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From Wikibooks, open books for an open world < Handbook of Management Scales Relational transparency (alpha = 0.87) [ edit | edit source ] Description [ edit | edit source ] Scales were developed and validated for four dimensions of authentic leadership: self-awareness , relational transparency, internalized moral pers... | https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Handbook_of_Management_Scales/Relational_transparency | Handbook of Management Scales/Relational transparency - Wikibooks, open books for an open world | en.wikibooks.org | public_domain | false | 0.672 | 0.858 | ["leadership", "management", "ethics", "war_conflict"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.013418 | [
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t draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-development". Relat... | https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Handbook_of_Management_Scales/Relational_transparency | Handbook of Management Scales/Relational transparency - Wikibooks, open books for an open world | en.wikibooks.org | public_domain | false | 0.449 | 0.844 | ["ethics", "leadership", "war_conflict", "philosophy"] | 498 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.013815 | [
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edit source ] Says exactly what he or she means. Is willing to admit mistakes when they are made. The authors reported two sample items of this scale only. Source [ edit | edit source ] Walumbwa et al. (2008): Authentic Leadership: Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Measure? Journal of Management, Vol. 34, No... | https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Handbook_of_Management_Scales/Relational_transparency | Handbook of Management Scales/Relational transparency - Wikibooks, open books for an open world | en.wikibooks.org | public_domain | false | 0.439 | 0.702 | ["leadership", "management", "ethics", "war_conflict"] | 511 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.014050 | [
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s://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Handbook_of_Management_Scales/Relational_transparency&oldid=3651637 " Category : Book:Handbook of Management Scales | https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Handbook_of_Management_Scales/Relational_transparency | Handbook of Management Scales/Relational transparency - Wikibooks, open books for an open world | en.wikibooks.org | public_domain | false | 0.569 | 0.466 | ["management"] | 154 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.014314 | [
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Int J Environ Res Public Health . 2019 Oct 30;16(21):4201. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16214201 Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries Mariola Laguna Mariola Laguna 1 Institute of Psychology, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; w... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.644 | 0.838 | ["leadership", "education"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.434939 | [
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John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; walachowska.karolina@gmail.com Find articles by Karolina Walachowska 1 , Marjan J Gorgievski-Duijvesteijn Marjan J Gorgievski-Duijvesteijn 2 Department of Work and Organisational Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlan... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.562 | 0.83 | ["education"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.435266 | [
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nisational Psychology, The National Distance Education University (UNED), 28040 Madrid, Spain; jamoriano@psi.uned.es Find articles by Juan A Moriano 3 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Institute of Psychology, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; wala... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.539 | 0.678 | ["education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.435400 | [
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s; gorgievski@essb.eur.nl 3 Department of Social and Organisational Psychology, The National Distance Education University (UNED), 28040 Madrid, Spain; jamoriano@psi.uned.es * Correspondence: laguna@kul.pl Received 2019 Sep 21; Accepted 2019 Oct 28; Issue date 2019 Nov. © 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swit... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.539 | 0.678 | ["innovation", "education"] | 491 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.435531 | [
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( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ). PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC6861954 PMID: 31671565 Abstract The innovativeness of individual employees is a vital source of competitive advantage of firms, contributing to societal development. Therefore, the aim of this multilevel study was to examine how entrepreneu... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.487 | 0.828 | ["leadership", "innovation", "networking", "education"] | 511 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.435660 | [
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p between business owners’ authentic leadership (as perceived by their employees) and their employees’ innovative behaviour is mediated by employees’ personal initiative and their work engagement. Hypotheses derived from this model were tested on data collected from 711 employees working in 85 small firms from three Eu... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.638 | 0.848 | ["leadership"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.435842 | [
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owners are perceived as more authentic leaders, their employees show higher personal initiative and are more engaged at work and, in turn, identify more innovative solutions to be implemented in the organization. A cross-national difference was observed: employees from Spain (in comparison to Dutch and Polish employees... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.629 | 0.844 | ["leadership"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.435976 | [
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boosted through leadership training, improving the quality of relationships between leaders and subordinates, and strengthening employees’ personal initiative and work engagement. Keywords: leadership, authentic leadership, innovation, innovative behaviour, personal initiative, work engagement, business owners, entrepr... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.497 | 0.83 | ["leadership", "innovation", "networking"] | 510 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.436112 | [
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or the long-term survival of a firm [ 1 ] and for the development of new solutions that protect the environment and the well-being of societies [ 2 ]. Studies on innovations in general and on ecological innovations specifically tend to focus on external influences (such as policy making and market opportunities), but u... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.429 | 0.702 | ["innovation"] | 462 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.436236 | [
