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718,277	3.799238	http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_unit	\|This article does not cite any references or sources. (December 2009)\| A geological unit is a volume of rock or ice of identifiable origin and relative age range that is defined by the distinctive and dominant, easily mapped and recognizable petrographic, lithologic or paleontologic features (facies) that characterize it. Units must be mappable and distinct from one another, but the contact need not be particularly distinct. For instance, a unit may be defined by terms such as "when the sandstone component exceeds 75%". - Supergroup – two or more groups and lone formations - Group – two or more formations - Formation – primary unit of lithostratigraphy - Member – named lithologic subdivision of a formation - Bed – named distinctive layer in a member or formation - Flow – smallest distinctive layer in a volcanic sequence The component units of any higher rank unit in the hierarchy need not be everywhere the same. - The term "supergroup" may be used for several associated groups or for associated groups and formations with significant lithologic properties in common. - A succession of two or more contiguous or associated formations with significant and diagnostic lithologic properties in common. Formations need not be aggregated into groups unless doing so provides a useful means of simplifying stratigraphic classification in certain regions or certain intervals. Thickness of a stratigraphic succession is not a valid reason for defining a unit as a group rather than a formation. The component formations of a group need not be everywhere the same. - Exceptionally, a group may be divided into subgroups. - Formations are the primary formal unit of lithostratigraphic classification. Formations are the only formal lithostratigraphic units into which the stratigraphic column everywhere should be divided completely on the basis of lithology. The contrast in lithology between formations required to justify their establishment varies with the complexity of the geology of a region and the detail needed for geologic mapping and to work out its geologic history. No formation is considered justifiable and useful that cannot be delineated at the scale of geologic mapping practiced in the region. There is no formal limit to how thick or thin a formation may be. - The formal lithostratigraphic unit next in rank below a formation. - It possesses lithologic properties distinguishing it from adjacent parts of the formation. - No fixed standard is required for the extent and thickness of a member. - A formation need not be divided into members unless a useful purpose is thus served. - Formations may have only certain parts designated as members. A member may extend from one formation to another. - Beds are the smallest formal unit in the hierarchy of sedimentary lithostratigraphic units, e.g. a single stratum lithologically distinguishable from other layers above and below. Customarily only distinctive beds (key beds, marker beds) particularly useful for stratigraphic purposes are given proper names and considered formal lithostratigraphic units. - A discrete extrusive volcanic body distinguishable by texture, composition, or other objective criteria. The designation and naming of flows as formal lithostratigraphic units should be limited to those that are distinctive and widespread. Whenever lithological grounds fail to provide significant ability to distinguish mappable rock units, it is possible to map lithology using geochemistry to identify stratigraphy with the same or similar geochemical composition. Chemostratigraphy can also be the basis for defining a member, bed or subdivision of a geologic unit. For instance, a shale unit may be more sulphidic in the base, and less so in the upper portions, allowing a subdivision into a sulphidic member. The mapped chemostratigraphic units need not follow stratigraphic or lithostratigraphic units, as the chemical stratigraphy of an area may be independent of lithology. Any geochemical criteria could be used to define chemostratigraphic units; gold, nickel, carbonate, silica or aluminium content, or a ratio of one or more elements to another. For instance, it would be possible to map a regolith feature such as carbonate cement in a sandstone and siltstone area, which is independent of lithology. Similarly, it is possible to identify fertile nickel-bearing volcanic flows in heavily sheared greenstone terranes by utilising a chemostratigraphic approach. In mapping of igneous rocks, particularly volcanic rocks and intrusive rocks, particularly layered intrusions and granites, chemical stratigraphy and chemical differentiation of phases of these intrusives is warranted and in many cases necessary. Chemical stratigraphy is useful in areas of sparse outcrop for making correlations between separate, distant sections of stratigraphy, especially in layered intrusions and granite terrains which have poor outcrop. Here, chemical trends in the stratigraphy and between intrusive phases can be used to correlate individual sections within the larger intrusive stratigraphy, or group outcrops into their respective intrusive phases and make rough correlative maps. Chemical stratigraphy is often used with drilling information to assist in correlating between drill holes on a section, to resolve dips and pick formation boundaries. Downhole geophysical logging can produce a form of chemical stratigraphy via logging of radioactive properties of a rock. Often when compared to lithostratigraphic units, chemostratigraphic units will not always clearly match. Thus, it is wise to map both lithology and geochemistry and provide separate interpretations and map units. Biostratigraphic units are defined by the presence of biological markers, usually fossils, which place the rock into a chronostratigraphic sequence. Biostratigraphic units are defined by assemblages of fossils. Few biostratigraphic intervals are entirely distinctive as to an age of a rock, and often the best chronostratigraphic resolution that can be provided by biostratigraphy can be a range in ages from a maximum to a minimum when that fossil assemblage is known to have coexisted. Biostratigraphic units can be defined by as little as one fossil, and can be marker beds or members within a formally identified Formation, for instance an ammonoid bearing bed. This can be a valuable tool for orienting oneself within a stratigraphic section or within a thick lithostratigraphic unit. Biostratigraphic units can overlap lithostratigraphic units, as the habitat of a fossil may extend from areas where sediment was being deposited as sandstone into areas where it was a being deposited as a siltstone. An example would be a trilobite. Biostratigraphic units can also be used in archaeology, for instance where introduction of a plant species can be identified by different pollen assemblages through time or the presence of the bones of different vertebrate animals in midden heaps.	2026-01-29T07:54:22.242844
957,530	3.574806	http://www.icr.org/article/6765/	Chewed Dinosaur Bones Fit Flood by Brian Thomas, M.S. * A new cache of fossils found in Arlington, Texas, contains plenty of clues that are best explained by Noah's Flood. More specifically, the circumstances surrounding these remains match a hypothesis proposed by creation scientist Michael Oard that describes how swamp plants and land creatures could have mixed with sea creatures several months into the year-long Flood. According to Scripture, five months passed after the Flood began before its waters had completely covered the earth (Genesis 7:24). By then, all air-breathing, land-dwelling creatures not on board the Ark were dead or dying. According to Oard, the interiors of continents may have been the last land areas to be submerged after being repeatedly washed by successive wave-like surges. Water and land levels fluctuated, and desperate, starving creatures made their last stands on temporary barren mud flats. Oard first described his hypothesis in 1997: "It is more reasonable that dinosaurs found a linear strip of land (or a series of shoals separated by shallow water) during the Flood while the sea level was oscillating and sediments were being deposited."1 He gave an updated description in his 2011 book Dinosaur Challenges and Mysteries, where he wrote, "Patches of newly laid sediments briefly emerged from the water during the Flood due to a local fall in relative sea level."2 University of Texas at Arlington adjunct instructor Derek Main co-authored a description of the Arlington fossil site in the journal Palaois that provides clues that seem to fit Oard's hypothesis.3 First, the creatures were deposited by sediment-carrying flood waters that travelled long distances. The Arlington remains include bones of dinosaur, turtle, and now-extinct crocodile forms. They also include many fish, including shark fossils. The Palaois authors noted that since all these did not normally live in the same place, they must have been washed in from far away. Second, at the time when these fossils were formed, "more than half of Texas was under water," according to the UT Arlington Magazine.4 It would all have been under water, and at times only half submerged, during the Flood year. Also, the rapid fossilization of the assembled creatures fits a catastrophic flood capable of combining and burying land, swamp, and sea animals. The Palaois study authors wrote, "Most bones were likely buried within a few years of deposition as indicated by the minimal amounts of weathering and breakage." Some dinosaur bones exhibited "tooth marks consistent with predation" by a large crocodile-like animal. Supposedly, "estimating the time of formation for a fossil assemblage is difficult." But because "all bones are well-preserved and lacked any pitting or etching that would indicate they had passed through a crocodile's digestive system," it is certain that very little time elapsed between when the crocodiles began eating and when all of the remains commenced fossilization.3 Bones usually rot within months on dry land, even without oxygen. And they decay even faster in watery environments like those of the ancient Arlington creatures. Because "the time of formation" was obviously very short, it is difficult to reconcile with evolution's vast ages. "The data as a whole indicates a coastal, possibly seasonal, marsh that was periodically influenced by marine incursions [sea flooding onto continents]," according to the study authors.3 They assumed the remains represent scenes from everyday life, but the data do not support that story. For example, the assemblage includes charred remains of large branches. If this represents a normal daily scene, then why were the branches ripped off of trees and the animal bones torn apart? The clues indicate catastrophic, not seasonal, processes. Floods form fossils fast. And it makes sense that a catastrophic worldwide flood, like the one recorded in Genesis, would have deposited these fossils quickly. - Oard, M. J. 1997. The extinction of the dinosaurs. Journal of Creation. 11 (2):137-154. - Oard, M. J. 2011. Dinosaur Challenges and Mysteries. Atlanta, GA: Creation Book Publishers. - Noto, C. R., D. J. Main and S. K. Drumheller. 2012. Feeding Traces and Paleobiology of a Cretaceous (Cenomanian) Crocodyliform: Example from the Woodbine Formation of Texas. Palaois. 27 (2): 105-115. - Wiley, J. Winter 2010. What lies beneath. UT Arlington Magazine. Accessed on uta.edu March 30, 2012. * Mr. Thomas is Science Writer at the Institute for Creation Research. Article posted on April 18, 2012.	2026-02-02T03:08:56.000378
1,106,123	3.76569	http://www.historyofbridges.com/facts-about-bridges/types-of-bridges/	History of Bridges Types of Bridges Bridges by Structure – These bridges uses arch as a main structural component (arch is always located below the bridge, never above it). They are made with one or more hinges, depending of what kind of load and stress forces they must endure. Examples of arch bridge are “Old Bridge” in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina and The Hell Gate Bridge in New York. – Very basic type of bridges that are supported by several beams of various shapes and sizes. They can be inclined or V shaped. Example of beam bridge is Lake Pontchartrain Causeway in southern Louisiana. – Very popular bridge designs that uses diagonal mesh of posts above the bridge. The two most common designs are the king posts (two diagonal posts supported by single vertical post in the center) and queen posts (two diagonal posts, two vertical pots and horizontal post that connect two vertical posts at the top). – Similar in appearance to arch bridges, but they support their load not trough vertical bracing but trough diagonal bracing. They often use truss formation both below and above the bridge. Example of cantilever bridge is Queensboro Bridge in New York City. Tied arch bridges – Similar to arch bridges, but they transfer weight of the bridge and traffic load to the top chord that is connected to the bottom cords in bridge foundation. They are often called bowstring arches or bowstring bridges. – Bridges that use ropes or cables from the vertical suspender to hold the weight of bridge deck and traffic. Example of suspension bridge is Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco. – Bridge that uses deck cables that are directly connected to one or more vertical columns. Cables are usually connected to columns in two ways – harp design (each cable is attached to the different point of the column, creating harp like design of “strings” and fan design (all cables connect to one point at the top of the column). Fixed or moveable bridges – Majority of bridges are fixed, with no moveable parts to provide higher clearance for river/sea transport that is flowing below them. They are designed to stay where they are made to the point they are deemed unusable or demolished. – Bridges made from modular basic components that can be moved by medium or light machinery. They are usually used in military engineering or in circumstances when fixed bridges are repaired. – They have moveable decks, most often powered by electricity. Types by use – The most common type of bridge, with two or more lanes designed to carry car and truck traffic of various intensities. – Usually made in urban environments, or in terrain where car transport is inaccessible (rough mountainous terrain, forests, etc.). – Built to provide best possible flow of traffic across bodies of water or rough terrain. Most offen they have large amount of car lanes, and sometimes have dedicated area for train tracks. – Bridges made specifically to carry one or multiple lane of train tracks. – Bridges made to carry pipelines across water or inaccessible terrains. Pipelines can carry water, air, gas and communication cables. – Ancient structures created to carry water from water rich areas to dry cities. – Modern bridges that host commercial buildings such as restaurants and shops. Types by materials Concrete and Steel Copyright© History of Bridges Go to top	2026-02-04T08:01:37.077999
1,019,104	3.970791	http://www.rejinpaul.com/2011/06/ee2402-protection-switchgear-anna.html	ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING TWO MARKS QUESTION &ANSWERS1. What are the functions of protective relays To detect the fault and initiate the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system, thereby protecting the system from damages consequent to the fault. 2. Give the consequences of short circuit. Whenever a short-circuit occurs, the current flowing through the coil increases to an enormous value. If protective relays are present , a heavy current also flows through the relay coil, causing it to operate by closing its contacts.The trip circuit is then closed , the circuit breaker opens and the fault is isolated from the rest of the system. Also, a low voltage may be created which may damage systems connected to the supply. 3. Define protected zone. Are those which are directly protected by a protective system such as relays, fuses or switchgears.If a fault occurring in a zone can be immediately detected and or isolated by a protection scheme dedicated to that particular zone. 4. What are unit system and non unit system? A unit protective system is one in which only faults occurring within its protected zone are isolated.Faults occurring elsewhere in the system have no influence on the operation of a unit system.A non unit system is a protective system which is activated even when the faults are external to its protected zone. 5. What is primary protection? Is the protection in which the fault occurring in a line will be cleared by its own relay and circuit breaker.It serves as the first line of defence. 6. What is back up protection? Is the second line of defence , which operates if the primary protection fails to activate within a definite time delay. 7. Name the different kinds of over current relays. Induction type non-directional over current relay,Induction type directional over current relay & current differential relay. 8. Define energizing quantity. It refers to the current or voltage which is used to activate the relay into 9. Define operating time of a relay. It is defined as the time period extendind from the occurrence of the fault through the relay detecting the fault to the operation of the relay. 10. Define resetting time of a relay. It is defined as the time taken by the relay from the instant of isolating the fault to the moment when the fault is removed and the relay can be reset. 11. What are over and under current relays? Overcurrent relays are those that operate when the current in a line exceeds a predetermined value. (eg: Induction type non-directional/directional overcurrent relay, differential overcurrent relay)whereas undercurrent relays are those which operate whenever the current in a circuit/line drops below a predetermined value.(eg: differential 12. Mention any two applications of differential relay. Protection of generator & generator transformer unit; protection of large motors and busbars . 13. What is biased differential bus zone reduction? The biased beam relay is designed to respond to the differential current in terms of its fractional relation to the current flowing through the protected zone. It is essentially an over-current balanced beam relay type with an additional restraining coil. The restraining coil produces a bias force in the opposite direction to the operating force. 