns your endpoints into SQL endpoints that you can query: SELECT * FROM processes or SELECT * FROM users etc. But, that data is much more useful if it's tied to other telemetry data coming from your VMs, endpoints or Kubernetes clusters. This is typically the domain of APM tools. Using OpenTelemetry (and specifically the OpenTelemetry collector) we can bring those two worlds together. In this video I show you how that's done. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Adam Gardner Follow CNCF Ambassador, DevRel working in Observability. I blog at https://agardner.net and YouTube at https://www.youtube.com/@agardnerit Work DevRel @ Dynatrace / CNCF Ambassador Joined Dec 8, 2023 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV Security Forem — Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Home About Contact Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . Security Forem © 2016 - 2026. Share. Secure. Succeed Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
https://dev.to/t/performance/page/5 | Performance Page 5 - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Performance Follow Hide Tag for content related to software performance. Create Post submission guidelines Articles should be obviously related to software performance in some way. Possible topics include, but are not limited to: Performance Testing Performance Analysis Optimising for performance Scalability Resilience But most of all, be kind and humble. 💜 Older #performance posts 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Concurrency in Rust (Threads, Channels) Aviral Srivastava Aviral Srivastava Aviral Srivastava Follow Jan 8 Concurrency in Rust (Threads, Channels) # performance # programming # rust # tutorial Comments Add Comment 10 min read Get Hit By Performance Bottleneck In Canvas Ikhwan A Latif Ikhwan A Latif Ikhwan A Latif Follow Jan 2 Get Hit By Performance Bottleneck In Canvas # learning # development # programming # performance Comments Add Comment 4 min read Why I Chose Rust Over Python for Production AI Systems Mayuresh Smita Suresh Mayuresh Smita Suresh Mayuresh Smita Suresh Follow Jan 7 Why I Chose Rust Over Python for Production AI Systems # ai # performance # python # rust 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 6 min read EP 7: The "Join" Tax vs. The "Storage" Tax Hrishikesh Dalal Hrishikesh Dalal Hrishikesh Dalal Follow Jan 2 EP 7: The "Join" Tax vs. The "Storage" Tax # systemdesign # architecture # database # performance Comments Add Comment 4 min read PriviMetrics: Privacy-First, Lightweight Analytics for Shared Hosting WebOrbiton WebOrbiton WebOrbiton Follow Jan 3 PriviMetrics: Privacy-First, Lightweight Analytics for Shared Hosting # showdev # analytics # performance # privacy Comments Add Comment 1 min read Sustainable AI Benchmarks Developers Will Be Asked About In 2026 Arbisoft Arbisoft Arbisoft Follow Jan 2 Sustainable AI Benchmarks Developers Will Be Asked About In 2026 # career # performance # ai # devops Comments Add Comment 3 min read Why sum(x**2 for x in range(1000000)) Uses 4000x Less Memory Samuel Ochaba Samuel Ochaba Samuel Ochaba Follow Jan 6 Why sum(x**2 for x in range(1000000)) Uses 4000x Less Memory # python # performance # programming # tutorial Comments 2 comments 2 min read Computed Fields Causing Infinite Recomputations (odoo) Aaron Jones Aaron Jones Aaron Jones Follow Jan 7 Computed Fields Causing Infinite Recomputations (odoo) # backend # performance # python # tutorial 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read 2026 Web Dev Trends That Actually Matter Abhijeet Bhale Abhijeet Bhale Abhijeet Bhale Follow Jan 6 2026 Web Dev Trends That Actually Matter # webdev # javascript # career # performance 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 4 min read Part 2 - Performance & Concurrency Essentials in C#: Memory, Async, and High-Performance Primitives Seigo Kitamura Seigo Kitamura Seigo Kitamura Follow Jan 7 Part 2 - Performance & Concurrency Essentials in C#: Memory, Async, and High-Performance Primitives # csharp # performance # async # concurrency Comments Add Comment 3 min read Thundering Herds: The Scalability Killer Aonnis Aonnis Aonnis Follow Jan 1 Thundering Herds: The Scalability Killer # architecture # performance # systemdesign Comments Add Comment 7 min read Why Edge AI Research Needs Field Validation: Lessons from Replicating MIT CSAIL shambhavi525-sudo shambhavi525-sudo shambhavi525-sudo Follow Jan 4 Why Edge AI Research Needs Field Validation: Lessons from Replicating MIT CSAIL # ai # computerscience # deeplearning # performance 5 reactions Comments 1 comment 2 min read SwiftUI Animation Transactions Internals (Advanced) Sebastien Lato Sebastien Lato Sebastien Lato Follow Dec 31 '25 SwiftUI Animation Transactions Internals (Advanced) # swiftui # animation # performance # internals Comments Add Comment 3 min read GO-QUEUE@v1.1.1: 基于優先級的並發排程，自動提升優先權 邱敬幃 Pardn Chiu 邱敬幃 Pardn Chiu 邱敬幃 Pardn Chiu Follow Jan 1 GO-QUEUE@v1.1.1: 基于優先級的並發排程，自動提升優先權 # algorithms # go # performance # opensource Comments Add Comment 1 min read Unveiling the Power of Databases in the Realm of Big Data Visakh Vijayan Visakh Vijayan Visakh Vijayan Follow Jan 1 Unveiling the Power of Databases in the Realm of Big Data # database # dataengineering # performance Comments Add Comment 2 min read Scaling Django on Railway + S3 + Cloudflare for 1k+ concurrent users Divine Ikhuoria Divine Ikhuoria Divine Ikhuoria Follow Dec 31 '25 Scaling Django on Railway + S3 + Cloudflare for 1k+ concurrent users # django # performance # cloudflarechallenge # aws Comments Add Comment 7 min read Analyzing Docker Images Without Downloading Them jtodic jtodic jtodic Follow Dec 31 '25 Analyzing Docker Images Without Downloading Them # performance # devops # docker # tooling Comments Add Comment 2 min read How Technical SEO Improves Developer Workflows (and Why You Should Care) Zico Zico Zico Follow Dec 31 '25 How Technical SEO Improves Developer Workflows (and Why You Should Care) # ux # webdev # architecture # performance Comments Add Comment 2 min read Boosting Speed: Essential Redis Caching Strategies for SaaS in 2025 i Ash i Ash i Ash Follow Dec 31 '25 Boosting Speed: Essential Redis Caching Strategies for SaaS in 2025 # saas # architecture # backend # performance Comments Add Comment 6 min read When code suggestions push deprecated Pandas APIs: a postmortem Mark k Mark k Mark k Follow Jan 1 When code suggestions push deprecated Pandas APIs: a postmortem # codequality # performance # llm # python Comments Add Comment 3 min read IBM Z: the computer that never learned how to die Pʀᴀɴᴀᴠ Pʀᴀɴᴀᴠ Pʀᴀɴᴀᴠ Follow Dec 30 '25 IBM Z: the computer that never learned how to die # architecture # performance # security 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read Android 앱 최적화 가이드 dss99911 dss99911 dss99911 Follow Dec 31 '25 Android 앱 최적화 가이드 # mobile # android # optimization # performance Comments Add Comment 2 min read MenuetOS KolibriOS: A Non-POSIX Operating System Built in Assembly Pʀᴀɴᴀᴠ Pʀᴀɴᴀᴠ Pʀᴀɴᴀᴠ Follow Dec 30 '25 MenuetOS KolibriOS: A Non-POSIX Operating System Built in Assembly # opensource # architecture # performance # programming 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read Spark Plan 읽기: 기본 가이드 dss99911 dss99911 dss99911 Follow Dec 31 '25 Spark Plan 읽기: 기본 가이드 # infra # spark # sparkplan # performance Comments Add Comment 2 min read Why Your WordPress Site is Slow (Even on "Fast" Hosting) Sachin Sachin Sachin Follow Dec 30 '25 Why Your WordPress Site is Slow (Even on "Fast" Hosting) # wordpress # performance # webdev # php Comments Add Comment 3 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://dev.to/t/architecture/page/5 | Architecture Page 5 - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Architecture Follow Hide The fundamental structures of a software system. Create Post Older #architecture posts 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu React Design Patterns Every Frontend & FullStack Developer Should Know Muhammad Rabbi Muhammad Rabbi Muhammad Rabbi Follow Jan 9 React Design Patterns Every Frontend & FullStack Developer Should Know # architecture # frontend # javascript # react Comments Add Comment 2 min read Running Native (Non-Container) Workloads on Kubernetes: A Practical Experiment laoshanxi laoshanxi laoshanxi Follow Jan 9 Running Native (Non-Container) Workloads on Kubernetes: A Practical Experiment # architecture # devops # kubernetes # containers Comments Add Comment 2 min read No todo problema necesita IA, pero toda IA necesita gobernanza Antonio Jose Socorro Marin Antonio Jose Socorro Marin Antonio Jose Socorro Marin Follow Jan 9 No todo problema necesita IA, pero toda IA necesita gobernanza # discuss # ai # architecture Comments Add Comment 1 min read Not Every Problem Needs AI, but Every AI Needs Governance Antonio Jose Socorro Marin Antonio Jose Socorro Marin Antonio Jose Socorro Marin Follow Jan 9 Not Every Problem Needs AI, but Every AI Needs Governance # discuss # ai # architecture # management Comments Add Comment 1 min read 🚀 Quo.js v0.5.0 🚀 - Event-Driven Architecture and MIT License quojs quojs quojs Follow Jan 8 🚀 Quo.js v0.5.0 🚀 - Event-Driven Architecture and MIT License # architecture # javascript # opensource Comments Add Comment 7 min read REST vs GraphQL: Two Philosophies, Two Eras, One Endless Debate dbc2201 dbc2201 dbc2201 Follow Jan 8 REST vs GraphQL: Two Philosophies, Two Eras, One Endless Debate # discuss # api # architecture # graphql Comments Add Comment 12 min read The ERP Modernization Dilemma: Intelligence Layer vs. Full Replacement in 2026 Genco Divrikli Genco Divrikli Genco Divrikli Follow Jan 9 The ERP Modernization Dilemma: Intelligence Layer vs. Full Replacement in 2026 # discuss # ai # architecture Comments Add Comment 4 min read I Built a Simple MIPS CPU Simulator in Python 🧠 Alberto Alberto Alberto Follow Jan 8 I Built a Simple MIPS CPU Simulator in Python 🧠 # python # beginners # codecademy # architecture Comments Add Comment 1 min read Type-Safe By Design: Architecting Applications That Make Bugs Impossible Tarun Moorjani Tarun Moorjani Tarun Moorjani Follow Jan 8 Type-Safe By Design: Architecting Applications That Make Bugs Impossible # webdev # typescript # architecture # javascript Comments Add Comment 8 min read Browser-Based kubectl Access: Managing Kubernetes Without Bastion Hosts Robert Zsoter Robert Zsoter Robert Zsoter Follow Jan 8 Browser-Based kubectl Access: Managing Kubernetes Without Bastion Hosts # architecture # devops # kubernetes # security Comments Add Comment 4 min read La gobernanza no se “alinea”: se diseña Antonio Jose Socorro Marin Antonio Jose Socorro Marin Antonio Jose Socorro Marin Follow Jan 9 La gobernanza no se “alinea”: se diseña # ai # architecture # design # spanish Comments Add Comment 1 min read LLMs are like Humans - They make mistakes. Here is how we limit them with Guardrails Ali-Funk Ali-Funk Ali-Funk Follow Jan 8 LLMs are like Humans - They make mistakes. Here is how we limit them with Guardrails # aws # ai # guardrails # architecture Comments Add Comment 2 min read Legacy-First Design (LFD): Designing Software That Still Makes Sense Over Time Matheus Pereira Matheus Pereira Matheus Pereira Follow Jan 11 Legacy-First Design (LFD): Designing Software That Still Makes Sense Over Time # architecture # design # softwareengineering 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read The Command Pattern Simplified: How Modern Java (21–25) Makes It Elegant Jitin Jitin Jitin Follow Jan 8 The Command Pattern Simplified: How Modern Java (21–25) Makes It Elegant # architecture # java # tutorial Comments Add Comment 7 min read Handshake: o custo invísivel das APIs modernas Caio Macedo Caio Macedo Caio Macedo Follow Jan 8 Handshake: o custo invísivel das APIs modernas # api # architecture # networking # performance Comments Add Comment 3 min read My Node.js API Best Practices in 2025 Shamim Ali Shamim Ali Shamim Ali Follow Jan 8 My Node.js API Best Practices in 2025 # api # architecture # node # performance Comments Add Comment 3 min read Wearable Tech Data + Better Health Insights + Building a Scalable IoT Pipeline on AWS wellallyTech wellallyTech wellallyTech Follow Jan 9 Wearable Tech Data + Better Health Insights + Building a Scalable IoT Pipeline on AWS # aws # architecture # serverless # iot Comments Add Comment 3 min read Framework de Gobernanza para IA Responsable Nathalie Chicaiza Nathalie Chicaiza Nathalie Chicaiza Follow Jan 8 Framework de Gobernanza para IA Responsable # ai # architecture # aws # spanish Comments Add Comment 2 min read SwiftUI Image Loading Pipeline (AsyncImage Is Not Enough) Sebastien Lato Sebastien Lato Sebastien Lato Follow Jan 8 SwiftUI Image Loading Pipeline (AsyncImage Is Not Enough) # swiftui # performance # images # architecture Comments Add Comment 3 min read Monorepo Demystified: Turborepo vs. Lerna vs. Nx - Which one should you choose? 🚀 Werliton Silva Werliton Silva Werliton Silva Follow Jan 8 Monorepo Demystified: Turborepo vs. Lerna vs. Nx - Which one should you choose? 🚀 # architecture # javascript # tooling Comments Add Comment 2 min read Elevating Innovation: The Future of Cloud with Platform as a Service (PaaS) Visakh Vijayan Visakh Vijayan Visakh Vijayan Follow Jan 8 Elevating Innovation: The Future of Cloud with Platform as a Service (PaaS) # architecture # cloudcomputing # devops Comments Add Comment 3 min read Stop Drowning Your LLMs: The Case for the Multidimensional Knowledge Graph Imran Siddique Imran Siddique Imran Siddique Follow Jan 8 Stop Drowning Your LLMs: The Case for the Multidimensional Knowledge Graph # ai # architecture # llm # rag Comments Add Comment 4 min read An experiment in building a lightweight, ephemeral chat system vogchat vogchat vogchat Follow Jan 8 An experiment in building a lightweight, ephemeral chat system # discuss # architecture # privacy # showdev Comments Add Comment 1 min read System Design 101: A Clear & Simple Introduction (With a Real-World Analogy) Vishwark Vishwark Vishwark Follow Jan 8 System Design 101: A Clear & Simple Introduction (With a Real-World Analogy) # systemdesign # architecture # beginners # careerdevelopment Comments Add Comment 3 min read Modernizing Legacy ERP Systems with Machine Learning: A Practical Implementation Guide Genco Divrikli Genco Divrikli Genco Divrikli Follow Jan 8 Modernizing Legacy ERP Systems with Machine Learning: A Practical Implementation Guide # architecture # machinelearning # tutorial Comments Add Comment 4 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://www.highlight.io/customers/cabal | How Cabal Uses Highlight to Ship Products Star us on GitHub Star Migrate your Highlight account to LaunchDarkly by February 28, 2026. Learn more on our blog. Product Integrations Pricing Resources Docs Sign in Sign up All customers Customer Case Study How Cabal Uses Highlight to Ship Products We have two main use cases for Highlight in the Cabal GTM team. The first is addressing support tickets. Our first reaction when we receive a ticket is to understand what the user did, and so we’ll check Highlight to see what interaction they had with the product and where things went wrong. Highlight allows us to address customer support requests with precision. The second way we use Highlight is to get self-serve feedback on new features from our users. Rather than having to set up a bunch of customer interviews, we’re able to go into Highlight and understand where people are clicking, where they’re getting held up, etc. We then make the necessary changes to the product and repeat the process. Understanding user issues “ One of the beautiful things about Highlight is it gives you an illustration of what events took place over the course of a user’s session. ” Sam Kernan-Schloss , Cabal At Cabal, we want to deeply understand the issues that our customers are facing. A lot of times, when customers reach out to us with an issue, we lack context on how the issue actualizes and what’s causing it. That’s where Highlight comes in. When a customer reaches out to us on Intercom, we’ll drop their email into Highlight and Highlight immediately returns a prioritized list of the sessions for that specific user. We’ll then watch the most relevant sessions to get an understanding of what’s wrong. One of the beautiful things about Highlight is it gives you an illustration of what events took place over the course of a user’s session. This makes it easy to quickly understand where something went wrong, within 10 seconds or so. New feature feedback “ With Highlight, we can understand how users actually feel about a particular feature by observing their behaviors. It makes it easy to understand things like where the friction points are, where users are getting frustrated, and whether users are using new features as we intended. ” Sam Kernan-Schloss , Cabal Shipping features quickly is important to our team at Cabal. One of the challenges of shipping quickly is making sure you’re staying in touch with customer feedback and getting an understanding for how your features are being received by end-users. You can set up a bunch of customer interviews, but there are two main issues with that: They require a lot of overhead to coordinate and manage at scale The customer feedback may not exactly align with their behaviors in-product With Highlight, we can understand how users actually feel about a particular feature by observing their behaviors. It makes it easy to understand things like where the friction points are, where users are getting frustrated, and whether users are using new features as we intended. Understanding user behavior through session replay is the best way to gauge the success of new features. Why Highlight “ One of the beautiful things about getting Highlight set up was that I didn’t need to worry about it interrupting our sprints. After we decided to use Hex, getting it set up for our team took less than an hour. ” Sam Kernan-Schloss , Cabal One of the things that stuck with me from the first time I demo’d Highlight was that, not only did it help the engineers with debugging, but it was easy enough for folks on the GTM team, like myself, to use and see how our users are using the product. One of the beautiful things about getting Highlight set up was that I didn’t need to worry about it interrupting our sprints. After we decided to use Hex, getting it set up for our team took less than an hour. When we were comparing Highlight to similar tools, we realized that we were able to get a bit more granular with what we were seeing in Highlight, as compared to other tools. It also made it easy to filter down to what we wanted to watch. Our engineering team also appreciated the engineer-first focus of the product and got really excited about the tool being suited for them. Previous Customer Next Customer About the company A private workspace for founders to send asks & updates, track contributions, and scale their advisor program. Founded 2020 Using Highlight since Jan 2020 Try Highlight Today Get the visibility you need Get started for free Product Pricing Sign up Features Privacy & Security Customers Session Replay Error Monitoring Logging Competitors LogRocket Hotjar Fullstory Smartlook Inspectlet Datadog Sentry Site24x7 Sprig Mouseflow Pendo Heap LogicMonitor Last9 Axiom Better Stack HyperDX Dash0 Developers Changelog Documentation Ambassadors Frameworks React Next.js Angular Gatsby.js Svelte.js Vue.js Express Golang Next.js Node.js Rails Hono Contact & Legal Terms of Service Privacy Policy Careers sales@highlight.io security@highlight.io [object Object] | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
https://vibe.forem.com/t/database | Database - Vibe Coding Forem Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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https://www.fine.dev/blog/ai-coding-guide | AI Coding – A Simple Guide for Developers Home Docs Changelog Pricing Sign in Get started -> Menu Home Docs Changelog Pricing <- Go Back AI Coding – A Simple Guide for Developers Table of Contents Introduction: What is AI Coding The Importance of Context in AI Coding Tips for Providing Better Context Practical Instructions for Providing Context to AI Coding Tools 1. Creating a Knowledge Graph 2. Implementing Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) 3. Copy-Pasting Relevant Code into ChatGPT and Claude 4. Understanding Potential Mistakes Without Proper Context Using AI to Generate Code Incorporating AI Tools into Your Workflow Advice for Front-End Developers Practical Tips Advice for Back-End Developers Practical Tips Use Cases for AI in Coding 1. Automated Bug Fixes 2. Predicting Performance Bottlenecks 3. Large Codebase Refactoring Industry-Specific Benefits Best Large Language Models (LLMs) for Coding 1. OpenAI 2. Anthropic 3. Google Gemini 4. Other Notable Models Choosing the Right LLM for Your Needs Popular AI Coding Tools 1. Fine 2. ChatGPT 3. Replit 4. Devin 5. Cursor Conclusion Introduction: What is AI Coding In today's rapidly evolving tech landscape, AI coding has emerged as a game-changer for developers. But what exactly is AI coding? Simply put, it's the use of artificial intelligence to assist in writing, optimizing, and managing code. AI coding tools help developers write better, faster, and more efficient code by automating repetitive tasks, providing intelligent code suggestions, and even debugging. This blog will delve into the importance of context in AI coding, how to use AI for generating code, offer practical advice for both front-end and back-end developers, explore various use cases, introduce some of the top AI coding tools available today, and discuss the best large language models (LLMs) for coding. The Importance of Context in AI Coding The first key to success in AI coding is understanding context . AI tools analyze the surrounding code to generate relevant and accurate suggestions. Without proper context, AI-generated code can be irrelevant or even introduce errors. Here's why context matters: Code Quality: In complex systems, context helps maintain consistency and functionality across different modules. Relevance: AI tools can provide more precise code snippets when they understand the broader scope of the project. Efficiency: Proper context reduces the time developers spend correcting AI-generated code. Imagine asking a lawyer off the street to represent you in court, without knowing anything about you, the case, or the evidence. The best lawyer in the world would struggle! The same goes for AI in coding - only if you provide the relevant information will you get relevant results. Tips for Providing Better Context: Descriptive Comments: Write clear and detailed comments to guide the AI tool. Structured Code: Organize your code logically to help AI understand the flow and dependencies. Consistent Naming Conventions: Use meaningful and consistent names for variables, functions, and classes. Integrate Platforms: The more of your tech stack that can be integrated, the more data the AI will be able to access and the better the output will be. Fine offers GitHub, Linear, and Sentry integrations with more on the way. Practical Instructions for Providing Context to AI Coding Tools To maximize the effectiveness of AI coding tools, providing comprehensive and well-structured context is essential. Here are some practical methods to enhance context for AI tools: 1. Creating a Knowledge Graph A knowledge graph is a structured representation of information that outlines the relationships between different components of your codebase. By creating a knowledge graph, you can provide AI tools with a holistic view of your project, enabling them to make more informed suggestions. How to Create a Knowledge Graph: Identify Key Components: List out all the modules, classes, functions, and their interactions within your project. Define Relationships: Establish how these components interact, depend on each other, and contribute to the overall functionality. Use Visualization Tools: Utilize tools like Neo4j or Graphviz to visualize the knowledge graph, making it easier to understand and update. Benefits: Enhances AI's understanding of the project structure. Facilitates better code suggestions and optimizations. Helps in identifying dependencies and potential areas for improvement. Fine creates a knowledge graph called Atlas, which includes your codebase from GitHub and issues from Sentry and Linear. This way, it prepares the AI to handle any task you give it. You don’t need to work hard creating your own knowledge graph when we’ve done it for you. 2. Implementing Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) combines traditional information retrieval techniques with generative AI models to provide more accurate and contextually relevant responses. How to Use RAG: Integrate Data Sources: Connect your AI coding tool to relevant data sources such as documentation, code repositories, and knowledge bases. Contextual Retrieval: Ensure that the AI can retrieve pertinent information from these sources before generating code suggestions. Continuous Learning: Update the data sources regularly to keep the AI informed about the latest changes and best practices in your project. Benefits: Improves the relevance and accuracy of AI-generated code. Enables AI to leverage existing knowledge and documentation. Enhances the tool's ability to handle complex queries and tasks. 3. Copy-Pasting Relevant Code into ChatGPT and Claude When using conversational AI tools like ChatGPT for coding assistance, providing snippets of relevant code can significantly improve the quality of the responses. How to Provide Relevant Code: Select Key Sections: Identify and copy the sections of code that are directly related to your query or the task at hand. Provide Contextual Information: Along with the code, include comments or explanations that describe the functionality and purpose of the code segments. Ask Specific Questions: Clearly state what you need help with, such as debugging a particular function or optimizing a code block. Example: # Function to calculate the factorial of a number def factorial(n): if n == 0: return 1 else: return n * factorial(n-1) # I need to optimize this recursive factorial function to handle larger numbers without hitting the recursion limit. Question: How can I optimize the above factorial function to handle larger inputs efficiently? Benefits: Provides AI with the necessary context to generate accurate solutions. Reduces ambiguity, leading to more precise and helpful responses. Saves time by directly addressing specific issues within the code. This is similar to GitHub Copilot and some other tools where you can highlight the relevant context to direct the AI. 4. Understanding Potential Mistakes Without Proper Context AI coding tools, while powerful, can make mistakes if not provided with adequate context. Common errors include: Irrelevant Code Suggestions: Without understanding the project structure, AI might suggest code that doesn't fit the existing framework. Syntax Errors: Lack of context can lead to syntax mistakes, especially in languages with strict syntax rules. Logical Flaws: AI might introduce logical errors if it doesn't fully grasp the intended functionality. Security Vulnerabilities: Inadequate context can result in code that exposes security loopholes or fails to follow best practices. Backend Errors In languages commonly used for backend such as Python, AI may make more mistakes if it doesn’t have context, such as NameErrors and IndentationErrors - mistakes that you wouldn’t have made coding manually. You can read more about common Python errors and how different AI applications handle them here. Fine is less likely to make such errors, as it has full knowledge of your codebase. Mitigation Strategies: Always Review AI-Generated Code: Never blindly trust the AI's suggestions; always verify and test the code. Provide Comprehensive Context: The more information you provide, the better the AI can assist accurately. Use Multiple Sources: Cross-reference AI suggestions with official documentation and best practices. Continuous Feedback: Provide feedback to the AI tool to help it learn and improve over time. Using AI to Generate Code AI coding tools are revolutionizing the way developers write code by automating mundane tasks and enhancing creativity. Here's how AI is being used to generate code: Code Snippets: AI can suggest entire lines or blocks of code based on the current context. Automating Repetitive Tasks: Tasks like boilerplate code generation, formatting, and refactoring can be handled by AI, freeing up developers to focus on more complex problems. Bug Detection: AI can identify potential bugs and vulnerabilities in real-time, ensuring higher code quality. Incorporating AI Tools into Your Workflow: Choose the Right Tool: Select an AI coding tool that integrates seamlessly with your development workflow. Customize Settings: Tailor the tool’s settings to match your coding style and project requirements. Regularly Review Suggestions: While AI can assist, always review and test AI-generated code to ensure it meets your standards. Advice for Front-End Developers Front-end development focuses on the user interface and user experience. AI coding tools can significantly enhance this process: UI/UX Enhancement: AI can suggest design improvements and optimize user interfaces for better engagement. Streamlining CSS/HTML/JS: Automate the generation of responsive designs and ensure cross-browser compatibility. Automated Testing: AI tools can perform repetitive testing tasks, ensuring your front-end code is robust and error-free. Practical Tips: Use AI for Responsive Design: Let AI suggest layout adjustments for different screen sizes. Optimize Performance: AI can analyze and optimize front-end performance, reducing load times and improving user experience. Leverage AI for Accessibility: Ensure your applications are accessible by using AI to identify and fix accessibility issues. Advice for Back-End Developers Back-end development involves server-side logic, database management, and ensuring the smooth operation of applications. AI coding tools can streamline these processes: Automating Server-Side Logic: AI can generate efficient server-side code, handling complex operations with ease. Security Vulnerability Detection: Identify and fix security issues before they become problematic. Database Query Optimization: AI can analyze and optimize database queries for better performance. Practical Tips: API Generation: Use AI to create and manage APIs, ensuring they are secure and efficient. Automate Testing: Implement AI-driven testing to validate back-end processes and ensure reliability. Optimize Code Performance: Leverage AI to analyze and enhance the performance of your server-side code. Use Cases for AI in Coding AI coding has a wide range of applications across various industries. Here are some real-world use cases: 1. Automated Bug Fixes Fine’s AI can identify and fix bugs in your codebase, reducing the time spent on debugging and improving overall code quality. 2. Predicting Performance Bottlenecks By analyzing code patterns, AI can predict potential performance issues, allowing developers to address them proactively. 3. Large Codebase Refactoring Managing and refactoring large codebases can be daunting. AI tools can assist with this process, ensuring consistency and reducing errors. Industry-Specific Benefits: E-Commerce: Enhance platform performance and security with AI-driven optimizations. Add features to improve user experience and conversion rates rapidly. Fintech: Ensure the reliability and security of financial applications through AI-assisted coding. SaaS Platforms: Improve scalability and performance with AI-generated and optimized code. Healthcare: Streamline data processing and ensure compliance with regulatory standards through AI-assisted code generation. Education Technology: Enhance learning platforms by personalizing features and improving code quality with AI-driven development. Gaming: Optimize game performance and identify bugs faster with AI-generated suggestions and automated testing. Best Large Language Models (LLMs) for Coding Large Language Models (LLMs) are at the heart of modern AI coding tools. They power the intelligent features that assist developers in writing and managing code. Here are some of the best LLMs for coding: 1. OpenAI OpenAI's models, including GPT-4 , are renowned for their versatility and capability in understanding and generating human-like text. In coding, GPT-4 excels at code generation, debugging, and providing intelligent suggestions across multiple programming languages. OpenAI also offers Codex , specifically fine-tuned for programming tasks, making it a popular choice for developers seeking advanced AI assistance. OpenAI also recently released preview and mini versions of their latest model, o1, which is outperforming competitors on many benchmarks. 2. Anthropic Anthropic's Claude models focus on safety and reliability, ensuring that AI-generated code adheres to best practices and minimizes errors. These models are designed to understand complex coding contexts and provide suggestions that align with developers' intent. Anthropic emphasizes ethical AI use, making their models a trustworthy option for sensitive and critical development environments. Claude Sonnet 3.5 was widely regarded as the most powerful LLM for coding, until o1’s release, and many developers still prefer it. 3. Google Gemini Google's Gemini models leverage Google's extensive research in natural language processing and machine learning. Gemini is designed to integrate seamlessly with Google's ecosystem, offering robust support for various programming languages and frameworks. With a focus on scalability and performance, Gemini models are ideal for large-scale projects requiring consistent and efficient code generation. 4. Other Notable Models: Cohere : Known for their fast and efficient language models, Cohere offers solutions tailored for real-time coding assistance and integration into development workflows. Grok: A versatile AI model designed to assist developers in writing, debugging, and optimizing code effectively. IBM Watson: IBM's AI offerings include models that specialize in enterprise-level coding assistance, focusing on security, compliance, and integration with existing IT infrastructures. Choosing the Right LLM for Your Needs: When selecting an LLM for coding, consider the following factors: Language Support: Ensure the model supports the programming languages you use. Integration: Look for models that integrate smoothly with your development environment and tools. Customization: Some models offer more flexibility for customization and fine-tuning based on specific project requirements. Safety and Reliability: Prioritize models that emphasize code accuracy and security to minimize the risk of introducing vulnerabilities. Click here to learn about the leading LLMs for coding and how they compare. o1-preview and Claude 3.5 Sonnet are considered to be the prominent AI models for coding. Popular AI Coding Tools There are several AI coding tools available, each with unique features tailored to different needs. Here are some of the leading options: 1. Fine Features: Fine offers advanced code generation, intelligent suggestions, automations and a full-context knowledge graph. It leverages state-of-the-art LLMs including o1 and Claude Sonnet to provide accurate and context-aware code assistance. Best For: Professional developers seeking a comprehensive AI assistant that enhances productivity across multiple programming languages, working on existing codebases. Integration: Integrates with GitHub, Linear, Sentry and Slack - with further integrations such as Jira, Monday Dev, Clickup, Data Dog, Jam.dev and posthog coming soon. 2. ChatGPT Features: ChatGPT provides conversational AI assistance, allowing developers to ask questions, seek code examples, and receive real-time support. It excels in understanding natural language queries and providing detailed explanations. Best For: Asking short questions about coding in general - such as explaining functions you’re not familiar with. Integration: Accessible via web interface, API, and can be integrated into various development tools through plugins and extensions. 3. Replit Features: Replit offers an online coding platform with integrated AI assistance. It supports collaborative coding, real-time code suggestions, and automated debugging. Best For: Teams and individual developers looking for a cloud-based development environment with built-in AI support. Integration: Fully web-based, allowing seamless collaboration and access from any device with internet connectivity. 4. Devin Features: Devin focuses on optimizing backend development with AI-driven code generation, API creation, and database management. It offers robust security features and performance optimization tools. Best For: Back-end developers seeking specialized AI tools to streamline server-side development and database interactions. Integration: Compatible with major backend frameworks and integrates with popular cloud services for deployment and management. Devin isn’t currently publicly available, but you can apply for Beta access via their website. 5. Cursor Features: Cursor provides AI-powered code generation and real-time collaboration features. It emphasizes building large blocks of code and reducing development time. Best For: Developers who prioritize code quality and seek tools that can begin a project from scratch and take it to MVP. Integration: Cursor is built on VSCode making it familiar for many developers. Equally as time-consuming as writing code is reviewing code. Here's a comparison of how different AI Coding tools handle code reviews. Conclusion AI coding boosts productivity, improves code quality, and lets developers focus on creative tasks. Providing context, using AI for code generation, and choosing the right tools can greatly benefit developers. Pick the best large language models for your needs to optimize your workflow. Automate tasks, optimize performance, and enhance security with AI coding tools. Embrace AI to unlock new efficiency and innovation. Try Fine for free at ai.fine.dev and elevate your coding workflow today. Start building today Try out the smoothest way to build, launch and manage an app Try for Free -> © Fine.dev - All rights reserved. Product Overview AI Workflows Pricing & Plans Changelog Blog Docs Company Press Terms & Conditions Privacy policy | 2026-01-13T08:48:54 |
