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39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 6.4.1 Equipment for PSN operators | Many countries have implemented legislation requiring employers to give equal opportunities to people with disabilities. Such legislation will normally limit the special provision of facilities by terms such as "reasonable" but will nevertheless probably impact on workplace design by requiring suitable access for worke... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 6.4.2 Textphone facilities for deaf people | Some callers may be so hearing impaired as to be unable to communicate without the use of a textphone. Where possible, provision should be made for accepting incoming calls from a textphone by means of a textphone fully compliant with the requirements of ITU-T Recommendation V.18 [14]. Where this is not possible, opera... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 6.4.3 Workplaces for partially sighted people | The ergonomic requirements of blind and visually impaired persons are differ from those of "average" video display terminal users. Some of the workplaces need to be adapted to the specific needs of the user. Every person with a disability has to be treated as a special case [19]. The following are examples of adaptatio... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 6.4.3.1 Large print user | A workplace should include a computer equipped with an appropriate (generally larger) monitor, large print software to magnify the screen contents, possibly a range of optical magnifiers and/or a video magnifying aid (CCTV). If lots of printed documents have to be handled, a scanner with optical character recognition s... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 6.4.3.2 Braille user | A workplace for a Braille user has to include a computer, a Braille display, speech output, a scanner for printed material and a tactile printer for Braille print. An additional acoustically isolated printer housing is recommended , since these printers produce noise during printing. Usually a standard monitor is inclu... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7 Work organization | |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.1 General aspects of work organization | One of the fundamental principles of human factors is that work needs to be within the capability of an employee, it should also be intellectually stimulating and be satisfying and rewarding. Work needs to be organized in a way that allows for proper identification and definition of things for people to do. These shoul... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.2 Job design | |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.2.1 General | Job design includes attention to such factors as task variety, degree of control over the pace of work and individual workload, and the degree of role ambiguity. The benefits of well designed jobs include less work-related stress, better relations with colleagues, a feeling of being in control of one's work, a reductio... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.2.2 Tasks | A structured task analysis should have been carried out as part of the job design process. This is important, especially before start-up and when introducing new technologies or revised working arrangements. It should be an essential adjunct to setting up recruitment and training requirements and for identification of ... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.2.3 Careers | It should be possible for an employee to perceive a career path in their employment, with clear opportunities for improvement of knowledge and skills, leading to effective promotion to more responsible and critical jobs within the organization. Jobs should be flexibly structured to give some possibility to gain recogni... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.3 Targets and rewards | |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.3.1 Targets | Targets are often set for each statistic that call handlers are required to achieve. For example, some companies aim for their call handlers to be on the telephone for as much as 80 % of their shift, despite some industry specialists arguing that 60 % to 70 % utilization is optimal. Call duration in some call centres s... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.3.2 Rewards, payment by results | One of the fundamental principles of job design is that work should be rewarding, both mentally, but also by remuneration. Stimulation and challenge should be provided in the basic elements of job design, as discussed in clause 7.2. Rates of pay may follow market forces, but many call centres are also set up as a matte... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.3.3 Consultation with employees | Depending on whether or not there are recognized trade unions in the workplace, consultation can be through union safety representatives, through elected "representatives of employee safety", or with the employee directly. Details of these various arrangements are given below. All representatives must be provided with ... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.4 Management | Management needs to be fairly balanced between the needs of the organization and its targets (economic, efficiency and reputation) and the needs of the employees to work in a stable, stress-free and rewarding environment. Managers need to be skilled in the execution of all tasks and have at least a minimum understandin... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.5 Monitoring | |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.5.1 General considerations | Although the productivity of typical office workers is measured, it is often in fairly gross and subjective terms such as all the enquiries needing a response have been answered or all the related paperwork has been completed. In comparison, the productivity, both quantity and quality, of call handlers is assessed in a... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.5.2 Legal requirements and recommendations | Workers should be kept informed about the introduction and operation of performance monitoring facilities, including any proposed changes in the monitoring system or targets. Call handlers or their representatives should also be consulted about EPM, as it may affect call handlers' health and safety. The setting of targ... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.6 Feedback | |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.6.1 General | Feedback is an essential part of any development process. In the call centre environment it can be external, from customers/callers about the quality of service offered, or internal, from call centre operators/agents, about customers, software or hardware problems or other aspects of the work, such as shift times, moni... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.6.2 Feedback from callers | Callers (or called parties) may raise a variety of topics, including complaints about service or individual call centre agents, quality of service help received, or may be complimentary. Service complaints might be concerned with waiting time, before or after a call is initiated. Other complaints might include call han... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.6.3 Feedback from supervisors | Information collected from electronic, quantitative or qualitative performance monitoring is fed back to call handlers by team leaders. This can either be immediate if the team leader has been actively listening to a call or later in a one-to-one session. It is good practice to introduce a clear set of criteria against... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.6.4 Feedback from call handlers | Some call handlers see feedback as a useful means of maintaining standards and quality and achieving consistency, as well as improving customer service. Call handlers like to know if they are reaching their target and it is also acknowledged that training requirements could be identified during feedback. For the majori... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.7 Hot desking | Hot desking is a fairly common practice in many call centres. Some call handlers may sit at any workstation within their team area, and different shifts may also use the same team area. Sometimes, whole teams move to another area in a call centre. Other call handlers sit anywhere in a call centre, not necessarily with ... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.8 Shift work | Typical office work may sometimes require employees to work different shifts rather than a fixed number of hours per working day - even when working flexitime. In call centres it is common practice to operate in shifts, in some cases with constantly changing shift patterns, especially when operating 24/7 hours. Employe... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.9 Partnerships | Union-employer partnership agreements have been negotiated at some call centres, which have successfully been able to resolve pay and grading issues, flexibility in working patterns and a number of equal opportunity cases. |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.10 Group working | While there are obvious and clear benefits of organizing call centre work in group structures, there are many cases in which call handlers are organized in loose groups only or are even assigned to work places on an ad-hoc basis. Nevertheless, for the following reasons call handlers should be organized in stable groups... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 7.11 Breaks | Breaks are subject to regulation under the Display Screen Directive (DSD). This EU legislation specifies that DSE users have the right to regular breaks or changes in activity away from the screen. Proper, paid breaks away from the work area should be made available for all call centre operators. Apart from more genera... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8 Operator issues | |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.1 Selection and training | Call centre work is intensive and requires a good knowledge of a company and its procedures, how computer systems work and how to deal with customers. Call centre operators should be recruited and selected from applicants with at least one of these attributes and likely to respond to further training in other skills. T... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.1.1 Qualifications | Since 2001 it has been possible for universities and training institutions to apply for accreditation to deliver European diplomas or certificates in direct and interactive marketing. Courses contributing to such awards include a minimum of 120 hours study for a certificate and 330 hours for a diploma. Specific call ce... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.1.2 Upselling | "Upselling" is the practice of offering a product or service to a customer in an inbound call situation, e.g. a customer calls the call centre because he is facing difficulties with a product he recently purchased and while his problems are being dealt with, he is offered to purchase further products or services such a... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.1.3 Supervision | The role of supervisors may include a requirement for monitoring some calls or call handlers to provide backup and to allow feedback to the operator on performance. On occasion they may need to take over abusive or persistent difficult callers. Supervisors also help to interpret statistics and explain how performance r... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.1.4 People with special needs and foreign callers | Call centres should have routines to allow calls from callers identified as having special needs to be dealt with in a sympathetic manner. This may be done by transfer of the call to a specially trained and suitably equipped operator. Future technological developments may recognize these needs and perform the transfer ... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.1.5 Code of practice | In the UK, a Standard for Best Practice has been produced for the members of its Call Centre Association, which includes recommendations on the following areas: • employee training and development; • employee-management communication; • culture; • service performance and organizational efficiency. ETSI ETSI TR 102 202 ... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.2 Health issues | |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.2.1 Hearing | In a study conducted to establish whether there is a noise hazard associated with the call centre industry, the noise exposure of call handlers was assessed at a number call centres from a range of different sectors within the industry. Background noise levels were measured using dosimeters. Noise levels generated by h... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.2.2 Eyesight | |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.2.2.1 General | Although intensive use of Visual Display Units (VDUs) can cause temporary effects on vision, there is no convincing scientific evidence to support the widely held belief that using VDUs causes long-term eyesight damage. Permanent deterioration of an operator's eyesight can usually be explained by normal aging effects. ... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.2.2.2 Visual fatigue | Visual fatigue is highlighted as a principal risk associated with display screen equipment work and, as call handlers use VDUs so intensively, they are at high risk. Symptoms include sore eyes, blurred vision, tired eyes and headaches. In addition to offering eye tests, there are a number of measures which can reduce t... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.2.2.3 Blink rates | Blink rates have been shown to drop when using a VDU. Consequently, the eyes are less well lubricated, and this can lead to tired and sore eyes. The risk will be heightened if there is low relative humidity (see clause 5.6.3). Contact lens wearers are also at greater risk, as contact lenses prevent blinks from lubricat... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.2.3 Voice | Call handlers spend a larger proportion of their working day speaking on the telephone than many employees in typical office jobs. However, the risk of them experiencing problems with their voices can be reduced if good practices are followed. The introduction of any good practice for voice health which may substantial... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.2.4 MusculoSkeletal Disorders (MSDs) | MusculoSkeletal Disorders (MSDs) are recognized as a principal risk associated with display screen equipment work. Compared to many typical office workers, call handlers may be at a higher risk of experiencing MSDs, because they use display screen equipment so intensively and have less opportunity to take breaks from u... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.3 Stress | Work-related stress may be defined as "the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types of demand placed on them". Call centre employees will differ in their vulnerability to work-related stress and which factors affect them, and individuals will also vary over time. Prolonged or particularly inte... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.3.1 External influences | One of the most common factors influencing work related stress is marital status, particularly disharmony caused by separation and divorce. Other influences include the number of dependent children of school age, and the amount of domestic chores performed by either partner. Shopping, cleaning and cooking are high on t... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.3.2 Work culture | A positive culture is one of the key factors in helping to reduce the risk of work related stress. Two elements of a positive culture are regular and open two-way communication between call handlers and managers and consultation with staff. This should include, where possible, participation in decisions that may affect... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.3.3 Job demands | Work overload Call handlers are at risk from work-related stress when they are overloaded by being given too much work to do in the time allocated or are not trained how to do the work. Performance monitoring, both quantitative and qualitative and targets have been discussed in clause 7.5. and training is discussed abo... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.3.4 Job control | Many call handlers have little control over when they take calls, as calls are distributed automatically. The amount of time that call handlers spend on each call is often controlled by quantitative targets and what they say during a call is controlled by qualitative targets and scripts (see clause 7.3). Such limited c... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.3.5 Work relationships | In the context of call centres the term describes the way people interact at work for business purposes and includes bullying and harassment. The pressure of meeting management targets (see clause 7.3) and satisfying customers can threaten relationships. Rivalry may develop between call handlers as they strive to meet ... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.3.6 Organizational change | The call centre industry continues to expand rapidly, and there are many changes associated with expanding businesses including mergers and takeovers. Business restructuring may mean teams are re-organized, and working with different colleagues under a different team leader may be unsettling for some call handlers. Cha... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.3.7 Role | Role conflict Call handlers may experience work-related stress if they do not feel that the target time for a call allows them to answer all a caller's questions as fully as they would like. They may feel, consequently, that the quality of their service is being compromised in order to meet call volume targets. Call ha... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.3.8 Support for reducing stress | Support Support, particularly from line managers but also from peers, is a very important factor in protecting employees from work-related stress. This support can be both practical and emotional. Team leaders should encourage improvement with praise, and feedback on performance should be constructive (see clause 7.6).... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.3.9 Critical calls | Calls such as those to Police, Fire brigade, Ambulance Service or crisis helplines place great responsibility on the call handler. The types of caller are different to most other callers to call centres as they will be in a distressed condition. In addition, all such calls are recorded in case they are needed for court... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.4 Reference material | A great deal of reference material will normally be made available for call handlers as support for their work. This will include, for sales persons, details of current offers and advice on choice of options, and for service persons, guidance pages containing Socratian dialogue for fault-finding and fixing for many dif... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.5 Support from supervisors | Supervisors and junior management take a crucial role in call centre operation. Initially, they will typically be responsible for training, both on induction and for promotion, and ongoing in relation to monitoring and performance assessment. In addition they represent a first line backup for referral in the event of a... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.6 Abuse | |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.6.1 Verbal abuse | Call handlers may experience more verbal abuse than typical office workers, because they spend more time on the telephone. Work-related violence may be defined as any incident in which a person is abused, threatened or assaulted in circumstances relating to their work, a definition which includes verbal abuse. There ar... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 8.6.2 Discriminatory calls | A call handler is entitled to the full protection of laws, regulations and Codes of Practice regarding abusive or offensive telephone calls, e.g. as provided in EU Guidelines. Callers who abuse by reference to the call handler's sex, race or religion, in particular, must have such protection with full support from supe... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 9 Client issues | This clause deals with issues relating to the caller or client, or the end-user, being the person who makes a call with expectations of talking to an individual able to answer queries, take orders or give general information about their company or organization, but ends up in a call centre. The client expects as high a... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 9.1 Expectations | Staff training must always extend to any new products, offers or campaigns. Customers are less likely to become frustrated if their calls are taken efficiently and all their questions dealt with expeditiously in a confident manner. A customer can reasonably expect a call, not ringing back in response to his own earlier... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 9.2 Voice menus | A common situation arises when a caller is presented with a number of options in a voice-menu as part of a stored voice switching system. Typically these contain instructions as to which number key to press for a particular option. In all cases the dialogue should follow the guidelines offered in ETR 329 [8]. Such menu... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 9.3 Time in queue | Although not unique to call centre operations, possibly the most irritating aspect of encountering a call centre answering service is being kept waiting in a queue. A long period of ring-tone should be avoided, but even with prompt call pick-up, there should not be a long time before connection to an operator or record... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 9.4 Feedback | Appropriate feedback should be provided at all times throughout connection with a call centre, preferably through voice announcements or tones. |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 9.5 Dead line | Some call centres in the marketing and selling domain may use what is called predictive dialling. This is aimed at contacting potential customers, particularly through "cold calling", i.e. when an end user is not known as a customer and may be picked from data supplied by other organizations, or at random from telephon... |
39def0418ae5daec6b9a9070b6d8e2cb | 102 202 | 9.6 Time of day | Call centre operators should be sensitive to the time of day when calling customers and, in general, avoid very early or late calls. An exception would be when responding to specific customer enquiries or urgent service calls, e.g. utilities such as gas, electricity or water, or call outs for medical, veterinary or fir... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 1 Scope | The present document focuses on addressing and routing in satellite multimedia systems, and specifically on those defined by the term BSMS (Broadband Satellite Multimedia Systems) in TR 101 984 [3] and TR 101 985 [4]. The scope of the present document is to: • Identify and select use cases and high level architectures ... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 2 References | For the purposes of this Technical Report (TR), the following references apply. Referenced documents which are not found to be publicly available in the expected location might be found at http://docbox.etsi.org/Reference. [1] ETSI TR 101 374-1: "Satellite Earth Stations and Systems (SES); Broadband satellite multimedi... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 3 Abbreviations | For the purposes of the present document, the following abbreviations apply: AAA Authentication, authorization, and accounting ABR Area Border Router ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop ALG Application Level Gateway AR Address Resolution ARP Address Resolution Protocol ARPA Advanced Research Projects Agency AS Auto... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 4 Overview | |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 4.1 Assumptions and requirements | IP addressing and routing standards from the Internet should be applied to the Broadband Multimedia Satellite System (BSMS) to the maximum extent possible. These requirements include the interworking of the BSMS with the Internet at the IP layer with the aim of making the satellite transparent to the network. The means... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 4.2 Reference model | In the present document, the following reference model, as defined in [4], is used as a general framework. The model defines two components: • The address resolution function in the Control-plane. This function is used to determine the satellite link address when the address translation is unknown. The results of addre... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5 Background to IP addressing and routing | This clause summarizes general requirements for IP addressing and routing, and outlines the impacts on the BSMS where applicable. A more focussed discussion of the key issues is provided in subsequent clauses. The majority of the discussion is focussed on IPv4, while IPv6 aspects are summarized in clause 5.4. |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1 IP addressing | A satellite access network with its wide coverage must envisage multiple usage scenarios shared by many users, both corporate and individual, and by operators or service providers. Assumption 1 The BSMS is transparent to, and interworks with, the relevant range of addressing schemes (i.e. global, private, IPv4, IPv6 et... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1 IPv4 addressing issues | While the initial design of IP addressing enabled the Internet to grow in the last decade, network engineers are constantly challenged to design and implement ever more efficient addressing schemes. The impact of a poorly designed addressing architecture can be catastrophic, particularly in a local context. IPv4 (the v... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1.1 Classful addressing | Five classes of IPv4 address were originally defined (IETF RFC 1166 [40]): Class IP Address bits A: 0 Network Host B: 1 0 Network Host C: 1 1 0 Network Host D: 1 1 1 0 Multicast Address E: 1 1 1 1 Addresses reserved for future use. In addition to the above table, the all-0s ("this network") and all-1s ("broadcast") hos... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1.2.1 Extended-network-prefix and the Subnet Mask | Internet routers use only the network-prefix of the destination address to route traffic to a subnetted environment. Local routers within the subnetted environment use the "extended-network-prefix" to route traffic between the individual subnets. The extended-network-prefix is composed of the classful network-prefix an... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1.2.2 Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM) | VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) supports more efficient use of an organization's assigned IP address space. One of the major problems with the earlier limitation of use of only a single subnet mask across a given network (in the RIP-1 protocol) was that once the mask was selected, it locked the organization into a f... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1.2.3 Private Network Addressing | With the proliferation of IP technology world-wide, including outside the Internet itself, many non-connected enterprises use IP technology and its addressing capabilities solely for local communications (Intranets), without any intention to connect to other enterprises or to the Internet itself. Enterprises themselves... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1.3 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) | Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR) (IETF RFCs 1517 [25]/1518 [26]/1519 [27]/1520 [28]) was introduced in order to limit: 1) The growth of routing tables in Internet routers beyond the ability of software (and people) to manage them effectively. 2) The need for allocating new IP network numbers. The goal of CIDR was ... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1.3.1 Address allocation strategy | Since the adoption of CIDR, addresses are distributed via a hierarchical set of organizations. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) allocates large contiguous address blocks to the three Regional Internet Registries (RIRs): RIPE, APNIC and ARIN. They in turn give smaller blocks to two types of Local Internet ... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1.3.2 Hierarchical routing aggregation | The CIDR addressing and allocation scheme enables "route aggregation" in which a single high-level entry can represent many lower-level routes in the global routing tables. Route aggregation brings major advantages for faster forwarding and reduced traffic due to fewer route advertisements between routers. The Provider... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1.3.3 Difficulties with CIDR | A problem with CIDR may occur when a customer changes ISP but wants to keep his IP addresses: the old ISP still announces the route to the entire block while the new ISP cannot aggregate the old address block as part of its aggregation, so it must inject an exception route into the Internet; there are two routes for th... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1.4 Multicast addressing | The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has assigned the old Class D address space to be used for IPv4 multicast. This means that all IPv4 multicast group addresses will fall in the range of 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Multicast IP addressing does not impose any new requirements in BSMSs compared with terrestr... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1.5 Domain Name System (DNS) | The Domain Name System (DNS) (IETF RFCs 1034 [47] and 1035 [48]) is the method by which a user can find Internet addresses of remote locations starting from mnemonic forms (such as sunc.scit.wlv.ac.uk) by converting them into the equivalent numeric IP address such as 134.220.4.1. To the user and application (e-mail, We... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1.5.1 DNS name structure | DNS names are constructed hierarchically, the highest level of the hierarchy being the last component or label of the DNS name. Labels can be up to 63 characters long and are case insensitive. A maximum length of 255 characters is allowed. Labels must start with a letter and can only consist of letters, digits and hyph... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1.5.2 DNS servers and their databases | For any group of computers partaking of the DNS naming scheme there is likely to be a single definitive list of DNS names and associated IP addresses. The group of computers included in this list is called a zone. A zone could be a top-level national domain or a university department. Within a zone, DNS service for sub... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.1.5.3 DNS relationship with the BSM | In the case of the BSMS one or more DNS servers may be situated at several points within the network, for example as proxies at gateways of corporate networks, and at the hub stations or satellite gateway stations. One potential problem is that DNS conflicts with NAT. Domain Names are an issue for hosts which use local... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.2 Unicast address management | Address Management covers allocation of network layer addresses, and mapping to link layer addresses. |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.2.1 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) | The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (IETF RFC 2131 [49]) allows hosts to be automatically configured on joining an IP network with reusable IP addresses and other parameters. A client-server model is used with a designated DHCP server located at the ISP for individual users, or on the corporate network. DHCP is bas... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.2.1.1 DHCP over satellite | All DHCP messages are IP broadcast messages and can be efficiently transported over satellite, particularly if hosts (e.g. residential) are directly connected through the satellite. However DHCP broadcast messages do not, by default, cross router interfaces. When there is more than one subnet in the network, such as an... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.2.2 Network Address Translation (NAT) | Network Address Translation (IETF RFC 3022 [52]) is the function translating between private IP addresses and global IP addresses. NAT was invented as a "hack" to circumvent IPv4 address shortage. Meanwhile it has proven to be useful in completely different fields, and is likely to stay with us for much longer, especia... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.1.2.2.1 Problems with NAT | There are a number of potential problems with the use of NAT; NAT is often regarded as undesirable as it affects the operation of existing applications and security protocols. Since NAT is application-unaware, applications which include IP addresses embedded within the IP payload (e.g. SIP/SDP, FTP, DNS) each require s... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.2 IP routing | This clause gives an overview of IP routing requirements. General considerations of the impact on and from satellites are included. A more in-depth discussion of satellite-related issues for dynamic routing is reserved for clause 6.3. |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.2.1 Routing and forwarding processes | Whilst "routing" is generally used to describe the whole process of IP packet processing, technically a clear distinction is made between the terms "routing" and "forwarding" in IP networking (IETF RFC 1812 [54]). Routing is more strictly associated with the procedure of determining network layer reachability, identify... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.2.2 IP routing processes | In general there are two main categories of IP routing: Static and Dynamic. Static routing is used wherever possible (particularly in small local networks) due to its simplicity, but dynamic routing is usually needed in complex networks including the Internet. Static routing involves manual configuration of routes for ... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.2.3 Static routing | An example of the support of static routing by the BSMS is of the routing for an enterprise's regional office network (Extranet or Intranet - see scenario in clause 6.2.2.1), which is described in this clause. Static routing is used wherever possible (particularly in small local networks) due to its simplicity, and due... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.2.4 Dynamic routing | |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.2.4.1 Routing algorithms | Routing algorithms calculate optimal (i.e. lowest cost, often the shortest) routes through the network. for destinations, and form the basis for various routing protocols. The current algorithms are: 1) Distance Vector (DV) routers compute the best path from information passed from neighbours by adding distance vectors... |
78bf1d9f7e8dbb05426ae0561f9a50be | 102 155 | 5.2.4.2 Routing protocols | Unicast routing protocols are divided into two types: 1) Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP, for routing internal to an AS); and 2) Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP, for routing external to an AS). Both IGP and BGP announce to each other the network links under their aegis in order to allow routing decisions to be made. Ta... |
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