14. What is the need of relay coordination? The operation of a relay should be fast and selective, ie, it should isolate the fault in the shortest possible time causing minimum disturbance to the system. Also, if a relay fails to operate, there should be sufficiently quick backup protection so that the rest of the system is protected. By coordinating relays, faults can always be isolated quickly without serious disturbance to the rest of the system. 15. Mention the short comings of Merz Price scheme of protection applied to a power In a power transformer, currents in the primary and secondary are to be compared. As these two currents are usually different, the use of identical transformers will give differential current, and operate the relay under no-load condition. Also, there is usually a phase difference between the primary and secondary currents of three phase transformers. Even CT’s of proper turn-ratio are used, the differential current may flow through the relay under normal condition. 16. What are the various faults to which a turbo alternator is likely to be subjected? Failure of steam supply; failure of speed; overcurrent; over voltage; unbalanced loading; stator winding fault . 17. What is an under frequency relay? An under frequency relay is one which operates when the frequency of the system (usually an alternator or transformer) falls below a certain value. 18. Define the term pilot with reference to power line protection. Pilot wires refers to the wires that connect the CT’s placed at the ends of a power transmission line as part of its protection scheme. The resistance of the pilot wires is usually less than 500 ohms. 19. Mention any two disadvantage of carrier current scheme for transmission line only. The program time (ie, the time taken by the carrier to reach the other end-upto .1% mile); the response time of band pass filter; capacitance phase-shift of the transmission line . 20. What are the features of directional relay? High speed operation; high sensitivity; ability to operate at low voltages; adequate short-time thermal ratio; burden must not be excessive. 21. What are the causes of over speed and how alternators are protected from it? Sudden loss of all or major part of the load causes over-speeding in alternators. Modern alternators are provided with mechanical centrifugal devices mounted on their driving shafts to trip the main valve of the prime mover when a dangerous over-speed 22. What are the main types of stator winding faults? Fault between phase and ground; fault between phases and inter-turn fault involving turns of the same phase winding. 23. Give the limitations of Merz Price protection. Since neutral earthing resistances are often used to protect circuit from earth-fault currents, it becomes impossible to protect the whole of a star-connected alternator. If an earth-fault occurs near the neutral point, the voltage may be insufficient to operate the relay. Also it is extremely difficult to find two identical CT’s. In addition to this, there always an inherent phase difference between the primary and the secondary quantities and a possibility of current through the relay even when there is no fault. 24. What are the uses of Buchholz’s relay? Bucholz relay is used to give an alarm in case of incipient( slow-developing) faults in the transformer and to connect the transformer from the supply in the event of severe internal faults. It is usually used in oil immersion transformers with a rating over 25. What are the types of graded used in line of radial relay feeder? Definite time relay and inverse-definite time relay. 26. What are the various faults that would affect an alternator? (a) Stator faults 1, Phase to phase faults 2, Phase to earth faults 3, Inter turn faults 1, Earth faults 2, Fault between turns 3, Loss of excitation due to fuel failure (c) 1, Over speed 2, Loss of drive 3, Vacuum failure resulting in condenser pressure rise, resulting in shattering of the turbine low pressure casing (d) 1, Fault on lines 2, Fault on busbars 27. Why neutral resistor is added between neutral and earth of an alternator? In order to limit the flow of current through neutral and earth a resistor is introduced between them. 28. What is the backup protection available for an alternator? Overcurrent and earth fault protection is the backup protections. 29. What are faults associated with an alternator? (a) External fault or through fault (b) Internal fault 1, Short circuit in transformer winding and connection 2, Incipient or slow developing faults 30. What are the main safety devices available with transformer? Oil level guage, sudden pressure delay, oil temperature indicator, winding temperature indicator . 31. What are the limitations of Buchholz relay? (a) Only fault below the oil level are detected. (b) Mercury switch setting should be very accurate, otherwise even for vibration, there can be a false operation. (c) The relay is of slow operating type, which is unsatisfactory. 32. What are the problems arising in differential protection in power transformer and how are they overcome? 1. Difference in lengths of pilot wires on either sides of the relay. This is overcome by connecting adjustable resistors to pilot wires to get equipotential points on the pilot wires. 2. Difference in CT ratio error difference at high values of short circuit currents that makes the relay to operate even for external or through faults. This is overcome by introducing bias coil. 3. Tap changing alters the ratio of voltage and currents between HV and LV sides and the relay will sense this and act. Bias coil will solve this. 4. Magnetizing inrush current appears wherever a transformer is energized on its primary side producing harmonics. No current will be seen by the secondary. CT’s as there is no load in the circuit. This difference in current will actuate the differential relay. A harmonic restraining unit is added to the relay which will block it when the transformer is energized. 33. What is REF relay? It is restricted earth fault relay. When the fault occurs very near to the neutral point of the transformer, the voltage available to drive the earth circuit is very small, which may not be sufficient to activate the relay, unless the relay is set for a very low current. Hence the zone of protection in the winding of the transformer is restricted to cover only around 85%. Hence the relay is called REF relay. 34. What is over fluxing protection in transformer? If the turns ratio of the transformer is more than 1:1, there will be higher core loss and the capability of the transformer to withstand this is limited to a few minutes only. This phenomenon is called over fluxing. 35. Why busbar protection is needed? (a) Fault level at busbar is high (b) The stability of the system is affected by the faults in the bus zone. (c) A fault in the bus bar causes interruption of supply to a large portion of the 36. What are the merits of carrier current protection? Fast operation, auto re-closing possible, easy discrimination of simultaneous 37. What are the errors in CT? (a) Ratio error Percentage ratio error = [(Nominal ratio – Actual ratio)/Actual ratio] x 100 The value of transformation ratio is not equal to the turns ratio. (b) Phase angle error: Phase angle Ө =180/π[(ImCos δ-I1Sin δ)/nIs] 38. What is field suppression? When a fault occurs in an alternator winding even though the generator circuit breaker is tripped, the fault continues to fed because EMF is induced in the generator itself. Hence the field circuit breaker is opened and stored energy in the field winding is discharged through another resistor. This method is known as field suppression. 39. What are the causes of bus zone faults? Failure of support insulator resulting in earth fault Flashover across support insulator during over voltage Heavily polluted insulator causing flashover Earthquake, mechanical damage etc. 40. What are the problems in bus zone differential protection? Large number of circuits, different current levels for different circuits for Saturation of CT cores due to dc component and ac component in short circuit currents. The saturation introduces ratio error. Sectionalizing of the bus makes circuit complicated. Setting of relays need a change with large load changes. 41. What is static relay? It is a relay in which measurement or comparison of electrical quantities is made in a static network which is designed to give an output signal when a threshold condition is passed which operates a tripping device. 42. What is power swing? During switching of lines or wrong synchronization surges of real and reactive power flowing in transmission line causes severe oscillations in the voltage and current vectors. It is represented by curves originating in load regions and traveling towards relay 43. What is a programmable relay? A static relay may have one or more programmable units such as microprocessors or microcomputers in its circuit. 44. What is CPMC? It is combined protection, monitoring and control system incorporated in the static 45. What are the advantages of static relay over electromagnetic relay? o Low power consumption as low as 1mW o No moving contacts; hence associated problems of arcing, contact bounce, erosion, replacement of contacts o No gravity effect on operation of static relays. Hence can be used in vessels ie, ships, aircrafts etc. o A single relay can perform several functions like over current, under voltage, single phasing protection by incorporating respective functional blocks. This is not possible in electromagnetic relays o Static relay is compact o Superior operating characteristics and accuracy o Static relay can think , programmable operation is possible with static o Effect of vibration is nil, hence can be used in earthquake-prone areas o Simplified testing and servicing. Can convert even non-electrical quantities to electrical in conjunction with transducers. 46. What is resistance switching? It is the method of connecting a resistance in parallel with the contact space(arc). The resistance reduces the restriking voltage frequency and it diverts part of the arc current. It assists the circuit breaker in interrupting the magnetizing current and capacity 47. What do you mean by current chopping? When interrupting low inductive currents such as magnetizing currents of the transformer, shunt reactor, the rapid deionization of the contact space and blast effect may cause the current to be interrupted before the natural current zero. This phenomenon of interruption of the current before its natural zero is called current chopping. 48. What are the methods of capacitive switching? • Opening of single capacitor bank • Closing of one capacitor bank against another 49. What is an arc? Arc is a phenomenon occurring when the two contacts of a circuit breaker separate under heavy load or fault or short circuit condition. 50. Give the two methods of arc interruption? High resistance interruption:-the arc resistance is increased by elongating, and splitting the arc so that the arc is fully extinguished Current zero method:-The arc is interrupted at current zero position that occurs100 times a second in case of 50Hz power system frequency in ac. 51. What is restriking voltage? It is the transient voltage appearing across the breaker contacts at the instant of arc 52. What is meant by recovery voltage? The power frequency rms voltage appearing across the breaker contacts after the arc is extinguished and transient oscillations die out is called recovery voltage. 53. What is RRRV? It is the rate of rise of restriking voltage, expressed in volts per microsecond. It is closely associated with natural frequency of oscillation. 54. What is circuit breaker? It is a piece of equipment used to break a circuit automatically under fault conditions. It breaks a circuit either manually or by remote control under normal conditions and under fault conditions. 55. Write the classification of circuit breakers based on the medium used for arc Air break circuit breaker Oil circuit breaker Minimum oil circuit breaker Air blast circuit breaker SF6 circuit breaker Vacuum circuit breaker 56. What is the main problem of the circuit breaker? When the contacts of the breaker are separated, an arc is struck between them. This arc delays the current interruption process and also generates enormous heat which may cause damage to the system or to the breaker itself. This is the main problem. 57. What are demerits of MOCB? Short contact life Possibility of explosion Larger arcing time for small currents Prone to restricts 58. What are the advantages of oil as arc quenching medium? • It absorbs the arc energy to decompose the oil into gases, which have excellent cooling properties • It acts as an insulator and permits smaller clearance between line conductors and earthed components 59. What are the hazards imposed by oil when it is used as an arc quenching medium? There is a risk of fire since it is inflammable. It may form an explosive mixture with arc. So oil is preferred as an arc quenching medium. 60. What are the advantages of MOCB over a bulk oil circuit breaker? • It requires lesser quantity of oil • It requires smaller space • There is a reduced risk of fire • Maintenance problem are reduced 61. What are the disadvantages of MOCB over a bulk oil circuit breaker? o The degree of carbonization is increased due to smaller quantity of oil o There is difficulty of removing the gases from the contact space in time o The dielectric strength of the oil deteriorates rapidly due to high degree of carbonization. 62. What are the types of air blast circuit breaker? 63. What are the advantages of air blast circuit breaker over oil circuit breaker? o The risk of fire is diminished o The arcing time is very small due to rapid buildup of dielectric strength o The arcing products are completely removed by the blast whereas oil deteriorates with successive operations 64. What are the demerits of using oil as an arc quenching medium? • The air has relatively inferior arc quenching properties • The air blast circuit breakers are very sensitive to variations in the rate of rise of restriking voltage • Maintenance is required for the compression plant which supplies the air blast 65. What is meant by electro negativity of SF6 gas? SF6 has high affinity for electrons. When a free electron comes and collides with a neutral gas molecule, the electron is absorbed by the neutral gas molecule and negative ion is formed. This is called as electro negativity of SF6 gas. 66. What are the characteristic of SF6 gas? It has good dielectric strength and excellent arc quenching property. It is inert, non-toxic, noninflammable and heavy. At atmospheric pressure, its dielectric strength is 2.5 times that of air. At three times atmospheric pressure, its dielectric strength is equal to that of the transformer oil. 67. Write the classifications of test conducted on circuit breakers. 68. What are the indirect methods of circuit breaker testing? o Unit test o Synthetic test o Substitution testing o Compensation testing o Capacitance testing 69. What are the advantages of synthetic testing methods? • The breaker can be tested for desired transient recovery voltage and RRRV. • Both test current and test voltage can be independently varied. This gives flexibility to the test • The method is simple • With this method a breaker capacity (MVA) of five time of that of the capacity of the test plant can be tested. 70. How does the over voltage surge affect the power system? The over voltage of the power system leads to insulation breakdown of the equipments. It causes the line insulation to flash over and may also damage the nearby transformer, generators and the other equipment connected to the line. 71. What is pick up value? It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to 72. Define target. It is the indicator used for showing the operation of the relay. 73. Define reach. It is the distance upto which the relay will cover for protection. 74. Define blocking. It means preventing the relay from tripping due to its own characteristics or due to additional relays. 75. Define a over current relay. Relay which operates when the current ia a line exceeds a 76. Define an under current relay? Relays which operates whenever the current in a circuit drops below a 77. Mention any 2 applications of differential relays. Protection of generator and generator-transformer unit: protection of large motors and bus bars 78.Mention the various tests carried out in a circuit breaker at HV labs. Short circuit tests, Synthetic tests& direct tests. 78. Mention the advantages of field tests. The circuit breaker is tested under actual conditions like those that occur in the Special occasions like breaking of charging currents of long lines ,very short line faults ,interruption of small inductive currents etc… can be tested by direct testing 79. State the disadvantages of field tests. The circuit breaker can be tested at only a given rated voltage and network The necessity to interrupt the normal services and to test only at light load Extra inconvenience and expenses in installation of controlling and measuring equipment in the field. 80. Define composite testing of a circuit breaker. In this method the breaker is first tested for its rated breaking capacity at a reduced voltage and afterwards for rated voltage at a low current.This method does not give a proper estimate of the breaker performance. 81. State the various types of earthing. Solid earthing, resistance earthing , reactance earthing , voltage transformer earthing and zig-zag transformer earthing. 82. What are arcing grounds? The presence of inductive and capacitive currents in the isolated neutral system leads to formation of arcs called as arcing grounds. 83. What is arc suppression coil? A method of reactance grounding used to suppress the arc due to arcing 84. State the significance of single line to ground fault. In single line to ground fault all the sequence networks are connected in series. All the sequence currents are equal and the fault current magnitude is three times its sequence currents. 85. What are symmetrical components? It is a mathematical tool to resolve unbalanced components into balanced 86. State the three sequence components. Positive sequence components, negative sequence components and zero 87. Define positive sequence component. -has 3 vectors equal in magnitude and displaced from each other by an angle 120 degrees and having the phase sequence as original vectors. 88. Define zero sequence component. They has 3 vectors having equal magnitudes and displaced from each other by an angle zero degees. 89. State the significance of double line fault. It has no zero sequence component and the positive and negative sequence networks are connected in parallel. 90. Define negative sequence component. It has 3 vectors equal in magnitude and displaced from each other by an angle 120 degrees and has the phase sequence in opposite to its original phasors. 91. State the different types of faults. Symmetrical faults and unsymmetrical faults and open conductor faults. 92. State the various types of unsymmetrical faults. Line to ground ,line to line and double line to ground faults 93. Mention the withstanding current in our human body. 94. State the different types of circuit breakers. Air ,oil,vacuum circuit breakers. 95. Define per unit value. It is defined as the ratio of actual value to its base value. 96. Mention the inductance value of the peterson’s coil. 2 97. Define single line diagram. Representation of various power system components in a single line is defined as single line diagram. 98. Differentiate between a fuse and a circuit breaker. Fuse is a low current interrupting device. It is a copper or an aluminium wire.Circuit breaker is a high current interrupting device and it act as a switch under normal operating conditions. 99. How direct tests are conducted in circuit breakers? Using a short circuit generator as the source. Using the power utility system or network as the source. 100. What is dielectric test of a circuit breaker? It consists of overvoltage withstand test of power frequency lightning and impulse voltages.Testa are done for both internal and external insulation with switch in both open and closed conditions.	2026-02-02T23:52:59.176345