https://dev.to/alexanderhodes/xcode-cloud-build-fails-due-command-exited-with-non-zero-exit-code-70-6aj#comments | XCode Cloud Build fails due Command exited with non-zero exit-code: 70 - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Alexander Hodes Posted on Jan 12 XCode Cloud Build fails due Command exited with non-zero exit-code: 70 # appdev # ios # cicd Back from vacation and some days after the new year started our build pipeline for the iOS app in Xcode Cloud fails. The xcodebuild command still succedded but the signing of the app for ad-hoc and app-store distribution failed with Command exited with non-zero exit-code: 70 That's a snippet from the log. Run command: 'xcodebuild -exportArchive -archivePath /Volumes/workspace/tmp/3dbe9cdf-8b26-4d08-98fc-ec820978e845.xcarchive -exportPath /Volumes/workspace/adhocexport -exportOptionsPlist /Volumes/workspace/ci/ad-hoc-exportoptions.plist '-DVTPortalRequest.Endpoint=http://172.16.47.196:8089' -DVTProvisioningIsManaged=YES -IDEDistributionLogDirectory=/Volumes/workspace/tmp/ad-hoc-export-archive-logs -DVTSkipCertificateValidityCheck=YES -DVTServicesLogLevel=3' Error Command exited with non-zero exit-code: 70 Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Some background why we use Xcode cloud. At the beginning of last year, we've migrated from Azure Devops to Xcode Cloud because the build of the iOS version of our React Native app took about one hour. For internal testing we push the distribute the app by Firebase App Distribution . The migration was pretty easy using some additional steps in the iOS build process with the custom build scripts . With using XCode cloud the build time decreased by more than 50%. Investigating it further During the vacation days nothing has changed. Our workflow was still the same and there weren't any code changes which could lead to the problem. Therefore the only reason could be expired certificates or provisioning profiles. Unfortunately, there were no certificates expired or revoked. One important artifact of every build in XCode cloud is the Log file which contains the logs of the xcodebuild and signing steps. After comparing the logs for signing from the failed with the last successful one something weird was visible. The request for requesting the DVTServices: Response payload didn't contain any certificates. 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992744779Z 2025-12-23 06:56:24.555 xcodebuild[26013:105669] DVTServices: Response payload: { 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992747015Z "data" : [] 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992808870Z "links" : { 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992811619Z "self" : "https://developer-ci.corp.apple.com:443/services/v1/certificates?filter%5BcertificateType%5D=DISTRIBUTION_MANAGED&limit=200" 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992814240Z }, 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992816002Z "meta" : { 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992817707Z "paging" : { 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992819465Z "total" : 1, 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992821323Z "limit" : 200 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992823022Z } 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992824692Z } 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992826793Z } Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode In the last successful run, there was one included. 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992744779Z 2025-12-23 06:56:24.555 xcodebuild[26013:105669] DVTServices: Response payload: { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992747015Z "data" : [ { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992749303Z "type" : "certificates", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992751380Z "id" : "id", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992753249Z "attributes" : { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992755418Z "serialNumber" : "abc", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992773108Z "certificateContent" : "", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992784914Z "displayName" : "Company Name", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992787108Z "name" : "Apple Distribution: Company Name", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992789263Z "platform" : null, 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992791524Z "responseId" : "136ed97e-949c-428b-b0a3-c5513e2cfacc", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992793996Z "expirationDate" : "2026-04-07T08:06:15.000+00:00", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992796344Z "certificateType" : "DISTRIBUTION_MANAGED" 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992798263Z }, 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992800337Z "links" : { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992802983Z "self" : "https://developer-ci.corp.apple.com:443/services/v1/certificates/abc" 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992805363Z } 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992807115Z } ], 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992808870Z "links" : { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992811619Z "self" : "https://developer-ci.corp.apple.com:443/services/v1/certificates?filter%5BcertificateType%5D=DISTRIBUTION_MANAGED&limit=200" 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992814240Z }, 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992816002Z "meta" : { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992817707Z "paging" : { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992819465Z "total" : 1, 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992821323Z "limit" : 200 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992823022Z } 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992824692Z } 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992826793Z } Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Solving the signing issue Solving this issue is much simpler than expected. In the Apple Developer Portal you need to open the Certificates, Identifiers & Profiles section. There some certificates created by Xcode Cloud will appear. These certificates are created automatically by Xcode Cloud when starting a workflow. You just need to revoke those certificates by clicking on revoke in the detail view of the certificate. After the deletion of these certificates, you can trigger your workflows again. The signing for ad-hoc and app-store distribution should work and new certificates should be generated. The reason for this issue might be that Apple internally generates some private keys which will expire or will be deleted due to the end of the year. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Alexander Hodes Follow Location Fulda, Germany Work Fullstack Developer Joined Jan 24, 2021 Trending on DEV Community Hot How to Crack Any Software Developer Interview in 2026 (Updated for AI & Modern Hiring) # softwareengineering # programming # career # interview What was your win this week??? # weeklyretro # discuss I Didn’t “Become” a Senior Developer. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Alexander Hodes Posted on Jan 12 XCode Cloud Build fails due Command exited with non-zero exit-code: 70 # appdev # ios # cicd Back from vacation and some days after the new year started our build pipeline for the iOS app in Xcode Cloud fails. The xcodebuild command still succedded but the signing of the app for ad-hoc and app-store distribution failed with Command exited with non-zero exit-code: 70 That's a snippet from the log. Run command: 'xcodebuild -exportArchive -archivePath /Volumes/workspace/tmp/3dbe9cdf-8b26-4d08-98fc-ec820978e845.xcarchive -exportPath /Volumes/workspace/adhocexport -exportOptionsPlist /Volumes/workspace/ci/ad-hoc-exportoptions.plist '-DVTPortalRequest.Endpoint=http://172.16.47.196:8089' -DVTProvisioningIsManaged=YES -IDEDistributionLogDirectory=/Volumes/workspace/tmp/ad-hoc-export-archive-logs -DVTSkipCertificateValidityCheck=YES -DVTServicesLogLevel=3' Error Command exited with non-zero exit-code: 70 Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Some background why we use Xcode cloud. At the beginning of last year, we've migrated from Azure Devops to Xcode Cloud because the build of the iOS version of our React Native app took about one hour. For internal testing we push the distribute the app by Firebase App Distribution . The migration was pretty easy using some additional steps in the iOS build process with the custom build scripts . With using XCode cloud the build time decreased by more than 50%. Investigating it further During the vacation days nothing has changed. Our workflow was still the same and there weren't any code changes which could lead to the problem. Therefore the only reason could be expired certificates or provisioning profiles. Unfortunately, there were no certificates expired or revoked. One important artifact of every build in XCode cloud is the Log file which contains the logs of the xcodebuild and signing steps. After comparing the logs for signing from the failed with the last successful one something weird was visible. The request for requesting the DVTServices: Response payload didn't contain any certificates. 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992744779Z 2025-12-23 06:56:24.555 xcodebuild[26013:105669] DVTServices: Response payload: { 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992747015Z "data" : [] 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992808870Z "links" : { 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992811619Z "self" : "https://developer-ci.corp.apple.com:443/services/v1/certificates?filter%5BcertificateType%5D=DISTRIBUTION_MANAGED&limit=200" 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992814240Z }, 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992816002Z "meta" : { 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992817707Z "paging" : { 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992819465Z "total" : 1, 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992821323Z "limit" : 200 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992823022Z } 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992824692Z } 2026-01-12T12:23:16.992826793Z } Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode In the last successful run, there was one included. 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992744779Z 2025-12-23 06:56:24.555 xcodebuild[26013:105669] DVTServices: Response payload: { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992747015Z "data" : [ { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992749303Z "type" : "certificates", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992751380Z "id" : "id", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992753249Z "attributes" : { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992755418Z "serialNumber" : "abc", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992773108Z "certificateContent" : "", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992784914Z "displayName" : "Company Name", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992787108Z "name" : "Apple Distribution: Company Name", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992789263Z "platform" : null, 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992791524Z "responseId" : "136ed97e-949c-428b-b0a3-c5513e2cfacc", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992793996Z "expirationDate" : "2026-04-07T08:06:15.000+00:00", 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992796344Z "certificateType" : "DISTRIBUTION_MANAGED" 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992798263Z }, 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992800337Z "links" : { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992802983Z "self" : "https://developer-ci.corp.apple.com:443/services/v1/certificates/abc" 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992805363Z } 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992807115Z } ], 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992808870Z "links" : { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992811619Z "self" : "https://developer-ci.corp.apple.com:443/services/v1/certificates?filter%5BcertificateType%5D=DISTRIBUTION_MANAGED&limit=200" 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992814240Z }, 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992816002Z "meta" : { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992817707Z "paging" : { 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992819465Z "total" : 1, 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992821323Z "limit" : 200 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992823022Z } 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992824692Z } 2025-12-23T14:56:24.992826793Z } Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Solving the signing issue Solving this issue is much simpler than expected. In the Apple Developer Portal you need to open the Certificates, Identifiers & Profiles section. There some certificates created by Xcode Cloud will appear. These certificates are created automatically by Xcode Cloud when starting a workflow. You just need to revoke those certificates by clicking on revoke in the detail view of the certificate. After the deletion of these certificates, you can trigger your workflows again. The signing for ad-hoc and app-store distribution should work and new certificates should be generated. The reason for this issue might be that Apple internally generates some private keys which will expire or will be deleted due to the end of the year. Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Alexander Hodes Follow Location Fulda, Germany Work Fullstack Developer Joined Jan 24, 2021 Trending on DEV Community Hot How to Crack Any Software Developer Interview in 2026 (Updated for AI & Modern Hiring) # softwareengineering # programming # career # interview What was your win this week??? # weeklyretro # discuss I Didn’t “Become” a Senior Developer. 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https://neon.tech/?ref=devto | Neon Serverless Postgres — Ship faster This 250+ engineer team replaced shared staging with isolated database branches for safer deploys Neon Product Database Autoscaling Automatic instance sizing Branching Faster Postgres workflows Bottomless storage With copy-on-write Instant restores Recover TBs in seconds Connection pooler Built-in with pgBouncer Ecosystem Neon API Manage infra, billing, quotas Auth Add authentication Data API PostgREST-compatible Instagres No-signup flow Migration guides Step-by-step What is Neon? Serverless Postgres, by Databricks Solutions Use cases Serverless Apps Autoscale with traffic Multi-TB Scale & restore instantly Database per Tenant Data isolation without overhead Platforms Offer Postgres to your users Dev/Test Production-like environments Agents Build full-stack AI agents For teams Startups Build with Neon Security Compliance & privacy Case studies Explore customer stories Docs Pricing Company Blog About us Careers Contact Discord 20.7k Log In Sign Up Ship faster with Postgres The database developers trust, on a serverless platform designed to help you build reliable and scalable applications faster. Start for Free Talk to Us Scaling Scaling Focus on building applications with time and money-saving features like instant provisioning, autoscaling according to load, and scale to zero. Discover Autoscaling Branching Branching Instantly branch your data and schema to access isolated DB copies for development, CI/CD, and schema migrations with copy-on-write storage. Explore Branching Trusted in production by thousands of teams. Instant Provisioning No waiting. No config. Provisioned in 300ms postgresql://example@ep-938132.eu-central-1.aws.neon.tech/primary Works with your stack Integrate it into your language or framework within minutes and unlock a simpler developer workflow. See all examples Next.js Drizzle Prisma Python Ruby Rust Go import { neon } from '@neondatabase/serverless' ; export async function GET () { const sql = neon ( process . env . DATABASE_URL ); const rows = await sql `SELECT * FROM posts` ; return Response .json ({ rows }) } Lightning fast. Edge ready. The Neon serverless driver , designed for fast queries over HTTP import { neon } from '@neondatabase/ serverless'; const sql = neon('postgresql:// usr:pass@proj.us-east-2.aws.neon.tech/db'); const posts = await sql('SELECT * FROM posts'); Get the Serverless Driver Better database. For modern workflows. Boost your performance with instant read replicas . They scale down to zero when idle and don't use additional storage. Easy database ops via the API and CLI . Manage thousands of databases programmatically. Instant Point-in-time recovery . Up to 30 days granularity down to the transaction or second. Unleashing Cutting- Edge AI Applications. The HNSW index algorithm streamlines performance, making high-dimensional vector search remarkably efficient. Power your AI apps with Postgres Reliable Scalability High compatibility Blazingly fast search Works with PGVECTOR Works with langchain ; Thousands of databases. Zero overhead. Use the Neon API to deploy database-per-tenant architectures . Scale to fleets of thousands of databases without touching a server. Rest easy knowing scale to zero keeps costs low. Industry leaders trust Neon Dive into success stories Neon allows us to develop much faster than we’ve even been used to Alex Klarfeld – CEO and co-founder of Supergood.ai Neon's serverless philosophy is aligned with our vision: no infrastructure to manage, no servers to provision, no database cluster to maintain Edouard Bonlieu – Co-founder at Koyeb The killer feature that convinced us to use Neon was branching: it keeps our engineering velocity high Léonard Henriquez – Co-founder and CTO, Topo.io We've been able to automate virtually all database tasks via the Neon API, saving us a tremendous amount of time and engineering effort Himanshu Bhandoh – Software Engineer at Retool Trusted Postgres neondatabase/neon Databases under management. Postgres for the World. 100% Postgres. Not a fork, not a rewrite. SOC2 Compliance Features of tomorrow. Available today. Get Started Neon A Databricks Company Neon status loading... Made in SF and the World Copyright Ⓒ 2022 – 2026 Neon, LLC Company About Blog Careers Contact Sales Partners Security Legal Privacy Policy Terms of Service DPA Subprocessors List Privacy Guide Cookie Policy Business Information Resources Docs Changelog Support Community Guides PostgreSQL Tutorial Startups Creators Social Discord GitHub x.com LinkedIn YouTube Compliance CCPA Compliant GDPR Compliant ISO 27001 Certified ISO 27701 Certified SOC 2 Certified HIPAA Compliant Compliance Guide Neon’s Sub Contractors Sensitive Data Terms Trust Center | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/amp/ | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com Tinyhack.com Implementing a web server in a single printf() call admin 12 years ago A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Categories: hacks Leave a Comment Tinyhack.com Back to top Exit mobile version | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Amazon Web Services Follow Hide Amazon Web Services (AWS) is a collection of web services for computing, storage, machine learning, security, and more There are over 200+ AWS services as of 2023. Create Post submission guidelines Articles which primary focus is AWS are permitted to used the #aws tag. Older #aws posts 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Identify AWS Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning (AI/ML) Services And Analytics Services Ntombizakhona Mabaso Ntombizakhona Mabaso Ntombizakhona Mabaso Follow for AWS Community Builders Jan 6 Identify AWS Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning (AI/ML) Services And Analytics Services # aws # cloud # cloudcomputing # cloudpractitioner Comments Add Comment 2 min read The Data Liberation: Amazon Athena and the Architecting of a Serverless Future Neo Neo Neo Follow Jan 1 The Data Liberation: Amazon Athena and the Architecting of a Serverless Future # aws # dataengineering # serverless # cloudcomputing Comments Add Comment 3 min read Deploying a Highly Available AWS Architecture with Terraform Cloudev Cloudev Cloudev Follow Jan 1 Deploying a Highly Available AWS Architecture with Terraform # terraform # aws # automation # hcl Comments Add Comment 3 min read Pare de queimar dinheiro na AWS: Guia técnico para encontrar recursos zumbis com TypeScript Alex Souza Alex Souza Alex Souza Follow Jan 2 Pare de queimar dinheiro na AWS: Guia técnico para encontrar recursos zumbis com TypeScript # aws # devops # cloud # monitoring Comments Add Comment 5 min read Did you know? Raphael Raphael Raphael Follow Jan 2 Did you know? # devops # aws Comments Add Comment 1 min read 🚀 AWS 121: Setting a Permanent Address - Launching EC2 with an Elastic IP Hritik Raj Hritik Raj Hritik Raj Follow Jan 1 🚀 AWS 121: Setting a Permanent Address - Launching EC2 with an Elastic IP # aws # networking # devops # 100daysofcloud Comments Add Comment 3 min read Day 7: Designing a Serverless AI Financial Agent (Project Roadmap) Eric Rodríguez Eric Rodríguez Eric Rodríguez Follow Jan 1 Day 7: Designing a Serverless AI Financial Agent (Project Roadmap) # aws # architecture # serverless # python Comments Add Comment 1 min read Building a Multi-Channel AWS EC2 Spot Instance Interruption Alert System Prashant Gupta Prashant Gupta Prashant Gupta Follow Jan 1 Building a Multi-Channel AWS EC2 Spot Instance Interruption Alert System # aws # ec2 # monitoring Comments Add Comment 11 min read 🚀 Multi-Application CI/CD on AWS (Production-Style) Mubeen Babar Mubeen Babar Mubeen Babar Follow Jan 1 🚀 Multi-Application CI/CD on AWS (Production-Style) # devops # aws # cicd # softwareengineering Comments Add Comment 3 min read Solving NestJS Dependency Injection Issues on AWS Lambda with CDK Gibsons Gibson Gibsons Gibson Gibsons Gibson Follow Jan 5 Solving NestJS Dependency Injection Issues on AWS Lambda with CDK # nestjs # aws # lambda # cdk Comments Add Comment 4 min read How to Deploy and Configure Azure Monitor daniel shaibu daniel shaibu daniel shaibu Follow Jan 1 How to Deploy and Configure Azure Monitor # azure # cloudcomputing # devops # aws Comments Add Comment 4 min read Event-Driven Data Pipelines - Real-Time Orchestration on AWS Andrew Kalik Andrew Kalik Andrew Kalik Follow Jan 3 Event-Driven Data Pipelines - Real-Time Orchestration on AWS # dataengineering # aws # eventdriven 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Why Data SLAs Fail — and How to Enforce Them with a Unified Reliability Framework Baharath Bathula Baharath Bathula Baharath Bathula Follow Jan 1 Why Data SLAs Fail — and How to Enforce Them with a Unified Reliability Framework # dataengineering # aws # machinelearning # analytics Comments Add Comment 2 min read Amazon Q: Your AI Assistant for AWS, Developers, and the Business Brayan Arrieta Brayan Arrieta Brayan Arrieta Follow Jan 5 Amazon Q: Your AI Assistant for AWS, Developers, and the Business # ai # aws # machinelearning # programming Comments Add Comment 3 min read Starting Your Journey into Generative AI: A Beginner's Guide Bhuvaneswari Subramani Bhuvaneswari Subramani Bhuvaneswari Subramani Follow for AWS Heroes Jan 6 Starting Your Journey into Generative AI: A Beginner's Guide # aws # genai # cloud # ai 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 12 min read From Paperwork Mountains to Digital Freedom: Building an IDP Solution with Kiro Phạm Nguyễn Hải Anh Phạm Nguyễn Hải Anh Phạm Nguyễn Hải Anh Follow for AWS Community Builders Jan 6 From Paperwork Mountains to Digital Freedom: Building an IDP Solution with Kiro # kiro # aws # idp 27 reactions Comments 3 comments 6 min read Securing the Future: A Practical Guide to AWS Agentic AI Security Muhammad Q Shahzad Muhammad Q Shahzad Muhammad Q Shahzad Follow Jan 1 Securing the Future: A Practical Guide to AWS Agentic AI Security # agenticai # aws # security Comments Add Comment 5 min read How to Create an Elastic Beanstalk Application (Step‑by‑Step) daniel shaibu daniel shaibu daniel shaibu Follow Jan 6 How to Create an Elastic Beanstalk Application (Step‑by‑Step) # webdev # python # aws # cloud Comments Add Comment 4 min read Scaling Django on Railway + S3 + Cloudflare for 1k+ concurrent users Divine Ikhuoria Divine Ikhuoria Divine Ikhuoria Follow Dec 31 '25 Scaling Django on Railway + S3 + Cloudflare for 1k+ concurrent users # django # performance # cloudflarechallenge # aws Comments Add Comment 7 min read Crafting a “Soul Cocktail” with Kiro in a Tipsy Moment zhitong liu zhitong liu zhitong liu Follow Dec 31 '25 Crafting a “Soul Cocktail” with Kiro in a Tipsy Moment # aws # kiro # ai # product Comments Add Comment 8 min read 🚀 AWS Introduces Regional NAT Gateway: Simplifying Outbound Connectivity Prithiviraj R Prithiviraj R Prithiviraj R Follow Dec 31 '25 🚀 AWS Introduces Regional NAT Gateway: Simplifying Outbound Connectivity # news # architecture # networking # aws Comments Add Comment 2 min read 🎭 AWS 120: Giving Your Servers a Voice - Creating an IAM Role Hritik Raj Hritik Raj Hritik Raj Follow Dec 31 '25 🎭 AWS 120: Giving Your Servers a Voice - Creating an IAM Role # aws # iam # ec2 # 100daysofcloud Comments Add Comment 3 min read Deploying a Node.js Application to AWS Elastic Beanstalk SUBAIR NURUDEEN ADEWALE SUBAIR NURUDEEN ADEWALE SUBAIR NURUDEEN ADEWALE Follow Dec 31 '25 Deploying a Node.js Application to AWS Elastic Beanstalk # aws # linux # cloud # automation Comments Add Comment 4 min read AI Agent with Amazon Bedrock: A Brief Guide Abdullateef OGUNDIPE Abdullateef OGUNDIPE Abdullateef OGUNDIPE Follow Dec 31 '25 AI Agent with Amazon Bedrock: A Brief Guide # aws # ai # lex Comments Add Comment 3 min read ECS vs EKS: When You DON'T Need Kubernetes - A Practical Guide to Choosing AWS Container Services Timur Galeev Timur Galeev Timur Galeev Follow for AWS Community Builders Jan 4 ECS vs EKS: When You DON'T Need Kubernetes - A Practical Guide to Choosing AWS Container Services # architecture # aws # devops # kubernetes 7 reactions Comments Add Comment 11 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://www.algolia.com/use-cases/image-search | Allow users to find what they need through image search | Algolia Niket --> Deutsch English français News: Meet us at NRF 2026 Learn more Company Partners Support Login Logout Algolia mark white Algolia logo white Products AI Search & Retrieval Overview Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Artificial Intelligence OVERVIEW Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. Intelligent Data Kit Overview Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Integrations Connect to your existing stack via pre-built libraries and APIs. Integrations Connect to your existing stack via pre-built libraries and APIs. Infrastructure Overview Data Centers Choose from 70+ data centers across 17 regions. Data Centers Choose from 70+ data centers across 17 regions. Security & Compliance Built for peace of mind. Security & Compliance Built for peace of mind. Solutions Industries SEE ALL Ecommerce Ecommerce B2B Commerce B2B Commerce Fashion Fashion Grocery Grocery Media Media Marketplaces Marketplaces SaaS SaaS Higher Education Higher Education Use Cases SEE ALL Documentation search Documentation search Enterprise search Enterprise search Headless commerce Headless commerce Image search Image search Mobile & App search Mobile & App search Retail Media Network Retail Media Network Site search Site search Visual search Visual search Voice search Voice search Departments Digital Experience Digital Experience Ecommerce Ecommerce Engineering Engineering Merchandising Merchandising Product Management Product Management Pricing Developers Get started Developer Hub Developer Hub Documentation Documentation Integrations Integrations UI Components UI Components Autocomplete Autocomplete Resources Code Exchange Code Exchange Engineering Blog Engineering Blog MCP MCP Discord Discord Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Quick Links Quick Start Guide Quick Start Guide For Open Source For Open Source API Status API Status Support Support Resources Discover Algolia Blog Algolia Blog Resource Center Resource Center Customer Stories Customer Stories Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Newsroom Newsroom Customers Customer Hub Customer Hub What's New What's New Knowledge Base Knowledge Base Documentation Documentation Algolia Academy Algolia Academy Professional Services Professional Services Quick Access Company Partners Support Login Logout Request demo Get started Search Algolia Close Request demo Get started Other Types Filter --> Clear All Filters Filters Looking for our logo? We got you covered! Brand guidelines Download logo pack Image search Give users more ways to find what they need With Algolia’s image search, provide your users with a more multifaceted and modern search experience Get a demo Start building for free *]:border-l md:[&>*:nth-child(1)]:border-none md:[&>*:nth-child(4n+1)]:border-none"> 1.7+ Trillion searches every year 99.999% uptime SLA available 382% ROI according to Forrester Research 18,000+ customers across 150+ countries Visual recognition with image search and reverse image search Content-based image retrieval Algolia lets you integrate with third-party image-analysis APIs (e.g., Google Cloud Vision) to offer content-based image retrieval (CBIR). As the name implies, CBIR can interpret the content of an image (e.g., its colors, shapes, textures) to provide better content identification compared with the results produced by an online tool using just an image's metadata. Create Image Search or Reverse Image Search Your customers can use the search box to search your index for images from your content or index, or they can search by image (known as “reverse image search”), pasting in an existing picture and looking for what’s similar. The benefits of using Algolia Image Search Using image search is a more common preference than you might think. Whether they’re using the search bar on a computer or mobile device such as an Apple iPhone or Android phone, our picture search functionality makes searching for images a cinch. People can either use words to describe what they want or drag and drop an image to find similar images. Matching images 0 Images that are matches in some way (e.g., other women’s white crew neck T-shirts). Descriptions 0 Names of pictured items, such as toys or home furnishings. Similar things 0 Other items, for instance, among styles of sunglasses, that have similar shapes, colors, or materials. People’s identities 0 The identity of someone (e.g., a celebrity) pictured in an online news photo Places 0 The location shown in an image. Easily create elegant image search Type in keywords To have the image search engine find related images Learn more Past in an image Let our image-analyis feature search for similar images Learn more Easy setup and implementation Enrich your records using a third-party API, or platform such as Google Cloud Vision API, and then, using the same image-recognition platform you’re using to categorize your images, turn the uploaded images into Algolia search queries. 1. Enrich your records Using a third-party API or platform 2. Turn images into queries Using our Algolia Search Get started Recommended content Merchandising in the era of artificial intelligence (AI) The advent of AI heralds a revolutionary opportunity that will change how merchandisers operate & strategize, but ecommerce businesses will face new challenges as they integrate AI-powered technology. Read more An introduction to data-driven AI merchandising Your homepage is the window into your store. But how do merchandisers maximize the power of their online real estate to drive sales, brand experiences, and other critical outcomes? Read more Zeeman improves Search performance & gives customers a 'remarkably simple' experience Zeeman deployed Algolia in record time and hasn’t looked back, iterating, and improving on Search to the benefit of its customers, its e-commerce and merchandising teams — and its revenue. 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Report Abuse Ntombizakhona Mabaso for AWS Community Builders Posted on Jan 5 Identify AWS Network Services # aws # cloud # cloudcomputing # cloudpractitioner Exam Guide: Cloud Practitioner (22 Part Series) 1 Cloud Practitioner Exam Guide 2 Define the Benefits of the AWS Cloud ... 18 more parts... 3 Identify Design Principles of the AWS Cloud 4 Understand the Benefits of and Strategies for Migration to the AWS Cloud 5 Understand Concepts of Cloud Economics 6 Understand the AWS Shared Responsibility Model 7 Understand AWS Cloud Security, Governance, and Compliance Concepts 8 Identify AWS Access Management Capabilities 9 Identify Components and Resources for Security 10 Define Methods of Deploying and Operating in the AWS Cloud 11 Define the AWS Global Infrastructure 12 Identify AWS Compute Services 13 Identify AWS Database Services 14 Identify AWS Network Services 15 Identify AWS Storage Services 16 Identify AWS Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning (AI/ML) Services And Analytics Services 17 Identify Services From Other In-Scope AWS Service Categories 18 Compare AWS Pricing Models 19 Understand Resources For Billing, Budget, and Cost Management 20 Identify AWS Technical Resources And AWS Support Options 21 Technologies and Concepts: Cloud Practitioner (CLF-C02) 22 My Cloud Practitioner Certification Journey and the Resources to Certify with Confidence 🌐 Exam Guide: Cloud Practitioner Domain 3: Cloud Technology & Services 📘 Task Statement 3.5 🎯 What Is This Task Testing? Amazon VPC components (Subnets, Gateways, Routing) VPC security controls ( Security Groups and Network ACLs ) The purpose of Amazon Route 53 Edge networking services ( Amazon CloudFront , AWS Global Accelerator ) Connectivity options to AWS ( AWS Site-to-Site VPN , AWS Direct Connect ) 1) 🧱 Amazon VPC The Foundation of AWS Networking An Amazon Virtual Private Cloud (VPC) is a logically isolated network in AWS where you launch resources. Key VPC components to recognize Subnets A subnet is a range of IP addresses within a VPC. Subnets Are Often Described As: Public Subnet : has a route to the internet ( typically through an internet gateway ) Private Subnet : no direct route to the internet Route Tables: Determine where network traffic is directed ( e.g., to the internet, to a VPN, to another subnet ). Gateways Internet Gateway (IGW) : enables internet connectivity for resources in public subnets. NAT Gateway : allows resources in private subnets to access the internet outbound for updates and downloads while preventing inbound internet-initiated connections. “private subnet needs outbound internet access but should not be publicly reachable” → NAT Gateway . 