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ich stimulate innovative behaviour [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. The innovative behaviour of employees, i.e., creation and implementation of new solutions in the workplace as manifested in everyday activities, is an important micro foundation of the innovativeness of the whole firm [ 6 ]. This especially prominent in small firms, whi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.402 | 0.868 | ["innovation", "career"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.436372 | [
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employees is major driver of the organization’s innovation [ 6 ]. In addition, the entrepreneurial owner who operates the firm is usually also the manager and supervisor of his or her employees. Thus, his or her leadership behaviours are of vital importance for creating a working environment that fosters employees’ inn... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.455 | 0.864 | ["leadership", "management", "innovation", "philosophy"] | 511 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.436522 | [
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r employees, we treat them as leaders of these organizations, as proposed in other research [ 9 ]. Leadership may cover a variety of conducts, and the influence of leader’s characteristics on employee behaviour has become an emerging research area [ 10 ]. This study builds on the theory of authentic leadership [ 11 ]. ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.677 | 0.868 | ["leadership", "management", "education"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.436654 | [
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s in terms of displaying sincerity and authenticity in work relationships rather than manipulation or work towards hidden purposes. Authentic leadership theory defines the authentic leader as being characterized by high self-awareness, balanced processing of information, relational transparency and internalized moral p... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.683 | 0.848 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "ethics", "networking", "philosophy"] | 507 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.436788 | [
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leadership on a variety of work attitudes [ 12 ]. However, leadership scholars have identified a lack of research addressing underlying mechanisms that explain how leaders influence important processes in organizations, including stimulation of innovativeness. Leadership scholars have also noted that more studies are n... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.545 | 0.842 | ["leadership", "communication"] | 511 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.436923 | [
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ttitudes and behaviours of their employees within teams or organisations [ 13 ]. Filling these gaps in the literature, the present study investigates underlying psychological mechanisms linking entrepreneurial owners’ authentic leadership and employee innovative behaviour. We propose and test a multilevel model which p... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.639 | 0.826 | ["leadership", "management", "education"] | 441 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.437079 | [
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e innovative behaviour his or her followers show. The evidence posits that authentic leadership enhances employees’ feelings of involvement and commitment [ 12 ]. This suggests that personal motivational variables related to involvement and engagement may play a role in transferring leader’s attitudes into employees’ b... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.641 | 0.844 | ["leadership", "motivation", "networking"] | 511 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.437249 | [
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r her employees’ innovative behaviour is mediated by employees’ work engagement [ 14 ] and their personal initiative [ 15 ]. If the leader exhibits authenticity, his or her followers are inspired by their supervisor, they are likely to become more engaged with their assignments, and are more willing to go beyond their ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.6 | 0.868 | ["motivation", "leadership", "career"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.437377 | [
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s with energy and motivation [ 14 , 15 ], and enable them to introduce novel practices in the workplace. Our study contributes to the innovation and leadership literature in several ways. Firstly, applying a multilevel study design allows us to analyse the relations between the leadership style of entrepreneurial firm ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.614 | 0.842 | ["leadership", "education", "motivation", "innovation"] | 474 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.437504 | [
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g a lower level, i.e., individual-level—Level 1). Secondly, this study is among the first to test the explanatory mechanisms linking employee innovation and authentic leadership attitudes and behaviours through individual-level, psychological variables. Thirdly, we will analyse data of employees from three European cou... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.464 | 0.682 | ["leadership", "education", "innovation"] | 495 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.437636 | [
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well as possible cross-country differences. 1.1. Authentic Leadership and the Innovative Behaviour of Employees Innovation is the creation of valuable and useful new products, services or production processes in the organizational context [ 16 ]. It has been proven that both large corporations and small companies devel... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.517 | 0.848 | ["leadership", "communication", "innovation", "rhetoric"] | 481 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.437799 | [
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business owner usually also manages the company. Therefore, his or her attitudes and leadership behaviours are especially influential. The importance of managers’ support for employees’ innovative behaviour has been confirmed in earlier studies [ 18 ]. In a meta-analysis concerning predictors of the innovation of organ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.424 | 0.828 | ["leadership", "innovation", "management"] | 449 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.437950 | [
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sors are able to spur innovation in subordinates. According to authentic leadership theory, authentic leaders are able to stimulate innovation by encouraging their followers to be more daring and imaginative [ 20 ]. High relational transparency enables managers to openly show support and express that they value the cap... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.532 | 0.866 | ["leadership", "innovation", "management", "philosophy"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.438082 | [