617,438	3.644647	http://www.csustan.edu/cj/evidence/chap12sa.htm	1. Explain the rationale for excluding evidence under the hearsay rule. What is the hearsay rule? Define the following terms as they are used in relation to the admission of hearsay evidence: statement, declarant, hearsay, statements that are not hearsay. Give some examples of statements that are not hearsay. (§§12.1, 12.2) 2. What is the relationship between the history of the hearsay rule and the history of the trial by jury? (§12.3) 3. What four reasons are advanced as to why hearsay evidence should not be admitted? What is the rationale for allowing some hearsay evidence to be admitted? (§§12.1, 12.4) 4. Explain how the “spontaneous or excited utterance” operates. Why should a spontaneous utterance be believed as truthful? (§12.5) 5. State the four requirements that must be met if a spontaneous utterance is to be admitted as an exception to the rule. Give some examples. What part does time play in determining whether a statement is spontaneous? Does this apply if statements are made to police officers? (§12.5) 6. Why are business and public records usually admitted even though the person who originally made the records is not present? Give some examples of reports that are admissible under the exception. (§12.6) 7. What is the basis for the family history (pedigree) exception to the rule? Give some examples. (§12.7) 8. What is the rationale for admitting “former testimony” as an exception to the hearsay rule? Is it really hearsay by the definition? (§12.8) 9. Under what conditions may evidence relating to testimony given at a former trial be admitted into court? Who has the burden of proof to show that a witness is unavailable? What is the “unavailability” test? (§12.8) 10. What is a dying declaration? Must a declarant state that he or she is aware of imminent death before the statement is admissible? In what type of case is a dying declaration admissible? Are such statements admitted if elicited by questions? (§12.9) 11. Why are declarations against the interests of the declarant admissible as exceptions to the hearsay rule? Give some examples. (§12.10) 12. What is the rationale for allowing some confessions into evidence even though the confessions are hearsay? Are confessions reliable as hearsay exceptions? Does the defendant have a real complaint when the defendant made the confession? (§12.10) 13. What are “residual” exceptions to the hearsay rule? What inquiries are made to determine their admissibility? Explain their application. (§12.11) 14. When the physical or mental state of a person is to be proved, declarations of another that are indicative of the declarant’s physical or mental state are admitted. Are such statements hearsay? For what purpose are such statements admitted? Discuss. Distinguish between out-of-court statements offered to prove the matter asserted and statements that are not hearsay. (§12.12) 15. In Bell v. Florida, the victim of an attempted kidnapping at gunpoint stated that she was walking along the street during the daytime when the defendant twice drove up to her in his van and offered to give her a ride to her destination. The defendant changed his location and accosted her by grabbing her around the neck, holding a gun to her head, and attempted to force her into his vehicle. When she broke free and ran into traffic, she pounded on cars and asked for help in getting away. The defendant, while standing nearby, pointed his gun in her direction and threatened to shoot her. When she managed to call police and talk to them at her residence, she was barely able to speak coherently. When she told her story to police, they remembered it sufficiently to testify about it at his trial. The defendant argued that the victim's statements failed to meet the excited utterance test because there was a time delay of approximately 50 minutes between the time of the incident and the time the victim became calm enough to speak. According to the defendant, this was sufficient time for the victim to contrive or misrepresent. What are the general requirements for the application of the excited utterance exception? Would the victim have had time for reason to return if it took 50 minutes for her to become coherent? Did the court approve of the admission of an excited utterance exception in this case? Do you agree with the court’s decision? Why or why not? (Bell v. Florida, Part II) 16. Federal Rule of Evidence 801(d)(1)(B) provides that a witness’s prior statements are not hearsay if they are consistent with the witness’s testimony and offered to rebut a charge against the witness of “recent fabrication or improper influence or motive.” In Tome v. United States, the defendant was convicted of sexual abuse of his daughter. The government claimed that the assault was committed while the defendant had custody of the child. The defendant countered that the allegations were concocted so the child would not be returned to him. The government presented six witnesses who recounted out-of-court statements made by the child after the charged fabrication. Does the rule permit introduction of a declarant’s consistent out-of-court statements to rebut a charge of recent fabrication if the statements were made after the charged fabrication? Does the federal rule, as interpreted, differ from the common law rule? What was the decision of the court in this case? (Tome v. United States, Part II) 17. Upon responding to a domestic dispute radio call in Cox v. Indiana, officers observed defendant Cox standing in front of an apartment building talking to another police officer. One deputy found Cox’s girlfriend inside an apartment building. He noticed that she was crying and shaking and appeared to be very upset. The officer also noticed that she was talking very quickly and showed signs of a fresh injury, including a cut above her eye that was bleeding; her left eye was swollen; and she was holding an ice pack to her eye. Additionally, she had marks on her neck that appeared to have been caused by someone grabbing her on the neck. Cox contended on appeal that the hearsay testimony of the deputy who told the court some of what the girlfriend told him while she was upset should have been ruled as inadmissible because it failed to fit into any hearsay exception and because his girlfriend did not appear as a witness at the trial. Cox also contended that, if the testimony fell under the excited utterance exception, the prosecution failed to lay a proper foundation for the evidence. Should the appellate court reverse the case because the excited utterance exception did not apply in this context? Why or why not? Did it seem that there was there a sufficiently startling event? How long would it take for a person who has just been beaten by her boyfriend to calm down? Did the evidence in the case indicate that she had returned to rational thought and contemplation? What kind of foundation for a spontaneous utterance could be made in this case? (Cox v. Indiana, Part II) 18. In the case of Morgan v. Georgia, the defendant, Morgan, and the deceased were visiting Morgan’s girlfriend at her home. When Morgan and the soon-to-be-deceased began to argue over Morgan’s rough treatment of his girlfriend, Morgan shot the other man. At the hospital, the victim told police that Morgan shot him and detailed the circumstances under which he had received the gunshot wounds. At the hospital, the victim told a police officer that Morgan "just shot me" and "we weren't fighting." The officer who took the statement testified that the victim exhibited great pain and asked the officer "if he was going to die." The officer told him that he was not going to die and that the doctor was working on him. Morgan contended that this testimony shows that the victim was not conscious of imminent death, and for that reason, the trial court erroneously admitted the victim's statement to police as a dying declaration. Was the victim conscious of his impending death? Was the victim unavailable to testify at trial? Does it make any difference that the deceased may not have stated clearly that he knew he was going to die? Did the victim have any motivation for lying to the police at the hospital? Is this a close case for the court to determine? Would you have ruled the same way as the appellate court? Why? (Morgan v. Georgia, Part II). 19. In the case of Michigan v. Washington, the defendant and an accomplice were convicted of armed robbery and assault with intent to do great bodily harm. Police stopped the two men for routine questioning. Later, they heard a radio report of a robbery and shooting. One of the men they stopped blurted out that he was the shooter. He was later identified as the shooter. Because the confessing partner was tried separately, the judge allowed his statement to be admitted in evidence against his partner, Washington, as a declaration against interest. Washington appealed his conviction, contending that the admission of his accomplice’s declaration against interest should not have been used against him. How did the appellate court rule? What rationale did it use in making its decision? Were there sufficient guarantees of trustworthiness to allow the evidence to be admitted as an exception to the hearsay rule? Would you have ruled the same way as the appellate court? Why? (Michigan v. Washington, Part II).	2026-01-27T20:07:10.454693
118,050	3.831988	http://serc.carleton.edu/introgeo/jigsaws/why.html	Why Use Jigsaws Effectiveness of cooperative learning techniques in generalIn cooperative learning, students work with their peers to accomplish a shared or common goal, and jigsaw is one type of cooperative learning structure. Research over the past several decades shows overwhelmingly that well-structured cooperative learning is beneficial for students in terms of engagement, achievement (especially with respect to reasoning skills), and enjoyment. The Pedagogy in Action Module on Cooperative Learning has an excellent summary of research results on the value of cooperative learning in general. Effectiveness of jigsaw in particular Cooperative learning works well when 1) students are interdependent in a positive way, 2) individuals are accountable, 3) students interact to promote student learning, 4) groups use good teamwork skills, and 5) students have an opportunity for analyzing how well their groups are functioning (Johnson and Johnson, 1999; Johnson et al., 1998; Slavin, 1991, 1996). The first three components are inherent in the way that a well-constructed jigsaw functions. - Each student must not only be involved in peer teaching in a mixed group but also must help others in the group learn in order for the group to be able to carry out the group synthesis/analysis task (1 and 3 above). - Success in the group task requires individuals to be accountable, to interact to promote peer learning, and to depend upon each other in positive ways (2 above). The fourth and fifth components of successful cooperative learning are not inherent in the jigsaw structure but can be addressed by the instructor in a variety of ways, including starting with lower stakes interactions early in the semester and setting aside time for students to reflect on what is working and what isn't.A number of studies have documented effective use of jigsaw in a variety of types of classes: undergraduate statistics (Perkins and Saris, 2001), undergraduate biology lab (Colosi and Zales, 1998), undergraduate psychology (Carroll, 1986), prospective elementary school teachers (Wedman, 1996; Artut and Tarim, 2007), undergraduate geology (Tewksbury, 1995), and project-based computational science and engineering at the U.S. Naval Academy (Burkhardt and Turner, 2001). Two critical ideas emerge from research on jigsaw: - The jigsaw structure produces long-term learning gains when the group engages in a culminating analytical group task that requires actively using all team members' contributions for a group analysis or problem-solving task (Michaelson et al., 1997). - If group members only have to interact to learn what individual students know, rewarding the group for the successful performance of individuals in the group seems to be necessary to produce more than marginal increases in student achievement (Slavin, 1996). Overall benefits of the jigsaw technique - Students are directly engaged with the material, instead of having material presented to them, which fosters depth of understanding. - Students gain practice in self-teaching, which is one of the most valuable skills we can help them learn. - Students gain practice in peer teaching, which requires them to understand the material at a deeper level than students typically do when simply asked to produce on an exam. - During a jigsaw, students speak the language of the discipline and become more fluent in the use of discipline-based terminology. - Each student develops an expertise and has something important to contribute to the group. - Each student also has a chance to contribute meaningfully to a discussion, something that is more difficult to achieve in large-group discussion. - The group task that follows individual peer teaching promotes discussion, problem-solving, and learning. - Jigsaw encourages cooperation and active learning and promotes valuing all students' contributions. - Jigsaw can be an efficient cooperative learning strategy. Although the jigsaw assignment takes time in class, the instructor does not need to spend as much time lecturing about the topic. If planned well, the overall time commitment to using the jigsaw technique during class can be comparable to lecturing about a topic.	2026-01-20T01:49:35.081754