2) 🔐 VPC Security Security Groups Firewall at the resource or instance level (commonly for EC2). Controls inbound and outbound rules. Generally stateful which means return traffic is automatically allowed . Use Security Groups When: you need to control traffic to/from a specific instance or resource. Network ACLs (NACLs) Firewall at the subnet level . Controls inbound and outbound traffic for a subnet. Generally stateless which means return traffic must be explicitly allowed . Use NACLs When: you need subnet-wide rules, including explicit deny rules. Private access to Amazon Inspector using AWS PrivateLink (Interface Endpoints) Although Amazon Inspector is a security service not a VPC firewall, it was mentioned in the Exam Guide so, we might as well touch upon it. So you can connect to it privately from inside your VPC. With AWS PrivateLink , you can set up a private connection from your VPC to Amazon Inspector so traffic stays on the AWS network. This lets you reach Inspector as if it were inside your VPC , without needing an internet gateway , NAT device , VPN , or Direct Connect . Your instances can access Inspector without public IP addresses . How? You create an interface VPC endpoint (powered by PrivateLink). AWS places endpoint network interfaces in each subnet you enable for that endpoint. Those endpoint network interfaces act as the entry point for traffic going from your VPC to Amazon Inspector. 3) 🧭 Amazon Route53 Domain Name System Amazon Route53 is AWS’s Domain Name System (DNS) service. Purpose of Amazon Route53: translates domain names (like example.com ) into IP addresses routes end users to applications (often by directing them to load balancers or endpoints) supports routing policies for controlling how traffic is directed. “DNS,” “domain registration,” “route users to endpoint” → Route 53 . 4) ⚡Edge Services Amazon CloudFront Amazon CloudFront is a content delivery network (CDN) that caches and delivers content from locations close to users. Use Amazon CloudFront When: you want faster delivery of websites, static assets, and streaming/media content you want reduced latency for global users AWS Global Accelerator AWS Global Accelerator improves performance by routing traffic onto the AWS global network and directing users to the optimal endpoint. Use AWS Global Accelerator When: you want improved global performance and availability for internet-facing applications you want intelligent routing to the best performing regional endpoint CloudFront: caching/content delivery Global Accelerator: network traffic acceleration and routing to endpoints 5) 🔌 Network Connectivity Options to AWS AWS Site-to-Site VPN AWS Site-to-Site VPN creates an encrypted VPN tunnel over the public internet between your on-premises network and AWS. Use AWS Site-to-Site VPN When: you need a relatively quick connectivity option you can tolerate internet-based variability encryption over the public internet is acceptable AWS Direct Connect AWS Direct Connect is a dedicated, private network connection between your on-premises environment and AWS. Use AWS Direct Connect When: you need more consistent network performance you want private connectivity (not traversing the public internet) you have higher bandwidth requirements or steady traffic patterns “dedicated connection,” “consistent latency,” “private link to AWS” → Direct Connect . ✅ Quick Exam-Style Summary VPC contains subnets, route tables, and gateways. Internet Gateway enables internet access for public subnets NAT Gateway enables outbound internet for private subnets. Security groups (resource or instance-level, stateful) vs NACLs (subnet-level, stateless). PrivateLink/interface endpoints can provide private access to AWS services (example: Amazon Inspector) without public IPs or internet-based connectivity. Route 53: DNS and traffic routing to endpoints. CloudFront: CDN caching near users Global Accelerator: improved global routing to endpoints. Connectivity: VPN (encrypted over internet) vs Direct Connect (dedicated private connection). Additional Resources Networking and content delivery Access Amazon Inspector using an interface endpoint (AWS PrivateLink) Exam Guide: Cloud Practitioner (22 Part Series) 1 Cloud Practitioner Exam Guide 2 Define the Benefits of the AWS Cloud ... 18 more parts... 3 Identify Design Principles of the AWS Cloud 4 Understand the Benefits of and Strategies for Migration to the AWS Cloud 5 Understand Concepts of Cloud Economics 6 Understand the AWS Shared Responsibility Model 7 Understand AWS Cloud Security, Governance, and Compliance Concepts 8 Identify AWS Access Management Capabilities 9 Identify Components and Resources for Security 10 Define Methods of Deploying and Operating in the AWS Cloud 11 Define the AWS Global Infrastructure 12 Identify AWS Compute Services 13 Identify AWS Database Services 14 Identify AWS Network Services 15 Identify AWS Storage Services 16 Identify AWS Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning (AI/ML) Services And Analytics Services 17 Identify Services From Other In-Scope AWS Service Categories 18 Compare AWS Pricing Models 19 Understand Resources For Billing, Budget, and Cost Management 20 Identify AWS Technical Resources And AWS Support Options 21 Technologies and Concepts: Cloud Practitioner (CLF-C02) 22 My Cloud Practitioner Certification Journey and the Resources to Certify with Confidence Top comments (0) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. 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https://www.algolia.com/industries/fashion | Fashion Niket --> Deutsch English français News: Meet us at NRF 2026 Learn more Company Partners Support Login Logout Algolia mark blue Algolia logo blue Products AI Search & Retrieval Overview Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Artificial Intelligence OVERVIEW Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. Intelligent Data Kit Overview Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Integrations Connect to your existing stack via pre-built libraries and APIs. Integrations Connect to your existing stack via pre-built libraries and APIs. Infrastructure Overview Data Centers Choose from 70+ data centers across 17 regions. Data Centers Choose from 70+ data centers across 17 regions. Security & Compliance Built for peace of mind. Security & Compliance Built for peace of mind. Solutions Industries SEE ALL Ecommerce Ecommerce B2B Commerce B2B Commerce Fashion Fashion Grocery Grocery Media Media Marketplaces Marketplaces SaaS SaaS Higher Education Higher Education Use Cases SEE ALL Documentation search Documentation search Enterprise search Enterprise search Headless commerce Headless commerce Image search Image search Mobile & App search Mobile & App search Retail Media Network Retail Media Network Site search Site search Visual search Visual search Voice search Voice search Departments Digital Experience Digital Experience Ecommerce Ecommerce Engineering Engineering Merchandising Merchandising Product Management Product Management Pricing Developers Get started Developer Hub Developer Hub Documentation Documentation Integrations Integrations UI Components UI Components Autocomplete Autocomplete Resources Code Exchange Code Exchange Engineering Blog Engineering Blog MCP MCP Discord Discord Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Quick Links Quick Start Guide Quick Start Guide For Open Source For Open Source API Status API Status Support Support Resources Discover Algolia Blog Algolia Blog Resource Center Resource Center Customer Stories Customer Stories Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Newsroom Newsroom Customers Customer Hub Customer Hub What's New What's New Knowledge Base Knowledge Base Documentation Documentation Algolia Academy Algolia Academy Professional Services Professional Services Quick Access Company Partners Support Login Logout Request demo Get started Search Algolia Close Request demo Get started Other Types Filter --> Clear All Filters Filters Looking for our logo? We got you covered! Brand guidelines Download logo pack Your browser does not support the video tag. Fashion Intelligent fashion solution Over 75% of the world’s top fashion brands use Algolia to deliver search experiences that convert. Schedule a tailored demo Fashion heavyweights already winning with Algolia “Every user experience is different: there’s nothing specific to luxury, just good sense. In our opinion, that’s the answer to good UX – the user experience must be simple and straightforward. And we transcribe this into the design of our website.” Pascal Sardella Digital Platforms Administrator @ TAG Heuer Read their story “Algolia has benefited us in not only making search results better and more relevant, but in understanding why they are more relevant and how to make items more prominent and search more helpful.” Lauren Muir Product Owner @ Oh Polly Read their story “Algolia is a critical part of the navigation experience on Lacoste platforms globally. Not only does it provide the stellar user experience Lacoste is known for, but it more than doubled our global sales.” Julien Nouet Global User Experience Manager @ Lacoste Read their story “After deploying Algolia, there’s less reliance on developer intervention to do everything that the business wants to do, and what the business is actually capable of doing is way beyond what they thought was possible in the old world.” Director of Digital Product and Experience @ Harry Rosen Read their story “After deploying Algolia, there’s less reliance on developer intervention to do everything that the business wants to do, and what the business is actually capable of doing is way beyond what they thought was possible in the old world.” Director, Digital Experience @ Frasers Group Read their story Provide premium in-store experiences online Search that understands fashion customers at global scale Shop with your eyes Increase customer interaction with advanced AI Image Search, Semantic Search, Personalization, and more, leading to better customer experiences mean better returns — Algolia customers on average see 15% increase in AOV. Get a demo Match customer goals to business goals Ensure a positive customer experience with an intelligent Shopping Assistant personalized to your brand. Your customers get the expert consultation they need and you get a proven way to reduce time to checkout by 50%. Realize the power of AI Algolia connects customer data with AI agents to deliver online shopping experiences that are as tailored and personalized as an in-store stylist. Get a demo Maximize cart economics Deliver a fast, simple product discovery experience that recognizes intent, maximizes customer engagement, and increases order value by an average of 70%. Shops deliver experience Don't make them wait for delivery. Allow shoppers to meet their need for instant gratification with personalized in-store inventory sync and pickup. Get maximum return from GenAI Deliver generative shopping experiences unique to your brand, like personalized descriptions and richer product stories that help you establish a memorable brand and urge shoppers to spend up to 27% more per year. Curated catalogs for maximum return Smart Groups eliminates the manual effort needed with pinning, and offers an intuitive and efficient way to curate customers' search results. Get a demo Why trendsetters choose Algolia Maximize product launches Launch fast and see returns faster with Intelligent AI Ranking and Premium Re-Ranking, tools that preserve your brand’s ability to curate results and promote key products. Experience AI search Award-winning search and product discovery Algolia has consistently been recognized by Gartner® as a Leader in the Magic Quadrant™ for Search and Product Discovery, Nasdaq, G2, and other industry publications as a top-performer in search. See our awards Easy integration in any environment Our AI merchandising capabilities are able to integrate with any tech stack, leading to a faster time to market and higher ROI, thanks to our API clients and best-in-breed partner integrations. Learn more Transform your on-site search and discovery experience with Algolia. Discover how the world’s top fashion brands leverage Algolia to deliver search experiences that convert prospects into customers. Recommended content Boosting fashion shopper engagement with Algolia Algolia AI Search offers fashion retailers a search and shopping experience tailored to the needs of fashion and style hunters. Use this eBook to learn about the outcomes of Algolia's fashion solution and generative shopping experience. Read more The Merchandising Edge Learn how Algolia's suite of user-friendly ecommerce tools developed specifically for fashion retail merchandising optimizes efficiency and drives sales while saving time and resources. Read more Collections: scaling efficiency and carefully curated experiences in merchandising Collections makes it easier for online merchandising teams to push the right inventory and hit that customer sweet spot. This eBook explores the possibilities. Read more The retail media advantage With global retail media spend projected to total $180 billion in 2025, the opportunity is vast, but success depends on how retailers use data, design, and technology to serve both customers and brands. In our newest report, we asked executives how they plan to invest in retail media networks. 76% sponsored listings on search result pages is the top retail media strategy 30% better audience targeting is the top goal for sponsored listings on search result pages 11% of retail media buyers use multiple retail media platforms Get the report Fashion solution FAQs What ecommerce platforms is Algolia compatible with? 0 Algolia plays well with others, integrating seamlessly with all major ecommerce platforms including Adobe Commerce, Shopify, Salesforce Commerce Cloud, Commercetools, BigCommerce, and more. Talk to one of our search experts to learn more about how Algolia integrates with your tech stack. How much does Algolia cost? 0 We have a range of pricing options, to cater to the needs of different fashion businesses. You can even personalize your package to find the perfect fit for your business. See pricing . Can I make content other than products searchable on my fashion site using Algolia? 0 Yes. Our federated search capabilities allow you to take a user’s query and reveal results from any desired product or content catalog on your digital property in a single interface. How does Algolia create personalized experiences during first customer interactions? 0 Algolia’s In-Session Personalization immediately assesses everything it can infer from a customer. For example, their location, action on the site, the device they are using. It then uses this data to personalize and dynamically update what users see based on every interaction, swipe, filter and sort. What can my fashion customers expect from Algolia’s search and recommendation capabilities? 0 In an online shopping experience powered by Algolia, your customers are empowered to filter, shop and compare the full range of options available in store. We use In-Session Personalization to provide curated experiences from the very first touch point, and also give customers advanced features like AI-powered outfit completion. This means your business can suggest the perfect shoe and jeans to go with the top a shopper already has in their shopping cart based on their personal style and browsing history. 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https://dev.to/privacy#c-marketing-and-advertising-our-products-and-services | Privacy Policy - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Privacy Policy Last Updated: September 01, 2023 This Privacy Policy is designed to help you understand how DEV Community Inc. (" DEV ," " we ," or " us ") collects, use, and discloses your personal information. What's With the Defined Terms? You'll notice that some words appear in quotes in this Privacy Policy. They're called "defined terms," and we use them so that we don't have to repeat the same language again and again. They mean the same thing in every instance, to help us make sure that this Privacy Policy is consistent. We've included the defined terms throughout because we want it to be easy for you to read them in context. 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION 11. OTHER PROVISIONS 12. CONTACT US 1. WHAT DOES THIS PRIVACY POLICY APPLY TO? This Privacy Policy applies to personal information processed by us, including on our websites, mobile applications, and other online or offline offerings — basically anything we do. To make this Privacy Policy easier to read, our websites, mobile applications, and other offerings are all collectively called the " Services. " Beyond this Privacy Policy, your use of the Services is subject to our DEV Community Terms and our Forem Terms. The Services include both our own community forum at https://www.dev.to (the " DEV Community ") and the open source tool we provide called " Forem ," available at https://www.forem.com which allows our customers to create and operate their own online forums. We collect personal information from two categories of people: (1) our customers, who use Forem and our hosting services to run and host their own forums (we'll call them " Forem Operators "), and (2) the people who interact with DEV-hosted forums, including forums provided by Forem Operators utilizing Forem and separately our own DEV Community (we'll call them " Users "). An Important Note for Users Since we provide hosting services for Forem Operators, technically we also process your information on their behalf. That processing is governed by the contracts that we have in place with each Forem Operator, not this Privacy Policy. In other words, when you share your data on a DEV-hosted forum operated by a Forem Operator, we at DEV are basically just the "pipes" — we process the data on behalf of the Forem Operator, but don't do anything with it ourselves beyond what we're required to do under our contract (and by law). So, if you post your information on a DEV-powered forum provided by a Forem Operator, that Forem Operator's privacy policy applies, and any questions or requests relating to your data on that service should be directed to that Forem Operator, not us. Likewise, if you use our mobile application, you may also interact with forums that use DEV's open-source tools but do all their hosting and data collection themselves. For those forums, we at DEV have no access to your data, so be sure to read the privacy policy of any third-party hosted forum before posting. 2. PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT The categories of personal information we collect depend on whether you're a User or Forem Operator, how you interact with us, our Services, and the requirements of applicable law. Breaking it down, we collect three types of information: (1) information that you provide to us directly, (2) information we obtain automatically when you use our Services, and (3) information we get about you from other sources (such as third-party services and organizations). More details are below. A. Information You Provide to Us Directly We may collect the following personal information that you provide to us. Account Creation (for Forem Operators): We'll require your name and email address to get started, as well as some details about the Forem you want to run, such as: whether you're running the Forem on your own behalf or as part of an organization, and details about the community you want to support (how big is it, what topics does it cover, where do members currently communicate, how/if the community earns money, whether the community is open, invite-only or paid, any existing social media accounts, etc.) You'll need to tell us a bit about your personal coding background, and you'll have the option to provide your DEV username as well, if you are a member of the DEV.to community. Account Creation (for Users) : We collect name and email address from users that create an account on DEV Community. For other forums created by Forem Operators using Forem, the Forem Operator determines what information is required for User account creation for their respective forums. Interactive Features (for Users) . Like any other social network, both we and other Users of our Services may collect personal information that you submit or make available through our interactive features (e.g., messaging and chat features, commenting functionalities, forums, blogs, posts, and other social media pages). While we do have private messages that are only between you and the person you're messaging (as well as us and the Forem Operator, as applicable), any information you provide using the public sharing features of the Services, such as the information you post to your public profile or the topics you follow is public, including to recruiters and prospective employers, and is not subject to any of the privacy protections we mention in this Privacy Policy except where legally required. Please exercise caution before revealing any information that may identify you in the real world to others. Purchases . If you buy stuff on our shop site https://shop.dev.to/ (as either a User or Forem Operator), or otherwise if you pay us in connection with your use of the Forem service, we may collect personal information and details associated with your purchases, including payment information. Any payments made via our Services are processed by third-party payment processors, such as Stripe, Shopify, and PayPal. We do not directly collect or store any payment card information entered through our Services, but may receive information associated with your payment card information (e.g., your billing details). Your Communications with Us (Users and Forem Operators) . We may collect personal information, such as email address, phone number, or mailing address when you request information about our Services, register for our newsletter or loyalty program, request customer or technical support, apply for a job, or otherwise communicate with us. Surveys . We may contact you to participate in surveys. If you decide to participate, you may be asked to provide certain information, which may include personal information (for example, your home address). Sweepstakes or Contests . We may collect personal information you provide for any sweepstakes or contests that we offer. In some jurisdictions, we are required to publicly share information of sweepstakes and contest winners. Conferences, Trade Shows, and Other Events . We may collect personal information from individuals when we attend conferences, trade shows, and other events. Business Development and Strategic Partnerships . We may collect personal information from individuals and third parties to assess and pursue potential business opportunities. Job Applications . We may post job openings and opportunities on our Services. If you reply to one of these postings by submitting your application, CV and/or cover letter to us, we will collect and use your information to assess your qualifications. B. Information Collected Automatically We may collect personal information automatically when you use our Services: Automatic Data Collection . We may collect certain information automatically when you use our Services, such as your Internet protocol (IP) address, user settings, MAC address, cookie identifiers, mobile carrier, mobile advertising and other unique identifiers, browser or device information, location information (including approximate location derived from IP address), and Internet service provider. We may also automatically collect information regarding your use of our Services, such as pages that you visit before, during and after using our Services, information about the links you click, the types of content you interact with, the frequency and duration of your activities, and other information about how you use our Services. In addition, we may collect information that other people provide about you when they use our Services, including information about you when they tag you in their posts. Cookies, Pixel Tags/Web Beacons, and Other Technologies . We, as well as third parties that provide content, advertising, or other functionality on our Services, may use cookies, pixel tags, local storage, and other technologies (" Technologies ") to automatically collect information through your use of our Services. Cookies . Cookies are small text files placed in device browsers that store preferences and facilitate and enhance your experience. Pixel Tags/Web Beacons . A pixel tag (also known as a web beacon) is a piece of code embedded in our Services that collects information about engagement on our Services. The use of a pixel tag allows us to record, for example, that a user has visited a particular web page or clicked on a particular advertisement. We may also include web beacons in e-mails to understand whether messages have been opened, acted on, or forwarded. Our uses of these Technologies fall into the following general categories: Operationally Necessary . This includes Technologies that allow you access to our Services, applications, and tools that are required to identify irregular website behavior, prevent fraudulent activity and improve security or that allow you to make use of our functionality. Performance-Related . We may use Technologies to assess the performance of our Services, including as part of our analytic practices to help us understand how individuals use our Services ( see Analytics below ). Functionality-Related . We may use Technologies that allow us to offer you enhanced functionality when accessing or using our Services. This may include identifying you when you sign into our Services or keeping track of your specified preferences, interests, or past items viewed. Analytics . We may use Technologies and other third-party tools to process analytics information on our Services. Some of our analytics partners include Google Analytics. For more information,please visit Google Analytics' Privacy Policy . To learn more about how to opt-out of Google Analytics' use of your information, please click here . Social Media Platforms . Our Services may contain social media buttons such as Twitter, Facebook, GitHub, Instagram, and Twitch (that might include widgets such as the "share this" button or other interactive mini programs). These features may collect your IP address, which page you are visiting on our Services, and may set a cookie to enable the feature to function properly. Your interactions with these platforms are governed by the privacy policy of the company providing it. See the "Your Privacy Choices and Rights" section below to understand your choices regarding these Technologies. C. Information Collected from Other Sources We may obtain information about you from other sources, including through third-party services and organizations. For example, if you access our Services through a third-party application, such as an app store, a third-party login service (e.g., through Twitter, Apple, or GitHub), or a social networking site, we may collect whatever information about you from that third-party application that you have made available via your privacy settings. 3. HOW WE USE YOUR INFORMATION We use your information for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, for administrative purposes, and to market our products and Services, as described below. A. Provide Our Services We use your information to fulfill our contract with you and provide you with our Services, such as: Managing your information and accounts; Providing access to certain areas, functionalities, and features of our Services; Answering requests for customer or technical support; Communicating with you about your account, activities on our Services, and policy changes; Processing your financial information and other payment methods for products or Services purchased; Processing applications if you apply for a job we post on our Services; and Allowing you to register for events. B. Administrative Purposes We use your information for various administrative purposes, such as: Pursuing our legitimate interests such as direct marketing, research and development (including marketing research), network and information security, and fraud prevention; Detecting security incidents, protecting against malicious, deceptive, fraudulent or illegal activity, and prosecuting those responsible for that activity; Measuring interest and engagement in our Services, including for usage-based billing purposes; Short-term, transient use, such as contextual customization of ads; Improving, optimizing, upgrading, or enhancing our Services; Developing new products and Services; Ensuring internal quality control and safety; Authenticating and verifying individual identities, including requests to exercise your rights under this policy; Debugging to identify and repair errors with our Services; Auditing relating to interactions, transactions and other compliance activities; Enforcing our agreements and policies; and Complying with our legal obligations. C. Marketing and Advertising our Products and Services We may use your personal information to tailor and provide you with content and advertisements for our Services, such as via email. If you have any questions about our marketing practices, you may contact us at any time as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. D. Other Purposes We also use your information for other purposes as requested by you or as permitted by applicable law. Consent . We may use personal information for other purposes that are clearly disclosed to you at the time you provide personal information or with your consent. Automated Decision Making. We may engage in automated decision making, including profiling, such as to suggest topics or other Users for you to follow. DEV's processing of your personal information will not result in a decision based solely on automated processing that significantly affects you unless such a decision is necessary as part of a contract we have with you, we have your consent, or we are permitted by law to engage in such automated decision making. If you have questions about our automated decision making, you may contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. De-identified and Aggregated Information . We may use personal information and other information about you to create de-identified and/or aggregated information, such as de-identified demographic information, information about the device from which you access our Services, or other analyses we create. For example, we may collect system-wide information to ensure availability of the platform, or measure aggregate data trends to analyze and optimize our Services. Share Content with Friends or Colleagues. Our Services may offer various tools and functionalities. For example, we may allow you to provide information about your friends through our referral services. Our referral services may allow you to forward or share certain content with a friend or colleague, such as an email inviting your friend to use our Services. Please only share with us contact information of people with whom you have a relationship (e.g., relative, friend neighbor, or co-worker). 4. HOW WE DISCLOSE YOUR INFORMATION We disclose your information to third parties for a variety of business purposes, including to provide our Services, to protect us or others, or in the event of a major business transaction such as a merger, sale, or asset transfer, as described below. A. Disclosures to Provide our Services The categories of third parties with whom we may share your information are described below. Service Providers . We may share your personal information with our third-party service providers who use that information to help us provide our Services. This includes service providers that provide us with IT support, hosting, payment processing, customer service, and related services. For example, our Shop site is run by Shopify, who handle your shipping details on our behalf. Business Partners . We may share your personal information with business partners to provide you with a product or service you have requested. We may also share your personal information to business partners with whom we jointly offer products or services. Other Users . As described above in the "Personal Information We Collect" section of this Privacy Policy, our Service allows Users to share their profiles, and any posts, chats, etc. with other Users and with the general public, including to those who do not use our Services. APIs/SDKs . We may use third-party Application Program Interfaces ("APIs") and Software Development Kits ("SDKs") as part of the functionality of our Services. For more information about our use of APIs and SDKs, please contact us as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below. B . Disclosures to Protect Us or Others We may access, preserve, and disclose any information we store associated with you to external parties if we, in good faith, believe doing so is required or appropriate to: comply with law enforcement or national security requests and legal process, such as a court order or subpoena; protect your, our, or others' rights, property, or safety; enforce our policies or contracts; collect amounts owed to us; or assist with an investigation or prosecution of suspected or actual illegal activity. C. Disclosure in the Event of Merger, Sale, or Other Asset Transfers If we are involved in a merger, acquisition, financing due diligence, reorganization, bankruptcy, receivership, purchase or sale of assets, or transition of service to another provider, your information may be sold or transferred as part of such a transaction, as permitted by law and/or contract. 