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be more willing to put their ideas to use and find different pathways for solving problems. Moreover, authentic leaders have a strong inclination to promote diversity in ideas and perspectives among their followers, as they are more tolerant of ambiguity and open to experience [ 20 ]. Consequently, subordinates will fe... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.528 | 0.854 | ["leadership", "crisis"] | 464 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.438210 | [
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le source of input and feedback over time [ 22 ]. Additionally, authentic leaders tend to be more self-confident and not afraid of taking risks and experimenting themselves [ 23 ]. They can be expected to stimulate employees’ innovative behaviour through modelling innovative behaviour besides creating an atmosphere tha... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.66 | 0.834 | ["leadership", "innovation", "networking"] | 455 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.438352 | [
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ship between authentic leadership and innovation. Zhou and colleagues [ 21 ] tested the relationship between authentic leadership and employee innovation, taking into account the mediating effect of employees’ positive emotions. These results showed that leaders who are perceived as more authentic are able to evoke pos... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.655 | 0.822 | ["leadership", "innovation", "networking"] | 423 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.438481 | [
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leads to proposing innovative solutions at work. Müceldili and colleagues [ 24 ] showed a positive relation between authentic leadership and employee innovative behaviour, which was mediated by employee creativity. Other studies offered indirect evidence, showing that perceived authentic leadership was related to emplo... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.643 | 0.826 | ["leadership", "innovation", "management", "philosophy"] | 418 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.438621 | [
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climate and information sharing in teams [ 27 ]. Studies additionally showed that a positive relationship between authentic leadership and employee creativity is mediated by employee psychological resources and attitudes at work [ 20 ]. Most studies did not take into account the multilevel structure of organizations, w... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.624 | 0.842 | ["leadership", "networking", "management", "innovation", "philosophy"] | 484 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.438760 | [
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lationships do not necessarily correspond [ 28 ]. Authentic leadership is not easy to study. Previous research has shown that there is a discrepancy between how authentic leaders view themselves and how they are perceived by their subordinates [ 29 ]. This finding presents an interesting conundrum, as it is contradicto... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.675 | 0.856 | ["leadership", "communication", "war_conflict", "education"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.438894 | [
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be communicated to followers who will experience the leader as authentic [ 30 ]. Furthermore, the interior states of managers are not always easy to notice by observers, yet “on a practical level, followers’ perceptions of the authenticity of a leader are as important to consider as are the actual thoughts and actions ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.555 | 0.85 | ["leadership", "communication", "management", "education"] | 431 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.439027 | [
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his, a multilevel study conducted by Černe et al. [ 32 ] demonstrated that perceived authentic leadership had a positive effect on employee creativity and team innovativeness, whereas team leaders’ self-ascribed authentic leadership did not show such effects. The authors concluded that authentic behaviour clearly demon... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.573 | 0.83 | ["leadership", "management", "innovation", "education"] | 448 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.439157 | [
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more likely to lead to positive outcomes [ 32 ]. On the basis of this reasoning, evaluations of leader authenticity provided by employees were deemed a more reliable source of information, especially when these perceptions are intersubjective, meaning they are based on the evaluations of multiple observers. Similarly, ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.641 | 0.838 | ["philosophy", "leadership"] | 447 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.439307 | [
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sessment was recommended as a good option [ 33 ]. Employees’ innovative behaviour self-ratings have been found to be significantly correlated with their supervisors’ ratings [ 34 , 35 ] and with objective measures of invention disclosures [ 18 ]. Thus, acknowledging limitations of self-reports [ 36 ] but taking into ac... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.39 | 0.854 | ["innovation", "war_conflict"] | 499 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.439443 | [
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f-evaluations of employees’ innovative behaviour. Therefore, the presented multilevel study investigates the authentic leadership of entrepreneurial firm owners as perceived by their employees (intersubjective) and examines the relationship between a leader and his/her followers’ innovative behaviour. Based on the theo... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.486 | 0.822 | ["leadership", "networking", "education"] | 474 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.439565 | [
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ed to the innovative behaviour of employees. 1.2. Mediating Role of Personal Initiative and Work Engagement In the present study, we focus on motivational variables that may explain the relationship between leadership and innovation at work. Based on an integration of innovation theories [ 37 ] and authentic leadership... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.461 | 0.862 | ["leadership", "innovation", "motivation", "networking", "education"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.439694 | [
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ployees [ 18 ], namely personal initiative and work engagement. Our research model is depicted in Figure 1 . Figure 1. Open in a new tab Conceptual model of relationships between variables. Personal initiative [ 15 ] is defined as active and initiative-taking behaviour that goes beyond the formal requirements at work a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.382 | 0.86 | ["networking", "philosophy"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.439819 | [
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d the person who takes initiative is persistent in overcoming barriers [ 38 ]. It is proposed that employees who display initiative at work are keen on exploring opportunities that others do not consider [ 39 ]. As suggested by authentic leadership theory [ 11 ], authentic leaders who refer to their true self, admit an... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.517 | 0.842 | ["leadership"] | 423 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.439949 | [