736,118	4.0654	http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalieri's_principle	- 2-dimensional case: Suppose two regions in a plane are included between two parallel lines in that plane. If every line parallel to these two lines intersects both regions in line segments of equal length, then the two regions have equal areas. - 3-dimensional case: Suppose two regions in three-space (solids) are included between two parallel planes. If every plane parallel to these two planes intersects both regions in cross-sections of equal area, then the two regions have equal volumes. Today Cavalieri's principle is seen as an early step towards integral calculus, and while it is used in some forms, such as its generalization in Fubini's theorem, results using Cavalieri's principle can often be shown more directly via integration. In the other direction, Cavalieri's principle grew out of the ancient Greek method of exhaustion, which used limits but did not use infinitesimals. Cavalieri's principle was originally called the method of indivisibles, the name it was known by in Renaissance Europe. Archimedes was able to find the volume of a sphere given the volumes of a cone and cylinder using a method resembling Cavalieri's principle. In the 5th century AD, Zu Chongzhi and his son Zu Gengzhi established a similar method to find a sphere's volume. The transition from Cavalieri's indivisibles to John Wallis's infinitesimals was a major advance in the history of the calculus. The indivisibles were entities of codimension 1, so that a plane figure was thought as made out of an infinity of 1-dimensional lines. Meanwhile, infinitesimals were entities of the same dimension as the figure they make up; thus, a plane figure would be made out of "parallelograms" of infinitesimal width. Applying the formula for the sum of an arithmetic progression, Wallis computed the area of a triangle by partitioning it into infinitesimal parallelograms of width 1/∞. That is done as follows: Consider a sphere of radius and a cylinder of radius and height . Within the cylinder is the cone whose apex is at the center of the sphere and whose base is the base of the cylinder. By the Pythagorean theorem, the plane located units above the "equator" intersects the sphere in a circle of area . The area of the plane's intersection with the part of the cylinder that is outside of the cone is also . The aforementioned volume of the cone is of the volume of the cylinder, thus the volume outside of the cone is the volume of the cylinder. Therefore the volume of the upper half of the sphere is of the volume of the cylinder. The volume of the cylinder is ("Base" is in units of area; "height" is in units of distance. Area × distance = volume.) Therefore the volume of the upper half-sphere is and that of the whole sphere is . Cones and pyramids The fact that the volume of any pyramid, regardless of the shape of the base, whether circular as in the case of a cone, or square as in the case of the Egyptian pyramids, or any other shape, is (1/3) × base × height, can be established by Cavalieri's principle if one knows only that it is true in one case. One may initially establish it in a single case by partitioning the interior of a triangular prism into three pyramidal components of equal volumes. One may show the equality of those three volumes by means of Cavalieri's principle. In fact, Cavalieri's principle or similar infinitesimal argument is necessary to compute the volume of cones and even pyramids, which is essentially the content of Hilbert's third problem – polyhedral pyramids and cones cannot be cut and rearranged into a standard shape, and instead must be compared by infinite (infinitesimal) means. The ancient Greeks used various precursor techniques such as Archimedes's mechanical arguments or method of exhaustion to compute these volumes. The napkin ring problem In what is called the napkin ring problem, one shows by Cavalieri's principle that when a hole of length h is drilled straight through the center of a sphere, the volume of the remaining material surprisingly does not depend on the size of the sphere. The cross-section of the remaining ring is a plane annulus, whose area is the difference between the areas of two circles. By the Pythagorean theorem, the area of one of the two circles is π times r 2 − y 2, where r is the sphere's radius and y is the distance from the plane of the equator to the cutting plane, and that of the other is π times r 2 − (h/2) 2. When these are subtracted, the r 2 cancels; hence the lack of dependence of the bottom-line answer upon r. N. Reed has shown how to find the area bounded by a cycloid by using Cavalieri's principle. A circle of radius r can roll in a clockwise direction upon a line below it, or in a counterclockwise direction upon a line above it. A point on the circle thereby traces out two cycloids. When the circle has rolled any particular distance, the angle through which it would have turned clockwise and that through which it would have turned counterclockwise are the same. The two points tracing the cycloids are therefore at equal heights. The line through them is therefore horizontal (i.e. parallel to the two lines on which the circle rolls). Consequently each horizontal cross-section of the circle has the same length as the corresponding horizontal cross-section of the region bounded by the two arcs of cyloids. By Cavalieri's principle, the circle therefore has the same area as that region. It is a short step from there to the conclusion that the area under a single whole cycloidal arch is three times the area of the circle. Which then means that the area of a rectangle bounding one half of a single cycloidal arch is two times the area of the circle, the area of a rectangle bounding a single whole cycloidal arch is four times the area of the circle, and the rectangularly-bounded area above a single whole cycloidal arch is exactly equal to the area of the circle. - Fubini's theorem (Cavalieri's principle is a particular case of Fubini's theorem) - Howard Eves, "Two Surprising Theorems on Cavalieri Congruence", The College Mathematics Journal, volume 22, number 2, March, 1991), pages 118–124 - Zill, Dennis G.; Wright, Scott; Wright, Warren S. (2009). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (3 ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. xxvii. ISBN 0-7637-5995-3., Extract of page 27 - N. Reed, "Elementary proof of the area under a cycloid", Mathematical Gazette, volume 70, number 454, December, 1986, pages 290–291 - Weisstein, Eric W., "Cavalieri's Principle", MathWorld. - (German) Prinzip von Cavalieri - Cavalieri Integration	2026-01-29T14:44:09.430745
1,061,360	3.518094	http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/thinking-tech/scientists-eavesdrop-on-the-thoughts-of-humans-and-ferrets/10123	Scientists can decode our thoughts and translate them into computer language so that a person can move inanimate objects, like a robotic arm, by just thinking about moving it. Now it looks like they are moving on to perform similar magic in the speech area of the brain. The hope is that neuroscientists may be able to hear the unspoken thoughts of a paralyzed patient, and then translate them through an audio device. Today a team out of the University of California, Berkeley, have come closer to realizing that hope. They have successfully decoded the patterns of neural firing in the temporal lobe of the brain, this is the area responsible for hearing, as a subject listens to normal speech. And from this pattern they could discern the words the person had heard. Sort of like eavesdropping. Their work is published today in the journal PLoS Biology. But decoding the patterns for hearing a word may not be the same as the patterns for imagining saying a word. This relationship is necessary for mental conversations to work. If scientists can crack the code then they could either use a synthesizer to give it vocal life or some kind of interface that types the imagined words. The scientists believe this experiment will pave the way for a speech prosthetic for patients because previous studies have shown that when people imagine speaking a word, the same brain regions light up as do when the person actually verbalizes the word. It even works with ferrets. In previous studies scientists read words out loud to ferrets and recorded the resulting neural patterns. Later they were able to guess which words were being read to the ferret based solely on the ferret’s neural firing patterns. Of course these are regular ferrets, not ones that understand the English language. For the current paper researchers analyzed the brain activity of 15 epilepsy patients. The subjects were undergoing brain surgery and had 256 electrodes monitoring the electrical patterns in the temporal lobe for about a week. Specifically scientists recorded the brain activity while the patients listened to 10 minutes of conversation. They then used the data to reconstruct the sounds the patients had heard. Researchers liken this to a pianist who can look at the keys of another pianist through sound-proof window and still imagine perfectly the sound of the music. Of course humans can understand words even when they sound quite different—think of accents—so the real challenge for research will be to discern what are the most meaningful sounds of speech, since it might be a syllable or a phoneme or something else altogether. [photo via emeryc]	2026-02-03T15:13:38.114978
985,452	3.841398	http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/cm/v12/n2/oil	Many people today, including scientists, have the idea that oil and natural gas must take a long time to form, even millions of years. Such is the strong mental bias that has been generated by the prevailing evolutionary mindset of the scientific community. However, laboratory research has shown that petroleum hydrocarbons (oil and gas) can be made from natural materials in short time-spans. Such research is spurred on by the need to find a viable process by which man may be able to replenish his dwindling stocks of liquid hydrocarbons so vital to modern technology. The 1 March 1989 edition of The Age newspaper (Melbourne, Australia) carried a report from Washington (USA) entitled ‘Researchers convert sewage into oil’. The report states that researchers from Batelle Laboratories in Richland, Washington State, use no fancy biotechnology or electronics, but the process they have developed takes raw, untreated sewage and converts it to usable oil. Their recipe works by concentrating the sludge and digesting it with alkali. As the mixture is heated under pressure, the hot alkali attacks the sewage, converting the complex organic material, particularly cellulose, into the long-chain hydrocarbons of crude oil. However, the oil produced in their first experiments did not have the qualities needed for commercial fuel oil. So, the report says, in September 1987 Batelle joined forces with American Fuel and Power Corporation, a company specializing in blending and recycling oils. Together they have made the oil more ‘free-flowing’ using an additive adapted from one developed to cut down friction in engines. A fuel has now been produced with almost the same heating value as diesel fuel. The process from sewage to oil takes only a day or two! The researchers are now building a pilot plant. As the report states, potential economic benefits of this new technology are tremendous, since the process produces more energy than is consumed during normal sewage disposal, and the surplus energy products can be sold at a profit. Bonuses include an 80 percent reduction in waste volumes, and the eradication of poisonous pollutants such as insecticides, herbicides and toxic metals that normally end up in sewage. Of course, one cannot claim that this is the way oil could have been made naturally in the ground in a short time period. The starting raw material is man-made and hot alkali digesters don't occur naturally in the ground. Of greater significance are laboratory experiments that have generated petroleum under conditions simulating those occurring naturally in a sedimentary rock basin. Between 1977 and 1983, research experiments were performed at the CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation) laboratories in Sydney (Australia). In their reports1,2 the researchers noted that others had attempted to duplicate under laboratory conditions geochemical reactions that lead to economic deposits of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons, but such experiments had only lasted for a few or several hundred days, and usually at constant temperatures. Consequently, the differences in timescale and other parameters between geological processes and laboratory experiments being so great meant that scientists generally questioned the relevance of such laboratory results. Thus, in their experiments, the CSIRO scientists had tried to carefully simulate in a laboratory under a longer time period, in this case six years, the conditions in a naturally subsiding sedimentary rock basin. Two types of source rock were chosen for this study—an oil shale (torbanite) from Glen Davis (New South Wales, Australia), and a brown coal (lignite) from Loy Yang in the Latrobe Valley (Victoria, Australia). Both these samples were important in the Australian context, since both represent natural source rocks in sedimentary basins where oil and natural gas have been naturally generated from such source rocks, and in the case of the Bass Strait oil and natural gas fields, sufficient quantities to sustain commercial production. These two source rock samples were each split into six sub-samples, and each sub-sample was individually sealed in a separate stainless steel tube. The two sets of six stainless steel tubes were then placed in an oven at 100°C and the temperature increased by 1°C each week, After 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, and 300 weeks (that is, at maximum temperatures of 150°C, 200°C, 250°C, 300°C, 350°C, and 400°C), one stainless steel tube from each series was removed, cooled and opened. Any gas in each tube was sampled and analysed. Residues in each tube were extracted and treated with solvents to remove any oil, which was then analysed. The solid remaining was also weighed, studied, and analysed. In the brown coal samples, however, during the first 50 weeks of heating, gas (mainly carbon dioxide) was produced, and the production rate increased over the next 100 weeks. Virtually no oil was formed up until this point. Between 250°C and 300°C, when the oil shale generated copious oil, the brown coal produced about 1% short-chain hydrocarbons and 0.2% oil, which resembled a natural light crude oil (similar to that commercially recovered from Bass Strait, the offshore oil fields in the same sedimentary basin as, and geologically above, the Latrobe Valley coal beds from which the samples used in the experiment came). The products after 250 weeks (350°C) resembled a carbon dioxide rich natural gas. Over the same time period and at those temperatures, the brown coal samples had also been converted to anthracite (the highest grade form of black coal). The researchers concluded that overall, the four-year (300°C) results provide experimental proof of oil shale acting as an oil source and of brown coal being a source first of carbon dioxide and then of mainly natural gas/condensate. Significantly, these products of these slow ‘molecule-by-molecule’, solid-state decompositions are all typical of naturally occuring hydrocarbons (natural gases and petroleum), with no hydrocarbon compounds called olefins or carbon monoxide gas being formed. Geologists usually maintain that these processes of oil formation from source rocks (maturation events) commonly involve one thousand to one million years or more at near maximum temperatures.3 However, the researchers believe their series of experiments are the best attempts so far to duplicate natural, subsiding, sedimentary conditions. Extensive conversion of organic matter to hydrocarbons has also been achieved at less than 300°C under non-catalytic conditions with a minimum of water present. Furthermore, the researchers maintained that their experiments clearly show that altering the time-scale of source rock heating from seconds (the duration of many previous laboratory experiments) to years makes the products produced similar to natural petroleum. They went on to say: In many geological situations much longer time intervals are available but evidently the molecular mechanism of the decomposition is little changed by the additional time. Thus, within sedimentary basins, heating times of several years are sufficient for the generation of oil and gas from suitable precursors. The precise point in this range of times from seconds to years, at which the products adequately resemble natural gases and/or oils, remains to be established. Heating times of the order of years during recent times may even improve the petroleum prospects of particular areas. Flooding of a reservoir with migrating hydrocarbons is more likely to produce a reservoir filled to the spill point than slow accumulation over a long geological period with a possibility of loss …’.4 They also noted that it should be remembered their experiments ‘relate to a situation which is possibly unusual in the geological context—one in which hydrocarbons do not migrate away from their source rocks as they are generated.’5 But could these laboratory experiments really have simulated natural petroleum generation from organic matter in source rocks in only six years as stated? No sooner had the discovery of ongoing natural formation of petroleum been published in the journal Nature,6 than The Australian Financial Review of February 2, 1982 carried an article by Walter Sullivan of The New York Times under the heading ‘Natural oil refinery found under ocean’. The report indicated that ‘The oil is being formed from the unusually rapid breakdown of organic debris by extraordinarily extensive heat flowing through the sediments, offering scientists a singular opportunity to see how petroleum is formed….Ordinarily oil has been thought to form over millions of years whereas in this instance the process is probably occurring in thousands of years…. The activity is not only manufacturing petroleum at relatively high speed but also, by application of volcanic heat, breaking it down into the constituents of gasoline and other petroleum products as in a refinery.’ Figure 1. The Location of the Guaymas Basin in the Gulf of California. This ‘natural refinery under the ocean’ is found under the waters of the Gulf of California, in an area known as the Guaymas Basin (see Fig. 1). Through this basin is a series of long deep fractures that link volcanoes of the undersea ridge known as the East Pacific Rise with the San Andreas fault system that runs northwards across California. The basin consists of two rift valleys (flat-bottomed valleys bounded by steep cliffs along fault lines), which are filled with 500 metre thick layers of sediments consisting of diatomaceous ooze (made up of the opal-like ‘shells’ of diatoms, single-celled aquatic plants related to algae) and silty mud washed from the nearby land. Along these fractures through the sediments in the basin flows boiling hot water at temperatures above 200°C, the result of deep-seated volcanic activity below the basin. These hot waters (hydrothermal fluids) discharging through the sediments on the ocean floor have been investigated by deep sea divers in mini-submarines. The hydrothermal activity on the ocean floor releases discrete oil globules (up to 1–2 centimetres in diameter), which are discharged into hydrothermal the ocean water with the hydrothermal fluids.7 Disturbance of the surface layers of the sediments on the ocean bottom also releases oil globules. Correct measurement of the oil flow rate at these sites has so far not been feasible, but the in situ collection of oil globules has shown that the gas/oil ratio is approximately 5:1. Large mounds of volcanic sinter (solids coalesced by heating) form via precipitation around the vents and spread out in a blanket across the ocean floor for a distance of 25 metres. These sinter deposits consist of clays mixed with massive amounts of metal sulphide minerals, together with other hydrothermal minerals such as barite (barium sulphate) and talc. The remains of unusual tubeworms that frequent the seawaters around these mounds are also mixed in with the sinter deposits. Thus the organic matter content of these sinter deposits in the mounds approaches 24%.8 The hydrothermal oil from the Guaymas Basin is similar to reservoir crude oils.9 Selected hydrocarbon ratios of the vapour phase are similar to those of the gasoline fraction of typical crude oils, while the general distribution pattern of light volatile hydrocarbons resembles that of crude oils (see Table of analyses) . The elemental composition is within the normal ranges of typical crude oils, while contents of some of the significant organic components, and their distribution, are well within the range of normal crude oils. Other key analytical techniques on the oil give results that are compatible with a predominantly bacterial/algal origin of the organic matter that is the source of the oil and gas.10 This oil and gas has probably formed by the action of hydrothermal processes on the organic matter within the diatomaceous ooze layers in the basin. Of crucial significance is the radiocarbon (C14 ) dating of the oil. Samples have yielded ages between 4,200 and 4,900 years, with uncertainties in the range 50?190 years.11 Thus, the time-temperature conversion of the sedimentary organic matter to hydrothermal petroleum has taken place over a very short geological time-scale (less than 5,000 years) and has occurred under relatively mild temperature conditions. It is significant also that the temperature conditions in these hydrothermal fluids, of up to and exceeding 315 °C, are similar to the ideal temperatures for oil and gas generation in the previously described Australian laboratory experiments.12 Figure 2a illustrates the oil generation system operating in the Guaymas Basin, while Figure 2b shows how this process could be applied in a closed sedimentary basin to the hydrothermal generation of typical oil and gas deposits. Click image to enlarge. Click image to enlarge. The generally accepted model of oil generation assumes long-term heating and maturing of the sedimentary organic matter in subsiding sedimentary basins. The organic matter undergoes successive and gradual increases in alteration, leading to a process of continuous oil generation. The oil subsequently migrates to be trapped in suitable host rocks and structures. This multi-step oil formation process has a low efficiency and converts only a minor fraction of the original organic matter of the sediment to oil.13 There is difficulty in balancing and timing an adequate degree of oil generation occurring at intermediate stages in the sedimentary basin, and ample fluid available for adequate transport (migration) of the oil. Although considerable progress in the understanding of this multi-step oil formation mechanism has been achieved, there are still problems that need to be solved. Such a slow multistep mechanism differs significantly from hydrothermal petroleum formation. No evidence is so far available on the extent to which this alternative single-step oil generation process has contributed towards the origin of presently exploited oil reserves. It is very significant that this naturally produced hydrothermal oil is identical to conventionally exploited crude oils, as are the oil and gas products from the Australian laboratory experiments. Nevertheless, hydrothermal oil formation provides an efficient single-step mechanism for petroleum generation, expulsion, and migration which could have a considerable impact on our understanding of petroleum formation mechanisms and eventually assist us in tapping resources in new areas.14 Thus the rapid formation of oil and gas is not only feasible on the basis of carefully controlled laboratory experiments, but has now been shown to occur naturally under geological conditions that have been common in the past. Significantly, these short timescales are well within those proposed by creation scientists for the generation of petroleum from organic matter in sediments laid down during Noah’s Flood. Subsequently, the discovery of the hydrothermally produced petroleum on the ocean floor in the Guaymas Basin of the Gulf of California is even more crucial to the case of the creation scientists and Flood geologists, when they argue that the fountains of the deep referred to in the Book of Genesis were probably vast volcanic upheavals that broke open the earth's crust, pulverizing rock which was then scattered as volcanic debris, and expelling lavas, gases, and hot liquids, principally water. Indeed, the bulk of the volcanic products would have been superheated water, similar to the hydrothermal fluids found in the Guaymas Basin. The rock record contains many layers of volcanic lavas and ash between other sedimentary layers, many containing organic matter. Thus this model for hydrothermal generation of petroleum is more than a feasible process for the generation of today’s oil and gas deposits in the time-scale subsequent to Noah's Flood as suggested by creation scientists. Help keep these daily articles coming. Support AiG. Discover how compromise starting in Genesis has filtered down from Christian seminaries and colleges to pastors—and finally to parents and their children. This erosive legacy is seen in generations of young people leaving the church—two-thirds of them. Get the facts, discover God’s truth, and help bring a new reformation to churches and families by helping to call them back to the authority of God’s Word. Answers magazine is the Bible-affirming, creation-based magazine from Answers in Genesis. In it you will find fascinating content and stunning photographs that present creation and worldview articles along with relevant cultural topics. Each quarterly issue includes a detachable chart, a pullout children’s magazine, a unique animal highlight, excellent layman and semi-technical articles, plus bonus content. Why wait? Subscribe today and get a FREE DVD download!	2026-02-02T12:20:26.224429
1,107,932	4.05804	http://www.lessonplanet.com/lesson-plans/dictionary	Dictionary Teacher Resources Find Dictionary educational ideas and activities Showing 1 - 20 of 7,544 resources Educational apps reviews are available to members Searching for an incredibly thorough Latin app? Look no further! Latin learners will be quite satisfied with the collection of texts, three dictionaries, customizable flashcards, assessment options, and other features that are right at their fingertips. Dictionary Game Substitute Plans Every teacher needs some activities for his/her substitute teacher to lead when they're out of the classroom. Here is a nifty lesson, which has the kids use dictionaries in a game format. This is meant to be left in your folder for the substitute when she comes to class. The class is divided up into two teams, and learners are paired off with one dictionary each. The teacher calls out a word and the first pair of young scholars to raise their hands and yell out, "We've got it!" wins that round. They must read the definition of the word as proof that they found the right one. Iditarod Picture Dictionary Students are introduced to the Iditarod and create a picture dictionary of key Iditarod terms. They review photographs of mushers and sled dogs and then draw illustrations with one-line written captions to accompany the pictures for their dictionaries. ABC-Introduction to the Dictionary Looking for an excellent way to give your class practice using and a better understanding of how the dictionary works? Try this 4 page printable packet! They read about the dictionary, sort and alphabetize words, the create a dictionary page of their own. Third graders determine appropriate definitions in context. They read a passage, look up words with multiple meanings in the dictionary, and determine which definition fits. Students review guide words, entry words, parts of speech,plural, pronunciation guide, syllables, accent mark. Students also review different types of dictionaries. Dictionary skills are important to learn. Model how to find a word in the dictionary and how to choose the correct definition. As a class, look up words from The Life Cyle of a Bettle. Additionally, encourage your class to determine which definition is correct by looking at the context of the paragraph or sentences. Send individuals off with the provided worksheet for some independent practice. The worksheet can be viewed full-size with a free membership at the hosting site. Dictionary Guide Words: How Do They Guide Us? Fourth graders, after brainstorming what the word "guide" means, examine how to use guide words in a dictionary to locate words. They define "guide," identify guide words in a variety of dictionaries and locate words using guide words. Each student also completes a number of practice pages of words. Using Bilingual Dictionaries Practice researching and translating all parts of speech using a bilingual dictionary. The class uses their research to increase their own vocabulary and learn the dictionary abbreviations for words such as transitive verb, pronoun, masculine, and feminine. Dictionaries Lesson Plan Students practice using a dictionary. In this dictionary instructional activity, students participate in an online activity to familiarize themselves with the features and purpose of a dictionary. Dictionary Skills - What's the Meaning of This! How do I use this word? Middle schoolers review the parts of a dictionary definition and compare an entry to a thesaurus entry. They then create mini-dictionaries using the Internet and a word processor. Vocabulary Development through Dictionary Skills There will always be words you don't know, so how do you find their meaning? You have to use the dictionary! Provide teams of learners with this two-page packet, and have them search the dictionary for several unknown words. Words like turban, ukulele, vestry, and albumen are included, so even your most precocious learners will need to use the dictionary. Second graders examine the purposes of the dictionary and practice how to use it correctly. Students discuss parts of speech, number of syllables, accent marks, antonyms, plurals, and various word ending before participating in a dictionary scavenger hunt. Creating a Spanish/ English Picture Dictionary Students explore all the avenues of why its important to use a dictionary to find out what a word means. The functions of a dictionary is discussed in depth within this lesson. They create a Spanish/English Picture Dictionary to illustrate the important use of a dictionary. The Amazing World of Dictionaries Use this resource to discuss various ways to dictionaries can be used. What a terrific presentation to display when exploring how dictionaries are used to define words, check spellings, identify parts of speech, and more. The PowerPoint also talks about the different types of dictionaries available, such as online sources and illustrated versions. Prep your class for any upcoming standardized language test with this resource. Use the sample dictionary page included to answer the reference questions provided. Great practice is provided here! In this recognizing parts of a dictionary worksheet, students read about the guide words, punctuation key, definition, and part of speech; read entry words and guide words; and answer comprehension questions. Students write 15 answers. In this recognizing parts of a dictionary page activity, students use the dictionary page provided to answer questions about guide words, entry word, and multiple word meanings. Students write 5 short answers. Immigration Picture Dictionary Second graders create an immigration picture dictionary. In this immigration lesson, 2nd graders visit Pier 21 and discuss how it has changed Canada. Students also discuss how the lives of the immigrants have changed. Students create a picture dictionary of new vocabulary words. Dictionary Research Work Explore new words and examine an unusual alphabet book with your young scholars. They are introduced to an alphabet book containing many unfamiliar words. They are then guided as they search for definitions in a dictionary. They then create their own alphabet book based on their amazing vocabulary. Vocabulary Development Through Dictionary Skills In this vocabulary development worksheet, students predict what 8 words mean and then check their meanings in a dictionary. Students also select 8 of their own personal words, make predictions for them, and check their meanings.	2026-02-04T08:44:29.757697
419,006	3.710492	http://www.eoearth.org/article/Lorentz,_Hendrik_Antoon	Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853–1928), a Dutch physicist and pioneer in formulating the relations between electricity, magnetism, and light. He explained the Zeeman effect—a change in spectrum lines in a magnetic field—for which he shared with Pieter Zeeman the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics. In 1878, he published an essay on the relation between the velocity of light in a medium and the density and composition thereof. The resulting formula, proposed almost simultaneously by Danish physicist Lorenz, is known as the Lorenz-Lorentz formula. He extended the hypothesis of G. F. Fitzgerald that the length of a body contracts as its speed increases, now known as the Lorentz contraction. He also formulated the Lorentz transformation, in which the space and time coordinates of one moving system can be correlated with the known space and time coordinates of any other system. This work influenced and was confirmed by Einstein’s special theory of relativity.	2026-01-24T16:39:45.760884
184,894	3.80288	http://www.wou.edu/~yehnerc/254.2.htm	English 254 Class #2 Wed, Jan 9 Chopin, “The Storm” (1611), “The Story of an Hour” (handout) The structure of plot: conflict, crisis, resolution Plot structure relies on cause and effect: not what happens, but why. Two main characters: protagonist and antagonist. In general, the protagonist is the character who changes. The antagonist is the one who causes the change. *Minor characters often serve as mirrors or foils to main characters. 1. Who are the two main characters? Who is the antagonist and who is the protagonist? 2. What is the main (external) conflict? Is there an internal conflict? 3. What does the title mean? When you trace both the plot and the storm through each of the five parts, does the progress of the storm parallel the progress of the plot, and if so, what might this suggest? 4. In part I the “sombre clouds. . . rolling with sinister intention” introduce the storm. Does this description introduce the story’s action as well—is the action sinister? 5. Clearly the storm sets in motion the chain of events that leads to the characters’ adultery. Does the storm excuse them in any way from responsibility for their actions? 6. Do you suspect your judgment of the characters and their actions in this story differs from the author’s? If so, why isn’t the story persuasive? 7. What is the point of this story? "The Story of an Hour" 1. Does this story have a conflict? If so, what is it? Do any of the characters exhibit an internal conflict? 2. Where is the climactic moment in the plot? 3. What might be the cause or causes of the "physical exhaustion that haunted her body and seemed to reach into her soul" that Mrs. Mallard feels as she sinks into the armchair? Mrs. Mallard's face reveals repression. What has she been repressing? What are the social realities of marriage in the 19th century? 4. What kind of man is Brently Mallard, as Mrs. Mallard remembers him? In what ways is he like Josephine and Richards? 5. What does Mrs. Mallard see and hear from the open window? How do you react emotionally to this imagery? What does the imagery suggest? 6. What is the attitude of the author toward those who would comfort Mrs. Mallard? 7. How does Mrs. Mallard look as she leaves her room? What does Richards' "quick motion" at the end of the story reveal? Who is he screening from whom? 8. Does the ending of this story merely surprise you, or do you believe Chopin is making a thematic point?	2026-01-21T02:18:58.855502
508,003	3.601989	http://www.mcgill.ca/ehs/laboratory/radiation/manual/5	Monitoring is an essential component of any radiation safety program. It involves the regular and routine measurement and/or assessment of factors relevant to radiation safety and takes the following forms: - Monitoring of radiation dose or dose rate. - Area monitoring, i.e. measurement of radiation dose rate at various points in an area where a radiation-emitting machine or equipment is located, or where radioactive sources are stored, handled or used. - Technique monitoring, i.e. measurement of the dose or dose rate applicable to specific persons or specific locations, during complex procedures involving radiation sources. - Personnel monitoring, i.e. measurement of the total dose received by individual radiation workers over a specified period of time. - Monitoring of radioactivity (count rate): - measurement of radioactive contamination on surfaces(i.e. benches, floors) and equipment; - measurement of radioactive contamination on exposed areas of skin and on clothing of radiation workers; - monitoring of ingestion, inhalation and injection of radioactivity by workers handling unsealed radioisotopes. - Medical surveillance of radiation workers. Environmental Health & Safety conducts these radiation surveys. The purpose is to ensure that the room and equipment shielding, and the local practices and procedures are satisfactory. Permit Holders, Heads of Department, Departmental Radiation Safety Officers and individual radiation workers should collaborate with the Environmental Safety Office in these surveys and should report any situation or change in procedure, which may warrant special investigation. Permit Holders have the responsibility of carrying out recommendations arising from the surveys and of making the results known to their staff. The Permit Holder must retain a copy of each Radiation Survey Report pertaining to his department or laboratory, together with a record of any action taken as a result of such report. These records must be made available on request to authorized persons such as the Radiation Safety Officer and CNSC inspectors. Permit Holders are required to keep radiation survey reports and all related documents up to 3 years in their McGill Radiation Log Book or in other files. Radiation Users and Nuclear Energy Workers whose main source of exposure is from external beta or X-ray and gamma sources may be subject to routine, continuous monitoring by means of a thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) which is worn at all times during working hours. Such monitoring is mandatory for NEWs and recommended for Radiation Users. In addition, NEWs who may be exposed to neutrons must carry a separate neutron badge* . The National Dosimetry Service of the Radiation Protection Bureau, a service of Health Canada in Ottawa, provides the TLDs as whole body and extremity dosimeters. To obtain more information or to subscribe to the service, contact the McGill Radiation Safety Officer. The following paragraphs refer specifically to TLD badges for the monitoring of photons and high-energy electrons. Neutron monitors are considered in Section 5.3.5. * A person who is likely to be exposed to neutrons to a significant extent must be designated as a NEW, irrespective of the level of and/or or X-ray and radiation to which he/she is also exposed. The whole body TLDs provided by the National Dosimetry Service comprise two small plaques of lithium fluoride (approx. 