5. YOUR PRIVACY CHOICES AND RIGHTS Your Privacy Choices . The privacy choices you may have about your personal information are determined by applicable law and are described below. Email Communications . If you receive an unwanted email from us, you can use the unsubscribe link found at the bottom of the email to opt out of receiving future emails. Note that you will continue to receive transaction-related emails regarding products or Services you have requested. We may also send you certain non-promotional communications regarding us and our Services, and you will not be able to opt out of those communications (e.g., communications regarding our Services or updates to our Terms or this Privacy Policy). Mobile Devices . We may send you push notifications through our mobile application. You may opt out from receiving these push notifications by changing the settings on your mobile device. "Do Not Track." Do Not Track (" DNT ") is a privacy preference that users can set in certain web browsers. Please note that we do not respond to or honor DNT signals or similar mechanisms transmitted by web browsers. Cookies and Interest-Based Advertising . You may stop or restrict the placement of Technologies on your device or remove them by adjusting your preferences as your browser or device permits. However, if you adjust your preferences, our Services may not work properly. Please note that cookie-based opt-outs are not effective on mobile applications. Please note you must separately opt out in each browser and on each device. Your Privacy Rights . In accordance with applicable law, you may have the right to: Access Personal Information about you, including: (i) confirming whether we are processing your personal information; (ii) obtaining access to or a copy of your personal information; Request Correction of your personal information where it is inaccurate, incomplete or outdated. In some cases, we may provide self-service tools that enable you to update your personal information; Request Deletion, Anonymization or Blocking of your personal information when processing is based on your consent or when processing is unnecessary, excessive or noncompliant; Request Restriction of or Object to our processing of your personal information when processing is noncompliant; Withdraw Your Consent to our processing of your personal information. If you refrain from providing personal information or withdraw your consent to processing, some features of our Service may not be available; Request Data Portability and Receive an Electronic Copy of Personal Information that You Have Provided to Us; Be Informed about third parties with which your personal information has been shared; and Request the Review of Decisions Taken Exclusively Based on Automated Processing if such decisions could affect your data subject rights. If you would like to exercise any of these rights, please contact us as set forth in "Contact Us" below. We will process such requests in accordance with applicable laws. 6. INTERNATIONAL DATA TRANSFERS All information processed by us may be transferred, processed, and stored anywhere in the world, including, but not limited to, the United States or other countries, which may have data protection laws that are different from the laws where you live. We always strive to safeguard your information consistent with the requirements of applicable laws. 7. RETENTION OF PERSONAL INFORMATION We store the personal information we collect as described in this Privacy Policy for as long as you use our Services or as necessary: to fulfill the purpose or purposes for which it was collected, to provide our Services, to resolve disputes, to establish legal defenses, to conduct audits, to pursue legitimate business purposes, to enforce our agreements, and to comply with applicable laws. 8. SUPPLEMENTAL DISCLOSURES FOR CALIFORNIA RESIDENTS Refer-a-Friend and Similar Incentive Programs . As described above in the How We Use Your Personal Information section ("Share Content with Friends or Colleagues" subsection), we may offer referral programs or other incentivized data collection programs. For example, we may offer incentives to you such as discounts or promotional items or credit in connection with these programs, wherein you provide your personal information in exchange for a reward, or provide personal information regarding your friends or colleagues (such as their email address) and receive rewards when they sign up to use our Services. (The referred party may also receive rewards for signing up via your referral.) These programs are entirely voluntary and allow us to grow our business and provide additional benefits to you. The value of your data to us depends on how you ultimately use our Services, whereas the value of the referred party's data to us depends on whether the referred party ultimately becomes a User or Forem Operator and uses our Services. Said value will be reflected in the incentive offered in connection with each program. Accessibility . This Privacy Policy uses industry-standard technologies and was developed in line with the World Wide Web Consortium's Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, version 2.1* . * If you wish to print this policy, please do so from your web browser or by saving the page as a PDF. California Shine the Light . The California "Shine the Light" law permits users who are California residents to request and obtain from us once a year, free of charge, a list of the third parties to whom we have disclosed their personal information (if any) for their direct marketing purposes in the prior calendar year, as well as the type of personal information disclosed to those parties. Right for Minors to Remove Posted Content . Where required by law, California residents under the age of 18 may request to have their posted content or information removed from the publicly-viewable portions of the Services by contacting us directly as set forth in the "Contact Us" section below or by logging into their account and removing the content or information using our self-service tools. 9. SUPPLEMENTAL NOTICE FOR NEVADA RESIDENTS If you are a resident of Nevada, you have the right to opt-out of the sale of certain Personal Information to third parties who intend to license or sell that Personal Information. You can exercise this right by contacting us as set forth in the "Contact Us\" section below with the subject line "Nevada Do Not Sell Request" and providing us with your name and the email address associated with your account. Please note that we do not currently sell your Personal Information as sales are defined in Nevada Revised Statutes Chapter 603A. If you have any questions, please contact us as set forth below. 10. CHILDREN'S INFORMATION The Services are not directed to children under 13 (or other age as required by local law), and we do not knowingly collect personal information from children. If you are a parent or guardian and believe your child has uploaded personal information to our site without your consent, you may contact us as described in the "Contact Us" section below. If we become aware that a child has provided us with personal information in violation of applicable law, we will delete any personal information we have collected, unless we have a legal obligation to keep it, and terminate the child's account if applicable. 11. OTHER PROVISIONS Third-Party Websites or Applications . The Services may contain links to other websites or applications, and other websites or applications may reference or link to our Services. These third-party services are not controlled by us. We encourage our users to read the privacy policies of each website and application with which they interact. We do not endorse, screen or approve, and are not responsible for, the privacy practices or content of such other websites or applications. Providing personal information to third-party websites or applications is at your own risk. Changes to Our Privacy Policy . We may revise this Privacy Policy from time to time in our sole discretion. If there are any material changes to this Privacy Policy, we will notify you as required by applicable law. You understand and agree that you will be deemed to have accepted the updated Privacy Policy if you continue to use our Services after the new Privacy Policy takes effect. 12. CONTACT US If you have any questions about our privacy practices or this Privacy Policy, or to exercise your rights as detailed in this Privacy Policy, please contact us at: support@dev.to . 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. 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https://dev.to/t/ui | Ui - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close # ui Follow Hide Tag dedicated to posts about user interface. Tips, tricks, techniques, approaches, etc. Create Post submission guidelines Just be respectful and make sure that your post actually talks about UI, rather than just mention it in passing. Older #ui posts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Mouse Events in JavaScript: Why Your UI Flickers (and How to Fix It Properly) Farhad Hossain Farhad Hossain Farhad Hossain Follow Jan 13 Mouse Events in JavaScript: Why Your UI Flickers (and How to Fix It Properly) # frontend # javascript # ui 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Building Interactive Data Visualizations in A2UI Angular: A Complete Guide vishalmysore vishalmysore vishalmysore Follow Jan 12 Building Interactive Data Visualizations in A2UI Angular: A Complete Guide # angular # javascript # tutorial # ui Comments Add Comment 4 min read Stop Building Ugly Apps: Create a Modern Python Dashboard in 15 Minutes 📊 Larry Larry Larry Follow Jan 12 Stop Building Ugly Apps: Create a Modern Python Dashboard in 15 Minutes 📊 # python # datavisualization # beginners # ui Comments Add Comment 3 min read How to Design a High-Converting Paywall paywallpro paywallpro paywallpro Follow Jan 12 How to Design a High-Converting Paywall # design # ui # paywall # app Comments Add Comment 7 min read Book Review: Talent Management Bible - Learning Best Practices from Fortune 500 Companies Evan Lin Evan Lin Evan Lin Follow Jan 11 Book Review: Talent Management Bible - Learning Best Practices from Fortune 500 Companies # ui # ai # nvidia # softwaredevelopment Comments Add Comment 4 min read Restaurant Discovery Is a Ranking Problem — And the Inputs Are Wrong Marcin Stepien Marcin Stepien Marcin Stepien Follow Jan 11 Restaurant Discovery Is a Ranking Problem — And the Inputs Are Wrong # webdev # ui # uxdesign 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 1 min read A2UI Protocol: Building Intelligent Agent-to-User Interfaces vishalmysore vishalmysore vishalmysore Follow Jan 10 A2UI Protocol: Building Intelligent Agent-to-User Interfaces # google # ai # agents # ui Comments Add Comment 6 min read Testes de Interface com Playwright e MCP no Windsurf Victor Geruso Gomes Victor Geruso Gomes Victor Geruso Gomes Follow Jan 9 Testes de Interface com Playwright e MCP no Windsurf # webdev # ai # testing # ui Comments Add Comment 3 min read Using Color and Typography to Shape Brand Personality — A UI/UX Design Company Perspective Pixel Mosaic Pixel Mosaic Pixel Mosaic Follow Jan 9 Using Color and Typography to Shape Brand Personality — A UI/UX Design Company Perspective # ai # ui # ux # webdev Comments Add Comment 2 min read A Deep Dive into React's New <Activity> Component Dikson Samuel Dikson Samuel Dikson Samuel Follow Jan 8 A Deep Dive into React's New <Activity> Component # javascript # react # ui Comments Add Comment 3 min read GTK4 DropDown with .NET Kashif Soofi Kashif Soofi Kashif Soofi Follow Jan 8 GTK4 DropDown with .NET # dotnet # tutorial # ui Comments Add Comment 5 min read Agentic UI (A2UI + AG-UI) — Build UIs Your Agent Can Update in Real Time Tahmid Bin Taslim Rafi Tahmid Bin Taslim Rafi Tahmid Bin Taslim Rafi Follow Jan 8 Agentic UI (A2UI + AG-UI) — Build UIs Your Agent Can Update in Real Time # agents # ui # webdev # ai Comments Add Comment 6 min read (Idea + Sensors + Compose + Lottie)*AI Agents = Beautiful UI ViksaaSkool ViksaaSkool ViksaaSkool Follow Jan 6 (Idea + Sensors + Compose + Lottie)*AI Agents = Beautiful UI # android # compose # ai # ui Comments Add Comment 5 min read Ai Implementation Analysis for FlashFX Gabriele B. Gabriele B. Gabriele B. Follow Jan 5 Ai Implementation Analysis for FlashFX # ai # devjournal # openai # ui 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read Top Fitness App Paywalls (UX Patterns + Pricing Insights) paywallpro paywallpro paywallpro Follow Jan 7 Top Fitness App Paywalls (UX Patterns + Pricing Insights) # ios # design # mobile # ui Comments Add Comment 4 min read Implementing a swipeable component using the Animated API Paulo Sérgio Paulo Sérgio Paulo Sérgio Follow Jan 6 Implementing a swipeable component using the Animated API # reactnative # typescript # ux # ui Comments Add Comment 9 min read React Higher-Order Components (HOCs) in a Hooks-First World Ward Khaddour Ward Khaddour Ward Khaddour Follow Jan 4 React Higher-Order Components (HOCs) in a Hooks-First World # react # typescript # ui Comments Add Comment 7 min read What do you think, LinkedIn? Rohit Bhandari Rohit Bhandari Rohit Bhandari Follow Jan 5 What do you think, LinkedIn? # linkedln # digitalmarketing # beginners # ui Comments Add Comment 1 min read What’s New in Blazor Gantt Chart: 2025 Volume 4 Calvince Moth Calvince Moth Calvince Moth Follow for Syncfusion, Inc. Jan 7 What’s New in Blazor Gantt Chart: 2025 Volume 4 # blazor # ganttchart # projectscheduling # ui Comments Add Comment 6 min read Subscription Pricing in Photo & Video Apps: What 1,200 Paywalls Reveal paywallpro paywallpro paywallpro Follow Jan 5 Subscription Pricing in Photo & Video Apps: What 1,200 Paywalls Reveal # ios # design # mobile # ui Comments Add Comment 4 min read Best Atomic UI Component Frameworks for Lightning-Fast Web Development in 2026 Nina Rao Nina Rao Nina Rao Follow Jan 4 Best Atomic UI Component Frameworks for Lightning-Fast Web Development in 2026 # design # ui Comments Add Comment 10 min read Responsive Design Full Guide: Crafting Seamless Experiences Across Every Device Nina Rao Nina Rao Nina Rao Follow Jan 4 Responsive Design Full Guide: Crafting Seamless Experiences Across Every Device # design # ui Comments Add Comment 7 min read Top React Native UI libraries in 2026 Nina Rao Nina Rao Nina Rao Follow Jan 3 Top React Native UI libraries in 2026 # reactnative # ui # uidesign Comments Add Comment 11 min read The End of "Chat": Why AI Interfaces Must Be Polymorphic Imran Siddique Imran Siddique Imran Siddique Follow Jan 2 The End of "Chat": Why AI Interfaces Must Be Polymorphic # agents # design # ui Comments Add Comment 3 min read Mapcn - Map components for Shadcn Souhail dev Souhail dev Souhail dev Follow Jan 3 Mapcn - Map components for Shadcn # shadcn # ui # react # tailwindcss Comments Add Comment 1 min read loading... trending guides/resources Modern Web Design Styles Every Frontend Developer Must Know (2025 Guide) Part 2 Modern Web Design Styles Every Frontend Developer Must Know (2025 Guide) 10 UI UX Principles That Will Transform Your Design Process Using Opencode as a Copy-Paste Backend for UI Prototyping GPUI Component: Because Desktop Apps Shouldn't Make You Cry Anatomy of an Effective SaaS Navigation Menu Design Top 15 React Component Libraries to Use in 2026 shadcn/ui vs Ant Design vs MUI: A Modern React Design System Comparison Tips and Tricks for Creating a Good Login Page Design 21+ Best Free Tailwind v4 UI Kits and Component Libraries UI/UX Design Trends for 2026: What Every Designer Should Know Weekend hobby: Achieving Glassmorphism (ik 💀) with mouse glow How to Build Modern Parallax & Scroll Effects in SwiftUI Level Up Your AI Projects: 12 Frontend UI Kits That Actually Work ⚡ Progress Indicators Explained: Types, Variations & Best Practices for SaaS Design Desktop UI for Cloudflare Tunnel: Making Remote Access Simple Building DayFlow: A Modern React Calendar Library with Temporal API and Advanced Drag-and-Drop Ant Design 6.0 is released! A Deep Dive into Nested ScrollView Behavior in React Native: Root Causes and Practical Solutions Modern Web UI 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
https://www.highlight.io/docs/getting-started/server/js/nodejs | Node.js Quick Start Star us on GitHub Star Docs Sign in Sign up Getting Started Getting Started with Highlight Fullstack Mapping Browser React.js Next.js Remix Vue.js Angular Gatsby.js SvelteKit Electron highlight.run SDK Overview Canvas & WebGL Console Messages Content-Security-Policy Identifying Users iframe Recording Monkey Patches Browser OpenTelemetry Persistent Asset Storage Privacy Proxying Highlight React.js Error Boundary Recording Network Requests and Responses Recording WebSocket Events Salesforce Lightning Web Components (LWC) Data Export Sourcemap Configuration Tracking Events Troubleshooting Upgrading Highlight Versioning Sessions & Errors Other React Native (beta) Server Go Overview chi Echo Fiber Gin GORM gqlgen Logrus Manual Tracing gorilla mux JS Overview Apollo AWS Lambda Cloudflare Workers Express.js Firebase Hono Nest.js Next.js Node.js Pino tRPC Winston Python Overview AWS Lambda Azure Functions Django FastAPI Flask Google Cloud Functions Loguru Other Frameworks Python AI / LLM Libraries Python Libraries Ruby Overview Other Frameworks Ruby on Rails Rust Overview actix-web No Framework Hosting Providers Overview Metrics in AWS Logging in AWS Logging in Azure Fly.io NATS Log Shipper Logging in GCP Heroku Log Drain Render Log Stream Logging in Trigger.dev Vercel Log Drain Elixir Overview Elixir App Java: All Frameworks PHP: All Frameworks C# .NET ASP C# .NET 4 ASP Docker / Docker Compose File Fluent Forward curl OpenTelemetry Protocol (OTLP) Syslog RFC5424 Systemd / Journald Native OpenTelemetry Overview Error Monitoring Logging Tracing Browser Instrumentation Metrics Fullstack Frameworks Overview Next.js Fullstack Overview Next.js Page Router Guide Next.js App Router Guide Edge Runtime Advanced Config Remix Walkthrough Self Host & Local Dev Overview Development deployment guide. Integrations Microsoft Teams self-hosted Hobby deployment guide. Traefik SSL Proxying. Menu Highlight Docs Welcome to highlight.io Get Started Roadmap Company Values Compliance & Security Open Source Contributing Overview GraphQL Backend Frontend (app.highlight.io) Landing Site (highlight.io) Documentation End to End SDK Example Apps Adding an SDK Application Architecture GitHub Code Spaces Code Style Good First Issues Self-hosting Self-hosted [Dev] Self-hosted [Hobby] Self-hosted [Enterprise] Telemetry Our Competitors Product Philosophy Product Features Session Replay Overview Canvas & Iframe Dev-tool Window Recording Tracking Users & Recording Events Filtering Sessions GraphQL Live Mode Performance Impact Player Session Caching Rage Clicks Request Proxying Session Search Extracting the Session URL Session Search Deep Linking Shadow Dom + Web Components Error Monitoring Overview Enhancing Errors with GitHub Error Search Filtering Errors Grouping Errors Managing Errors Manually Reporting Errors Sourcemaps General Features Overview Alerts Comments Digests Environments Search Segments Services Webhooks Logging Overview Log Alerts Log Search Tracing Overview Trace Search Dashboards Overview Dashboard Management Metrics Tutorials Service Latency Web Vitals & Page Speed User Engagement User Analytics Graphing Drilldown Event Search Dashboard Variables SQL Editor Metrics (beta) Overview Frequently Asked Questions. Integrations Integrations Overview Amplitude Integration ClickUp Integration Discord Integration Electron Support Front Integration GitHub Integration Grafana Integration Overview Setup Dashboards Alerts Height Integration Intercom Integration Jira Integration LaunchDarkly Integration Linear Integration Mixpanel Integration Nuxt Integration Pendo Integration Segment Integration Slack Integration Vercel Integration WordPress Plugin Highlight.io Changelog Overview Changelog 12 (02/17) Changelog 13 (02/24) Changelog 14 (03/03) Changelog 15 (03/11) Changelog 16 (03/19) Changelog 17 (04/07) Changelog 18 (04/26) Changelog 19 (05/22) Changelog 20 (06/06) Changelog 21 (06/21) Changelog 22 (08/07) Changelog 23 (08/22) Changelog 24 (09/11) Changelog 25 (10/03) Changelog 26 (11/08) Changelog 27 (12/22) Changelog 28 (3/6) Changelog 29 (4/2) Getting Started Getting Started with Highlight Fullstack Mapping Browser React.js Next.js Remix Vue.js Angular Gatsby.js SvelteKit Electron highlight.run SDK Overview Canvas & WebGL Console Messages Content-Security-Policy Identifying Users iframe Recording Monkey Patches Browser OpenTelemetry Persistent Asset Storage Privacy Proxying Highlight React.js Error Boundary Recording Network Requests and Responses Recording WebSocket Events Salesforce Lightning Web Components (LWC) Data Export Sourcemap Configuration Tracking Events Troubleshooting Upgrading Highlight Versioning Sessions & Errors Other React Native (beta) Server Go Overview chi Echo Fiber Gin GORM gqlgen Logrus Manual Tracing gorilla mux JS Overview Apollo AWS Lambda Cloudflare Workers Express.js Firebase Hono Nest.js Next.js Node.js Pino tRPC Winston Python Overview AWS Lambda Azure Functions Django FastAPI Flask Google Cloud Functions Loguru Other Frameworks Python AI / LLM Libraries Python Libraries Ruby Overview Other Frameworks Ruby on Rails Rust Overview actix-web No Framework Hosting Providers Overview Metrics in AWS Logging in AWS Logging in Azure Fly.io NATS Log Shipper Logging in GCP Heroku Log Drain Render Log Stream Logging in Trigger.dev Vercel Log Drain Elixir Overview Elixir App Java: All Frameworks PHP: All Frameworks C# .NET ASP C# .NET 4 ASP Docker / Docker Compose File Fluent Forward curl OpenTelemetry Protocol (OTLP) Syslog RFC5424 Systemd / Journald Native OpenTelemetry Overview Error Monitoring Logging Tracing Browser Instrumentation Metrics Fullstack Frameworks Overview Next.js Fullstack Overview Next.js Page Router Guide Next.js App Router Guide Edge Runtime Advanced Config Remix Walkthrough Self Host & Local Dev Overview Development deployment guide. Integrations Microsoft Teams self-hosted Hobby deployment guide. Traefik SSL Proxying. Docs Home SDK Client SDK API Reference Cloudflare Worker SDK API Reference Go SDK API Reference Hono SDK API Reference Java SDK API Reference Next.JS SDK API Reference Node.JS SDK API Reference Python SDK API Reference Ruby SDK API Reference Rust SDK API Reference Docs / Getting Started / Server / JS / Node.js Quick Start Node.js Quick Start Learn how to set up highlight.io in Node.js. 1 Configure client-side Highlight. (optional) If you're using Highlight on the frontend for your application, make sure you've initialized it correctly and followed the fullstack mapping guide . 2 Install the relevant Highlight SDK(s). Install @highlight-run/node with your package manager. npm install --save @highlight-run/node 3 Initialize the Highlight JS SDK. Initialize the Highlight JS SDK with your project ID. import { H } from '@highlight-run/node' H.init({ projectID: '<YOUR_PROJECT_ID>', serviceName: '<YOUR_SERVICE_NAME>', environment: 'production', }) 4 Optionally, report manual errors in your app. If you need to report exceptions outside of a handler, use the Highlight SDK. const parsed = H.parseHeaders(request.headers) H.consumeError(error, parsed?.secureSessionId, parsed?.requestId) 5 Verify that your SDK is reporting errors. You'll want to throw an exception in one of your Node.js handlers. Access the API handler and make sure the error shows up in Highlight . const onError = (request, error) => { const parsed = H.parseHeaders(request.headers) H.consumeError(error, parsed.secureSessionId, parsed.requestId) } const main = () => { try { throw new Error('example error!') } catch (e) { onError(e) } } 6 Call built-in console methods. Logs are automatically recorded by the highlight SDK. Arguments passed as a dictionary as the second parameter will be interpreted as structured key-value pairs that logs can be easily searched by. module.exports = function() { console.log('hey there!'); console.warn('whoa there', {'key': 'value'}); } 7 Verify your backend logs are being recorded. Visit the highlight logs portal and check that backend logs are coming in. 8 Wrap your code using the Node.js SDK. By calling H.startWithHeaders() and span.end() , the @highlight-run/node SDK will record a span. You can create more child spans or add custom attributes to each span. const functionToTrace = async (input int) => { const { span, ctx } = H.startWithHeaders("functionToTrace", {}, {custom_property: input}) // ... // use the current span context with the function call to ensure child spans are tied to the current span // import api from '@opentelemetry/api' api.context.with(ctx, () => { anotherFunction() }) // ... span.end() } const anotherFunction = () => { const { span } = H.startWithHeaders("anotherFunction", {}) // ... span.end() } module.exports = function() { console.log('hey there!'); functionToTrace() } 9 Pass HTTP headers to the SDK H.runWithHeaders takes request headers and spreads them across all related spans, automatically relating spans to your session and request headers. app.get('/', async (req, res) => { await H.runWithHeaders(req.headers, () => { const { span } = H.startWithHeaders("custom-span", {}) const err = new Error('this is a test error') console.info('Sending error to highlight') H.consumeError(err) res.send('Hello World!') span.end() }) }) 10 Verify your backend traces are being recorded. Visit the highlight traces portal and check that backend traces are coming in. Next.js Pino [object Object] | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
https://opensource.org/about/brand-and-trademark-guidelines | Trademark and brand guidelines – Open Source Initiative Skip to content Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Open Main Menu Home About Trademark and brand guidelines Trademark and brand guidelines The Open Source Initiative (OSI) trademarks, including “OSI,” “Open Source Initiative,” the “OSI logo,” and “OSI Approved Open Source License,” are protected on behalf of the open source community. As trademark owners, OSI is legally obligated to prevent confusingly similar uses by third parties. OSI trademarks and registration The OSI “Keyhole Logo,” designed by Colin Viebrock, symbolizes unlocking source code. This logo and its word mark are registered with the United States Patent and Trademark Office for public advocacy promoting non-proprietary software (Class 35) and educational services related to non-proprietary software (Class 41). The logo is also registered in Australia, Benelux, Canada, and China. The “OSI Approved Open Source License” is also a registered trademark of the Open Source Initiative. General principles for trademark use Written approval is NOT always required Written permission is generally not required for non-commercial and community websites, business websites, promotional events, and publications, provided the following conditions are met: Promote OSI Approved Licenses®: The use must promote OSI-approved software licenses. Avoid disparagement: Do not disparage OSI. No implied endorsement: Do not imply sponsorship or endorsement by OSI. 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Use for the first instance of the OSI Logo include the ® mark, and include the statement “The OSI logo trademark is the trademark of Open Source Initiative.” Never using the ® mark for OSI Logo, nor a trademark statement per the guidelines. Always distinguish trademarks from surrounding text with at least initial capital letters or in all capital letters. Open Source Initiative or OPEN SOURCE INITIATIVE open source initiative Always use a trademark as an adjective modifying a noun, or as a singular noun. This software is licensed under an Open Source Initiative Approved License®. I put Open Source Initiative software on AcmeCo’s server. Never use a trademark as a possessive. Instead, the following noun should be used in possessive form or the sentence reworded so there is no possessive. Many software programs licensed under OSI’s approved licenses are easy to use. OSI’s software is easy to use. Prohibited Uses: Do not use trademarks as possessives. Do not translate trademarks. Do not alter trademarks. Do not use confusingly similar marks. Do not combine company names with OSI names in a way that implies an organizational link. Do not use the trademarks disparagingly. Do not imply that OSI is responsible for the performance of third-party products or services. Hyperlink OSI Logo: The OSI Logo must be hyperlinked to opensource.org where technically feasible. Acknowledgment and compliance Users of OSI Trademarks acknowledge OSI’s sole ownership and agree not to interfere with or diminish OSI’s rights. They also agree not to register confusingly similar designations. Non-compliance with these guidelines requires modification of use or cessation of trademark use within ten days of written notice. Branding Official OSI logos OSI Approved License Logo OSI standard vertical logo OSI logo with wordmark horizontal OSI logotype OSI logo B&W for light backgrounds OSI logo B&W for dark backgrounds OSI logo grayscale for light backgrounds OSI grayscale logo for dark backgrounds OSI logo for dark backgrounds Fonts and colors Typeface Use the Open Sans Ultra-Bold font for the “open” and Open Sans Semi-Bold font for the “Source Initiative” as complementary fonts to the OSI Logo. 1.5. Color Palette Light Green Dark Green Black Pantone ® : 361 CVU Pantone ® : 361 CVU +50% Black Pantone ® : Black CMYK (%): 76,0,91,0 CMYK (%): 76,0,91,50 CMYK (%): 0,0,0,100 RGB (0-255): 61,166,57 RGB (0-255): 30,83,29 RGB (0-255): 0,0,0 HEX: #3DA639 HEX: #1E531D HEX: #000000 Examples of mistakes and violations of these guidelines Never stray from the color palette Never switch the colors. Use a choice from the palette provided. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close # containers Follow Hide Security for container technologies like Docker and orchestration platforms like Kubernetes. Create Post Older #containers posts 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Using Podman as a Docker alternative Aviral Srivastava Aviral Srivastava Aviral Srivastava Follow Oct 1 '25 Using Podman as a Docker alternative # containers # security # devops # docker Comments Add Comment 5 min read Securing Container Registries: Best Practices for Safe Image Management Mikuz Mikuz Mikuz Follow Sep 30 '25 Securing Container Registries: Best Practices for Safe Image Management # containers # devops # security Comments Add Comment 2 min read Hosting a Minecraft Server on Cloudflare Containers Sam Gunawardana Sam Gunawardana Sam Gunawardana Follow Oct 30 '25 Hosting a Minecraft Server on Cloudflare Containers # minecraft # containers # cloudflare # serverless 7 reactions Comments 3 comments 8 min read Why Your Docker Ubuntu Container Exits Immediately (and How to Fix It)🐳 Chaitanya Rai Chaitanya Rai Chaitanya Rai Follow Oct 31 '25 Why Your Docker Ubuntu Container Exits Immediately (and How to Fix It)🐳 # docker # containers # kubernetes # devops 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Taming the "It Works on My Machine" Monster with Docker Santosh Shelar Santosh Shelar Santosh Shelar Follow Sep 29 '25 Taming the "It Works on My Machine" Monster with Docker # docker # containers # programming # beginners Comments Add Comment 1 min read 7 Core components of Kubernetes every DevOps engineer should know Muhabbat Ali Muhabbat Ali Muhabbat Ali Follow Sep 28 '25 7 Core components of Kubernetes every DevOps engineer should know # devops # kubernetes # containers # k8s Comments Add Comment 4 min read The Hidden Risks of "Secure by Default": Why Security Contexts in Kubernetes Matter Anderson Leite Anderson Leite Anderson Leite Follow Oct 30 '25 The Hidden Risks of "Secure by Default": Why Security Contexts in Kubernetes Matter # security # kubernetes # containers # behaviours 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 6 min read How to Debug Applications Running in Docker Containers Narendra Chauhan Narendra Chauhan Narendra Chauhan Follow for AddWeb Solution Pvt Ltd Oct 29 '25 How to Debug Applications Running in Docker Containers # docker # containers # troubleshooting # logging 70 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Platform Engineering: The Secret Sauce Behind Every Great Tech Team kaustubh yerkade kaustubh yerkade kaustubh yerkade Follow Oct 29 '25 Platform Engineering: The Secret Sauce Behind Every Great Tech Team # platformengineering # devops # infrastructureascode # containers 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Optimizing Cloud-Native Apps with Effective Kubernetes Deployment Strategies Supratip Banerjee Supratip Banerjee Supratip Banerjee Follow Oct 17 '25 Optimizing Cloud-Native Apps with Effective Kubernetes Deployment Strategies # kubernetes # devops # containers # aws 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 4 min read Explained Docker in 1 Minute Muhammad Usman Muhammad Usman Muhammad Usman Follow Oct 16 '25 Explained Docker in 1 Minute # docker # containers # devops 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read How to Write a Dockerfile: Step-by-Step Guide The Devops Tooling The Devops Tooling The Devops Tooling Follow Oct 27 '25 How to Write a Dockerfile: Step-by-Step Guide # docker # devops # containers # tutorial 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read 🚀 Pods no Kubernetes (com 2 containers no mesmo Pod): DeividFerraz DeividFerraz DeividFerraz Follow Sep 23 '25 🚀 Pods no Kubernetes (com 2 containers no mesmo Pod): # containers # kubernetes # networking Comments Add Comment 2 min read Containerization vs. Virtualization: A Simple Guide to Application Isolation Bhavya Singh Bhavya Singh Bhavya Singh Follow Sep 23 '25 Containerization vs. Virtualization: A Simple Guide to Application Isolation # containers # virtualization # docker # devops Comments Add Comment 4 min read 🐳 Working with Docker? Don’t Let Your Disk Explode! Sara H Sara H Sara H Follow Oct 26 '25 🐳 Working with Docker? Don’t Let Your Disk Explode! # docker # programming # devops # containers 6 reactions Comments Add Comment 1 min read Docker Architecture and Installation: Getting Started with Docker 🏗️ Haripriya Veluchamy Haripriya Veluchamy Haripriya Veluchamy Follow Oct 25 '25 Docker Architecture and Installation: Getting Started with Docker 🏗️ # containers # docker # devops # webdev 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Part-76: Kubernetes Architecture Explained (Master & Worker Nodes) Latchu@DevOps Latchu@DevOps Latchu@DevOps Follow Sep 22 '25 Part-76: Kubernetes Architecture Explained (Master & Worker Nodes) # devops # kubernetes # containers # cloud 7 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Part-77: 🚀GKE Cluster Modes & Types – Explained Simply Latchu@DevOps Latchu@DevOps Latchu@DevOps Follow Sep 22 '25 Part-77: 🚀GKE Cluster Modes & Types – Explained Simply # googlecloud # kubernetes # containers # devops 7 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read Why Developers Can’t Ignore Docker Anymore Omkar Sharma Omkar Sharma Omkar Sharma Follow Sep 22 '25 Why Developers Can’t Ignore Docker Anymore # docker # container # containers # virtualization 3 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Azure Container Instances Aviral Srivastava Aviral Srivastava Aviral Srivastava Follow Oct 4 '25 Azure Container Instances # azure # containers # serverless 1 reaction Comments 1 comment 5 min read Show Your Work: devbox CLI Cooper Cooper Cooper Follow Sep 22 '25 Show Your Work: devbox CLI # opensource # productivity # containers # devops Comments Add Comment 1 min read Let's try Managed ECS Instances Piotr Pabis Piotr Pabis Piotr Pabis Follow for AWS Community Builders Oct 22 '25 Let's try Managed ECS Instances # aws # containers # ecs # docker 5 reactions Comments Add Comment 8 min read Key Notes from Migrating 7 Microservices to Amazon ECS Dickson Victor Dickson Victor Dickson Victor Follow for AWS Community Builders Oct 22 '25 Key Notes from Migrating 7 Microservices to Amazon ECS # containers # docker # aws # microservices 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 2 min read RHEL 9 Hands-On: Logs, Permissions, Containers & Process Scheduling Labby Labby Labby Follow for LabEx Sep 17 '25 RHEL 9 Hands-On: Logs, Permissions, Containers & Process Scheduling # rhel # linux # rhcsa # containers Comments Add Comment 2 min read Docker Fundamentals: Understanding Containers and the Docker Ecosystem 🐳 Haripriya Veluchamy Haripriya Veluchamy Haripriya Veluchamy Follow Oct 19 '25 Docker Fundamentals: Understanding Containers and the Docker Ecosystem 🐳 # docker # containers # devops # aws 4 reactions Comments Add Comment 4 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. 