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stimulate employees to initiate their own growth. Through the process of positive modelling, positive feedback and consequent followership development, employees would realize that they can achieve more than they previously thought, which should improve the quality of their activities [ 40 ]. As authentic leadership is... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.502 | 0.836 | ["leadership", "networking"] | 472 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.440080 | [
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e has not yet been thoroughly tested empirically. Nevertheless, the literature offers some empirical evidence for the links between other conceptualizations of leadership and personal initiative or proactivity, a concept that is treated as one of components of personal initiative [ 38 ]. A recent meta-analysis [ 41 ] r... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.567 | 0.84 | ["leadership", "philosophy", "war_conflict"] | 511 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.440211 | [
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hip, leader–member exchange, and transformational leadership. Hence, it seems plausible that authentic leadership, which is both relationship-oriented and entails follower development, may also relate to the proactive behaviours of employees. Upholding this view, research findings on leader support show that leaders’ a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.496 | 0.806 | ["leadership", "networking", "philosophy"] | 418 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.440459 | [
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predict employee proactive work behaviour [ 42 ]. We can also expect that employees’ personal initiative is positively related to their innovative behaviour. The authors of the personal initiative conception [ 15 , 43 ] proposed that such an initiative is valuable for the innovation process. Personal initiative is char... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.418 | 0.838 | ["innovation"] | 463 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.440617 | [
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ssary for introducing ideas into an organization. In addition, people with a high personal initiative are proactive, find unusual ways of tackling problems, and are future oriented, which can make them more mindful of perceiving opportunities, finding new applications for products and developing creative ideas [ 44 ]. ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.547 | 0.862 | ["strategy", "innovation", "resume"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.440759 | [
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a problem-focused coping strategy, and to plan execution [ 15 ]. Other studies indicated that personal initiative is positively related to small firms’ success [ 46 ], addressing challenges and organizational-level performance [ 38 ]. Furthermore, there are a few reports that proved the relationship between personal in... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.373 | 0.852 | ["innovation", "communication", "strategy", "crisis", "networking"] | 511 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.440891 | [
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nnovativeness over time [ 48 , 49 ], and is associated with idea generation [ 44 ] and idea implementation [ 50 ], both of which are components of innovative behaviour at work. Therefore, theories of authentic leadership and personal initiative [ 11 , 15 ] and previous research findings provide reasons to expect the fo... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.504 | 0.692 | ["leadership", "philosophy"] | 446 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.441025 | [
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ership and the innovative behaviour of employees. The second mechanism investigated in the present study proposes that work engagement is a mediator between authentic leadership and the innovative behaviour of employees. Work engagement is a positive and fulfilling affective-cognitive state related to work, which is ch... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.63 | 0.854 | ["leadership", "education"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.441189 | [
0.013730894774198532,
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0.01125716... | ||
their employees are more optimistic and have more trust in the organization, which ultimately leads to higher work engagement. Research findings indeed revealed that authentic leadership increases work engagement among employees and their job performance [ 52 , 53 ]. Furthermore, there is a positive relationship betwee... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.645 | 0.85 | ["leadership", "networking", "career", "philosophy"] | 505 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.441327 | [
-0.013879716396331787,
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nt is positively related to innovative behaviour. It is proposed that engaged employees are more productive and creative, as they often experience positive emotions, create their own job and personal resources, and are able to transfer their engaged attitude to others [ 55 ]. As introducing innovations involves putting... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.442 | 0.854 | ["innovation", "career"] | 475 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.441465 | [
-0.036520443856716156,
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th new ideas for the benefit of the organization. Moreover, to make an idea reality, employees must be energetic, resilient, and immersed in the task [ 14 ]. High work engagement may be important in exploring unconventional options and implementing original ideas in the organization [ 56 ]. In support of these theoreti... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.418 | 0.872 | [] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.441583 | [
0.020131854340434074,
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to innovative work behaviour [ 59 ], and innovativeness [ 60 , 61 ]. There is some evidence concerning the mediating role of work engagement. Agarwal and colleagues [ 62 ] reported that high quality of social exchanges between employees and supervisors influence the work engagement of employees, which is then associate... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.587 | 0.856 | ["leadership", "innovation"] | 511 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.441713 | [
0.02031327225267887,
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ion through a mediating effect of work engagement in a study of doctors and nurses [ 63 ]. Based on the theoretical and empirical evidence presented above, the following hypothesis is posited: H3: Work engagement mediates the relation between authentic leadership and the innovative behaviour of employees. 1.3. Importan... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.431 | 0.84 | ["leadership", "management", "education"] | 437 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.441846 | [
0.08036494255065918,