3 mm x 3 mm x 1 mm thick) mounted on an aluminum plate, all contained in a plastic holder provided with a pocket clip. The base plate is encoded (by a series of punched holes) so that an individual monitor can be identified. The National Dosimetry Service provides the whole body TLD badges on a 3-month or 1-month cycle, with distribution being on a department or laboratory basis. The Permit Holder must make the necessary arrangements for personnel monitoring of radiation workers in his/her own department or laboratory and is also responsible for the cost of the service. An outline of the procedure is given below, further details being available from the Environmental Safety Office: - usually the Permit Holder delegates the organizational aspects of personnel monitoring to another person who is in daily contact with the staff concerned. It is essential for this person to be properly briefed. For convenience, he/she will be referred to in this section as the Monitoring Supervisor; - the individual radiation worker retains his or her badge or monitor with his/her name attached. The badge is changed every cycle; - the changeover dates (beginning of a new monitoring period) vary from group to group and the Radiation Protection Bureau (RPB) will notify each monitoring group. Shortly before the changeover date, the Monitoring Supervisor collects the old badges and provides the new badges from everyone in his/her group; and - the "exposed" plaques are measured automatically by the RPB, and a report of the radiation dose received by each worker is sent to the Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) at Environmental Health & Safety. The RSO will then: - examine the report and note any unusually high value; - send a copy to the department or laboratory (minimum once a year or on request); - retain the original report for record purposes; and - investigate any dose which is either: - over 10mSv per 2 consecutive periods of 3 months in the case of an NEW; or - is significantly greater than the "normal" value (exceeding 0.5 mSv for 2 consecutive periods of 3 months) for the individual concerned or for the group of workers who are engaged in similar activities, as in the case of a Radiation User or the general public. (See section 3.7 for details) The individual radiation worker must: - take good care of their assigned monitor at all times; - wear the monitor at all times during working hours. The badge may be worn either at the wrist as a bracelet or on the finger as a ring and finally at the head/neck area or chest height as a whole body monitor. Where protective clothing such as a lead apron is worn, the badge must be placed under the protective clothing since its function is to record the radiation reaching the body, not the radiation reaching the protective clothing; - guard the badge as a personal monitor, issued to a named individual. Under no circumstances should the badge be loaned to another person; - take care that the badge is not dropped or accidentally placed in a position where it could be exposed to a level of radiation higher than the ambient level; - take care that the badge is not accidentally splashed or otherwise contaminated by a radioactive liquid; - take care that, outside working hours, the monitor is stored in a safe place which is well away from any radiation source and from any source of intense heat such as a radiator; and - report any problems with the monitor to the Monitoring Supervisor or to the RSO. See Appendix G for more details. Personnel monitoring, of the type described in the preceding paragraphs is a satisfactory general indicator of the whole-body dose arising from external sources of penetrating radiation such as X- and gamma-rays. However, the system has some important limitations: - the badge reading can be interpreted in terms of a whole-body dose only if the ambient radiation is penetrating, i.e., photons in the MeV energy range, or at least several hundred keV; and isotropic i.e., either the radiation comes from several directions or the radiation worker changes his orientation frequently with respect to the source of radiation. If these conditions are not met, then the badge reading represents only the dose to superficial tissues and/or to part of the body such as the front of the trunk; - the badge does not record any additional dose received by the extremities and/or face and neck in some procedures; - the badge does not record doses due to low-energy-particles such as those from tritium(H-3), carbon-14(C-14) and sulphur-35(S-35); - the 3-monthly cycle may be too long for individuals whose work carries a higher-than-average risk of radiation exposure; and - the badge does not record internal exposure arising from ingestion, inhalation or injection of radioactive materials. The first limitation (1) cannot be overcome. Each situation must be assessed to determine what the badge reading represents. In most cases, the badge reading is so low that it is of no importance whether it represents a whole-body or a partial-body dose. Limitations 2 and 4 may be overcome by the use of monthly monitors or monitors such as TLD "finger badges" or pen-type pocket dosimeters. Arrangements for the issue of these monitors may be made through the Radiation Safety Officer. Monitoring of this type is usually considered as "Technique Monitoring" i.e., it is carried out as a special investigation to determine the relationship between the badge reading and the dose received by other parts of the body. Limitation 3 can only be resolved by the purchase of special monitors, which are sensitive to low-energies; this comes under the heading of "Area Monitoring". Limitation 5 is overcome to some extent by the use of bioassay procedures as discussed in Section 5.5. Radiation workers who may handle more than 50 MBq of phosphorus-32 (P-32), strontium-89 (Sr-89), strontium-90 (Sr-90) or yttrium-90 (Y-90) are required to wear an extremity TLD as a ring badge in addition to the whole body TLD. The National Dosimetry Service (NDS) also supplies the extremity TLDs and for additional information on extremity TLD personnel monitoring contact the RSO. Radiation workers who may be exposed externally to neutrons (i.e. for unshielded neutron sources in excess of 20 GBq) are required to wear a special "neutron" badge in addition to the ordinary TLD badge. The National Dosimetry Service (NDS) also supplies the neutron monitor. However, users should be aware that the present neutron badge is somewhat unsatisfactory and the safety of the staff will depend on a thorough area survey (using a calibrated neutron survey meter) combined with good working practices. Further details on neutron personnel monitoring may be obtained from the RSO. Portable monitors, suitable for measuring contamination arising from the type of radionuclide stored or used in that laboratory must be available. This should be used regularly to monitor accessible surfaces on benches, walls, floors and equipment, whenever there is a possibility that a liquid radioisotope has been splashed or spilled. The monitor should also be used on exposed skin surfaces and clothes of radiation workers when procedures involving the manipulation of significant activities of radionuclides are completed. Any laboratory where unsealed radioisotopes are stored and/or used must undergo regular surface contamination checks called "wipe tests". Suspected surfaces are wiped with a moist swab of raw cotton or filter paper in order to remove contamination and the swab is then offered to a sensitive detector, such as a liquid scintillation counter or gamma well counter. Allowing for statistical uncertainties in low-level counting, any count rate which appears to be above the 0.5 Becquerels per centimeter squared (Bq/cm2) is regarded as evidence of contamination. Decontamination procedures are required and discussed in Section 5.8. Wipe tests are done at least once a week for frequent users (i.e. daily or weekly) or after each radioisotope procedure for occasional users (i.e. monthly or bimonthly). The results must be placed in the McGill Radiation Log Book and kept for a maximum of three years. For more complete details on wipe tests consult Section 5.7. In addition to regular monitoring carried out by the radiation workers in a laboratory, every laboratory handling unsealed radioisotopes is subject to regular inspection and survey by Environmental Health & Safety. Such inspections are carried out annually, but more frequent surveys may be needed in some cases. The Permit Holder should request a special survey whenever an accident has occurred which might have resulted in contamination, or whenever a complex new procedure has been carried out for the first time. The rules listed in Section 5.2 for "Area and Technique" surveys carried out by Environmental Health & Safety also apply to the Contamination Surveys discussed here. The CNSC has established effective dose limits for persons during a specified period. For the purpose of calculating the effective dose, one of the parameters used is the annual limit on intake (ALI). The ALI is defined as the activity, in Becquerels, of a radionuclide that will deliver an effective dose of 20 mSv during the 50 year period after the radionuclide is taken into the body of a person 18 years or older or during the period beginning at intake and ending at age 70 after it is taken into the body of a person less than 18 years old. See Appendix C, for a list of ALI according to radioisotope. Radioactive materials may be ingested, inhaled or injected through the skin. If the absorbed radionuclide is a gamma-emitter, it can be detected and measured by a sensitive external counter. This is the procedure used for measuring the ingestion of radionuclides such as I-125, which concentrates mainly in the thyroid gland. A thyroid bioassay service is operated by Environmental Health & Safety and is available to all workers who handle iodine radioisotopes. Radiation workers in this category should be monitored regularly, at a frequency which depends on the particular isotope handled and, in the case of short-lived isotopes, on the individual workload. The most commonly used radioisotope of iodine is I-125 (half-life 60 days) and in this case the monitoring frequency is one month, irrespective of the workload. The CNSC Regulatory Document R-58 requires persons handling I-125 or I-131 at above specified activity levels to submit to thyroid monitoring. These tests must be done within 5 days of the iodine manipulation. For details and arrangements for thyroid scans contact Environmental Health & Safety. The minimum activities requiring evaluation are listed below: \|Types of operations\|\|Activity handled in unsealed form\| \|Processes carried out in open room\|\|2 MBq (54 µCi)\| \|Processes carried out in fume hood\|\|200 MBq (5.4 mCi)\| \|Processes carried out within closed glove boxes\|\|20 GBq (540 mCi)\| Bioassay procedures for other radionuclides have been developed and made available to all laboratory personnel. Body burden assessments can be performed using two methods: - Excreta analysis (urine and faeces); and - Whole-body counting (approximate for gamma emitting radionuclides) In accident or emergency situations Environmental Health & Safety is able to carry out, or to make arrangements for any type of bioassay which may be required. The radiation doses received by the great majority of radiation workers are so low that no correlation can be demonstrated between dose and any known physiological effect, and no deleterious effect can be unequivocally linked to a radiation exposure. Consequently, medical surveillance has no role in assessing the effectiveness of a program of radiation protection. Surveillance is therefore limited to the minority of radiation workers who, because of the nature of their work and/or the type of radiation sources they handle, are classified as Nuclear Energy Workers (NEWs). These workers are more likely than non-NEWs to receive a significant dose in the event of an accident. Any person whose position is classified as a NEW should undergo a complete pre-employment medical examination. A NEW whose whole-body dose in the preceding 12-month period, as evidenced by personnel exposure records, exceeds 50 mSv (5 rem) must undergo further medical examination. This is also required in cases of accidental over-exposure (real or suspected). Where the over-exposure is severe (200 mSv (20 rem) or more), a cytogenetic examination is required. The most effective method for measuring radioactive surface contamination is the wipe test technique. This procedure will indicate only the levels of removable contamination. No removable contamination should be tolerated. Begin the wipe test with a sketch of the laboratory that includes marked and numbered locations to be examined. Usually, 10 to 20 locations are adequate for most laboratories. The wipe test method includes the following steps: - Moisten a filter paper (2 cm) with alcohol or water, and wipe over an area approximately 100 cm2 (10 cm x 10cm). Please note dry wipes can also be used. - Place the filter paper in a vial and count in a gamma well counter (for gamma and/or X-ray contamination) or in a vial containing scintillation fluid, shake and count in a liquid scintillation counter for alpha and/or beta contamination. If a single radioisotope is being used in the laboratory, then appropriate window settings and a quench curve (only for liquid scintillation counting) are recommended. However, if several radioisotopes are being handled or contamination is unknown, then operate at full spectrum with no quench correction. It is suggested that before counting, the vials set aside for liquid scintillation counting be stored for 24 hours to reduce chemiluminescence. - 3. Contamination is present if wipes exceed 0.5 Becquerels per centimetre squared (Bq/cm2). The contaminated area must be cleaned with water and detergent or with a commercial decontamination solution such as Decon75, Count-Off, Rad-Con or Contrad 70. Begin with the perimeter of the spill area and work towards the centre, being careful not to spread the contamination during cleaning. Repeat the wipe testing until the measurements are at or below 0.5 Bq/cm2. The formula used to calculate "Bq/cm2" is: \|Bq/cm2\|\|=\|\|CPM net / [ C.E. x 60 x 100 x Weff ]\| \|Bq/cm2\|\|=\|\|Becquerel per centimetre squared\| (use the counter C.E. for that radioisotope, or for simplicity use a C.E. of 50% for all radioisotopes) \|60\|\|=\|\|is for 60 seconds and related to counts per second (cps)\| \|100\|\|=\|\|for a maximum surface area of 100 cm2 (10 cm x 10 cm)\| \|Weff\|\|=\|\|Wipe Efficiency (use 10% or 0.1 for wet wipes, and 1% or 0.01 for dry wipes)\| In radiation safety, "decontamination" refers to the removal of loose or fixed surface radioactivity, and is required whenever wipe tests reveal contamination. The Radiation Safety Officer should be consulted for any decontamination effort. Selection of a cleanser or decontaminant depends on factors such as the nature of the item to be decontaminated and the amount of dirt trapping the contamination. Either a commercial detergent or soap may be used. The key to effective decontamination is to use plenty of cleanser, a good brush or scouring pad, lots of water rinses, and absorbent paper to dry the area. Inadequate rinsing and drying may yield falsely elevated counts in post-cleaning wipe tests due to chemiluminescence, as a result of cleanser residue. As a rule of thumb, if the contamination is dry (such as powder), keep it dry. Remove the powder by scraping away the contamination and pick up the small particles with adhesive tape. If contamination is wet, use absorbent materials to pick up the moisture. Porous surfaces (such as wood and unpainted concrete) difficult to decontaminate and may require disposal. Some isotopes (such as tritium) may become chemically bonded to the surface and are extremely difficult to decontaminate. Metals may be decontaminated with dilute mineral acids (nitric) a 10% solution of sodium citrate, or with ammonium bifluoride. When all other procedures fail for stainless steel, use hydrochloric acid - this process is effective but unfortunately it will etch the surface. As for bases, commercial polish cleaners will work well. Plastics may be cleaned with ammonium citrate, dilute acids or organic solvents. For decontamination of both wet and dry surfaces, a final wiping with water or alcohol may be necessary. Decontamination should always be followed by wipe tests to confirm that the remaining radiation activity has been reduced to acceptable levels (less than or equal to 0.5 Bq/cm2). Finally, all used decontamination materials must be discarded as radioactive waste. The Permit Holder shall ensure that all areas (i.e. laboratories, storage and waste facilities) identified on his/her Internal Permit are decommissioned or free from radioactivity upon the expiry or termination of the permit. Decommissioning shall include: (1) Transfer or removal of all radioactive materials or devices to an approved site. (2) Appropriate disposal of all radioactive waste. (3) Removal of all radioactive warning signs and labels. (4) Monitor all areas, decontaminate and remove surface contamination (i.e. loose and fixed) to meet the McGill and ultimately the CNSC prescribed limits. (See table below) (5) Prepare a Decommissioning Report Form [.pdf] describing how the decommissioning requirements have been satisfied and forward it to Radiation Safety Officer. (6) Update all records. (7) Records must be retained by the Permit Holder for the period ending 3 years after expiry date of the last Internal Permit issued. (8) Decommissioning Criteria: By Radionuclide Classification1. See table below. CNSC AND MCGILL DECOMMISSIONING CRITERIA \|Radionuclide classif.\|\|Fixed and non-fixed CNSC decommissioning limit (avg over area not to exceed 100 cm2)\|\|Fixed and non-fixed McGill decommissioning limit (avg over area not to exceed 100 cm2)\| \|Class A\|\|0.3 Bq/cm2\|\|0.05 Bq/cm2\| \|Class B\|\|3.0 Bq/cm2\|\|0.5 Bq/cm2\| \|Class C\|\|30 Bq/cm2\|\|0.5 Bq/cm2\| Note: The McGill radioactive surface contamination & decommissioning standard is more restrictive compared to the CNSC contamination and decommissioning standards. 1 For details on the radionuclide classifications, consult Section 6.2.	2026-01-26T04:50:39.860478