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https://www.highlight.io/docs/general/product-features/tracing/trace-search | Trace Search Star us on GitHub Star Docs Sign in Sign up General Docs Welcome to highlight.io Get Started Roadmap Company Values Compliance & Security Open Source Contributing Overview GraphQL Backend Frontend (app.highlight.io) Landing Site (highlight.io) Documentation End to End SDK Example Apps Adding an SDK Application Architecture GitHub Code Spaces Code Style Good First Issues Self-hosting Self-hosted [Dev] Self-hosted [Hobby] Self-hosted [Enterprise] Telemetry Our Competitors Product Philosophy Product Features Session Replay Overview Canvas & Iframe Dev-tool Window Recording Tracking Users & Recording Events Filtering Sessions GraphQL Live Mode Performance Impact Player Session Caching Rage Clicks Request Proxying Session Search Extracting the Session URL Session Search Deep Linking Shadow Dom + Web Components Error Monitoring Overview Enhancing Errors with GitHub Error Search Filtering Errors Grouping Errors Managing Errors Manually Reporting Errors Sourcemaps General Features Overview Alerts Comments Digests Environments Search Segments Services Webhooks Logging Overview Log Alerts Log Search Tracing Overview Trace Search Dashboards Overview Dashboard Management Metrics Tutorials Service Latency Web Vitals & Page Speed User Engagement User Analytics Graphing Drilldown Event Search Dashboard Variables SQL Editor Metrics (beta) Overview Frequently Asked Questions. Integrations Integrations Overview Amplitude Integration ClickUp Integration Discord Integration Electron Support Front Integration GitHub Integration Grafana Integration Overview Setup Dashboards Alerts Height Integration Intercom Integration Jira Integration LaunchDarkly Integration Linear Integration Mixpanel Integration Nuxt Integration Pendo Integration Segment Integration Slack Integration Vercel Integration WordPress Plugin Highlight.io Changelog Overview Changelog 12 (02/17) Changelog 13 (02/24) Changelog 14 (03/03) Changelog 15 (03/11) Changelog 16 (03/19) Changelog 17 (04/07) Changelog 18 (04/26) Changelog 19 (05/22) Changelog 20 (06/06) Changelog 21 (06/21) Changelog 22 (08/07) Changelog 23 (08/22) Changelog 24 (09/11) Changelog 25 (10/03) Changelog 26 (11/08) Changelog 27 (12/22) Changelog 28 (3/6) Changelog 29 (4/2) Menu Highlight Docs Welcome to highlight.io Get Started Roadmap Company Values Compliance & Security Open Source Contributing Overview GraphQL Backend Frontend (app.highlight.io) Landing Site (highlight.io) Documentation End to End SDK Example Apps Adding an SDK Application Architecture GitHub Code Spaces Code Style Good First Issues Self-hosting Self-hosted [Dev] Self-hosted [Hobby] Self-hosted [Enterprise] Telemetry Our Competitors Product Philosophy Product Features Session Replay Overview Canvas & Iframe Dev-tool Window Recording Tracking Users & Recording Events Filtering Sessions GraphQL Live Mode Performance Impact Player Session Caching Rage Clicks Request Proxying Session Search Extracting the Session URL Session Search Deep Linking Shadow Dom + Web Components Error Monitoring Overview Enhancing Errors with GitHub Error Search Filtering Errors Grouping Errors Managing Errors Manually Reporting Errors Sourcemaps General Features Overview Alerts Comments Digests Environments Search Segments Services Webhooks Logging Overview Log Alerts Log Search Tracing Overview Trace Search Dashboards Overview Dashboard Management Metrics Tutorials Service Latency Web Vitals & Page Speed User Engagement User Analytics Graphing Drilldown Event Search Dashboard Variables SQL Editor Metrics (beta) Overview Frequently Asked Questions. Integrations Integrations Overview Amplitude Integration ClickUp Integration Discord Integration Electron Support Front Integration GitHub Integration Grafana Integration Overview Setup Dashboards Alerts Height Integration Intercom Integration Jira Integration LaunchDarkly Integration Linear Integration Mixpanel Integration Nuxt Integration Pendo Integration Segment Integration Slack Integration Vercel Integration WordPress Plugin Highlight.io Changelog Overview Changelog 12 (02/17) Changelog 13 (02/24) Changelog 14 (03/03) Changelog 15 (03/11) Changelog 16 (03/19) Changelog 17 (04/07) Changelog 18 (04/26) Changelog 19 (05/22) Changelog 20 (06/06) Changelog 21 (06/21) Changelog 22 (08/07) Changelog 23 (08/22) Changelog 24 (09/11) Changelog 25 (10/03) Changelog 26 (11/08) Changelog 27 (12/22) Changelog 28 (3/6) Changelog 29 (4/2) Getting Started Getting Started with Highlight Fullstack Mapping Browser React.js Next.js Remix Vue.js Angular Gatsby.js SvelteKit Electron highlight.run SDK Overview Canvas & WebGL Console Messages Content-Security-Policy Identifying Users iframe Recording Monkey Patches Browser OpenTelemetry Persistent Asset Storage Privacy Proxying Highlight React.js Error Boundary Recording Network Requests and Responses Recording WebSocket Events Salesforce Lightning Web Components (LWC) Data Export Sourcemap Configuration Tracking Events Troubleshooting Upgrading Highlight Versioning Sessions & Errors Other React Native (beta) Server Go Overview chi Echo Fiber Gin GORM gqlgen Logrus Manual Tracing gorilla mux JS Overview Apollo AWS Lambda Cloudflare Workers Express.js Firebase Hono Nest.js Next.js Node.js Pino tRPC Winston Python Overview AWS Lambda Azure Functions Django FastAPI Flask Google Cloud Functions Loguru Other Frameworks Python AI / LLM Libraries Python Libraries Ruby Overview Other Frameworks Ruby on Rails Rust Overview actix-web No Framework Hosting Providers Overview Metrics in AWS Logging in AWS Logging in Azure Fly.io NATS Log Shipper Logging in GCP Heroku Log Drain Render Log Stream Logging in Trigger.dev Vercel Log Drain Elixir Overview Elixir App Java: All Frameworks PHP: All Frameworks C# .NET ASP C# .NET 4 ASP Docker / Docker Compose File Fluent Forward curl OpenTelemetry Protocol (OTLP) Syslog RFC5424 Systemd / Journald Native OpenTelemetry Overview Error Monitoring Logging Tracing Browser Instrumentation Metrics Fullstack Frameworks Overview Next.js Fullstack Overview Next.js Page Router Guide Next.js App Router Guide Edge Runtime Advanced Config Remix Walkthrough Self Host & Local Dev Overview Development deployment guide. Integrations Microsoft Teams self-hosted Hobby deployment guide. Traefik SSL Proxying. Docs Home SDK Client SDK API Reference Cloudflare Worker SDK API Reference Go SDK API Reference Hono SDK API Reference Java SDK API Reference Next.JS SDK API Reference Node.JS SDK API Reference Python SDK API Reference Ruby SDK API Reference Rust SDK API Reference Docs / Highlight Docs / Product Features / Tracing / Trace Search Trace Search Trace search allows you to filter on spans of traces in your product based on a query, and allows you to see more information on an overarching trace by clicking into a span. You can filter spans using a search query For example, you can get to all spans of traces produced in the last 15 minutes from a private-graph service by selecting "Last 15 minutes" from the time picker and entering the following query: service_name=private-graph Searching for Traces For general information on searching traces, check out our Search docs . Default Key The default key for trace search is span_name . If you enter an expression without a key ( gorm.Query ) it will be used as the key for the expression ( span_name=*gorm.Query* ). Searchable Attributes You can search on any attributes that you send in your traces as well as any of the default attributes assigned to a trace. Our SDKs will also link sessions , errors , and logs to their respective traces. The autoinjected attributes for traces can be seen in the table below. Attribute Description Example duration Time length of the span in nanoseconds 10s environment The environment specified in the SDK production has_errors If the span has an error tied to its id true highlight.type More specific source of the span http.request parent_span_id Span id of the span's parent 327611203ec5b0a1 secure_session_id Session id that contains this span wh1jcuN5F9G6Ra5CKeCjdIk6Rbyd service_name Name of the service specified in the SDK private-graph service_version Version of the service specified in the SDK e1845285cb360410aee05c61dd0cc57f85afe6da span_kind Broad source of the span Server span_name Title of the span POST https://app.highlight.io trace_id Trace id of the spans 7654ff38c4631d5a51b26f7e637eea3c You can view a full list of the available attributes to filter on by starting to type in the search box. As you type you'll get suggestions for keys to filter on. Helpful Tips To see all the spans of a specific trace, you can filter by trace_id to get a table view of the spans. You can also click into the span to get more information, including a flame graph of the trace with all its spans. Use secure_session_id EXISTS to only see spans that are tied to a session. Use time suffixes, such as s , ms and us to help filter out for span durations. For example, use duration>1s to find all spans that were longer than 1 second. Tracing Features Dashboards Community / Support Suggest Edits? Follow us! [object Object] | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Programming Follow Hide The magic behind computers. 💻 🪄 Create Post Older #programming posts 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu Breaking the interface barrier: CGLIB and ByteBuddy Rajat Arora Rajat Arora Rajat Arora Follow Jan 9 Breaking the interface barrier: CGLIB and ByteBuddy # java # programming # learning # backend 2 reactions Comments Add Comment 9 min read Concerning Amounts of Malware in the VS Code Marketplace: What Microsoft’s Own Logs Reveal Ishaan Agrawal Ishaan Agrawal Ishaan Agrawal Follow Jan 9 Concerning Amounts of Malware in the VS Code Marketplace: What Microsoft’s Own Logs Reveal # security # productivity # programming # backend 12 reactions Comments Add Comment 3 min read Solved: Third party attribution solution (Segmetrics) vs Looker Studio connectors (Supermetrics)? What should I use? Darian Vance Darian Vance Darian Vance Follow Jan 9 Solved: Third party attribution solution (Segmetrics) vs Looker Studio connectors (Supermetrics)? What should I use? # devops # programming # tutorial # cloud Comments Add Comment 10 min read Building Own MAC (Message Authentication Code): Part 1 - Encrypted, but Not Trusted Dmytro Huz Dmytro Huz Dmytro Huz Follow Jan 10 Building Own MAC (Message Authentication Code): Part 1 - Encrypted, but Not Trusted # webdev # programming # security Comments Add Comment 5 min read Solved: Am I the only one who builds in the Console first, then reverse engineers the IaC? Darian Vance Darian Vance Darian Vance Follow Jan 9 Solved: Am I the only one who builds in the Console first, then reverse engineers the IaC? # devops # programming # tutorial # cloud Comments Add Comment 8 min read Biotech companies NEED continuous IP monitoring Omnis Coder Omnis Coder Omnis Coder Follow Jan 9 Biotech companies NEED continuous IP monitoring # biology # crispr # biotech # programming Comments Add Comment 3 min read Why Your Python Tuple Can't Be a Dictionary Key Samuel Ochaba Samuel Ochaba Samuel Ochaba Follow Jan 9 Why Your Python Tuple Can't Be a Dictionary Key # python # programming # computerscience # ai Comments Add Comment 1 min read Difference Array Jayaprasanna Roddam Jayaprasanna Roddam Jayaprasanna Roddam Follow Jan 9 Difference Array # programming # tutorial # python # datastructures Comments Add Comment 2 min read Prefix Sum Jayaprasanna Roddam Jayaprasanna Roddam Jayaprasanna Roddam Follow Jan 9 Prefix Sum # programming # beginners # tutorial # python Comments Add Comment 2 min read Building Advanced Component Scaffolding with lomer-ui CLI in Svelte Ethan Walker Ethan Walker Ethan Walker Follow Jan 9 Building Advanced Component Scaffolding with lomer-ui CLI in Svelte # svelte # programming # webdev # javascript Comments Add Comment 9 min read Building Interactive Data Tables with AgnosUI in Svelte Ethan Walker Ethan Walker Ethan Walker Follow Jan 9 Building Interactive Data Tables with AgnosUI in Svelte # svelte # webdev # programming # javascript Comments Add Comment 9 min read Building Accessible Forms with Validation in AgnosticUI and Svelte Ethan Walker Ethan Walker Ethan Walker Follow Jan 9 Building Accessible Forms with Validation in AgnosticUI and Svelte # webdev # programming # svelte # buildinpublic Comments Add Comment 6 min read Context in go, why it matters Jnanesh D Jnanesh D Jnanesh D Follow Jan 10 Context in go, why it matters # webdev # go # programming 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read Microsoft Agent Framework (MAF) Middleware Basics: Add Compliance Fences to Your Agent Peng Qian Peng Qian Peng Qian Follow Jan 9 Microsoft Agent Framework (MAF) Middleware Basics: Add Compliance Fences to Your Agent # programming # ai # tutorial # agentaichallenge 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 9 min read How to remove annotations from PDF files in Java (Tutorial) IDRSolutions IDRSolutions IDRSolutions Follow Jan 9 How to remove annotations from PDF files in Java (Tutorial) # java # pdf # programming # ai Comments Add Comment 1 min read I Built an AI README Generator! Here's What I Learned... Subatomicbread Subatomicbread Subatomicbread Follow Jan 9 I Built an AI README Generator! Here's What I Learned... # webdev # programming # github # ai 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 2 min read Sliding Window (Variable Size) Jayaprasanna Roddam Jayaprasanna Roddam Jayaprasanna Roddam Follow Jan 9 Sliding Window (Variable Size) # programming # beginners # tutorial # python Comments Add Comment 3 min read I Built a Gesture Controlled Fluid Simulation (And Accidentally Fought GitHub) TROJAN TROJAN TROJAN Follow Jan 10 I Built a Gesture Controlled Fluid Simulation (And Accidentally Fought GitHub) # discuss # programming # ai # beginners 8 reactions Comments 3 comments 2 min read AI Explains Code Well Until the Moment Context Actually Matters Leena Malhotra Leena Malhotra Leena Malhotra Follow Jan 9 AI Explains Code Well Until the Moment Context Actually Matters # webdev # programming # ai Comments Add Comment 8 min read Introducing HTTP Tracker Plus: Request Capture form Browser Dedar Alam Dedar Alam Dedar Alam Follow Jan 8 Introducing HTTP Tracker Plus: Request Capture form Browser # webdev # programming # javascript Comments Add Comment 1 min read 🚀 My Journey into Data Science as a Student RAHUL CHAUHAN RAHUL CHAUHAN RAHUL CHAUHAN Follow Jan 9 🚀 My Journey into Data Science as a Student # programming # ai # python # machinelearning 1 reaction Comments 1 comment 1 min read Hash Map Frequency Counting Jayaprasanna Roddam Jayaprasanna Roddam Jayaprasanna Roddam Follow Jan 9 Hash Map Frequency Counting # programming # beginners # tutorial # datastructures Comments Add Comment 2 min read تحويل الأفكار إلى حقيقة: كيف تبني وحدات ذكاء اصطناعي مع LangChain و FastAPI و Sevalla Mohamed Shaban Mohamed Shaban Mohamed Shaban Follow Jan 9 تحويل الأفكار إلى حقيقة: كيف تبني وحدات ذكاء اصطناعي مع LangChain و FastAPI و Sevalla # news # ai # tech # programming Comments Add Comment 1 min read Why “Busywork” Kills Creativity When I’m Just Trying to Experiment Tanmaya Naik Tanmaya Naik Tanmaya Naik Follow Jan 9 Why “Busywork” Kills Creativity When I’m Just Trying to Experiment # programming # productivity # learning Comments Add Comment 1 min read Building Forms with Validation in Attractions and Svelte Ethan Walker Ethan Walker Ethan Walker Follow Jan 9 Building Forms with Validation in Attractions and Svelte # svelte # webdev # programming # javascript Comments Add Comment 6 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
https://opensource.org/ai/process | Open Source AI Process – Open Source Initiative Skip to content Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Get involved About Licenses Open Source Definition Open Source AI Programs Blog Open Source AI Open Source AI OSAID 1.0 Process Timeline Open Weights FAQ Endorsements Open Main Menu THE open source ai definition 1.0 We have released the first stable version of the Definition. Read version 1.0 How was Open Source AI defined? The Open Source Definition is a practical guide to judge if legal documents grant the four freedoms to software, following the principles of the GNU Manifesto. More than two decades passed between the GNU Manifesto and the writing of the Open Source Definition . For AI we cannot wait decades to produce a new document. The Open Source Initiative started coordinating in 2022 a global process to sharpen collective knowledge and identify the principles that lead to a widely adopted Open Source AI Definition (OSAID). OSI brought together global experts to establish a shared set of principles that can recreate permissionless, pragmatic and simplified collaboration for AI practitioners, similar to that which the Open Source Definition has done for the software ecosystem. The output of this work is version 1.0 of the Open Source AI Definition . The document will be used to validate whether an AI system is an Open Source AI, or not. The validation process will be similar to the evaluation of existing licenses for software: community-led, open and public. The Process The board requires by the in-person meeting of 2024 in Raleigh, an Open Source AI Definition that is supported by stakeholders that include deployers of AI, end users of AI and subjects (those affected by AI decisions), provides positive examples of AI systems, is rooted in current practice and provides a reference for interested parties. Collaboration with multiple stakeholders The Open Source Initiative (OSI) has guarded the Open Source Definition for over 25 years and has robust processes for developing, amending, and consulting on licenses. This authority position is recognised by a number of leaders in organizations who have agreed to co-design a new definition suited for AI and ML. These leaders joined the co-design process in a personal capacity and with various degrees of direct involvement from their employers like Digital Public Goods Alliance, Mozilla Foundation, Open Knowledge Foundation, National Endowment for Democracy, Center for Tech and Civic Life, Code for America, Wikimedia Foundation, Creative Commons, Linux Foundation, MLCommons, EleutherAI, Open Future, GitHub, Microsoft, Google, DataStax, Amazon, Meta, Hugging Face, GIZ FAIR Forward – AI for All, OpenLLM France, Polytechnic Institute of Paris, Intel, Apache Software Foundation, Samsung, and the United Nations International Telecommunications Union (ITU). Co-design process Co-design, also called participatory or human-centered design, is a set of creative methods used to solve communal problems by sharing knowledge and power. The co-design methodology addresses the challenges of reaching an agreed definition within a diverse community (Costanza-Chock, 2020: Escobar, 2018: Creative Reaction Lab, 2018: Friedman et al., 2019). As noted in MIT Technology Review’s article about this project, “ [t]he open-source community is a big tent… encompassing everything from hacktivists to Fortune 500 companies…. With so many competing interests to consider, finding a solution that satisfies everyone while ensuring that the biggest companies play along is no easy task. ” (Gent, 2024). The co-design method allows us to integrate these diverging perspectives into one just, cohesive, and feasible standard. Support from such a significant and broad group of people also creates a tension to be managed between moving swiftly enough to deliver outputs that can be used operationally, and taking the time to consult widely to understand the big issues and garner community buy-in. The first step of the co-design process was to identify the freedoms needed for Open Source AI. After various online and in-person activities and discussions , including five workshops across the world, the community adopted the four freedoms for software, now adapted for AI systems. The next step was to form four working groups to initially analyze four AI systems. To achieve better representation, special attention was given to diversity, equity and inclusion. Over 50% of the working group participants are people of color, 30% are black, 75% were born outside the US and 25% are women, trans and nonbinary. These working groups discussed and voted on which AI system components should be required to satisfy the four freedoms for AI. The components we adopted are described in the Model Openness Framework developed by the Linux Foundation. The vote compilation was performed based on the mean total votes per component (μ). Components which received over 2μ votes were marked as required and between 1.5μ and 2μ were marked likely required. Components that received between 0.5μ and μ were marked likely not required and less than 0.5μ as not required. The working groups evaluated legal frameworks and legal documents for each component. Finally, each working group published a recommendation report. The end result is the OSAID with a comprehensive definition checklist encompassing a total of 17 components. More working groups are being formed to evaluate how well other AI systems align with the definition. OSAID multi-stakeholder co-design process: from component list to a definition checklist The Open Source AI Definition Process We have released the first stable version Read version 1.0 RC1 Published in early October The draft is completed in all its parts The draft is supported by at least 2 representatives for each of the 6 stakeholder groups Stable version Outcome of in-person and online meetings through the summer/early autumn The document is endorsed by at least 5 reps for each of the stakeholder groups Announced in late October See the 2023 project activity February 2024 Call For Volunteers + Activity Feedback and Revision FOSDEM talk (Brussels) Bi-Weekly Virtual Public Town halls. Draft 0.0.5 March Virtual System Review Meetings Begin Draft 0.0.6 April Virtual System Review Meetings Continue Open Source Summit North America workshop The Free Software Legal and Licensing Event workshop Draft 0.0.7 May Virtual System Review Meetings END PyCon workshop (Pittsburgh) Draft 0.0.8 June Feedback Informs Content of OSI In-Person Stakeholder Meeting OW2 talk (Paris) Open Expo Europe talk(Madrid) RC 1 July OSPOs for Good panel session (New York) OSCA Community webinar (Virtual) August AI_dev talk (Hong Kong) Open Source Congress talk (Beijing) 0.0.9 September Deep Learning Indaba talk (Dakar) India FOSS talk (Bangalore) OSS Europe talk (Vienna) Nerdearla talk (Buenos Aires) Release Candidate 1 October Data in OSAI workshop (Paris) OCX talk (Mainz) All Things Open Stable Version Presentation (Raleigh) Release Stable Version Ongoing It doesn’t end with the Stable Version We’ll need to define rules for maintenance and review of the Definition. The OSI board of directors approved the creation of a new committee to oversee the development of the Open Source AI Definition, approve the Stable Version and set rules for the maintenance of Definition. Who is involved in this process? 🛠️ System Creators Makes AI system and/or component that will be studied, used, modified, or shared through an open source license. 📃 License Creators Writes or edits the open source license to be applied to the AI system or component; includes compliance. 🏛️ Regulators Writes or edits rules governing licenses and systems (e.g. government policy-maker). 🎓 Licensees Seeks to study, use modify, or share an open source AI system (e.g. AI engineer, health researcher, education researcher) ⌨️ End Users Consumes a system output, but does not seek to study, use, modify, or share the system (e.g., student using a chatbot to write a report, artist creating an image) 🙇 Subjects Affected upstream or downstream by a system output without interacting with it intentionally; includes advocates for this group (e.g. people with loan denied, or content creators). Governance Governance for the project is provided by the OSI Board of Directors . The OSI board members have expertise in business, legal, and open source software development, as well as experience across a range of commercial, public sector, and non-profit organizations. Formal progress reports including achievements, budget updates, and next steps are provided monthly by the Program Lead for advice and guidance as part of regular Board business. Additionally, informal updates on the outcomes of key meetings and milestones are provided via email to the Board as required. Details of the current Board, including profiles for each Director are available on here . How to participate The OSAID co-design process is open to everyone interested in collaborating . There are many ways to get involved: Join the working groups : be part of a team to evaluate various models against the OSAID. Join the forum : support and comment on the documents, record your approval or concerns to new and existing threads. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/?replytocom=23445#respond | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/?replytocom=23490#respond | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://dev.to/cotter/localstorage-vs-cookies-all-you-need-to-know-about-storing-jwt-tokens-securely-in-the-front-end-15id | LocalStorage vs Cookies: All You Need To Know About Storing JWT Tokens Securely in The Front-End - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Michelle Marcelline for Cotter Posted on Jul 21, 2020 • Edited on Aug 1, 2020 • Originally published at blog.cotter.app LocalStorage vs Cookies: All You Need To Know About Storing JWT Tokens Securely in The Front-End # security # webdev # javascript OAuth 2.0, JWT Tokens, and How to Store Them Securely (3 Part Series) 1 What on Earth Is OAuth? ASuper Simple Intro to OAuth 2.0, Access Tokens, and How to Implement It in Your Site 2 LocalStorage vs Cookies: All You Need To Know About Storing JWT Tokens Securely in The Front-End 3 OAuth 2.0 - Before You Start: Pick the Right Flow for Your Website, SPA, Mobile App, TV App, and CLI JWT Tokens are awesome, but how do you store them securely in your front-end? We'll go over the pros and cons of localStorage and Cookies. We went over how OAuth 2.0 works in the last post and we covered how to generate access tokens and refresh tokens. The next question is: how do you store them securely in your front-end? A Recap about Access Token & Refresh Token Access tokens are usually short-lived JWT Tokens, signed by your server, and are included in every HTTP request to your server to authorize the request. Refresh tokens are usually long-lived opaque strings stored in your database and are used to get a new access token when it expires. Where should I store my tokens in the front-end? There are 2 common ways to store your tokens: in localStorage or cookies. There are a lot of debate on which one is better and most people lean toward cookies for being more secure. Let's go over the comparison between localStorage . This article is mainly based on Please Stop Using Local Storage and the comments to this post. Local Storage Pros: It's convenient. It's pure JavaScript and it's convenient. If you don't have a back-end and you're relying on a third-party API, you can't always ask them to set a specific cookie for your site. Works with APIs that require you to put your access token in the header like this: Authorization Bearer ${access_token} . Cons: It's vulnerable to XSS attacks. An XSS attack happens when an attacker can run JavaScript on your website. This means that the attacker can just take the access token that you stored in your localStorage . An XSS attack can happen from a third-party JavaScript code included in your website, like React, Vue, jQuery, Google Analytics, etc. It's almost impossible not to include any third-party libraries in your site. Cookies Pros: The cookie is not accessible via JavaScript; hence, it is not as vulnerable to XSS attacks as localStorage . If you're using httpOnly and secure cookies, that means your cookies cannot be accessed using JavaScript. This means, even if an attacker can run JS on your site, they can't read your access token from the cookie. It's automatically sent in every HTTP request to your server. Cons: Depending on the use case, you might not be able to store your tokens in the cookies. Cookies have a size limit of 4KB. Therefore, if you're using a big JWT Token, storing in the cookie is not an option. There are scenarios where you can't share cookies with your API server or the API requires you to put the access token in the Authorization header. In this case, you won't be able to use cookies to store your tokens. About XSS Attack Local storage is vulnerable because it's easily accessible using JavaScript and an attacker can retrieve your access token and use it later. However, while httpOnly cookies are not accessible using JavaScript, this doesn't mean that by using cookies, you are safe from XSS attacks involving your access token. If an attacker can run JavaScript in your application, then they can just send an HTTP request to your server and that will automatically include your cookies. It's just less convenient for the attacker because they can't read the content of the token although they rarely have to. It might also be more advantageous for the attacker to attack using victim's browser (by just sending that HTTP Request) rather than using the attacker's machine. Cookies and CSRF Attack CSRF Attack is an attack that forces a user to do an unintended request. For example, if a website is accepting an email change request via: POST /email/change HTTP / 1.1 Host : site.com Content-Type : application/x-www-form-urlencoded Content-Length : 50 Cookie : session=abcdefghijklmnopqrstu email=myemail.example.com Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Then an attacker can easily make a form in a malicious website that sends a POST request to https://site.com/email/change with a hidden email field and the session cookie will automatically be included. However, this can be mitigated easily using sameSite flag in your cookie and by including an anti-CSRF token . Conclusion Although cookies still have some vulnerabilities, it's preferable compared to localStorage whenever possible. Why? Both localStorage and cookies are vulnerable to XSS attacks but it's harder for the attacker to do the attack when you're using httpOnly cookies. Cookies are vulnerable to CSRF attacks but it can be mitigated using sameSite flag and anti-CSRF tokens . You can still make it work even if you need to use the Authorization: Bearer header or if your JWT is larger than 4KB. This is also consistent with the recommendation from the OWASP community: Do not store session identifiers in local storage as the data are always accessible by JavaScript. Cookies can mitigate this risk using the httpOnly flag. OWASP: HTML5 Security Cheat Sheet So, how do I use cookies to persists my OAuth 2.0 tokens? As a recap, here are the different ways you can store your tokens: Option 1: Store your access token in localStorage : prone to XSS. Option 2: Store your access token in httpOnly cookie: prone to CSRF but can be mitigated, a bit better in terms of exposure to XSS. Option 3: Store the refresh token in httpOnly cookie: safe from CSRF, a bit better in terms of exposure to XSS. We'll go over how Option 3 works as it is the best out of the 3 options. Store your access token in memory and store your refresh token in the cookie Why is this safe from CSRF? Although a form submit to /refresh_token will work and a new access token will be returned, the attacker can't read the response if they're using an HTML form. To prevent the attacker from successfully making a fetch or AJAX request and read the response, this requires the Authorization Server's CORS policy to be set up correctly to prevent requests from unauthorized websites. So how does this set up work? Step 1: Return Access Token and Refresh Token when the user is authenticated. After the user is authenticated, the Authorization Server will return an access_token and a refresh_token . The access_token will be included in the Response body and the refresh_token will be included in the cookie. Refresh Token cookie setup: Use the httpOnly flag to prevent JavaScript from reading it. Use the secure=true flag so it can only be sent over HTTPS. Use the SameSite=strict flag whenever possible to prevent CSRF. This can only be used if the Authorization Server has the same site as your front-end. If this is not the case, your Authorization Server must set CORS headers in the back-end or use other methods to ensure that the refresh token request can only be done by authorized websites. Step 2: Store the access token in memory Storing the token in-memory means that you put this access token in a variable in your front-end site. Yes, this means that the access token will be gone if the user switches tabs or refresh the site. That's why we have the refresh token. Step 3: Renew access token using the refresh token When the access token is gone or has expired, hit the /refresh_token endpoint and the refresh token that was stored in the cookie in step 1 will be included in the request. You'll get a new access token and can then use that for your API Requests. This means your JWT Token can be larger than 4KB and you can also put it in the Authorization header. That's It! This should cover the basics and help you secure your site. This post is written by the team at Cotter – we are building lightweight, fast, and passwordless login solution for websites and mobile apps. If you're building a login flow for your website or mobile app, these articles might help: What On Earth Is OAuth? A Super Simple Intro to OAuth 2.0, Access Tokens, and How to Implement it in your Site Passwordless Login with Email and JSON Web Token (JWT) Authentication using Next.js Here's How to Integrate Cotter's Magic Link to Your Webflow Site in Less Than 15 minutes! References We referred to several articles when writing this blog, especially from these articles: Please Stop Using Local Storage The Ultimate Guide to handling JWTs on front-end clients (GraphQL) Cookies vs Localstorage for sessions – everything you need to know Questions & Feedback If you need help or have any feedback, feel free to comment here or ping us on Cotter's Slack Channel ! We're here to help. Ready to use Cotter? If you enjoyed this post and want to integrate Cotter into your website or app, you can create a free account and check out our documentation . OAuth 2.0, JWT Tokens, and How to Store Them Securely (3 Part Series) 1 What on Earth Is OAuth? ASuper Simple Intro to OAuth 2.0, Access Tokens, and How to Implement It in Your Site 2 LocalStorage vs Cookies: All You Need To Know About Storing JWT Tokens Securely in The Front-End 3 OAuth 2.0 - Before You Start: Pick the Right Flow for Your Website, SPA, Mobile App, TV App, and CLI Top comments (46) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Collapse Expand Kasey Speakman Kasey Speakman Kasey Speakman Follow collector of ideas. no one of consequence. Location Huntsville, AL Joined Apr 5, 2017 • Jul 22 '20 • Edited on Jul 24 • Edited Dropdown menu Copy link Hide The part of this discussion I always stumble over is when it is recommended to "just" use anti-CSRF tokens. This is a non-trivial requirement. It is easy for one server -- most of them have built-in libs just like with JWT authentication. However, unlike JWT authentication it is a stateful process. So once you go beyond a single API server (including a fail-over scenario) you have to externalize the issued CSRF tokens into something like Redis (or a DB if you don't mind even more added latency). So all servers can be aware of the issued tokens. This adds another infrastructure piece that needs to be maintained and scaled for load. Edit: I guess people already using session servers are thinking "So what, we already have Redis to track user sessions." But with JWT, user sessions are stateless (just the token they provide and you validate) so this extra infrastructure isn't needed. That's a maintenance cost eliminated. As far as local storage being vulnerable to XSS attacks, OWASP also puts out an XSS Prevention Cheat Sheet . The main attack vector for XSS is when you allow users to directly input HTML/JS and then execute it. Most major frameworks already santize user inputs to prevent this. Modern JavaScript frameworks have pretty good XSS protection built in. OWASP XSS Prevention Cheat Sheet The less common threat that you mentioned was NPM libraries becoming subverted to include XSS attacks. NPM has added auditing tools to report this and warn users. (Edit: Fair point is that people sometimes still use JS libs from CDNs, which may have less scrutiny.) And also Content Security Policy is supported in all major browsers and can prevent attacks and the exfil of token/data even if a script on your site gets compromised. It does not necessarily prevent the compromised script from making calls to your own API. But they would have to be targeting your API specifically to accomplish much. I completely understand the recommendation to use cookies + Secure + HttpOnly + anti-forgery tokens from a security perspective. And as far as I am aware it is superior security to JWT in local storage. But it also has pretty significant constraints. And local storage is not bad, security-wise. It is isolated by domain. XSS attacks are already heavily mitigated by just using a modern JS framework and paying attention to NPM audit warnings. Throw in CSP for good measure. And of course not going out of your way to evaluate user-entered data as HTML/JS/CSS. (If your site functionality requires this, then you probably should use cookie auth and CSP.) Like comment: Like comment: 37 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Putri Karunia Cotter Putri Karunia Cotter Putri Karunia Follow Co-founder of Cotter.app, web dev & design enthusiast. Email putri@typedream.com Location San Francisco Education UC Berkeley Work CTO at Typedream Joined Jun 18, 2020 • Jul 23 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Hi Kasey, thanks for your comment! I do agree that localStorage is not bad at all, and considering how XSS attacks are already heavily mitigated as you mentioned, it's a valid option. Like comment: Like comment: 3 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Kasey Speakman Kasey Speakman Kasey Speakman Follow collector of ideas. no one of consequence. Location Huntsville, AL Joined Apr 5, 2017 • Jul 23 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Hey thanks for the response! Best wishes. Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Todd Matheson Todd Matheson Todd Matheson Follow I'm current a student in frontend dev. I love learning new things, especially in the realm of web development. Also, becoming well acquainted with Rust's borrow checker. Location Bay Area, California Education Current Web Development Student Work Full stack web developer Joined Jan 2, 2019 • Jul 22 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Great article. Thanks for the in depth research and clear tutorial. Logic was very concise. 😃 Like comment: Like comment: 9 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Michelle Marcelline Cotter Michelle Marcelline Cotter Michelle Marcelline Follow I post about my journey as an immigrant female founder • prev. Typedream (acq. beehiiv) • Y Combibnator W20 • Forbes U30 Location San Francisco Work Co-Founder at The Prompting Company Joined Jun 19, 2020 • Jul 22 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Happy to help! Feel free to ping me if you have any questions/concerns :) Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Todd Matheson Todd Matheson Todd Matheson Follow I'm current a student in frontend dev. I love learning new things, especially in the realm of web development. Also, becoming well acquainted with Rust's borrow checker. Location Bay Area, California Education Current Web Development Student Work Full stack web developer Joined Jan 2, 2019 • Jul 22 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thanks Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Anshul Negi Anshul Negi Anshul Negi Follow Hello there... I Consider Myself A Budding Programmer, Learning Things At Own Pace & Celebrating The Learning Curve. Email anshul.negi.tc@gmail.com Location India Education B.Tech(Computer Science) Work MERN developer at Anshul Negi Joined Dec 14, 2019 • Jul 22 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Was in a long search for this clarification. Thanks Like comment: Like comment: 6 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Michelle Marcelline Cotter Michelle Marcelline Cotter Michelle Marcelline Follow I post about my journey as an immigrant female founder • prev. Typedream (acq. beehiiv) • Y Combibnator W20 • Forbes U30 Location San Francisco Work Co-Founder at The Prompting Company Joined Jun 19, 2020 • Jul 22 '20 • Edited on Jul 23 • Edited Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thanks Anshul! Let me know if you want me to discuss any other topics related to Authentication :) Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Anshul Negi Anshul Negi Anshul Negi Follow Hello there... I Consider Myself A Budding Programmer, Learning Things At Own Pace & Celebrating The Learning Curve. Email anshul.negi.tc@gmail.com Location India Education B.Tech(Computer Science) Work MERN developer at Anshul Negi Joined Dec 14, 2019 • Jul 23 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide For sure As for now, this article clears most of the doubts maybe in future if I lost around something related to authentication, will let you know. Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Lucien glue Lucien glue Lucien glue Follow full stack web developer Joined Jul 19, 2020 • Jul 22 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thanks for this article, it helped me a lot! Like comment: Like comment: 7 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Michelle Marcelline Cotter Michelle Marcelline Cotter Michelle Marcelline Follow I post about my journey as an immigrant female founder • prev. Typedream (acq. beehiiv) • Y Combibnator W20 • Forbes U30 Location San Francisco Work Co-Founder at The Prompting Company Joined Jun 19, 2020 • Jul 22 '20 • Edited on Jul 23 • Edited Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thanks Lucien! Let me know if you have any questions :) Like comment: Like comment: 4 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Wayne Smallman Wayne Smallman Wayne Smallman Follow Addicted to learning everything there is (except tax law and OAuth), often to be found contemplating the infinite when not building the Under Cloud. Location Yorkshire, England. Work Owner & Founder at Under Cloud Joined Jun 30, 2019 • Jul 22 '20 • Edited on Jul 22 • Edited Dropdown menu Copy link Hide If you use Express, then it could be worth looking at Express Session and the option to save the data to Redis: app.use( session({ name: 'sessionForApplication', secret: process.env.SESSION_SECRET, saveUninitialized: true, resave: true, cookie: { expires: expiryDate, domain: process.env.APP_DOMAIN }, store: new RedisStore(optionsForRedis) }) ) Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode Like comment: Like comment: 10 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Hemant Joshi Hemant Joshi Hemant Joshi Follow Your Friendly Neighbourhood Developer. Location Nainital, India Education Birla Institue Of Apllied Sciences; Work Learning... Joined Mar 31, 2020 • Jul 22 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Yes, redis is the best one🙂, also cookies would be my second option for JWT based storage Like comment: Like comment: 6 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Putri Karunia Cotter Putri Karunia Cotter Putri Karunia Follow Co-founder of Cotter.app, web dev & design enthusiast. Email putri@typedream.com Location San Francisco Education UC Berkeley Work CTO at Typedream Joined Jun 18, 2020 • Jul 23 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Hi Wayne, Putri here – Michelle's cofounder. This is very helpful, Express Session with Redis is definitely a great option. Thanks for the comment! Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Wayne Smallman Wayne Smallman Wayne Smallman Follow Addicted to learning everything there is (except tax law and OAuth), often to be found contemplating the infinite when not building the Under Cloud. Location Yorkshire, England. Work Owner & Founder at Under Cloud Joined Jun 30, 2019 • Jul 23 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide A pleasure, and glad to help. Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand m4r4v m4r4v m4r4v Follow I am who I am Location Earth Education Software Engineer, Cibersecurity Analyst, GNU/Linux SysAdmin Work Consultant Joined Jul 7, 2020 • Jul 22 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Very descriptive and helpful article. Thanks!!! Like comment: Like comment: 7 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Michelle Marcelline Cotter Michelle Marcelline Cotter Michelle Marcelline Follow I post about my journey as an immigrant female founder • prev. Typedream (acq. beehiiv) • Y Combibnator W20 • Forbes U30 Location San Francisco Work Co-Founder at The Prompting Company Joined Jun 19, 2020 • Jul 22 '20 • Edited on Jul 23 • Edited Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thanks Jorge! Like comment: Like comment: 3 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Marko Kruljac Marko Kruljac Marko Kruljac Follow Hello world Location Zagreb Joined Feb 27, 2020 • Jul 22 '20 • Edited on Jul 22 • Edited Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Hi Michelle, really great article! What always confused me about httpOnly cookies and JWT is that the frontend app is missing a big benefit of JWT, which is the payload containing claims and possibly other custom data from the backend. This is most often the user's role, which then the app uses to render privileged parts of the UI and so on, or the token expiry information. With httpOnly, this benefit is not utilised - but the cost in increased packet size is still being paid! There are strategies which take option 3 to the extreme, and people have already written great articles about this in details, that the JWT token itself should be split into 2 parts, it's signature in httpOnly, and the rest in a normal JS-accessible cookie. This ofcourse increases the complexity of the backend as well, which now needs to piece together the final JWT from two different incoming sources. I guess this could be option 4. It seems to me, that in order to make good secure use of JWT, considerable complexity on both stacks must be considered. Alternatives are either insecure, or not utilizing the benefits of JWT, which would then just be better off using bearer tokens. Again, thanks for the great article. It really got me thinking about these things and I think a great discussion could be made about the topic. What is your take on splitting the token into two cookies? Does the added complexity justify the security gained? Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Putri Karunia Cotter Putri Karunia Cotter Putri Karunia Follow Co-founder of Cotter.app, web dev & design enthusiast. Email putri@typedream.com Location San Francisco Education UC Berkeley Work CTO at Typedream Joined Jun 18, 2020 • Jul 23 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Hi Marko, Putri here – Michelle's cofounder. That's an interesting suggestion! I don't quite understand how the frontend would miss being able to read the claims/custom data in the JWT using option 3. By storing the access token in memory, you can decode and read the claims in the frontend whenever the access token is available. When the access token is not available in memory (after a refresh/change tab), you can use a function that will refresh the access token, and now you have the access token available again in memory and you can read/decode it in the frontend. Splitting the JWT might be a useful option if the above solution doesn't help. Let me know what you think :) Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Marko Kruljac Marko Kruljac Marko Kruljac Follow Hello world Location Zagreb Joined Feb 27, 2020 • Jul 23 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide By storing the token in memory, you risk compromising it by means of xss. The damage is contained since the token is short-lived, but still a window of opportunity exists. We can either accept this risk or add considerable complexity to reduce it. What do you think? Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Thread Thread Putri Karunia Cotter Putri Karunia Cotter Putri Karunia Follow Co-founder of Cotter.app, web dev & design enthusiast. Email putri@typedream.com Location San Francisco Education UC Berkeley Work CTO at Typedream Joined Jun 18, 2020 • Jul 23 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide That's true, storing in memory is still prone to XSS attack, it's just harder for the attacker to find it than localStorage. Splitting the JWT into 2 cookies where the signature is in an httpOnly cookie, but the rest of the JWT is accessible to JavaScript makes sense. This means that the frontend can still access JWT except for the signature. I think it's up to the website to determine what kind of attack factor that they're trying to mitigate against to decide whether they need the upgrade in security. Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Pacharapol Withayasakpunt Pacharapol Withayasakpunt Pacharapol Withayasakpunt Follow Currently interested in TypeScript, Vue, Kotlin and Python. Looking forward to learning DevOps, though. Location Thailand Education Yes Joined Oct 30, 2019 • Jul 28 '20 • Edited on Jul 28 • Edited Dropdown menu Copy link Hide I just wonder what is actually accessible by document.cookie ? Secondly would be the implementation. I am interested in all processes from highly-accessible sign-in, to protecting the API endpoint, and the server knows requesters' credentials (for attaching userId in database queries). I currently use Firebase / firebase-admin for these reasons, but I have trouble implementing storing token in cookies . I fear that it might be backend dependent... I will consider your product. Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Putri Karunia Cotter Putri Karunia Cotter Putri Karunia Follow Co-founder of Cotter.app, web dev & design enthusiast. Email putri@typedream.com Location San Francisco Education UC Berkeley Work CTO at Typedream Joined Jun 18, 2020 • Aug 4 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Hi Pacharapol! Cookies that are marked httpOnly are not accessible from document.cookie , otherwise you can access the cookie from document.cookie . source With our JS SDK (from yarn add cotter ), we actually handle storing the access token in memory and the refresh token in the cookie for you. In short, you can just call: cotter . tokenHandler . getAccessToken () Enter fullscreen mode Exit fullscreen mode and it will: grab the access token from memory if not expired, or automatically refreshes the access token by calling Cotter's refresh token endpoint (where the cookie is included) and return to you a new access token. If you're interested, shoot me a message on Slack and I can help you with any questions. You can find our documentation here . Like comment: Like comment: 3 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Jaytonic Jaytonic Jaytonic Follow Joined Jan 14, 2020 • Mar 18 '22 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Nice article, thank you! One thing I'm not sure I totally understood: About "Store your access token in memory and store your refresh token in the cookie". Doesn't that make us again vulnerable to XSS attacks? Because your in-memory token would be available by some injected javascript, no? Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand jonyx jonyx jonyx Follow Senior Software Engineer Joined Nov 8, 2019 • Jul 22 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Hi, I am so excited about this article, But what if the refresh token takes more than 4KB? Is there any way to increase the space of Cookie? Cookie is reling on the type of Browser? Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Putri Karunia Cotter Putri Karunia Cotter Putri Karunia Follow Co-founder of Cotter.app, web dev & design enthusiast. Email putri@typedream.com Location San Francisco Education UC Berkeley Work CTO at Typedream Joined Jun 18, 2020 • Jul 23 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Hi Pony, refresh tokens are usually opaque random strings stored in your database, so they shouldn't take more than 4KB. I don't think that there's a way to increase the space, but you might be able to split a large cookie into 2. However some browser limits cookie size per domain, so that wouldn't work. Here's a nice list about cookie limits per browser browsercookielimits.squawky.net/ . Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand jonyx jonyx jonyx Follow Senior Software Engineer Joined Nov 8, 2019 • Jul 23 '20 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thank you for your kind support Love to wait for your next post Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Matt Ellen-Tsivintzeli Matt Ellen-Tsivintzeli Matt Ellen-Tsivintzeli Follow Ultra-fullstack software developer. Python, JavaScript, C#, C. Location Earth Education I am a master of science Pronouns He/him/his/his Work Software Engineer Joined May 2, 2017 • Sep 9 '21 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Hi Putri, Just to let you know that the link in your reply is now dead. Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply View full discussion (46 comments) Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Cotter Follow One-Tap Passwordless Login for your App Are you building a website or an app that needs user signups/logins? Learn how to build user-friendly authentication in just a few minutes . 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/#comment-23445 | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/?replytocom=23520#respond | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/#content | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call | Hacker News Hacker News new | past | comments | ask | show | jobs | submit login Implementing a web server in a single printf() call ( tinyhack.com ) 181 points by pdq on March 13, 2014 | hide | past | favorite | 39 comments goldenkey on March 13, 2014 | next [–] It's called Shellcode. These kids these days with their exclusive Ruby on Rails knowledge. "Shell what? Oh you mean that new band that you probably never heard of?" joebo on March 13, 2014 | parent | next [–] I don't see ruby mentioned anywhere and the article mentions shellcode. I thought it was informative and interesting and I am well aware of shellcode. Your comment is unnecessarily condescending and may discourage posts like this. pessimizer on March 13, 2014 | root | parent | next [–] >may discourage posts like this. That may be goldenkey's goal, and shouldn't be discouraged either. Someone's opinion that something is awful and doesn't belong here is just as legitimate as your opinion that something is informative and interesting. Your comment is unnecessarily condescending and may discourage comments like this. scott_s on March 13, 2014 | root | parent | next [–] I disagree. Most opinions that state "I already knew this, and you should too" are banal and do not lead to interesting discussion. And the moderation system of this site is set up to promote interesting discussion. goldenkey on March 20, 2014 | root | parent | next [–] True but my comment was more directed at the disenfranchising nature of 'using printf.' Printf has nothing to do with shellcode, and is just a silent mockdrop of BS to entice those who would probably click onto the next article of a real explanation of shellcode were had. I prefer frankness to BS even if the frank explanation intimidates most. ethikal on March 13, 2014 | parent | prev | next [–] "Machine code? What's that?" negamax on March 13, 2014 | root | parent | next [–] "Javascript is assembly". ROFL! austinz on March 13, 2014 | prev | next [–] If you want to read more about shellcode/C vulnerabilities you can check out the Phrack and other links at Stanford's CS155 web site: https://courseware.stanford.edu/pg/assignments/view/280907/b... The Buffer Overflow #1 and #2 projects might also be worth checking out. You can download the project description, starter code, and VM image, and see if you can write code to get the root shell. voltagex_ on March 13, 2014 | parent | next [–] The requested URL /cs155/hw_and_proj/pp1/boxes-2.3.tar.bz2 was not found on this server. From https://crypto.stanford.edu/cs155/hw_and_proj/pp1/boxes-2.3.... which is the VM image link. Anyone got any contacts at Stanford? austinz on March 13, 2014 | root | parent | next [–] If you change https to http, it works for me (and I'm not logged in or privileged in any way). j_m_b on March 13, 2014 | parent | prev | next [–] Oldie but relevant: http://www.phrack.org/issues.html?issue=49&id=14#article DanielRibeiro on March 13, 2014 | parent | prev | next [–] Thanks for the course info! Quick link for those that missed how to use printf to call arbitrary functions: http://stackoverflow.com/a/7459758/113507 coldpie on March 13, 2014 | parent | prev | next [–] Along the same lines, I would also recommend "Hacking" by Jon Erickson. nostrademons on March 13, 2014 | prev | next [–] I did something like this in Haskell a few years ago, largely as an entertaining practical joke: http://pastebin.com/6kfwTsB0 sedev on March 13, 2014 | parent | next [–] I admire that feat at the same time as I have an overwhelming urge to take a cheap shot about which Haskell projects are entertaining practical jokes. JetSpiegel on March 13, 2014 | parent | prev | next [–] Minor lacerations detected. userbinator on March 13, 2014 | prev | next [–] When I read the title I thought it was going to be a printf("HTTP/1.1 200 OK..."); sort of thing, but I was pleasantly surprised. zobzu on March 13, 2014 | prev | next [–] if you're going to insert a shell code into printf, then well... you can implement anything in printf... or in memcpy.. or in strcat.. or whatever really. yalue on March 13, 2014 | parent | next [–] Heck, why not just title it "a web server with no library function calls" and call an array of bytes as a function? Then everybody would be able to see what it really is, which is an unremarkable shellcode embedded directly in a C program. I feel like the "printf" was only included so that people would have something to recognize in the title. anon4 on March 14, 2014 | root | parent | next [–] By that logic you could just execve httpd with shellcode. Or ruby. Or a ruby program that generates a perl script that compiles a Prolog program to shellcode that looks like it prints hello world, but actually does execve httpd. kang on March 13, 2014 | parent | prev | next [–] Yes, he mentions that. kentuckyduck on March 13, 2014 | prev | next [–] I got segmentation fault trying out his hello world example (after changing VMA address). Then again, isn't that the supposed behavior? Not every memory page can be written to, if I remember correctly. evandrix on March 13, 2014 | parent | next [–] Yes, segfault for me too after i changed ADDR preprocessor directive to the VMA address from objdump, as the instruction says. I'm on Ubuntu Linux 13.10 x64. yohanes on March 13, 2014 | root | parent | next [–] Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c evandrix on March 13, 2014 | root | parent | next [–] ok, now it compiles, thanks for that. However, I'm getting an incomplete response "<h1>hello world</h1" without the trailing closing angled bracket. And when I try to run final.c after setting the FUNCTION_ADDR and ADDR as per your tutorial, I get some stray HTTP/1.0 200 and Content-type text/html being displayed on stdout as I start the program final.c (compiled to a.out by default) yohanes on March 13, 2014 | root | parent | next [–] Ah, you have found a bug in my code (I made an error in computing the string length, and didn't notice it because it displayed fine on Chrome). I have fixed my code in git and the blog post. As for the stray output displayed on the stdout: it is to be expected. The %n format outputs the numbers of character that is written by printf, so it must have written something to the stdout. evandrix on March 13, 2014 | root | parent | next [–] Ah! that explains so much (and also why i've wasted a whole hour figuring out why what I observed was happening) I'm a CLI curl guy, rather than relying on these browsers which randomly would add a 0x0d 0x0a to my form submissions, for example. I also noticed that compiling (assembling-linking) the .S to execute it would not print anything (just hang there like a normal webserver), but I was getting stuff written to stdout with the final.c/webserver.c version using its shellcode. mvirkkunen on March 13, 2014 | root | parent | next [–] Did you also post this reply using curl? Morgawr on March 13, 2014 | prev | next [–] Really nice, it's so weird that format strings support %n, it's such a massive security vulnerability that I don't really know what was going on in the mind of the guy that decided to implement this. But alas, it's always fun to see. Here's an excellent article on format string vulnerabilities, an amazing read: http://crypto.stanford.edu/cs155/papers/formatstring-1.2.pdf userbinator on March 13, 2014 | parent | next [–] It's only a vulnerability if the user can control the format string. Otherwise it's a useful way of getting the lengths of things; but ironically it's not paying attention to lengths that also causes buffer overflow vulnerabilities... psionski on March 13, 2014 | parent | prev | next [–] C was designed way before security was a concern. If somebody exploited your program, you could just slap them because they'd be sitting at a terminal in the same room with you - no need for fancy ASLR or controlling how many characters you write to a buffer when physical violence was a viable option :) pjmlp on March 13, 2014 | root | parent | next [–] Except security was already a concern in other operating systems that had Lisp, Cedar, Modula-2, Algol as system languages among others. C designers just decided to ignored it. kjs3 on March 13, 2014 | root | parent | prev | next [–] This isn't even remotely true. Computer security was a concern and an area of study long before C/Unix showed up. Unix (and by extension C) descended directly from the Multics project, which from its start in 1964 made security a central priority. Kernighan and Ritche were important members of the Multics project. Further, the idea that everyone who used the computers of that era were "in the same room" is also patently absurd. psionski on March 14, 2014 | root | parent | next [–] I like my fantasy about how things were back then better, thankyouverymuch. At least this way I can believe they didn't unleash the flood of pwnage on the world while knowing better. kang on March 13, 2014 | prev | next [–] I wish for a forum/site with links only like these! Pure code hacking. kreeben on March 13, 2014 | parent | next [–] Seems to be available: purecodehacking.com. Do it! DateK on March 13, 2014 | prev [–] maintenance nightmare tonyarkles on March 13, 2014 | parent | next [–] Understatement of the year! chii on March 13, 2014 | parent | prev [–] it doesn't need maintenance - it works as advertised! If a client asks for a change, write a new program! Guidelines | FAQ | Lists | API | Security | Legal | Apply to YC | Contact Search: | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
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Right menu Building Browser Extensions with WXT + Angular Suguru Inatomi Suguru Inatomi Suguru Inatomi Follow Jan 12 Building Browser Extensions with WXT + Angular # angular # typescript # web # extensions Comments Add Comment 4 min read Angular Addicts #45: Signal Form guides, AI integrations & more Gergely Szerovay Gergely Szerovay Gergely Szerovay Follow for This is Angular Jan 13 Angular Addicts #45: Signal Form guides, AI integrations & more # angular # typescript # javascript 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 4 min read The Ultimate Guide to Drizzle ORM + PostgreSQL (2025 Edition) Sameer Saleem Sameer Saleem Sameer Saleem Follow Jan 13 The Ultimate Guide to Drizzle ORM + PostgreSQL (2025 Edition) # webdev # drizzle # postgres # typescript Comments Add Comment 3 min read Your CLI's completion should know what options you've already typed Hong Minhee Hong Minhee Hong Minhee Follow Jan 13 Your CLI's completion should know what options you've already typed # typescript # javascript # cli # terminal Comments Add Comment 4 min read Building Chalkboard: Open Source Billiard Hall Management Setasena Randata Setasena Randata Setasena Randata Follow Jan 13 Building Chalkboard: Open Source Billiard Hall Management # opensource # buildinpublic # typescript # nextjs Comments Add Comment 3 min read Building a LinkedIn Outreach Agent with LangGraph and ConnectSafely.ai AMAAN SARFARAZ AMAAN SARFARAZ AMAAN SARFARAZ Follow Jan 13 Building a LinkedIn Outreach Agent with LangGraph and ConnectSafely.ai # langgraph # ai # automation # typescript Comments Add Comment 5 min read Stop Sending Sensitive Data to the Cloud: Build a Local-First Mental Health AI with WebLLM Beck_Moulton Beck_Moulton Beck_Moulton Follow Jan 13 Stop Sending Sensitive Data to the Cloud: Build a Local-First Mental Health AI with WebLLM # privacy # typescript # webgpu # webllm Comments Add Comment 4 min read Transactional AI v0.2: Production-Ready with Full Observability Grafikui Grafikui Grafikui Follow Jan 12 Transactional AI v0.2: Production-Ready with Full Observability # ai # typescript # saga # llm Comments Add Comment 8 min read Building a LinkedIn Outreach Agent with ConnectSafely.ai and Mastra AMAAN SARFARAZ AMAAN SARFARAZ AMAAN SARFARAZ Follow Jan 13 Building a LinkedIn Outreach Agent with ConnectSafely.ai and Mastra # ai # automation # typescript # agents Comments Add Comment 10 min read When to Use a Monorepo Devops Makeit-run Devops Makeit-run Devops Makeit-run Follow Jan 12 When to Use a Monorepo # nx # typescript # devops Comments Add Comment 7 min read Building profiler0x0: An Arcade-Style GitHub Profile Analyzer That Doesn't Judge ackermannQ ackermannQ ackermannQ Follow Jan 12 Building profiler0x0: An Arcade-Style GitHub Profile Analyzer That Doesn't Judge # webdev # github # typescript # node Comments 2 comments 5 min read Introducing Effuse — an experimental reactive framework Chris M. 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Peréz Follow Jan 12 Introducing Effuse — an experimental reactive framework # webdev # javascript # typescript # programming Comments Add Comment 2 min read I built a WASM execution firewall for AI agents — here’s why Xnfinite Xnfinite Xnfinite Follow Jan 10 I built a WASM execution firewall for AI agents — here’s why # discuss # typescript # rust # ai Comments Add Comment 2 min read Building PDFMitra: A Free PDF Tool with Next.js 14 (Complete Tech Guide) 🚀 Praveen Nayak Praveen Nayak Praveen Nayak Follow Jan 12 Building PDFMitra: A Free PDF Tool with Next.js 14 (Complete Tech Guide) 🚀 # nextjs # typescript # webdev # tutorial Comments Add Comment 3 min read React + TypeScript: The Patterns That Actually Matter Tarun Moorjani Tarun Moorjani Tarun Moorjani Follow Jan 12 React + TypeScript: The Patterns That Actually Matter # typescript # react # programming # javascript 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 8 min read Building a Casio‑Style Scientific Calculator with Vue 3 + TypeScript A0mineTV A0mineTV A0mineTV Follow Jan 12 Building a Casio‑Style Scientific Calculator with Vue 3 + TypeScript # vue # typescript # frontend # javascript Comments Add Comment 3 min read My First Open Source Contribution Was to an Authentication Project — And It Was Surprisingly Friendly Pramod K B Pramod K B Pramod K B Follow Jan 9 My First Open Source Contribution Was to an Authentication Project — And It Was Surprisingly Friendly # opensource # node # typescript # authentication Comments Add Comment 2 min read How to protect server functions with auth middleware in TanStack Start Hiroto Shioi Hiroto Shioi Hiroto Shioi Follow Jan 12 How to protect server functions with auth middleware in TanStack Start # webdev # typescript # fullstack # security 1 reaction Comments Add Comment 3 min read Building Modern Backends with Kaapi: Request validation Part 2 ShyGyver ShyGyver ShyGyver Follow Jan 11 Building Modern Backends with Kaapi: Request validation Part 2 # showdev # typescript # node # opensource Comments Add Comment 3 min read Back to basics: a solid foundation for using AI coding agents in a monorepo Juha Kangas Juha Kangas Juha Kangas Follow Jan 11 Back to basics: a solid foundation for using AI coding agents in a monorepo # tooling # monorepo # ai # typescript Comments Add Comment 2 min read Building a Regulatory-Compliant Accessibility Scanner: From WCAG to Legal Compliance Labontese Labontese Labontese Follow Jan 11 Building a Regulatory-Compliant Accessibility Scanner: From WCAG to Legal Compliance # a11y # typescript # react # webdev Comments Add Comment 6 min read Angular State Management: Signals vs Simple Properties - Which Should I Use? Mohamed Fri Mohamed Fri Mohamed Fri Follow Jan 11 Angular State Management: Signals vs Simple Properties - Which Should I Use? # discuss # performance # typescript # angular Comments Add Comment 1 min read Angular Pipes Explained — From Basics to Custom Pipes (With Real Examples) ROHIT SINGH ROHIT SINGH ROHIT SINGH Follow Jan 11 Angular Pipes Explained — From Basics to Custom Pipes (With Real Examples) # beginners # tutorial # typescript # angular Comments Add Comment 2 min read Brass TS — Building an Effect Runtime in TypeScript (Part 4) Augusto Vivaldelli Augusto Vivaldelli Augusto Vivaldelli Follow Jan 10 Brass TS — Building an Effect Runtime in TypeScript (Part 4) # architecture # opensource # tutorial # typescript Comments Add Comment 3 min read The Mythical One-Fits-All Build Tool Plugin 🦄 (It Actually Exists) Pascal Thormeier Pascal Thormeier Pascal Thormeier Follow Jan 11 The Mythical One-Fits-All Build Tool Plugin 🦄 (It Actually Exists) # typescript # javascript # webdev # programming 4 reactions Comments 3 comments 7 min read loading... trending guides/resources Composition in React: Building like a Senior React Dev 🎉 Black Friday & Cyber Monday 2025: The Best Deals for JavaScript Developers 🚀 Princípios do Clean Code Why Your Vue App Is Reactive Too Much (and How to Fix It) You're Not Building Netflix: Stop Coding Like You Are I Tested 7 Open Source Clerk Alternatives for Full-Stack Developers The Developer's Safety Net - Introduction to TypeScript Angular 21 Developer Guide: AI Tools, Signal Forms, ARIA, and Build Optimizations Building My Own HTTP Server in TypeScript Deno Vs Bun In 2025: Two Modern Approaches To JavaScript Runtime Development Nx vs. Turborepo: Integrated Ecosystem or High-Speed Task Runner? 