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nal culture in which a firm operates [ 64 , 65 ]. Culture influences how leaders are perceived, which is why scholars express the need to examine how leadership is viewed in different cultures and situations [ 66 ]. Additionally, innovation and its mechanisms are, to some degree, culture-specific [ 67 ]. For example, a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.447 | 0.866 | ["leadership", "innovation", "networking", "education", "philosophy"] | 510 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.441978 | [
-0.0019319126149639487,
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0.005... | ||
onship was found for authentic leadership [ 68 ]. These findings led the authors to conclude that this relationship might be culture-specific. However, previous studies rarely considered a cross-cultural perspective, and empirical evidence on the relationships between authentic leadership and innovative behaviour that ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.463 | 0.844 | ["leadership", "networking", "education"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.442127 | [
0.006216082256287336,
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... | ||
g the hypotheses in firms from three different European countries. Thanks to established cooperation between researchers, we gathered data from the Netherlands, Poland, and Spain, which differ significantly in life conditions and cultural dimensions [ 64 ]. For example, these three countries differ in individualism and... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.388 | 0.856 | ["innovation"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.442273 | [
0.07648783177137375,
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0.044570907950401306,
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e innovation levels of these countries: since 2012, innovation performance in the Netherlands and Poland has been growing, while in Spain, it has started to decrease [ 70 ]. Therefore, including these countries is particularly suited for gaining insight in possible cross-cultural similarities and differences in mechani... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.612 | 0.822 | ["leadership", "innovation", "philosophy"] | 433 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.442408 | [
0.011606158688664436,
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novative behaviour. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Procedure Using formal and informal networks of small enterprises, entrepreneur who were owners of firms employing from 10 to 50 people were invited to take part in the study. The entrepreneurial owner of each firm fulfilled (jointly) four criteria, being (1) founder or... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.562 | 0.85 | ["philosophy", "management", "networking", "education"] | 446 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.442533 | [
0.054822396486997604,
-0.026803215965628624,
0.021775348111987114,
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0.015966324135661125,
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had existed on the market for more than one year. If they agreed to include their firms into the study, we invited their employees to complete questionnaires. The only criterion used for the selection of employees was having a work agreement with the company taking part in the study. In Poland and Spain, having complet... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.533 | 0.854 | ["education", "negotiation"] | 480 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.442651 | [
-0.011088979430496693,
0.08315178751945496,
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0.054471295326948166,
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0.07888146489858627,
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0.05427761748433113,
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0.051... | ||
ed confidentiality and the anonymity of the data. In the Netherlands, participants were provided with access to electronic platform and filled in electronic versions of all the questionnaires. All the respondents participated voluntarily and did not receive any compensation for their contribution. 2.2. Participants Par... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.499 | 0.856 | ["salary", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.442782 | [
0.03073328547179699,
0.09671816974878311,
0.02700243704020977,
0.00497092492878437,
0.020324641838669777,
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0.02348455972969532,
0.04700496420264244,
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om Poland, and 193 from Spain); 57% of them were women, the mean age was 37 ( SD = 10.66), and their mean duration of working in the organization was 6.35 years (range from 1 to 39 years, SD = 6.22). Of the sample, 71%were full time employees, 16% had partial employment, and 13% had other types of work agreements. Alto... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.414 | 0.878 | ["management", "negotiation", "career"] | 497 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.442916 | [
0.08088444918394089,
0.04683048278093338,
0.011247217655181885,
0.05489135906100273,
0.003202600870281458,
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0.03609560430049896,
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ive of the entrepreneurs-firm managers were male. Their firms operated in services and trade (44%), production/manufacturing (30%), construction (11%), and other branches of industry (15%). The mean age of the firms was 22 years (range from 1 to 128 years, SD = 26.64 years). 2.3. Measures 2.3.1. Authentic Leadership Na... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.432 | 0.7 | ["leadership", "economy", "management"] | 469 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.443043 | [
0.09249034523963928,
0.03619236499071121,
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0.04466073215007782,
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0.05944044888019562,
0.005583020392805338,
0.013299092650413513,
0.007... | ||
leader encourages everyone to speak their mind ”. The questionnaire is comprised of four subscales assessing leader self-awareness, relational transparency, internalized moral perspective, and balanced processing. In the process of the national adaptations of the measure [ 71 , 72 ], three items were deleted from the o... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.617 | 0.852 | ["leadership", "ethics", "war_conflict"] | 465 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.443171 | [
0.0809415653347969,
0.04182565584778786,
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0.05439792945981026,
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-... | ||
m 0— not at all to 4— frequently, if not always . The score of authentic leadership is calculated as the total score of all the items; the scores range from 0 to 52. The Cronbach’s α in the present study was 0.94. Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the data from the three countries, the four-factor solution wa... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.471 | 0.732 | ["leadership", "education"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.443306 | [
0.11101856827735901,
0.04586106166243553,
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0.027627311646938324,
0.0173814594745636,
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0.008454832248389721,
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0.04628203436732292,