678,831	3.725109	http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100107083909.htm	Jan. 11, 2010 The grooming behaviour displayed by primates is due to less rational behaviour than often thought. According to a computer model developed by scientists at the University of Groningen, one basic rule explains all possible grooming patterns: individuals will groom others if they're afraid they'll lose from them in a fight. Primates are assumed to reconcile their conflicts by grooming each other after a fight. They are also supposed to carry out intricate trading of grooming for the receipt of help in fights. Professor and theoretical biologist Charlotte Hemelrijk shows in a computer simulation that many patterns of reconciliation and exchange surprisingly emerge simply from fear of losing a fight with another individual. 'This shows that reconciliation and exchange behaviour are not necessarily conscious behaviour', Hemelrijk -- specialist in self-organization in social systems -- states. 'It's simply a consequence of rank and of which primates are in the vicinity of the primate that wants to groom.' The results of the research conducted by the group that worked with Hemelrijk on the computer model have appeared in late December in the journal PloS Computational Biology. 'Primates are intelligent, but their intelligence is overestimated. The social behaviour of primates is explained on the basis of cognitive considerations by primates that are too sophisticated', Hemelrijk continues. 'Primates are assumed to use their intelligence continually and to be very calculating. They're supposed to reconcile fights and to do so preferably with partners that could mean a lot to them.' This would explain why primates prefer grooming partners higher in rank in order to gain more effective support in fights. Moral considerations would bring them to repay the grooming costs by grooming others. Such behaviour patterns all presuppose a rational thought process, according to Hemelrijk: 'In order to reconcile, the primates must recall exactly which fight they last had and with whom. They must also be able to gauge the importance of each relationship. And for the reciprocity and repayment, they must keep careful track how often and from whom they have received which grooming or support 'service' in order to be able to repay it sufficiently.' However, all these suppositions are unnecessary according to Hemelrijk: 'Our computer model GrooFiWorld shows that complex calculating behaviour is completely unnecessary. We can add the simple rule to the existing DomWorld model that an individual will begin grooming another when it expects to lose from it upon attacking the other. This in itself leads to many of the complex patterns of friendly behaviour observed in real primates.' In the DomWorld model, individuals group together and compete with their neighbours. With the help of the computer model, Hemelrijk shows that most friendship patterns are due to the proximity of other animals. In turn, the proximity is the result of dominance interactions. The fear of losing a fight also plays an important role. 'Apparent reconciliation behaviour is the result of individuals being nearer their opponent after a fight than otherwise', the professor explains. Repaying grooming that has been received is the result of some individuals being nearer to certain others more often. Since they groom nearby primates in particular, any grooming received will automatically be repaid.' The model and reality That this is shown by the computer model does not mean that primates are not capable of displaying intelligent social behaviour, according to Hemelrijk. 'The resemblance of patterns of friendly behaviour in our model to those in reality means that more evidence is needed to be able to draw the conclusion that friendly relationships are based on human, calculating considerations. Our model is a 'null model' providing simple explanations which are especially useful for further research into friendly behaviour in primates, in particular into that of macaques.' Such computer models are not only useful in analyzing primate behaviour, but also to gain insight into the social behaviour of all sorts of species that live in groups. It could for instance provide ideas for further research into the flocking behaviour of starlings. Hemelrijk: 'Simulations thus are also very important for researchers working out in the field. They can research the connection between models and reality.' Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. - Puga-Gonzalez et al. Emergent Patterns of Social Affiliation in Primates, a Model. PLoS Computational Biology, 2009; 5 (12): e1000630 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000630 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.	2026-01-28T17:36:05.444662
969,327	4.059621	http://www.mesoamerica-travel.com/english/ecotourism/ethnics/chortis/	The Chorti are assumed to be direct descendants of the Maya, according to the linguistic investigations done by Larde and Larin. The Mayan people constructed some 1500 years ago cities like Copan and Quirigua. The scientists have compared the different Mayan languages and proved that the language of the Chorti belongs to the language family of Maya - Chol. This language group has its origin in the today Mexican regions of Chiapas and Tabasco and is spoken by the tribes Chontales and Choles. Some two thousand or more years ago, the Chol lived in the region of what today are Guatemala and Honduras. The Chols got divided into two main groups: the Chol migrating to Chiapas, and the Chortis staying in the region till today. The Maya Chorti is formed of different tribes and one of the leading groups was called Pipiles. They developed a regional trade system and ended the monogarchie of a few leading families. Recent research is bringing more and more evidences that the Chortis of the region of Copan are the direct descendants of the ancient Maya, whose empire ended in the years between 820 and 830 AC. The upper class of Copan left the city seeking shelter in Tikal and other places. The common people are supposed to have stayed in the Copan region till today, but the scientific proof of who lived in Copan between 830 and 1530 is still missed. Historic documents of the Spaniards conquest of the region of Copan in 1530 tells about the resistance of the Chorti king of Copan against the conquestador Hernando de Chavez and Pedro Amalin, leading to the conclusion that the common people never completely left the region. The Spanish invaders brought hunger and suffer to the local population called by the Spaniards, Indians. The Indian populations of the whole Central American region, including the Chortis, were destroyed systematically. The Spaniards used a system called "Encomienda". The soldiers got land titles from the Spanish governors in Central America. The people living on that land where declared as property of the new owners, without any rights. Murdering Indians was common and legal. Not enough, the Europeans brought unknown diseases like measles causing epidemics between the local population because their immunity system never before was forced to develop a defense against these illnesses. At the present time Chortis do not use their traditional and spiritual customs of their ancestors. The Spaniards killed the Indian leaders and priests, and stored the knowledge and the traditions forever in there graves. The few traditions and customs maintained by the few survivors got mixed with the elements of the Catholic Church. There are some correspondences between the catholic and the pre-Columbian Chorti religion. Both are using elements like baptism and confession, pilgrims and incense. The Chortis are celebrating devotions to the god of the earth and the virgin Maria. They are not accustomed to marriage in the catholic sense, but they do baptize their kids according to the Catholics. Baptism means the change from a newborn to a human person. In addition to the holy water, they are using also salt and oil in this religious ceremony. Every town has its holy patron whoms picture or statue is devoted, and being guarded safely in the church or the house of a guard. The origin of the most of saints is unknown, and raises their mystery and power. The saints are closely connected with the local agriculture. "Chaac" - the rain, and "Panathuro - the wind, are influenced by the archangel San Miguel, responsible for climate and rain. The virgin Maria protects the corn, the basic food, and supports the gods producing rain. The god of dreams is a male for men and a female for women. He steadily accompanies the god of the dead. It is baneful to follow the needs to have a rest or a nap during the day. The god of dreams is trying to make humans sleep during the day, selling them to his friend the god of the dead. During the night sleep is not harmful or dangerous. The god of the dead has both sexes and appears as skeleton wearing a white shawl. His weapon is a long stick with a knife of bone on the top. Invisible for everyone else, he appears to persons close to death and seems to be dangerous. The ghosts of dead people are said to appear to the living, or even attack them. To avoid that the Chortis offer gifts to the ghosts to maintain there friendship, for example pumpkins with honey (called "tzinkin" by the Chorti). This tradition takes place on the second of November, the day of the dead. A holy place in the town is the cross on the church, where a Chorti stops and prays. The cross can help sick people to get healthy. There for, the day of the cross on the third of May is another important ceremonial day. The crosses of the region are decorated with flowers, fruits and corn. The cemetery of a town is not only the place for peace for the dead, but also a place of bad ghosts. The god of death hides in the cemetery. Human sacrifices are not used anymore, but the Chorti still take gifts like corn and pumpkins to the cemetery to motivate the saints of their town to protect them from the evil gods. During a religious ceremony, the food is usually chicken or turkey. The blood of these animals is spread out over the altar, or thrown in the direction of the four cardinal points. Formerly, other animals have been sacrificed, frogs, snakes and vultures, in the hope for rain and fertility. Scientists think that the Chortis are one of the oldest groups among the Maya, confirmed by their old and primitive language. Actually, in Honduras the language is disappeared, even where there is some old people in towns like El Paraiso, Carrizalon and Ostuman having certain knowledge the languages. Young people are not very interested in learning this dialect. Some Chortis in Guatemala are still able to speak both the Chorti and the Spanish language. Some old people in Guatemala only know the native Chorti language. Especially in the Guatemalan towns of Jocotan and Camotan the inhabitants use "tcor-ti", in daily life with other local residents. Where needed though they will speak Spanish. Scientists are trying to save the language by looking for interested Chorti willing to learn the old dialect from their brothers in Guatemala. Food and Agriculture Corn (maiz) and beans (frijol) are the basic and elementary elements of each plate, and seem to be more important the any other food. Corn tortillas and beans symbolies food, and among the Chorti of Guatemala the words "maiz" and "frijol" mean the same as food. The only other important plant produced by the Chorti is sugar cane. Livestock is not important, even though one can find chickens and turkeys. Cattle and pigs are produced by some Chorti to earn money by selling them to the Latinos. Click here to view our Culture Tours.	2026-02-02T07:02:14.381891
631,616	3.679793	http://www.gcrg.org/bqr/16-4/dams.html	If you ever get a chance to camp at Toroweap Overlook, go stand on the edge of the Esplanade and look down at Lava Falls Rapid and all those lava flows and dams that remain frozen to the canyon walls (Figure 1). If you stare hard and long enough, you’ll expect to see the lava flow just west of Vulcan’s Throne start moving again, flowing down Toroweap Valley, and into the Colorado River some 2000 feet below. You’ll begin to imagine what it would have been like to stand at that same spot hundreds of thousands of years ago and watch the hot lava flow into the Colorado River. For many years, people have wondered how these lava dams were formed and destroyed and on what time scales these events occurred. Through a series of articles, we’ll present to you new ideas on how those lava flows and the Colorado River may have interacted. During the past two million years, significant volumes of basalt were extruded from vents in the Uinkaret volcanic field (Hamblin, 1994). Many of these flows cascaded over the rim, mainly on the north side of the canyon, and into the canyon, particularly in the vicinity of present-day Lava Falls and Whitmore Rapids. There are more than 150 flows present in this volcanic field, and Hamblin (1994) identified the remnants of at least thirteen different lava dams. Hamblin proposed that most lava dams occurred between 10,000 and 1.8 million years ago, and that western Grand Canyon lava dams took several days to several thousand years to form. He hypothesized that the dams were stable, could have lasted up to forty thousand years, and that deep, long-lived lakes backed all the way up to Moab in one case. The lakes then filled with both water and sediment, and the lava dams were gradually eroded through headward erosion, similar to erosion at the base of Niagara Falls, as water flowed on top of the sediments and down the face of the dam. In addition, Hamblin (1994) identified unusually coarse river gravels with huge foresets—preserved riverbed ripples—in a deposit overlying the remnant of a basalt flow at river mile 188 (river left) indicative of a large-scale flood, but he attributed the deposits to failure of a landslide dam upstream. Lucchitta et al. (2000) proposed that major accumulation of basalt-rich gravels in western Grand Canyon represents extremely vigorous erosion of a lava dam as a result of overtopping, headward erosion and plunge-pool New studies of those basalt-rich river gravels (Figure 2) suggest that the gravels were emplaced by the rapid and catastrophic failure of lava dams (Fenton et al., in press; 2002). Whether any of the lava dams lasted long enough to allow the deposition of lake deposits in their upstream reservoirs is uncertain, as deposits from deep-water lakes linked to lava dams have not yet been verified in Grand Canyon (Kaufmann et al., 2002). The chemical composition and different ages of the deposits lead us to believe that at least five of these failures occurred not long after the dams were formed. Among the geologic evidence of these floods are large basalt boulders up to 115 feet in diameter and perched high above the modern Colorado River. Rocks in the flood deposits are mostly basalt; essentially these deposits are the rock that formed the dams. We propose that some of the dams were inherently unstable, too unstable to create long-lasting reservoirs that would leave lake deposits behind. We hypothesize that basalt poured over the rim of western Grand Canyon and into the gorge cut by the Colorado River. The lava eventually “froze” in place following the initial hydroexplosive interaction with the Colorado River, creating a dam whose base and abutments rested on loose talus slopes and unconsolidated river sediments. While the dam was forming, interaction of the lava and water caused the explosive fragmentation of basalt glass and zones of hydrothermal fracturing. These structurally weaker zones formed both at the base and higher in the dam as the reservoir filled as quickly as the lava piled up. At sufficient hydraulic gradients, water stored in the reservoir flowed, or piped, through the now porous dam. The piping created larger and larger conduits, eventually allowing water to entrain sediment and dam material, ultimately causing the complete collapse of the lava dam and the rapid draining of the lake behind it. Preliminary data indicate that one of these floods was the largest ever to run through Grand Canyon and it ranks among the largest known in the continental United States. Until recently, the timing of landscape development in western Grand Canyon has been mainly based on Hamblin’s (1994) interpretation of lava dams near the Uinkaret volcanic field and age-dating of those lavas. Most of the dating of the Uinkaret volcanic field was undertaken in the 1960s and 1970s, and even at the time problems were known to exist with the application of the technique to these lavas. In future articles, we will discuss age dating of these lavas—both old and new—and detail our studies on catastrophic dam failures and flood discharges. Stay tuned. Cassie Fenton & Bob Webb Fenton, C.R., Poreda, R.J., Nash, B.P., Webb, R.H., and Cerling, T.E., Geochemical discrimination of five Pleistocene lava-dam outburst-flood deposits, western Grand Canyon, Arizona, Journal of Geology, Fenton, C.R., Webb, R.H., Cerling, T.E., Poreda, R.J., and Nash, B.P., 2002, Cosmogenic 3He Ages and Geochemical Discrimination of Lava-Dam Out-burst-Flood Deposits in Western Grand Canyon, Arizona, in House, K. et al., eds., Paleoflood Hydrology, American Geophysical Union, p. 191–215. Hamblin, W.K., Late Cenozoic lava dams in the western Grand Canyon, 135 pp., Geol. Soc. Amer. Memoir 183, 139 pp., 1994. Kaufmann, D., O’Brien, G., Mead, J.I., Bright, J., and Umhoefer, P., 2002. Late Quaternary spring-fed deposits in the eastern Grand Canyon and their implications for deep lava-dammed lakes, Quat. Res, 58, p. 329–340. Lucchitta, I., G.H. Curtis, M.E. Davis, S.W. Davis, and B. Turrin, Cyclic aggradation and downcutting, fluvial response to volcanic activity, and calibration of soil-carbonate stages in the western Grand Canyon, Arizona, Quat. Res., 53, 23–33, 2000.	2026-01-28T00:57:40.623838