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https://dev.to/itsugo/the-first-week-at-a-startup-taught-me-more-than-i-expected-158a | The First Week at a Startup Taught Me More Than I Expected - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Add reaction Like Unicorn Exploding Head Raised Hands Fire Jump to Comments Save Boost More... Copy link Copy link Copied to Clipboard Share to X Share to LinkedIn Share to Facebook Share to Mastodon Share Post via... Report Abuse Aryan Choudhary Posted on Jan 9 The First Week at a Startup Taught Me More Than I Expected # startup # beginners # career # learning Since many of you seemed interested in reading more about this, here’s my first-week reflection. My first week at a startup felt less like starting a job and more like stepping into motion that was already happening. There wasn’t a clean boundary around my role. Some days I was coding, some days debugging things I didn’t build, some days thinking through product decisions, other times helping wherever friction appeared. Titles mattered less than momentum. If something needed to move, someone had to move it. I knew this in theory. I wanted this kind of environment. What surprised me was how quickly wearing multiple hats stopped feeling like pressure and started feeling normal. I adapt fast by default. I don’t carry the constant fear that one mistake will end everything. Even when something goes wrong, it rarely means total collapse. In startups especially, people almost always find a way to adjust and recover. That belief makes the workload feel lighter than it looks on paper. At the same time, the instinct to look for better opportunities hasn’t disappeared. It didn’t switch off just because I signed an offer. It’s quieter now, but it’s still there. I don’t see that as disloyalty or restlessness, more like staying aware of my trajectory while committing to the present. What changed most after joining was the internal noise. For months, my mind was stuck in a constant loop of 24x7 applications, interviews, self-image, and preparation. Everything revolved around becoming employable. Now that loop has slowed down. I’m grounded in one place, working on a real set of problems with real constraints. That grounding created space to notice what I had neglected while job hunting. Japanese study had taken a back seat. Fitness became inconsistent. Writing slowed down. Even small creative habits (like voice acting ψ(._. )>) faded because everything was filtered through urgency. Being employed again made it possible to rebalance, but not without trade-offs. Time feels finite in a new way now. Some days that means less coding on personal projects. Some days it means choosing between hobbies. Sometimes it means accepting that momentum can’t be maximized in every direction at once. There are moments when I catch myself thinking I should "get a life", step back or relax more. But I also know this phase is temporary, and I’m grateful to have this many choices in front of me. This feels like a building phase, and I want to respect it without letting it turn into strain. This is just my perspective. People experience startups very differently. Some find them draining. Some thrive. Some leave quickly. I don’t think there’s a single correct way to do this. For me, the lesson from this first week isn’t about grinding harder or protecting myself aggressively. It’s about learning how to stay flexible without being scattered, committed without being trapped, and ambitious without being frantic. I’m still figuring it out. But for now, this feels like the right place to learn how. Top comments (16) Subscribe Personal Trusted User Create template Templates let you quickly answer FAQs or store snippets for re-use. Submit Preview Dismiss Collapse Expand shambhavi525-sudo shambhavi525-sudo shambhavi525-sudo Follow Full-stack builder. Turning critical problems into lean, high-impact tech solutions. Email shalinibhavi525@gmail.com Joined Nov 3, 2025 • Jan 9 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Love the point about titles mattering less than momentum. In a startup, the 'code' is only half the battle; the rest is just finding where the friction is and greasing the gears. It’s a specific kind of 'building phase' that changes how you think about problem-solving. Don't worry about 'getting a life' just yet—the 0 to 1 phase is where the best stories (and bugs) are made. Great read. Like comment: Like comment: 4 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Follow Level up 10x faster Email aryanc1240@gmail.com Location Pune, India Pronouns He/Him Work SDE 1 Joined Nov 5, 2024 • Jan 9 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thank you for reading and supporting me through this comment! Really helps keep my spirits up! Like comment: Like comment: 3 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Web Developer Hyper Web Developer Hyper Web Developer Hyper Follow "Having fun with IT technology" is my No.1 priority.🥳🎉 Let's enjoy and grow at the same time.🤝 #AI #ClaudeCode #Codex #Cursor #Cline #MCP #React #Nextjs #AWS #WebDev #FullStackDev Location Japan Joined Dec 27, 2024 • Jan 9 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide I’m glad to hear you’re doing well in the first week of your new job. I know you’re super clever and will get used to your new role in no time. Good luck!🫡 Like comment: Like comment: 3 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Follow Level up 10x faster Email aryanc1240@gmail.com Location Pune, India Pronouns He/Him Work SDE 1 Joined Nov 5, 2024 • Jan 9 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Yes thank you! I'll do my best! Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand SUNNY ANAND SUNNY ANAND SUNNY ANAND Follow Full Stack Systems Engineer building high-performance AI infrastructure. Architect of Nexus Gateway (Open Source AI Cache). Passionate about Go, Distributed Systems, and Scalability. Location India Work Founder @ Nexus Gateway Joined Jan 6, 2026 • Jan 11 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide This resonated a lot. Especially the shift from “being employable” to actually solving real problems — that grounding is underrated. Sounds like you’re navigating the chaos with awareness, which is probably the hardest skill to learn early on. Wishing you a solid learning curve ahead Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Follow Level up 10x faster Email aryanc1240@gmail.com Location Pune, India Pronouns He/Him Work SDE 1 Joined Nov 5, 2024 • Jan 12 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thank you for reading and the well wishes @sunny_anand_dev !! Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Capin Judicael Akpado Capin Judicael Akpado Capin Judicael Akpado Follow 🎯 Web Developer | ✍️ SEO Content Writer | 🚀 Builder of High-Performance Digital Solutions Location Ouidah, Benin Pronouns He Work Freelance Web developer || SEO Content Writer Joined Jun 20, 2025 • Jan 9 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thoughtful article ! Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Follow Level up 10x faster Email aryanc1240@gmail.com Location Pune, India Pronouns He/Him Work SDE 1 Joined Nov 5, 2024 • Jan 9 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thank you for reading! Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Ankit Rattan Ankit Rattan Ankit Rattan Follow Coder By Profession, Creator By Mind! Email rattanankit2004@gmail.com Location Remote Education NIT Delhi Work JFL | Ex-Microsoft | Ex-CabEasy Joined Aug 21, 2024 • Jan 10 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Yeah.. one learn more in the chaos of a startup week than in a quarter at a giant firm because you are defined by your impact, not just your title. Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Follow Level up 10x faster Email aryanc1240@gmail.com Location Pune, India Pronouns He/Him Work SDE 1 Joined Nov 5, 2024 • Jan 10 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Exactly, but the dilemma of which is better for me is still there... Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Ankit Rattan Ankit Rattan Ankit Rattan Follow Coder By Profession, Creator By Mind! Email rattanankit2004@gmail.com Location Remote Education NIT Delhi Work JFL | Ex-Microsoft | Ex-CabEasy Joined Aug 21, 2024 • Jan 10 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Hmm, that’s common for all ig :) Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand jabo Landry jabo Landry jabo Landry Follow Pronouns Developer Prototype Joined Oct 10, 2025 • Jan 9 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Wow, Congrats on your new experience Like comment: Like comment: 1 like Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Follow Level up 10x faster Email aryanc1240@gmail.com Location Pune, India Pronouns He/Him Work SDE 1 Joined Nov 5, 2024 • Jan 9 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thanks alot! Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand leob leob leob Follow Joined Aug 4, 2017 • Jan 9 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Very thoughtful article, almost philosophical, good way to reflect on things! Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply Collapse Expand Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Aryan Choudhary Follow Level up 10x faster Email aryanc1240@gmail.com Location Pune, India Pronouns He/Him Work SDE 1 Joined Nov 5, 2024 • Jan 9 Dropdown menu Copy link Hide Thank you for reading! Like comment: Like comment: 2 likes Like Comment button Reply View full discussion (16 comments) Some comments may only be visible to logged-in visitors. Sign in to view all comments. Code of Conduct • Report abuse Are you sure you want to hide this comment? It will become hidden in your post, but will still be visible via the comment's permalink . Hide child comments as well Confirm For further actions, you may consider blocking this person and/or reporting abuse Aryan Choudhary Follow Level up 10x faster Location Pune, India Pronouns He/Him Work SDE 1 Joined Nov 5, 2024 More from Aryan Choudhary I Wanted to Work at a Startup. This Is What the First Glimpse Taught Me # career # startup # learning # beginners What Building Small, Personal Tools Taught Me This Year # productivity # sideprojects # devjournal # learning The 10 Levels of API Development (From Beginner to Production-Ready) # api # beginners # tutorial 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . 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Right menu Meme Monday Ben Halpern Ben Halpern Ben Halpern Follow Mar 17 '25 Meme Monday # discuss # watercooler # jokes 20 reactions Comments 62 comments 1 min read Level Up Your Workflow: Why a Catchy Acronym Can Revolutionize Your Project Swim Lanes Ramon Moraes Ramon Moraes Ramon Moraes Follow Apr 4 '25 Level Up Your Workflow: Why a Catchy Acronym Can Revolutionize Your Project Swim Lanes # jokes # management # scrum # productivity Comments Add Comment 3 min read Meme Monday Ben Halpern Ben Halpern Ben Halpern Follow Mar 10 '25 Meme Monday # discuss # watercooler # jokes 47 reactions Comments 70 comments 1 min read Meme Monday Ben Halpern Ben Halpern Ben Halpern Follow Mar 3 '25 Meme Monday # jokes # discuss # watercooler 38 reactions Comments 65 comments 1 min read Meme Monday Ben Halpern Ben Halpern Ben Halpern Follow Feb 24 '25 Meme Monday # watercooler # discuss # jokes 59 reactions Comments 81 comments 1 min read Born from the Quantization of Generative AI: I Released a Python Library That Quantizes Progress Bars [Zero Practicality] FlatBone FlatBone FlatBone Follow Mar 15 '25 Born from the Quantization of Generative AI: I Released a Python Library That Quantizes Progress Bars [Zero Practicality] # 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A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account Open Forem Close Learning Follow Hide “I have no special talent. I am only passionately curious.” - Albert Einstein Create Post Posts Left menu 👋 Sign in for the ability to sort posts by relevant , latest , or top . Right menu LED strip lighting is a distributed system (and long runs will humble you) emmma emmma emmma Follow Jan 7 LED strip lighting is a distributed system (and long runs will humble you) # hardware # learning # networking Comments Add Comment 2 min read Science behind Mountain Formation Gustavo Woltmann Gustavo Woltmann Gustavo Woltmann Follow Jan 4 Science behind Mountain Formation # beginners # learning # science Comments Add Comment 5 min read Por qué estoy aprendiendo espanol? 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https://dev.to/claudio_santos | Cláudio Menezes de Oliveira Santos - DEV Community Forem Feed Follow new Subforems to improve your feed DEV Community Follow A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Future Follow News and discussion of science and technology such as AI, VR, cryptocurrency, quantum computing, and more. Open Forem Follow A general discussion space for the Forem community. If it doesn't have a home elsewhere, it belongs here Gamers Forem Follow An inclusive community for gaming enthusiasts Music Forem Follow From composing and gigging to gear, hot music takes, and everything in between. Vibe Coding Forem Follow Discussing AI software development, and showing off what we're building. Popcorn Movies and TV Follow Movie and TV enthusiasm, criticism and everything in-between. DUMB DEV Community Follow Memes and software development shitposting Design Community Follow Web design, graphic design and everything in-between Security Forem Follow Your central hub for all things security. From ethical hacking and CTFs to GRC and career development, for beginners and pros alike Golf Forem Follow A community of golfers and golfing enthusiasts Crypto Forem Follow A collaborative community for all things Crypto—from Bitcoin to protocol development and DeFi to NFTs and market analysis. Parenting Follow A place for parents to the share the joys, challenges, and wisdom that come from raising kids. We're here for them and for each other. Forem Core Follow Discussing the core forem open source software project — features, bugs, performance, self-hosting. Maker Forem Follow A community for makers, hobbyists, and professionals to discuss Arduino, Raspberry Pi, 3D printing, and much more. HMPL.js Forem Follow For developers using HMPL.js to build fast, lightweight web apps. A space to share projects, ask questions, and discuss server-driven templating Dropdown menu Dropdown menu Skip to content Navigation menu Search Powered by Algolia Search Log in Create account DEV Community Close Follow User actions Cláudio Menezes de Oliveira Santos I have 10 years in IT support and NOC, work with Microsoft 365, Entra ID and Defender, already hold AZ 900, study for AWS Practitioner, and I am earning a degree in AI and Machine Learning. Joined Joined on Jan 5, 2026 github website twitter website More info about @claudio_santos Badges Writing Debut Awarded for writing and sharing your first DEV post! Continue sharing your work to earn the 4 Week Writing Streak Badge. Got it Close Post 1 post published Comment 0 comments written Tag 23 tags followed Hello AWS Builders, I’m Cláudio Claudio Santos Claudio Santos Claudio Santos Follow Jan 5 Hello AWS Builders, I’m Cláudio # career # aws # cloud # ai Comments Add Comment 1 min read loading... 💎 DEV Diamond Sponsors Thank you to our Diamond Sponsors for supporting the DEV Community Google AI is the official AI Model and Platform Partner of DEV Neon is the official database partner of DEV Algolia is the official search partner of DEV DEV Community — A space to discuss and keep up software development and manage your software career Home DEV++ Podcasts Videos DEV Education Tracks DEV Challenges DEV Help Advertise on DEV DEV Showcase About Contact Free Postgres Database Software comparisons Forem Shop Code of Conduct Privacy Policy Terms of Use Built on Forem — the open source software that powers DEV and other inclusive communities. Made with love and Ruby on Rails . DEV Community © 2016 - 2026. We're a place where coders share, stay up-to-date and grow their careers. Log in Create account | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/#comment-23511 | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/#comment-23493 | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://tinyhack.com/2014/03/12/implementing-a-web-server-in-a-single-printf-call/?replytocom=23492#respond | Implementing a web server in a single printf() call – Tinyhack.com --> Skip to content Tinyhack.com A hacker does for love what others would not do for money. Implementing a web server in a single printf() call A guy just forwarded a joke that most of us will already know Jeff Dean Facts (also here and here ). Everytime I read that list, this part stands out: Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search. It is really possible to implement a web server using a single printf call, but I haven’t found anyone doing it. So this time after reading the list, I decided to implement it. So here is the code, a pure single printf call, without any extra variables or macros (don’t worry, I will explain how to this code works) #include <stdio.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3", ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 + 2, (((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) & 0xffff)- ((((unsigned long int)0x4005c8 + 12) >> 16) & 0xffff), 0, 0x00000000006007D8 ); } This code only works on a Linux AMD64 bit system, with a particular compiler (gcc version 4.8.2 (Debian 4.8.2-16) ) And to compile it: gcc -g web1.c -O webserver As some of you may have guessed: I cheated by using a special format string . That code may not run on your machine because I have hardcoded two addresses. The following version is a little bit more user friendly (easier to change), but you are still going to need to change 2 values: FUNCTION_ADDR and DESTADDR which I will explain later: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) #define DESTADDR 0x00000000006007D8 #define a (FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff) #define b ((FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff) int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn" "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3" , b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, a-b, 0, DESTADDR ); } I will explain how the code works through a series of short C codes. The first one is a code that will explain how that we can start another code without function call. See this simple code: #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #define ADDR 0x00000000600720 void hello() { printf("hello world\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { (*((unsigned long int*)ADDR))= (unsigned long int)hello; } You can compile it, but it many not run on your system. You need to do these steps: 1. Compile the code: gcc run-finalizer.c -o run-finalizer 2. Examine the address of fini_array objdump -h -j .fini_array run-finalizer And find the VMA of it: run-finalizer: file format elf64-x86-64 Sections: Idx Name Size VMA LMA File off Algn 18 .fini_array 00000008 0000000000600720 0000000000600720 00000720 2**3 CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA Note that you need a recent GCC to do this, older version of gcc uses different mechanism of storing finalizers. 3. Change the value of ADDR on the code to the correct address 4. Compile the code again 5. Run it and now you will see “hello world” printed to your screen. How does this work exactly?: According to Chapter 11 of Linux Standard Base Core Specification 3.1 .fini_array This section holds an array of function pointers that contributes to a single termination array for the executable or shared object containing the section. We are overwriting the array so that our hello function is called instead of the default handler. If you are trying to compile the webserver code, the value of ADDR is obtained the same way (using objdump). Ok, now we know how to execute a function by overriding a certain address, we need to know how we can overwrite an address using printf . You can find many tutorials on how to exploit format string bugs, but I will try give a short explanation. The printf function has this feature that enables us to know how many characters has been printed using the “%n” format: #include <stdio.h> int main(){ int count; printf("AB%n", &count); printf("\n%d characters printed\n", count); } You will see that the output is: AB 2 characters printed Of course we can put any address to the count pointer to overwrite that address. But to overide an address with a large value we need to print a large amount of text. Fortunately there is another format string “%hn” that works on short instead of int. We can overwrite the value 2 bytes at a time to form the 4 byte value that we want. Lets try to use two printf calls to put a¡ value that we want (in this case the pointer to function “hello”) to the fini_array: #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)hello) #define DESTADDR 0x0000000000600948 void hello() { printf("\n\n\n\nhello world\n\n"); } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("a = %04x b = %04x\n", a, b) uint64_t *p = (uint64_t*)DESTADDR; printf("before: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("after1: %08lx\n", *p); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); printf("after2: %08lx\n", *p); return 0; } The important lines are: short a= FUNCTION_ADDR & 0xffff; short b = (FUNCTION_ADDR >> 16) & 0xffff; printf("%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2 ); printf("%*c%hn", a, 0, DESTADDR); The a and b are just halves of the function address, we can construct a string of length a and b to be given to printf, but I chose to use the “%*” formatting which will control the length of the output through parameter. For example, this code: printf("%*c", 10, 'A'); Will print 9 spaces followed by A, so in total, 10 characters will be printed. If we want to use just one printf, we need to take account that b bytes have been printed, and we need to print another b-a bytes (the counter is accumulative). printf("%*c%hn%*c%hn", b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); Currently we are using the “hello” function to call, but we can call any function (or any address). I have written a shellcode that acts as a web server that just prints “Hello world”. This is the shell code that I made: unsigned char hello[] = "\xeb\x3d\x48\x54\x54\x50\x2f\x31\x2e\x30\x20\x32" "\x30\x30\x0d\x0a\x43\x6f\x6e\x74\x65\x6e\x74\x2d" "\x74\x79\x70\x65\x3a\x74\x65\x78\x74\x2f\x68\x74" "\x6d\x6c\x0d\x0a\x0d\x0a\x3c\x68\x31\x3e\x48\x65" "\x6c\x6c\x6f\x20\x57\x6f\x72\x6c\x64\x21\x3c\x2f" "\x68\x31\x3e\x4c\x8d\x2d\xbc\xff\xff\xff\x48\x89" "\xe3\x48\x83\xeb\x10\x48\x31\xc0\x50\x66\xb8\x1f" "\x90\xc1\xe0\x10\xb0\x02\x50\x31\xd2\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\x89\xf7\xff\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x29\x0f\x05\x49" "\x89\xc2\x31\xd2\xb2\x10\x48\x89\xde\x89\xc7\x31" "\xc0\xb0\x31\x0f\x05\x31\xc0\xb0\x05\x89\xc6\x4c" "\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x32\x0f\x05\x31\xd2" "\x31\xf6\x4c\x89\xd0\x89\xc7\x31\xc0\xb0\x2b\x0f" "\x05\x49\x89\xc4\x48\x31\xd2\xb2\x3d\x4c\x89\xee" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xff\xc0\x0f\x05\x31\xf6\xff" "\xc6\xff\xc6\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x30\x0f\x05" "\x4c\x89\xe7\x31\xc0\xb0\x03\x0f\x05\xeb\xc3"; If we remove the function hello and insert that shell code, that code will be called. That code is just a string, so we can append it to the “%*c%hn%*c%hn” format string. This string is unnamed, so we will need to find the address after we compile it. To obtain the address, we need to compile the code, then disassemble it: objdump -d webserver 00000000004004fd <main>: 4004fd: 55 push %rbp 4004fe: 48 89 e5 mov %rsp,%rbp 400501: 48 83 ec 20 sub $0x20,%rsp 400505: 89 7d fc mov %edi,-0x4(%rbp) 400508: 48 89 75 f0 mov %rsi,-0x10(%rbp) 40050c: c7 04 24 d8 07 60 00 movl $0x6007d8,(%rsp) 400513: 41 b9 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%r9d 400519: 41 b8 94 05 00 00 mov $0x594,%r8d 40051f: b9 da 07 60 00 mov $0x6007da,%ecx 400524: ba 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%edx 400529: be 40 00 00 00 mov $0x40,%esi 40052e: bf c8 05 40 00 mov $0x4005c8,%edi 400533: b8 00 00 00 00 mov $0x0,%eax 400538: e8 a3 fe ff ff callq 4003e0 <printf@plt> 40053d: c9 leaveq 40053e: c3 retq 40053f: 90 nop We only need to care about this line: mov $0x4005c8,%edi That is the address that we need in: #define FUNCTION_ADDR ((uint64_t)0x4005c8 + 12) The +12 is needed because our shell code starts after the string “%*c%hn%*c%hn” which is 12 characters long. If you are curious about the shell code, it was created from the following C code. #include<stdio.h> #include<string.h> #include<stdlib.h> #include<unistd.h> #include<sys/types.h> #include<sys/stat.h> #include<sys/socket.h> #include<arpa/inet.h> #include<netdb.h> #include<signal.h> #include<fcntl.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { int sockfd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); struct sockaddr_in serv_addr; bzero((char *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); serv_addr.sin_family = AF_INET; serv_addr.sin_addr.s_addr = INADDR_ANY; serv_addr.sin_port = htons(8080); bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *)&serv_addr, sizeof(serv_addr)); listen(sockfd, 5); while (1) { int cfd = accept(sockfd, 0, 0); char *s = "HTTP/1.0 200\r\nContent-type:text/html\r\n\r\n<h1>Hello world!</h1>"; if (fork()==0) { write(cfd, s, strlen(s)); shutdown(cfd, SHUT_RDWR); close(cfd); } } return 0; } I have done an extra effort (although it is not really necessary in this case) to remove all NUL character from the shell code (since I couldn’t find one for X86-64 in the Shellcodes database ). Jeff Dean once implemented a web server in a single printf() call. Other engineers added thousands of lines of explanatory comments but still don’t understand exactly how it works. Today that program is the front-end to Google Search . It is left as an exercise for the reader to scale the web server to able to handle Google search load. Source codes for this post is available at https://github.com/yohanes/printf-webserver For people who thinks that this is useless: yes it is useless. I just happen to like this challenge, and it has refreshed my memory and knowledge for the following topics: shell code writing (haven’t done this in years), AMD64 assembly (calling convention, preserved registers, etc), syscalls, objdump, fini_array (last time I checked, gcc still used .dtors), printf format exploiting, gdb tricks (like writing memory block to file), and low level socket code (I have been using boost’s for the past few years). Update : Ubuntu adds a security feature that provides a read-only relocation table area in the final ELF. To be able to run the examples in ubuntu, add this in the command line when compiling -Wl,-z,norelro e.g: gcc -Wl,-z,norelro test.c Author admin Posted on March 12, 2014 April 28, 2017 Categories hacks 18 thoughts on “Implementing a web server in a single printf() call” dodi says: March 12, 2014 at 2:04 pm eh buset, serius nih lu ? 🙂 Reply priyo says: March 13, 2014 at 5:07 am scroll up… scroll down… scroll up… scroll down… 100x *gagal paham* Reply terminalcommand says: March 13, 2014 at 5:19 am Thank you! Very interesting article. I also didn’t know about the one line webserver at google. Although this is a hard topic, you’ve made a great work simplifying it. Reply Basun says: March 13, 2014 at 10:02 am The one line webserver bit is a joke about Jeff Dean, who works at Google. Its not real. 🙂 Reply Cees Timmerman says: April 20, 2016 at 4:12 pm There are real webserver oneliners: https://gist.github.com/willurd/5720255 Reply anonim says: March 13, 2014 at 5:29 am Diskusinya di https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7389623 Reply Neil says: March 13, 2014 at 12:38 pm Shouldn’t there be an exit() somewhere in the fork==0 branch? Otherwise every time there is a request the new child process will become a server too and start accepting requests, right? I think the parent leaks its copy of the file descriptor too. Maybe the fork is a bit redundant. I don’t think the write or close will block with such a small amount of data. Cool post though! I’m not really sure why I’m nitpicking in the shell code. Sorry. Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 1:58 am Ah yes, there is an exit from the loop on the assembly code (myhttp.s) but it got removed from http.c when I removed the comment and debug code. And you are also right about the fork, it is unnecessary in this case. At first I was going to write the HTTP headers and then exec some external command. I changed my mind and didn’t bother deleting the fork call. Reply Kyle Ross says: March 13, 2014 at 11:02 pm This is really interesting, but I’m having trouble following whats actually happening. Could you explain how you reduced that C code with includes and methods into a string containing hex codes and how that is turned back into some sort of executable code? Thanks Reply admin says: March 14, 2014 at 2:01 am I think it is beyond the scope of this article to explain about shell code writing. There are many books and tutorials that you can read (just search for “buffer overflow” or “shell code writing”). Reply TTK Ciar says: March 14, 2014 at 1:05 am Alternatively: $ perl -Mojo -E ‘a({inline => “%= `uptime`”})->start’ daemon & Server available at http://127.0.0.1:3000 . $ lynx -dump -nolist http://127.0.0.1:3000/ 17:57:56 up 66 days, 6:45, 108 users, load average: 0.10, 0.12, 0.07 though, perl by definition is cheating. Reply Evan Danaher says: March 14, 2014 at 2:54 pm I’m not sure why you used finalizers instead of just changing the return address on the stack; this may be the first time I’ve ever said this, but stack smashing is much more portable. I’ve made a variant that I’d expect to work on any gcc 4.4-4.7 on x86_64 Linux, and have some ideas which, if they work out, may make it actually “portable” to any x86/x86_64 Unix running a reasonable compiler. https://github.com/edanaher/printf-webserver Reply admin says: March 17, 2014 at 3:02 pm Yes using the stack is also possible, but on most modern system, GCC is compiled with stack protection turned on (and needs to be disabled using -fno-stack-protector). Reply Pingback: Implementing a web server in a single printf() call « adafruit industries blog Itzik Kotler says: March 15, 2014 at 4:35 pm Pretty neat. I did something similar (all though simpler) back in the days. See: http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/13233/ Reply Pingback: Saving the world, one cpu cycle at a time | Dav's bit o the web programath says: April 22, 2014 at 1:18 pm printf(“%*c%hn%*c%hn”, b, 0, DESTADDR + 2, b-a, 0, DESTADDR ); ————————————————— i think the fourth parameter should be ‘a-b’, not ‘b-a’, because a == b + (a – b) Reply Pingback: New top story on Hacker News: Implementing a web server in a single printf call (2014) – Latest news Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Comment * Name * Email * Website Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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https://www.fine.dev/blog/coded-by-ai-backend-webhook | Using Fine to Set Up a Retry Mechanism for Failed Webhooks Home Docs Changelog Pricing Sign in Get started -> Menu Home Docs Changelog Pricing <- Go Back Using Fine to Set Up a Retry Mechanism for Failed Webhooks Setting up retry mechanisms for failed webhooks used to be a tedious task for developers, but with AI like Fine, it's now a breeze. Let's see how Fine can automate this process, saving you time and headaches. Scenario: Webhooks Need a Reliable Retry Mechanism Let's say you have an application that sends webhooks to various third-party services. Occasionally, these webhooks fail — whether it’s due to momentary downtime on the receiver’s side or a blip in network connectivity. To ensure reliability, we need a retry mechanism that handles these failures automatically. Fine can take the task of building this functionality, freeing developers to focus on higher-level logic. The objective here is to implement a retry mechanism for failed webhooks using RabbitMQ. This includes setting up exponential backoff to progressively delay retries and configuring a dead-letter queue for requests that fail after multiple attempts. Finally, we’ll simulate failures to validate the entire process. The Prompt for Fine Using Fine’s intelligent AI agents, we can set up the retry mechanism efficiently. Here’s the prompt that we’ll provide to Fine: "Implement a retry mechanism for failed outbound webhooks using RabbitMQ. Add the retry logic to @services/webhook_service.js , configure exponential backoff in @config/rabbitmq.js , and set up a dead-letter queue. Write tests in @tests/integration/webhook_retries.test.js to simulate failures and validate the retry mechanism." How Fine Executes This Task Upon receiving the prompt, Fine acts as a powerful coding assistant, utilizing its context and capabilities to implement each part of the solution: Adding Retry Logic to @services/webhook_service.js retry mechanism in the webhook_service.js file. It integrates RabbitMQ to re-queue failed webhooks, ensuring they’re attempted multiple times in case of failure. Configuring Exponential Backoff in @config/rabbitmq.js Exponential backoff is key to avoiding overwhelming a temporarily down service. Fine configures exponential delays in @config/rabbitmq.js , progressively increasing the wait time between retry attempts to give third-party services enough time to recover. Setting Up a Dead-Letter Queue To handle webhook requests that keep failing even after retries, Fine sets up a dead-letter queue. This is essential for maintaining system stability and identifying consistent issues — webhooks that can’t be processed are moved to this queue for manual review or alerts. Testing the Retry Mechanism in @tests/integration/webhook_retries.test.js . Fine creates integration tests to simulate webhook failures and validate the retry mechanism’s behavior. The tests ensure that failed webhooks are retried with exponential backoff, and eventually moved to the dead-letter queue if they continue to fail. Results: Reliable Webhooks, Efficient Development With Fine, the implementation of a retry mechanism becomes a manageable microtask, rather than an overwhelming project. Developers don’t have to start from scratch or worry about getting the nuances of RabbitMQ configuration just right. Instead, they can trust Fine to handle these repetitive and detail-heavy parts of development. The end result is a robust system where webhooks are reliable, minimizing the risk of losing important events due to transient issues. Fine’s contribution doesn’t just save time — it provides peace of mind, knowing that every step from retry logic to exponential backoff and dead-letter handling is well taken care of. Ready to Automate Your Dev Tasks? Retry mechanisms are just one of the many workflows that Fine can automate, allowing you to focus on innovation rather than boilerplate. Whether it’s setting up robust event-driven systems or managing other critical workflows, Fine’s AI agents are here to help. Give it a try and see how much development you can automate with Fine! Start building today Try out the smoothest way to build, launch and manage an app Try for Free -> © Fine.dev - All rights reserved. Product Overview AI Workflows Pricing & Plans Changelog Blog Docs Company Press Terms & Conditions Privacy policy | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
https://www.highlight.io/docs/general/integrations/mixpanel-integration | Mixpanel Integration Star us on GitHub Star Docs Sign in Sign up General Docs Welcome to highlight.io Get Started Roadmap Company Values Compliance & Security Open Source Contributing Overview GraphQL Backend Frontend (app.highlight.io) Landing Site (highlight.io) Documentation End to End SDK Example Apps Adding an SDK Application Architecture GitHub Code Spaces Code Style Good First Issues Self-hosting Self-hosted [Dev] Self-hosted [Hobby] Self-hosted [Enterprise] Telemetry Our Competitors Product Philosophy Product Features Session Replay Overview Canvas & Iframe Dev-tool Window Recording Tracking Users & Recording Events Filtering Sessions GraphQL Live Mode Performance Impact Player Session Caching Rage Clicks Request Proxying Session Search Extracting the Session URL Session Search Deep Linking Shadow Dom + Web Components Error Monitoring Overview Enhancing Errors with GitHub Error Search Filtering Errors Grouping Errors Managing Errors Manually Reporting Errors Sourcemaps General Features Overview Alerts Comments Digests Environments Search Segments Services Webhooks Logging Overview Log Alerts Log Search Tracing Overview Trace Search Dashboards Overview Dashboard Management Metrics Tutorials Service Latency Web Vitals & Page Speed User Engagement User Analytics Graphing Drilldown Event Search Dashboard Variables SQL Editor Metrics (beta) Overview Frequently Asked Questions. Integrations Integrations Overview Amplitude Integration ClickUp Integration Discord Integration Electron Support Front Integration GitHub Integration Grafana Integration Overview Setup Dashboards Alerts Height Integration Intercom Integration Jira Integration LaunchDarkly Integration Linear Integration Mixpanel Integration Nuxt Integration Pendo Integration Segment Integration Slack Integration Vercel Integration WordPress Plugin Highlight.io Changelog Overview Changelog 12 (02/17) Changelog 13 (02/24) Changelog 14 (03/03) Changelog 15 (03/11) Changelog 16 (03/19) Changelog 17 (04/07) Changelog 18 (04/26) Changelog 19 (05/22) Changelog 20 (06/06) Changelog 21 (06/21) Changelog 22 (08/07) Changelog 23 (08/22) Changelog 24 (09/11) Changelog 25 (10/03) Changelog 26 (11/08) Changelog 27 (12/22) Changelog 28 (3/6) Changelog 29 (4/2) Menu Highlight Docs Welcome to highlight.io Get Started Roadmap Company Values Compliance & Security Open Source Contributing Overview GraphQL Backend Frontend (app.highlight.io) Landing Site (highlight.io) Documentation End to End SDK Example Apps Adding an SDK Application Architecture GitHub Code Spaces Code Style Good First Issues Self-hosting Self-hosted [Dev] Self-hosted [Hobby] Self-hosted [Enterprise] Telemetry Our Competitors Product Philosophy Product Features Session Replay Overview Canvas & Iframe Dev-tool Window Recording Tracking Users & Recording Events Filtering Sessions GraphQL Live Mode Performance Impact Player Session Caching Rage Clicks Request Proxying Session Search Extracting the Session URL Session Search Deep Linking Shadow Dom + Web Components Error Monitoring Overview Enhancing Errors with GitHub Error Search Filtering Errors Grouping Errors Managing Errors Manually Reporting Errors Sourcemaps General Features Overview Alerts Comments Digests Environments Search Segments Services Webhooks Logging Overview Log Alerts Log Search Tracing Overview Trace Search Dashboards Overview Dashboard Management Metrics Tutorials Service Latency Web Vitals & Page Speed User Engagement User Analytics Graphing Drilldown Event Search Dashboard Variables SQL Editor Metrics (beta) Overview Frequently Asked Questions. 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Integrations Microsoft Teams self-hosted Hobby deployment guide. Traefik SSL Proxying. Docs Home SDK Client SDK API Reference Cloudflare Worker SDK API Reference Go SDK API Reference Hono SDK API Reference Java SDK API Reference Next.JS SDK API Reference Node.JS SDK API Reference Python SDK API Reference Ruby SDK API Reference Rust SDK API Reference Docs / Highlight Docs / Integrations / Mixpanel Integration Mixpanel Integration We've made it easy to use Mixpanel with Highlight. If you don't already have Mixpanel initialized in your app, you can have Highlight initialize it for you by specifying your Mixpanel Project Token in the config. H.init('<YOUR_PROJECT_ID>', { integrations: { mixpanel: { projectToken: '<MIXPANEL_PROJECT_TOKEN>', }, }, }) Whenever you call H.track() or H.identify() it will forward that data to Mixpanel's track and identify calls. If you want to disable this behavior, you can set enabled: false for the integration: H.init('<YOUR_PROJECT_ID>', { integrations: { mixpanel: { enabled: false, }, }, }) API track() Calling H.track() will forward the data to Mixpanel's track() . Highlight will also add a Mixpanel property called highlightSessionURL which contains the URL to the Highlight session where the track event happened. identify() Calling H.identify() will forward the data to Mixpanel's identify() . Linear Integration Nuxt Integration Community / Support Suggest Edits? Follow us! [object Object] | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