0.0929831936955452,
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0.0007602176629006863,
0.03681845... | ||
dardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) = 0.030). 2.3.2. Personal Initiative Three national versions of the 7-item Personal Initiative Scale [ 15 ] were used (example item: “ Whenever something goes wrong, I search for a solution immediately ”). The scale was translated into national languages using collaborative-ite... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.345 | 0.708 | ["economy"] | 483 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.443478 | [
0.02042938582599163,
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0.0057080453261733055,
0.0043200901709496975,
0.009503735229372978,
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0.14283035695552826,
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0.021618416532874107,
0.05716247111558914,
0.020836545154452324,
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0... | ||
utely true . The total scores range from 7 to 35. The single-factor CFA model for personal initiative fit the data quite well, except for the RMSEA value (χ 2 (14) = 169.925, p < 0 .001, CFI = 0.943, RMSEA = 0.114, SRMR = 0.040). Cronbach’s α was 0.89. 2.3.3. Work Engagement National versions of the 9-item Utrecht Work... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.548 | 0.74 | ["philosophy"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.443618 | [
0.08234650641679764,
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0.008808739483356476,
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0.03317299857735634,
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0.003773... | ||
obal score of work engagement, ranging from 0 to 54 (example item: “ At work, I feel bursting with energy ”). Responses were given on a seven-point scale from 0— never to 6— always . The Cronbach’s α was 0.92. The three-factor CFA model for work engagement fit the data quite well, except for the RMSEA value (χ 2 (27) =... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.551 | 0.732 | [] | 494 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.443728 | [
0.043833211064338684,
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0.057625751942396164,
0.03404552862048149,
0.03410164266824722,
0.03762153536081314,
0.018567562103271484,
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0.0010127124842256308,
0.009275195188820362,
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0.0283... | ||
ve Behaviour Questionnaire [ 18 , 76 ] were used. Where the national versions were unavailable, the scale was translated using collaborative-iterative translation [ 73 ]. The measure consists of six items (example of item: “ I search out new technologies, processes, techniques, and/or product ideas ”). Responses range ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.536 | 0.84 | ["economy"] | 411 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.443869 | [
0.02565159648656845,
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0.015818793326616287,
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0.0... | ||
al score from 6 to 30. The Cronbach’s α was 0.92. Confirmatory factor analysis of the single-factor model showed acceptable fit to the data (χ 2 (6) = 35.912, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.992, RMSEA = 0.077, SRMR = 0.014). 2.4. Data Analysis Strategy As the first step, the measurement invariance of each scale across the samples ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.552 | 0.728 | ["strategy"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.444019 | [
0.08958034217357635,
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0.060283008962869644,
0.028875166550278664,
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0.005935164634138346,
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0.00936891045421362,
0.11102969944477081,
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0.01... | ||
e configural invariance by estimating the same model in all three groups without cross-group constraints. Next, we proceeded with testing more rigorous conditions that required equivalent factor loadings (metric invariance, [ 77 ]). Then, we constrained equivalent intercepts, called scalar invariance [ 77 ]. If the mea... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.319 | 0.84 | [] | 464 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.444138 | [
0.013290484435856342,
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0.02249184623360634,
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ng some parameters to vary across samples [ 78 ]. To test the differences between increasingly restricted nested models, we calculated Δχ 2 and ΔCFI. An absolute difference in CFI that is less than 0.01 would indicate measurement invariance [ 79 ]. As our data have a multilevel structure with employees on Level 1 and e... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.35 | 0.876 | ["war_conflict"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.444262 | [
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esting the potential effects of sex, age, and country on innovative behaviour and in the hypothesis testing. Following the recommendations [ 80 ], in all the analyses, continuous variables from Level 1 were group mean centred, and continuous variables from Level 2 were standardized and uncentred. For all the multilevel... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.437 | 0.856 | ["leadership"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.444391 | [
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lculated as a mean value of all the scores provided by employees within each firm (aggregated scores at Level 2). In a series of the multilevel equations, employee innovative behaviour (dependent variable measured at Level 1) was explained by predictors from Level 2 (authentic leadership and country effect) and Level 1... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.445 | 0.832 | ["leadership"] | 422 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.444520 | [
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1, the role of authentic leadership was analysed. Model 2 verified authentic leadership and personal initiative in explaining innovative behaviour. Model 3 tested the role of authentic leadership and work engagement in explaining innovative behaviour. Model 4 included all the independent variables together: authentic l... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.643 | 0.81 | ["leadership"] | 415 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.444659 | [
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ment in predicting employee innovative behaviour. Our hypotheses postulate that the effects of authentic leadership on innovative behaviour are mediated by personal initiative and work engagement. To test these hypotheses, in the next multilevel analyses, personal initiative and work engagement were treated as dependen... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.613 | 0.844 | ["leadership"] | 498 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.444795 | [