End of preview. Expand in Data Studio

💎 Palladium-1M: High-Density Information for Efficient LLM Training

Palladium-1M is a curated dataset of ~1 million high-entropy, high-sophistication documents (13.5GB), mined from the open web using a novel Physics-Based Filtration System.

Unlike standard filters that rely on heuristics or keywords, the Palladium Refinery uses Information Theory (ZSTD Compression Ratios) and Linguistic Density to mathematically distinguish "Signal" from "Noise."

The result is a dataset that trains models significantly faster and achieves lower perplexity per compute unit compared to standard web corpora (e.g., FineWeb).

📋 Datasheet

Metric	Value
Documents (preview)	10,000
Documents (full dataset)	~1,000,000
Full Dataset Size	13.5 GB
Total Tokens (preview)	23,665,387 (23.7M)
Tokens/Doc (mean)	2,367
Tokens/Doc (median)	1,296
Tokens/Doc (range)	112 – 102,832
Compression Ratio (mean)	2.32x
Reading Level (mean)	Grade 11.1
Edu Score (mean)	3.76
Edu Score (median)	3.72
Tokenizer	cl100k_base (BPE)

Domain Distribution

Domain	Docs	%
Biology / Medicine	3,321	33.2%
Computer Science	1,354	13.5%
Earth / Environmental Science	1,245	12.4%
General / Other	982	9.8%
Mathematics	901	9.0%
Physics	656	6.6%
Engineering	588	5.9%
Law / Policy	379	3.8%
Chemistry	325	3.2%
Economics / Finance	181	1.8%
Philosophy / Humanities	68	0.7%

Data Quality Visualizations

📊 The "Palladium Advantage" (Benchmark Results)

To verify the quality of the data, we conducted a controlled "Battle Run" fine-tuning a Qwen 2.5 (1.5B) model.

Control Group: Standard "FineWeb" (Dirty Web Data).
Experimental Group: Palladium-1M (Physics-Filtered Data).
Training Duration: 1 Epoch Equivalent (30 Steps).

Key Result: 12.5% Lower Loss

The model trained on Palladium-1M achieved a 12.5% lower final loss than the control group, with significantly higher training stability (lower gradient norm variance).

Palladium Victory Graph

Metric	Dirty Web (FineWeb)	Palladium-1M (Clean)	Improvement
Final Loss	2.58	2.26	-12.5%
Gradient Stability	High Variance	Smooth Convergence	Significant

🔬 Methodology: The Physics of Information

Most datasets are filtered by "Quality Classifiers" (LLMs trained to spot bad text). This is circular and expensive.

Project Palladium takes a first-principles approach:

Entropy Analysis: We measure the compressibility of every document using ZSTD compression ratios. Low entropy (highly compressible) text indicates repetition, boilerplate, or SEO spam.
Sophistication Scoring: We map the linguistic complexity using grade-level heuristics and vocabulary density.
The "Goldilocks" Zone: We discard the bottom ~90% of the web that falls below our Signal-to-Noise Threshold.

The remaining ~10% is Palladium: Pure, dense information.

🛠️ Usage

This dataset is compatible with the Hugging Face datasets library.

from datasets import load_dataset

# Load the Preview (10K Samples)
dataset = load_dataset("PalladiumData/Palladium-1M-Preview", split="train")

print(f"Documents: {len(dataset)}")
print(dataset[0])

🔐 Access & Licensing

This repository contains a 10,000-document preview of the full dataset.

The full 13.5GB Industrial Dataset (1M+ Docs) is available for commercial licensing. It is designed for:

Pre-training small language models (1B–7B) that need to be data-efficient.
Fine-tuning specialized models for finance, law, science, or engineering.
RAG systems that need high-quality knowledge bases without boilerplate.

For full access, commercial licensing, or custom Refinery curation services:

Email: scott@palladiumtrain.com
Web: palladiumtrain.com
Organization: Palladium Data

Downloads last month: 28

Size of downloaded dataset files:

113 MB

Size of the auto-converted Parquet files:

64.3 MB

Number of rows:

10,000