https://www.highlight.io/docs/getting-started/server/ruby/overview | Highlight Integration in Ruby Star us on GitHub Star Docs Sign in Sign up Getting Started Getting Started with Highlight Fullstack Mapping Browser React.js Next.js Remix Vue.js Angular Gatsby.js SvelteKit Electron highlight.run SDK Overview Canvas & WebGL Console Messages Content-Security-Policy Identifying Users iframe Recording Monkey Patches Browser OpenTelemetry Persistent Asset Storage Privacy Proxying Highlight React.js Error Boundary Recording Network Requests and Responses Recording WebSocket Events Salesforce Lightning Web Components (LWC) Data Export Sourcemap Configuration Tracking Events Troubleshooting Upgrading Highlight Versioning Sessions & Errors Other React Native (beta) Server Go Overview chi Echo Fiber Gin GORM gqlgen Logrus Manual Tracing gorilla mux JS Overview Apollo AWS Lambda Cloudflare Workers Express.js Firebase Hono Nest.js Next.js Node.js Pino tRPC Winston Python Overview AWS Lambda Azure Functions Django FastAPI Flask Google Cloud Functions Loguru Other Frameworks Python AI / LLM Libraries Python Libraries Ruby Overview Other Frameworks Ruby on Rails Rust Overview actix-web No Framework Hosting Providers Overview Metrics in AWS Logging in AWS Logging in Azure Fly.io NATS Log Shipper Logging in GCP Heroku Log Drain Render Log Stream Logging in Trigger.dev Vercel Log Drain Elixir Overview Elixir App Java: All Frameworks PHP: All Frameworks C# .NET ASP C# .NET 4 ASP Docker / Docker Compose File Fluent Forward curl OpenTelemetry Protocol (OTLP) Syslog RFC5424 Systemd / Journald Native OpenTelemetry Overview Error Monitoring Logging Tracing Browser Instrumentation Metrics Fullstack Frameworks Overview Next.js Fullstack Overview Next.js Page Router Guide Next.js App Router Guide Edge Runtime Advanced Config Remix Walkthrough Self Host & Local Dev Overview Development deployment guide. Integrations Microsoft Teams self-hosted Hobby deployment guide. Traefik SSL Proxying. Menu Highlight Docs Welcome to highlight.io Get Started Roadmap Company Values Compliance & Security Open Source Contributing Overview GraphQL Backend Frontend (app.highlight.io) Landing Site (highlight.io) Documentation End to End SDK Example Apps Adding an SDK Application Architecture GitHub Code Spaces Code Style Good First Issues Self-hosting Self-hosted [Dev] Self-hosted [Hobby] Self-hosted [Enterprise] Telemetry Our Competitors Product Philosophy Product Features Session Replay Overview Canvas & Iframe Dev-tool Window Recording Tracking Users & Recording Events Filtering Sessions GraphQL Live Mode Performance Impact Player Session Caching Rage Clicks Request Proxying Session Search Extracting the Session URL Session Search Deep Linking Shadow Dom + Web Components Error Monitoring Overview Enhancing Errors with GitHub Error Search Filtering Errors Grouping Errors Managing Errors Manually Reporting Errors Sourcemaps General Features Overview Alerts Comments Digests Environments Search Segments Services Webhooks Logging Overview Log Alerts Log Search Tracing Overview Trace Search Dashboards Overview Dashboard Management Metrics Tutorials Service Latency Web Vitals & Page Speed User Engagement User Analytics Graphing Drilldown Event Search Dashboard Variables SQL Editor Metrics (beta) Overview Frequently Asked Questions. Integrations Integrations Overview Amplitude Integration ClickUp Integration Discord Integration Electron Support Front Integration GitHub Integration Grafana Integration Overview Setup Dashboards Alerts Height Integration Intercom Integration Jira Integration LaunchDarkly Integration Linear Integration Mixpanel Integration Nuxt Integration Pendo Integration Segment Integration Slack Integration Vercel Integration WordPress Plugin Highlight.io Changelog Overview Changelog 12 (02/17) Changelog 13 (02/24) Changelog 14 (03/03) Changelog 15 (03/11) Changelog 16 (03/19) Changelog 17 (04/07) Changelog 18 (04/26) Changelog 19 (05/22) Changelog 20 (06/06) Changelog 21 (06/21) Changelog 22 (08/07) Changelog 23 (08/22) Changelog 24 (09/11) Changelog 25 (10/03) Changelog 26 (11/08) Changelog 27 (12/22) Changelog 28 (3/6) Changelog 29 (4/2) Getting Started Getting Started with Highlight Fullstack Mapping Browser React.js Next.js Remix Vue.js Angular Gatsby.js SvelteKit Electron highlight.run SDK Overview Canvas & WebGL Console Messages Content-Security-Policy Identifying Users iframe Recording Monkey Patches Browser OpenTelemetry Persistent Asset Storage Privacy Proxying Highlight React.js Error Boundary Recording Network Requests and Responses Recording WebSocket Events Salesforce Lightning Web Components (LWC) Data Export Sourcemap Configuration Tracking Events Troubleshooting Upgrading Highlight Versioning Sessions & Errors Other React Native (beta) Server Go Overview chi Echo Fiber Gin GORM gqlgen Logrus Manual Tracing gorilla mux JS Overview Apollo AWS Lambda Cloudflare Workers Express.js Firebase Hono Nest.js Next.js Node.js Pino tRPC Winston Python Overview AWS Lambda Azure Functions Django FastAPI Flask Google Cloud Functions Loguru Other Frameworks Python AI / LLM Libraries Python Libraries Ruby Overview Other Frameworks Ruby on Rails Rust Overview actix-web No Framework Hosting Providers Overview Metrics in AWS Logging in AWS Logging in Azure Fly.io NATS Log Shipper Logging in GCP Heroku Log Drain Render Log Stream Logging in Trigger.dev Vercel Log Drain Elixir Overview Elixir App Java: All Frameworks PHP: All Frameworks C# .NET ASP C# .NET 4 ASP Docker / Docker Compose File Fluent Forward curl OpenTelemetry Protocol (OTLP) Syslog RFC5424 Systemd / Journald Native OpenTelemetry Overview Error Monitoring Logging Tracing Browser Instrumentation Metrics Fullstack Frameworks Overview Next.js Fullstack Overview Next.js Page Router Guide Next.js App Router Guide Edge Runtime Advanced Config Remix Walkthrough Self Host & Local Dev Overview Development deployment guide. Integrations Microsoft Teams self-hosted Hobby deployment guide. Traefik SSL Proxying. Docs Home SDK Client SDK API Reference Cloudflare Worker SDK API Reference Go SDK API Reference Hono SDK API Reference Java SDK API Reference Next.JS SDK API Reference Node.JS SDK API Reference Python SDK API Reference Ruby SDK API Reference Rust SDK API Reference Docs / Getting Started / Server / Ruby / Highlight Integration in Ruby Highlight Integration in Ruby If there's a framework that's missing, feel free to create an issue or message us on discord . Rails Get started in Rails Other Get started without a framework Ruby Using highlight.io with Other Ruby Frameworks Community / Support Suggest Edits? Follow us! [object Object] | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
https://www.algolia.com/industries/higher-education | Build search & discovery for your SAAS company | Algolia Niket --> Deutsch English français News: Meet us at NRF 2026 Learn more Company Partners Support Login Logout Algolia mark white Algolia logo white Products AI Search & Retrieval Overview Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Artificial Intelligence OVERVIEW Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. Intelligent Data Kit Overview Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Integrations Connect to your existing stack via pre-built libraries and APIs. Integrations Connect to your existing stack via pre-built libraries and APIs. Infrastructure Overview Data Centers Choose from 70+ data centers across 17 regions. Data Centers Choose from 70+ data centers across 17 regions. Security & Compliance Built for peace of mind. Security & Compliance Built for peace of mind. Solutions Industries SEE ALL Ecommerce Ecommerce B2B Commerce B2B Commerce Fashion Fashion Grocery Grocery Media Media Marketplaces Marketplaces SaaS SaaS Higher Education Higher Education Use Cases SEE ALL Documentation search Documentation search Enterprise search Enterprise search Headless commerce Headless commerce Image search Image search Mobile & App search Mobile & App search Retail Media Network Retail Media Network Site search Site search Visual search Visual search Voice search Voice search Departments Digital Experience Digital Experience Ecommerce Ecommerce Engineering Engineering Merchandising Merchandising Product Management Product Management Pricing Developers Get started Developer Hub Developer Hub Documentation Documentation Integrations Integrations UI Components UI Components Autocomplete Autocomplete Resources Code Exchange Code Exchange Engineering Blog Engineering Blog MCP MCP Discord Discord Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Quick Links Quick Start Guide Quick Start Guide For Open Source For Open Source API Status API Status Support Support Resources Discover Algolia Blog Algolia Blog Resource Center Resource Center Customer Stories Customer Stories Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Newsroom Newsroom Customers Customer Hub Customer Hub What's New What's New Knowledge Base Knowledge Base Documentation Documentation Algolia Academy Algolia Academy Professional Services Professional Services Quick Access Company Partners Support Login Logout Request demo Get started Search Algolia Close Request demo Get started Other Types Filter --> Clear All Filters Filters Looking for our logo? We got you covered! Brand guidelines Download logo pack Higher Education Get fast, affordable, and powerful site search Turn search into the heart of your campus so students, families, and faculty can find every program, service, and resource in one place. Get a custom demo More than 18,000 organizations in 150+ countries trust Algolia Help students and faculty achieve their goals Poor search experiences have been shown to cause frustration and disengagement, risking lost applicants to competing institutions. With Algolia, your university site can meet their expectations for fast, intuitive, AI-powered results to help them find course materials, housing, financial aid, credit transfers, study abroad options, how to use their meal plan, and more. Federate search across campus Modern campuses are complex. Departments run their own systems, content lives in multiple platforms, and information often feels buried. Algolia unifies your digital ecosystem—turning a fragmented web presence into a connected experience that reflects your institution’s mission and values. Learn more Add natural language understanding Students search with everyday phrases like “housing application” or “course requirements,” but campus websites often use formal terms. Algolia closes that gap with built-in natural language understanding and synonym handling—so visitors find what they need, even if their words don’t match the page exactly. Learn more Measure and improve results Identify what visitors are searching for and what queries lead to dead ends. Built-in analytics help your team take concrete steps to improving relevance, user experience, and outcomes. Learn more Be conversational Ask AI is a powerful solution that can answer questions right in the search bar. Whether a student types "How do I apply for housing?" or "Can I get credit for studying in Spain?", they’ll get clear, relevant, and hallucination-free answers from your official sources, not just a list of links. Learn more Speak their language Campus populations are multilingual, so your search should be too. Algolia supports multilingual search out of the box, helping your institution deliver inclusive experiences without managing multiple search systems in the language that visitors prefer. Learn more --> Search you can rely on AI-powered relevance Semantic, personalized results to better understand user intent and get visitors the information they’re looking for, fast. Learn more Control without code Technical and non-technical users alike can customize ranking and relevance using low/no-code tools. Learn more Built to scale High-availability, multi-region architecture ensures you can deliver results at scale, even during peak seasons. Learn more Actionable insights Use built-in analytics to understand user intent, optimize content, and reduce friction. Learn more Make everything searchable Index your CMS, help desk, PDFs, and custom campus-wide systems to provide a comprehensive service. Learn more Easily integrate search in any environment Algolia is an API-first solution with dozens of pre-built libraries that give IT teams programmatic control over indexing, search configuration, and UI behavior. Deploy fast, flexible search interfaces that integrate seamlessly with your school’s architecture—no fixed frontend or rigid templates required. View developer hub Core features powering exceptional site search NeuralSearch Algolia NeuralSearch combines traditional keyword search with modern vector-based semantic understanding—delivering relevant results for any query, instantly. Crawler Automatically index content across your site, even without structured data or a backend connection. Search API Build fast, flexible search into any digital experience with a robust, developer-friendly API. Autocomplete Guide users to the right results instantly with predictive search suggestions and smart query completion. InstantSearch Deliver results as users type for a seamless, zero-latency experience. Filters & facets Let users refine results by category, type, or any custom attribute to improve discoverability and control. Personalization Adapt results to individual users based on behavior, preferences, and intent. Ensure that every user sees content and features tailored to their journey. AI Ranking Go beyond static rules with dynamic ranking powered by machine learning. See how it looks on your site Complete the form to get a custom demo built for your college or university website. Someone will create a demo and connect with you to see the results. Higher education FAQs How does Algolia integrate with our existing CMS or student information systems? 0 Algolia is platform-agnostic and easily integrates with most content management systems (CMS), portals, and SIS platforms via APIs and connectors—no need to overhaul your tech stack. Can we customize the search experience for different departments or audiences? 0 Yes. Algolia gives you full control over how results are ranked and displayed. You can tailor search relevance, UI, and content sources by audience—students, faculty, staff, or alumni. How does Algolia handle multilingual content and search queries? 0 Algolia supports multilingual indexing and querying out of the box. This allows you to serve international and multilingual users without maintaining separate search implementations What kind of support and analytics do we get? 0 You get access to detailed search analytics, usage dashboards, and support plans tailored to your institution’s needs. We also offer documentation, implementation guidance, and expert support. Try the AI search that understands Get a demo Start free Products Overview AI Search AI Browse AI Recommendations Ask AI Intelligent Data Kit Use cases Overview Enterprise search Headless commerce Mobile & app search Voice search Image search OEM Site search Developers Developer Hub Documentation Integrations Engineering blog Discord community API status DocSearch For Open Source Live demos GDPR AI Act Integrations Salesforce Commerce Cloud B2C Shopify Adobe Commerce Netlify Commercetools BigCommerce Distributed & secure Global infrastructure Security & compliance Azure AWS Industries Overview B2C ecommerce B2B ecommerce Marketplaces SaaS Media Startups Fashion Tools Search Grader Ecommerce Search Audit Company About Algolia Careers Newsroom Events Leadership Social impact Contact us Anti-Modern Slavery Statement Awards Social networks Developers Developer Hub Documentation Integrations Engineering blog Discord community API status DocSearch For Open Source Live demos GDPR AI Act Industries Overview B2C ecommerce B2B ecommerce Marketplaces SaaS Media Startups Fashion Tools Search Grader Ecommerce Search Audit Products Overview AI Search AI Browse AI Recommendations Ask AI Intelligent Data Kit Use cases Overview Enterprise search Headless commerce Mobile & app search Voice search Image search OEM Site search Integrations Salesforce Commerce Cloud B2C Shopify Adobe Commerce Netlify Commercetools BigCommerce Distributed & secure Global infrastructure Security & compliance Azure AWS Company About Algolia Careers Newsroom Events Leadership Social impact Contact us Anti-Modern Slavery Statement Awards Social networks Algolia mark white ©2026 Algolia - All rights reserved. Cookie settings Trust Center Privacy Policy Terms of service Acceptable Use Policy ✕ Hi there 👋 Need assistance? Click here to allow functional cookies to launch our chat agent. 1 | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
https://www.algolia.com/distributed-secure/global-infrastructure | Infrastructure for search speed & reliability | Algolia Niket --> Deutsch English français News: Meet us at NRF 2026 Learn more Company Partners Support Login Logout Algolia mark white Algolia logo white Products AI Search & Retrieval Overview Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Search Show users what they're looking for with AI-driven resuts. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Recommendations Use behavioral cues to drive higher engagement. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Personalization Show each user what they need across their journey. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Analytics All your insights in one dashboard. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Browse Move customers down the funnel with curated category pages. Artificial Intelligence OVERVIEW Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Agent Studio Create, test, and deploy AI agents, fast. Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Generative Experiences Build conversational solutions with retrieval augmented generation (RAG). Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. Ask AI Deliver conversational answers—right from your search bar. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. MCP Server Search, analyze, or monitor your index within your agentic workflow. Intelligent Data Kit Overview Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Enrichment Modify, enhance, or restructure data as it’s indexed for search. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Data Transformation Streamline data preparation and enhance data quality. Integrations Connect to your existing stack via pre-built libraries and APIs. Integrations Connect to your existing stack via pre-built libraries and APIs. Infrastructure Overview Data Centers Choose from 70+ data centers across 17 regions. Data Centers Choose from 70+ data centers across 17 regions. Security & Compliance Built for peace of mind. Security & Compliance Built for peace of mind. Solutions Industries SEE ALL Ecommerce Ecommerce B2B Commerce B2B Commerce Fashion Fashion Grocery Grocery Media Media Marketplaces Marketplaces SaaS SaaS Higher Education Higher Education Use Cases SEE ALL Documentation search Documentation search Enterprise search Enterprise search Headless commerce Headless commerce Image search Image search Mobile & App search Mobile & App search Retail Media Network Retail Media Network Site search Site search Visual search Visual search Voice search Voice search Departments Digital Experience Digital Experience Ecommerce Ecommerce Engineering Engineering Merchandising Merchandising Product Management Product Management Pricing Developers Get started Developer Hub Developer Hub Documentation Documentation Integrations Integrations UI Components UI Components Autocomplete Autocomplete Resources Code Exchange Code Exchange Engineering Blog Engineering Blog MCP MCP Discord Discord Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Quick Links Quick Start Guide Quick Start Guide For Open Source For Open Source API Status API Status Support Support Resources Discover Algolia Blog Algolia Blog Resource Center Resource Center Customer Stories Customer Stories Webinars & Events Webinars & Events Newsroom Newsroom Customers Customer Hub Customer Hub What's New What's New Knowledge Base Knowledge Base Documentation Documentation Algolia Academy Algolia Academy Professional Services Professional Services Quick Access Company Partners Support Login Logout Request demo Get started Search Algolia Close Request demo Get started Other Types Filter --> Clear All Filters Filters Looking for our logo? We got you covered! Brand guidelines Download logo pack Exceeding the highest standards with our infrastructure Our presence in 70+ data centers across 17 regions is unmatched. Wherever you are in the world, we’ll make your search ultrafast and reliable. Get started for free Contact Us Ensuring business continuity Information security is at the top of our minds since day one. DSN - Distributed Search Network Our Distributed Search Network allows you to automatically replicate and synchronize your data across 17 regions, and search queries are automatically directed to the closest data center. With our DSN, network latency is dramatically reduced. Algolia on Azure Algolia on Azure combines the power and scalability of Microsoft Azure’s highest performing Virtual Machines, the M-Series, with Algolia’s Search & Discovery engine speed. Fully managed and optimized by Algolia’s team, Algolia on Azure allows you to provide your users with fast and relevant experiences relying on terabytes of data. Learn more Security No need to worry. We keep your data safe! Everything is considered as unsecure, even communications within the same rack are encrypted. Only HTTP and HTTPS ports are publicly opened. Servers are always running on the latest stable version of nginx web server. Infrastructure is protected by multilayer access control. Servers located in datacenters built following the industry security standards. A continuous security testing through a public bounty program is opened on HackerOne. Security & compliance Disaster recovery An incremental backup of your data is built every couple of hours. For a faster service recovery, a client-side encrypted copy of the data is also sent to the closest AWS S3 region. No matter what, your data won’t get lost! Transparency Our team wrote about the journey to build our infrastructure . When a major issue occurs, we publish a post mortem on our blog to publicly open a discussion and share our insights. Our API monitoring status page provides detailed information about performance and outages from 50 locations worldwide. Get the AI search that shows users what they need Request demo Get started Products Overview AI Search AI Browse AI Recommendations Ask AI Intelligent Data Kit Use cases Overview Enterprise search Headless commerce Mobile & app search Voice search Image search OEM Site search Developers Developer Hub Documentation Integrations Engineering blog Discord community API status DocSearch For Open Source Live demos GDPR AI Act Integrations Salesforce Commerce Cloud B2C Shopify Adobe Commerce Netlify Commercetools BigCommerce Distributed & secure Global infrastructure Security & compliance Azure AWS Industries Overview B2C ecommerce B2B ecommerce Marketplaces SaaS Media Startups Fashion Tools Search Grader Ecommerce Search Audit Company About Algolia Careers Newsroom Events Leadership Social impact Contact us Anti-Modern Slavery Statement Awards Social networks Developers Developer Hub Documentation Integrations Engineering blog Discord community API status DocSearch For Open Source Live demos GDPR AI Act Industries Overview B2C ecommerce B2B ecommerce Marketplaces SaaS Media Startups Fashion Tools Search Grader Ecommerce Search Audit Products Overview AI Search AI Browse AI Recommendations Ask AI Intelligent Data Kit Use cases Overview Enterprise search Headless commerce Mobile & app search Voice search Image search OEM Site search Integrations Salesforce Commerce Cloud B2C Shopify Adobe Commerce Netlify Commercetools BigCommerce Distributed & secure Global infrastructure Security & compliance Azure AWS Company About Algolia Careers Newsroom Events Leadership Social impact Contact us Anti-Modern Slavery Statement Awards Social networks Algolia mark white ©2026 Algolia - All rights reserved. Cookie settings Trust Center Privacy Policy Terms of service Acceptable Use Policy ✕ Hi there 👋 Need assistance? Click here to allow functional cookies to launch our chat agent. 1 | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
https://www.highlight.io/docs/getting-started/server/js/express | Express.js Quick Start Star us on GitHub Star Docs Sign in Sign up Getting Started Getting Started with Highlight Fullstack Mapping Browser React.js Next.js Remix Vue.js Angular Gatsby.js SvelteKit Electron highlight.run SDK Overview Canvas & WebGL Console Messages Content-Security-Policy Identifying Users iframe Recording Monkey Patches Browser OpenTelemetry Persistent Asset Storage Privacy Proxying Highlight React.js Error Boundary Recording Network Requests and Responses Recording WebSocket Events Salesforce Lightning Web Components (LWC) Data Export Sourcemap Configuration Tracking Events Troubleshooting Upgrading Highlight Versioning Sessions & Errors Other React Native (beta) Server Go Overview chi Echo Fiber Gin GORM gqlgen Logrus Manual Tracing gorilla mux JS Overview Apollo AWS Lambda Cloudflare Workers Express.js Firebase Hono Nest.js Next.js Node.js Pino tRPC Winston Python Overview AWS Lambda Azure Functions Django FastAPI Flask Google Cloud Functions Loguru Other Frameworks Python AI / LLM Libraries Python Libraries Ruby Overview Other Frameworks Ruby on Rails Rust Overview actix-web No Framework Hosting Providers Overview Metrics in AWS Logging in AWS Logging in Azure Fly.io NATS Log Shipper Logging in GCP Heroku Log Drain Render Log Stream Logging in Trigger.dev Vercel Log Drain Elixir Overview Elixir App Java: All Frameworks PHP: All Frameworks C# .NET ASP C# .NET 4 ASP Docker / Docker Compose File Fluent Forward curl OpenTelemetry Protocol (OTLP) Syslog RFC5424 Systemd / Journald Native OpenTelemetry Overview Error Monitoring Logging Tracing Browser Instrumentation Metrics Fullstack Frameworks Overview Next.js Fullstack Overview Next.js Page Router Guide Next.js App Router Guide Edge Runtime Advanced Config Remix Walkthrough Self Host & Local Dev Overview Development deployment guide. Integrations Microsoft Teams self-hosted Hobby deployment guide. Traefik SSL Proxying. Menu Highlight Docs Welcome to highlight.io Get Started Roadmap Company Values Compliance & Security Open Source Contributing Overview GraphQL Backend Frontend (app.highlight.io) Landing Site (highlight.io) Documentation End to End SDK Example Apps Adding an SDK Application Architecture GitHub Code Spaces Code Style Good First Issues Self-hosting Self-hosted [Dev] Self-hosted [Hobby] Self-hosted [Enterprise] Telemetry Our Competitors Product Philosophy Product Features Session Replay Overview Canvas & Iframe Dev-tool Window Recording Tracking Users & Recording Events Filtering Sessions GraphQL Live Mode Performance Impact Player Session Caching Rage Clicks Request Proxying Session Search Extracting the Session URL Session Search Deep Linking Shadow Dom + Web Components Error Monitoring Overview Enhancing Errors with GitHub Error Search Filtering Errors Grouping Errors Managing Errors Manually Reporting Errors Sourcemaps General Features Overview Alerts Comments Digests Environments Search Segments Services Webhooks Logging Overview Log Alerts Log Search Tracing Overview Trace Search Dashboards Overview Dashboard Management Metrics Tutorials Service Latency Web Vitals & Page Speed User Engagement User Analytics Graphing Drilldown Event Search Dashboard Variables SQL Editor Metrics (beta) Overview Frequently Asked Questions. Integrations Integrations Overview Amplitude Integration ClickUp Integration Discord Integration Electron Support Front Integration GitHub Integration Grafana Integration Overview Setup Dashboards Alerts Height Integration Intercom Integration Jira Integration LaunchDarkly Integration Linear Integration Mixpanel Integration Nuxt Integration Pendo Integration Segment Integration Slack Integration Vercel Integration WordPress Plugin Highlight.io Changelog Overview Changelog 12 (02/17) Changelog 13 (02/24) Changelog 14 (03/03) Changelog 15 (03/11) Changelog 16 (03/19) Changelog 17 (04/07) Changelog 18 (04/26) Changelog 19 (05/22) Changelog 20 (06/06) Changelog 21 (06/21) Changelog 22 (08/07) Changelog 23 (08/22) Changelog 24 (09/11) Changelog 25 (10/03) Changelog 26 (11/08) Changelog 27 (12/22) Changelog 28 (3/6) Changelog 29 (4/2) Getting Started Getting Started with Highlight Fullstack Mapping Browser React.js Next.js Remix Vue.js Angular Gatsby.js SvelteKit Electron highlight.run SDK Overview Canvas & WebGL Console Messages Content-Security-Policy Identifying Users iframe Recording Monkey Patches Browser OpenTelemetry Persistent Asset Storage Privacy Proxying Highlight React.js Error Boundary Recording Network Requests and Responses Recording WebSocket Events Salesforce Lightning Web Components (LWC) Data Export Sourcemap Configuration Tracking Events Troubleshooting Upgrading Highlight Versioning Sessions & Errors Other React Native (beta) Server Go Overview chi Echo Fiber Gin GORM gqlgen Logrus Manual Tracing gorilla mux JS Overview Apollo AWS Lambda Cloudflare Workers Express.js Firebase Hono Nest.js Next.js Node.js Pino tRPC Winston Python Overview AWS Lambda Azure Functions Django FastAPI Flask Google Cloud Functions Loguru Other Frameworks Python AI / LLM Libraries Python Libraries Ruby Overview Other Frameworks Ruby on Rails Rust Overview actix-web No Framework Hosting Providers Overview Metrics in AWS Logging in AWS Logging in Azure Fly.io NATS Log Shipper Logging in GCP Heroku Log Drain Render Log Stream Logging in Trigger.dev Vercel Log Drain Elixir Overview Elixir App Java: All Frameworks PHP: All Frameworks C# .NET ASP C# .NET 4 ASP Docker / Docker Compose File Fluent Forward curl OpenTelemetry Protocol (OTLP) Syslog RFC5424 Systemd / Journald Native OpenTelemetry Overview Error Monitoring Logging Tracing Browser Instrumentation Metrics Fullstack Frameworks Overview Next.js Fullstack Overview Next.js Page Router Guide Next.js App Router Guide Edge Runtime Advanced Config Remix Walkthrough Self Host & Local Dev Overview Development deployment guide. Integrations Microsoft Teams self-hosted Hobby deployment guide. Traefik SSL Proxying. Docs Home SDK Client SDK API Reference Cloudflare Worker SDK API Reference Go SDK API Reference Hono SDK API Reference Java SDK API Reference Next.JS SDK API Reference Node.JS SDK API Reference Python SDK API Reference Ruby SDK API Reference Rust SDK API Reference Docs / Getting Started / Server / JS / Express.js Quick Start Express.js Quick Start Learn how to set up highlight.io in Express.js. 1 Configure client-side Highlight. (optional) If you're using Highlight on the frontend for your application, make sure you've initialized it correctly and followed the fullstack mapping guide . 2 Install the relevant Highlight SDK(s). Install @highlight-run/node with your package manager. npm install --save @highlight-run/node 3 Initialize the Highlight JS SDK. Initialize the Highlight JS SDK with your project ID. import { H } from '@highlight-run/node' H.init({ projectID: '<YOUR_PROJECT_ID>', serviceName: '<YOUR_SERVICE_NAME>', environment: 'production', }) 4 Add the Express.js Highlight integration. Use the Node Highlight SDK in your response handler. import { H, Handlers } from '@highlight-run/node' // or like this with commonjs // const { H, Highlight } = require('@highlight-run/node') const highlightConfig = { projectID: '<YOUR_PROJECT_ID>', serviceName: 'my-express-app', serviceVersion: 'git-sha', environment: 'production' } H.init(highlightConfig) // import express after initializing highlight to automatically instrument express import express from 'express' const app = express() // This should be before any controllers (route definitions) app.use(Handlers.middleware(highlightConfig)) app.get('/', (req, res) => { res.send(`Hello World! 0.6076198560580712`) }) // This should be before any other error middleware and after all controllers (route definitions) app.use(Handlers.errorHandler(highlightConfig)) app.listen(8080, () => { console.log(`Example app listening on port 8080`) }) 5 Try/catch an error manually (without middleware). If you are using express.js async handlers, you will need your own try/catch block that directly calls the highlight SDK to report an error. This is because express.js async handlers do not invoke error middleware. app.get('/sync', (req: Request, res: Response) => { // do something dangerous... throw new Error('oh no! this is a synchronous error'); }); app.get('/async', async (req: Request, res: Response) => { try { // do something dangerous... throw new Error('oh no!'); } catch (error) { const { secureSessionId, requestId } = H.parseHeaders(req.headers); H.consumeError( error as Error, secureSessionId, requestId ); } finally { res.status(200).json({hello: 'world'}); } }); 6 Verify that your SDK is reporting errors. You'll want to throw an exception in one of your express.js handlers. Access the API handler and make sure the error shows up in Highlight . app.get('/', (req, res) => { throw new Error('sample error!') res.send(`Hello World! 0.7654774425568014`) }) 7 Verify your backend logs are being recorded. Visit the highlight logs portal and check that backend logs are coming in. 8 Verify your backend traces are being recorded. Visit the highlight traces portal and check that backend traces are coming in. Cloudflare Workers Quick Start Firebase Quick Start [object Object] | 2026-01-13T08:48:55 |
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