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statistical significance of the mediation effect. This program allows testing of indirect effects by computing confidence intervals (CI) for the values resulting from multilevel analysis. When the CI does not include zero, a significant mediation effect is confirmed. 3. Results 3.1. Measurement Equivalence We applied M... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.552 | 0.846 | ["ethics", "education"] | 468 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.444928 | [
-0.00858458224684,
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f employees from the three countries [ 77 , 78 ]. For each scale, the configural unrestricted model showed a good fit to the data ( Table 1 ; Model 1 for each measure). Next, more stringent equality constraints were imposed across the three countries for each scale. For the authentic leadership measure, partial scalar ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.591 | 0.866 | ["leadership", "social_justice"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.445076 | [
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was confirmed, and for the innovative behaviour measure, full scalar invariance was established between countries. These results allow meaningful analyses of the relationships between the constructs across the countries. Table 1. Measurement invariance of authentic leadership, personal initiative, work engagement and i... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.618 | 0.836 | ["leadership", "networking"] | 492 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.445204 | [
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arison ΔRMSEA ΔSRMR ΔCFI Authentic leadership M1. Configural invariance 565.324 177 <0.001 0.055 0.042 0.936 - - - - M2. Metric invariance 595.747 195 <0.001 0.053 0.044 0.934 M2 vs. M1 0.002 0.002 0.002 M 3. Scalar invariance 902.881 221 <0.001 0.065 0.116 0.887 M3 vs. M2 0.012 0.072 0.047 M 4. Partial scalar invarian... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.553 | 0.716 | ["leadership"] | 481 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.445322 | [
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e 185.559 42 <0.001 0.069 0.050 0.934 - - - - M2. Metric invariance 218.633 54 <0.001 0.065 0.066 0.924 M2 vs. M1 0.004 0.016 0.010 M 3. Scalar invariance 450.180 68 <0.001 0.088 0.071 0.824 M3 vs. M2 0.023 0.005 0.100 M 4. Partial scalar invariance 185.559 42 <0.001 0.088 0.069 0.828 M4 vs. M2 0.023 0.003 0.096 Work e... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.491 | 0.732 | [] | 490 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.445444 | [
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.061 0.067 0.947 M2 vs. M1 0.001 0.027 0.010 M 3. Scalar invariance 648.429 102 <0.001 0.086 0.074 0.874 M3 vs. M2 0.019 0.007 0.073 M 4. Partial scalar invariance 259.246 72 <0.001 0.085 0.075 0.880 M4 vs. M2 0.024 0.008 0.067 Innovative behaviour M1. Configural invariance 43.56 18 0.001 0.045 0.028 0.992 - - - - M2. ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.477 | 0.736 | [] | 506 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.445559 | [
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vs. M2 0.002 0.013 0.002 Open in a new tab Note. RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error of Approximation; SRMR = Standardized Root Mean Square Residual; CFI = Comparative Fit Index. To evaluate the model fit, we applied the recommended model fit criteria: for RMSEA and SRMR values below 0.08 indicate acceptable fit, and values... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.341 | 0.704 | ["ethics"] | 430 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.445692 | [
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90 show an acceptable model fit [ 77 , 78 ]. 3.2. Variance Distribution and Control Variables Table 2 shows the means, standard deviations and correlations between the study variables. Positive and statistically significant correlations between all the variables provide initial confirmation of our hypotheses. Table 2. ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.337 | 0.688 | ["education"] | 454 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.445825 | [
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rom the three countries. Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 1. Authentic leadership 32.75 10.48 - 0.20 0.30 ** 0.35 ** 2. Personal initiative 26.02 4.79 0.23 ** - 0.70 ** 0.62 ** 3. Work engagement 34.60 9.55 0.37 ** 0.53 ** - 0.61 ** 4. Innovative behaviour 18.75 4.92 0.28 ** 0.53 ** 0.48 ** - Open in a new tab Note . ** p < 0.01 ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.562 | 0.722 | ["leadership"] | 447 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.445961 | [
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diagonal are aggregated data (85 organizations). The dataset consisted of two hierarchically nested levels: 711 employees (Level 1) working in 85 organizations led by different entrepreneurs (Level 2). To check for variance distribution and analyse whether demographic variables and country effects are statistically sig... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.553 | 0.816 | [] | 421 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.446125 | [
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mployees, we applied multilevel modelling [ 68 ]. First, an unconditional model (without any predictor; Model 0) showed variance in innovative behaviour (dependent variable) on both levels: 17.59 on the individual level and 6.85 on the entrepreneur level. This finding indicates that individual employees differ in terms... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.548 | 0.85 | ["decision_making", "networking"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.446279 | [
0.07210271805524826,
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ing as relevant for examining the relationships between the variables. Next, we tested for demographic variables as potential predictors of employee innovative behaviour. Neither employee age (γ = 0.02, SE = 0.02, p = 0.351) nor sex (γ = −0.82, SE = 0.45, p = 0.056) were found to be a significant predictor of their inn... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.376 | 0.714 | ["networking", "war_conflict"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.446457 | [
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tepping [ 67 ]), these variables were not taken into account in further analyses. Nevertheless, we observed a significant country effect (γ = −0.93, SE = 0.39, p = 0.02). Further analyses showed that this effect refers to a contrast between Spain and the other countries: being an employee from Spain (contrast coded Spa... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.387 | 0.7 | [] | 426 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.446640 | [
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ative behaviour (γ = −1.63, SE = 0.70, p = 0.02). Such effects were insignificant for the other countries (as contrast coded), the Netherlands (γ = 0.90, p = 0.16), and Poland (γ = 0.68, p = 0.30). Therefore, in all subsequent analyses, we controlled for country effect, including Spain as a contrast coded variable at L... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.389 | 0.702 | [] | 441 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.446772 | [
