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unity for feedback to acquire a conditioned reinforcer function. For the other group, pay was not continent upon performance. One measure of conditioned reinforcer effectiveness of the feedback stimuli was the rate at which participants self-delivered feedback by executing a computer keyboard response. Participants in ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.366 | 0.84 | ["salary", "philosophy"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.947051 | [
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pay did not differentially increase the reinforcing value of feedback (as a reinforcer for solicitation of feedback). On the other hand, level of performance on the data entry task was higher for participants receiving incentive pay. Conceivably, a differential conditioned reinforcing effect of feedback for data entry ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.368 | 0.848 | ["salary", "philosophy"] | 511 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.947150 | [
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ngency alone controlled the differences in data entry performance. In summary, there are little direct data regarding the a priori effectiveness of feedback stimuli, though two literature reviews (Alvero et al. 2001 ; Balcazar, et al. 1985-1986 ) indicate that feedback-alone procedures were ineffective in a rather larg... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.413 | 0.85 | ["philosophy"] | 511 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.947199 | [
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edures, it is likely that in some cases, feedback stimuli are functional reinforcers or punishers prior to training or become so as a result of stimulus-stimulus contingencies arranged between feedback stimuli and reinforcers or punishers under feedback procedures. These observations support design of feedback procedur... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.427 | 0.692 | [] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.947310 | [
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back with preestablished reinforcer or punishing stimuli. Parameters of Consequence Delivery Under operant and feedback procedures, presentation of reinforcement or punishment typically is controlled by a contingency (positive or negative) between responding and consequences. The contingency specifies the characteristi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.54 | 0.83 | ["communication"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.947383 | [
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the conditions under which criterion responding will occasion a consequence (reinforcer presentation or omission), characteristics of consequence(s) to be delivered, and precision of the relation between responding and consequences. In the following sections, effects of three families of parameters of consequence deliv... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.531 | 0.836 | ["communication"] | 511 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.947483 | [
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consequence delivery, and (c) precision of the relation between responding and consequences. As will be shown, the range of these parameters differs, in some cases markedly, between the two types of procedures; however, the functions relating these parameters to behavior change show considerable similarity between feed... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.371 | 0.838 | [] | 511 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.947632 | [
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g procedures is the response-consequence interval (delay to reinforcement, punishment, or feedback). In reinforcement and punishment procedures, the magnitude of operant responding is strongly and inversely related to delay, with intervals as short as 0.5 s causing deleterious effects (e.g., Grice 1948 ); however, this... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.38 | 0.688 | [] | 462 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.947783 | [
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1984 ; Richards 1981 ; Schaal and Branch 1988 ). A different picture emerges for feedback procedures, in which the impact of delay of feedback on performance is inconsistent. In some cases, longer delays to feedback are associated with superior performance (e.g., Swinnen et al. 1990a , b ). Maddox et al. ( 2003 ) found... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.376 | 0.706 | ["philosophy", "education"] | 459 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.947869 | [
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ry learning tasks. In contrast, Northcraft et al. ( 2011 ) found that immediate feedback (versus feedback presented according to a fixed-time 6-min schedule) was associated with superior performance (number of units correctly completed) on a simulated college class scheduling task. In the area of semantic learning, res... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.462 | 0.846 | ["education", "philosophy"] | 474 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.948371 | [
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k (e.g., Smith and Kimball 2010 ). Salmoni et al. ( 1984 ), in a review of over 250 research reports on feedback and motor learning, pointed out that delay covaried with intertrial interval, the interval between feedback and the next opportunity to respond, or both. After accounting for these confounds, the authors con... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.557 | 0.85 | ["crisis", "education", "philosophy"] | 466 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.948447 | [
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on post-acquisition performance. Metcalfe et al. ( 2009 ) targeted an analogous situation in the area of recall of educationally relevant material, where a test-retest paradigm was used. They report that in a large proportion of studies, manipulation of the interval between the response (first test) and feedback covari... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.55 | 0.85 | ["education", "philosophy"] | 511 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.948512 | [
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ison with the immediate condition, provides subjects with the correct response at a shorter interval from the next opportunity to respond—a condition that likely would favor recall of the correct response, regardless of the delay between the initial response and presentation of feedback. Similarly to Salmoni et al., Me... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.541 | 0.858 | ["communication"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.948560 | [