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ltilevel modelling to test our hypotheses [ 81 ]. In Model 1 ( Table 3 ), we examined the relationship between perceived authentic leadership (Level 2) and employee innovative behaviour (Level 1). The positive and statistically significant coefficient (γ = 1.09, p = 0.001) showed that the more authentic the entrepreneu... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.462 | 0.834 | ["leadership", "networking"] | 420 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.446911 | [
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her employees. Hypothesis H1 was thus confirmed. In this model, the country effect was also statistically significant (γ = −2.02, p = 0.002). Table 3. Results of hierarchical multilevel modelling explaining employee innovative behaviour. Predictor Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 γ SE p γ SE p γ SE p γ SE p Country –2.0... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.409 | 0.73 | ["leadership"] | 510 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.447062 | [
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2 0.001 Personal initiative - - - 0.47 0.05 0.001 - - - 0.38 0.05 0.001 Work engagement - - - - - - 0.23 0.03 0.001 0.13 0.03 0.001 Level 1 variance 17.58 13.14 14.21 12.37 Level 2 variance 5.35 6.01 5.77 6.11 Open in a new tab Note . γ = unstandardized gamma coefficient, SE = standard error. Next, we separately tested... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.599 | 0.73 | ["leadership"] | 511 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.447191 | [
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ontrolling for perceived authentic leadership and country effects. The coefficient was positive and statistically significant (γ = 0.47, p = 0.001). In Model 3, the relationship between employee work engagement and innovative behaviour was tested in the same manner. The coefficient of work engagement was positive and s... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.433 | 0.688 | ["leadership", "networking"] | 480 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.447323 | [
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-0.0062301489524543285,
0.06979572027921677,
0.05375708267092705,
0.024553313851356506,
-0.... | ||
t are positively related to innovative behaviour. In Model 4, we tested for the role of authentic leadership, personal initiative and work engagement in explaining the variance in employee innovative behaviour. It was found that each of these variables predicts employee innovative behaviour when all of them are include... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.451 | 0.86 | ["leadership"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.447470 | [
0.03365522250533104,
-0.020465312525629997,
0.0954078808426857,
-0.05182294920086861,
0.053441938012838364,
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0.03191784396767616,
0.0013693892396986485,
0.033302031457424164,
-0.01972649246454239,
0.051413364708423615,
0.04745001718401909,
0.03770547732710838,
-0.028838... | ||
sonal initiative (γ = 0.38, p = 0.001), and work engagement (γ = 0.13, p = 0.001). The country effect was also found to be statistically significant (γ = −0.04, p = 0.002). Testing the mediation hypotheses, we first performed separate multilevel analyses for personal initiative and work engagement. In the unconditional... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.544 | 0.716 | ["philosophy"] | 510 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.447605 | [
0.07456266134977341,
0.006006574723869562,
0.012592225335538387,
-0.04262898117303848,
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0.038442790508270264,
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0.018852736800909042,
0.0284004844725132,
0.0015049549983814359,
0.01620635949075222,
0.041524920612573624,
-0.03985583782196045,
-0.0302... | ||
(Level 2 variance = 4.05), i.e., at both levels. The country effect in predicting personal initiative was not statistically significant (γ = −0.34, SE = 0.53, p = 0.52). Authentic leadership was found to be a statistically significant and positive predictor (γ = 0.73, SE = 0.25, p = 0.004), meaning that if the entrepre... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.578 | 0.714 | ["leadership"] | 511 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.447727 | [
0.028285128995776176,
0.009624180383980274,
0.010463384911417961,
-0.056424111127853394,
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0.057037096470594406,
0.01828788034617901,
0.02458149939775467,
0.023479972034692764,
-0.031459... | ||
or the idea that personal initiative is a mediator between authentic leadership and the innovative behaviour of employees (95% CI [0.09, 0.49]). Employees managed by more authentic entrepreneurs take more initiative at work and thus show a higher innovative behaviour. Hypothesis H2 was therefore confirmed. Similarly, t... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.469 | 0.704 | ["leadership"] | 504 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.447849 | [
0.06785693019628525,
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0.03359678387641907,
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0.02944929711520672,
0.07346376776695251,
-0.008200081065297127,
-0.05... | ||
lead by entrepreneurs (Level 2 variance = 18.45). The effect of the country in predicting work engagement was statistically significant (γ = −2.78, p = 0.019). Authentic leadership was positively related to work engagement (γ = 1.79, SE = 0.52, p = 0.001); the more authentic an entrepreneur was, the higher was their em... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.618 | 0.712 | ["leadership"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.447967 | [
0.06210661306977272,
0.002126441802829504,
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0.014855130575597286,
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0.015005693770945072,
0.022105617448687553,
0.06666890531778336,
0.016520444303750992,
0.00814095... | ||
en authentic leadership and the innovative behaviour of employees. Entrepreneur’s authentic leadership style stimulates employees’ work engagement, which in turn is reflected in their innovative behaviour displayed in the workplace. This finding supported Hypothesis H3. 4. Discussion Innovation, as the development of n... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.635 | 0.844 | ["leadership", "innovation"] | 499 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.448091 | [
-0.013239358551800251,
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0.08131464570760727,
-0.025974759832024574,
-0.... | ||
s and to the protection of the environment [ 2 ]. Therefore better understanding what drives implementation of innovative ideas, especially in small firms providing the majority of private employment [ 7 ], is of high societal importance. In our study we looked at the relationships between entrepreneur-owner’s leadersh... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6861954/ | Authentic Leadership and Employees’ Innovative Behaviour: A Multilevel Investigation in Three Countries - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.447 | 0.854 | ["leadership", "networking", "career", "education"] | 512 | Authentic Leadership | topic | 2026-04-14T03:28:49.448279 | [
0.05183374136686325,
0.05622890591621399,
0.0963914692401886,
-0.039251264184713364,
0.024928661063313484,
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0.025999920442700386,
0.027283821254968643,
0.09906698763370514,
-0.027724584564566612,
-0.04... |
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