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eedback and the next opportunity to respond is controlled. In summary, a consistent inverse relation between delay and learning exists for operant procedures, while the relation between delay and learning is inconsistent for feedback procedures and is complicated by vast procedural differences among studies that have i... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.368 | 0.848 | ["education"] | 511 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.948611 | [
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ay signal a functional difference between the two types of procedures; however, the data admit to other interpretations, including learning-based accounts of delay effects that are applicable to both feedback and operant procedures (see Lattal 2010 , for a comprehensive overview). Two reports have sought to account for... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.444 | 0.692 | ["education"] | 475 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.948665 | [
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animals, in terms of single underlying mechanism. Costa and Boakes ( 2011 ) and Lieberman et al. ( 2008 ) based their studies on a version of Revusky’s ( 1971 ) concurrent interference theory. Revusky argued that deleterious effects of delay between responding and consequences can be attributed to incursion of other ev... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.352 | 0.858 | [] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.948821 | [
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ment will be accrued primarily by the criterion response. When a delay intervenes between the criterion response and a consequence, responses subsequent to the criterion response may achieve greater contiguity with the consequence, possibly leading to strengthening of competing or irrelevant responses. Although numerou... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.366 | 0.84 | ["leadership", "crisis"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.952171 | [
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alization is challenged by reviews that have taken into account effects of extraneous and confounded procedural variables. Accordingly, comparative data provide insufficient basis for analyzing performance under these two procedures according to differing processes. On the contrary, there exists credible evidence that ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.497 | 0.828 | ["crisis", "philosophy"] | 500 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.953263 | [
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ore, attributable to common behavioral processes. Correspondingly, similar procedures may be used to mitigate the effects of response-consequence delay for both feedback and reinforcement or punishment preparations (see, for example, Dickinson et al. 1996 ; Lurie and Swaminathan 2009 ; Metcalfe et al. 2009 ; Reeve et a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.364 | 0.844 | [] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.953894 | [
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feedback procedures is response-consequence probability, or p (consequence|response). Typically, in operant procedures, reinforcers are programmed with a probability of less than 1.00 following a defined target response, while for punishment procedures, a probability of 1.00 (a continuous schedule) may be used (Mazur 2... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.369 | 0.822 | [] | 446 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.953979 | [
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consequence for all nontarget responses is zero. In contrast, under feedback procedures, in many instances, some form of feedback stimulus is presented as a consequence of all responses, both criterial and noncriterial (although see, for example, Maes 2003 ; and Murch 1969 ). As a result, suppression of noncriterial re... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.522 | 0.838 | ["philosophy"] | 470 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.954057 | [
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e of negative feedback under feedback procedures. Despite these systematic differences between feedback and operant procedures, the relation between behavior change and p (consequence|response) is similar for operant and feedback procedures. It might be anticipated that speed of acquisition of criterion performance wou... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.385 | 0.822 | ["ethics", "philosophy"] | 452 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.954114 | [
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th a greater frequency of opportunities to learn. This relationship is well documented for both operant conditioning and feedback procedures; however, evidence indicates that acquisition speed under operant (e.g., Williams 1989 ) and feedback procedures (Salmoni et al. 1984 ; however, see Winstein and Schmidt 1990 ) is... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.397 | 0.82 | ["networking"] | 416 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.954164 | [
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ers, independent of probability of reinforcement. For example, Williams showed that improvement in rats’ discrimination performance increased more rapidly as a function of number of trials when each correct response was reinforced, versus when the probability of reinforcement was 0.50. However, when discrimination perf... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.419 | 0.824 | ["philosophy", "crisis"] | 445 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.954216 | [
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e did not vary with probability of reinforcement. Perhaps, more important is the observation that for both feedback and operant procedures, learning (defined as post-acquisition performance when consequence presentation is thinned or discontinued) is inversely related to p (consequence|response) during acquisition (Maa... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.512 | 0.846 | ["communication", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.954513 | [
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partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE) observed in operant conditioning preparations, where responding trained with p (reinforcement|response) <1.0 is associated with greater resistance to extinction, in comparison to training with continuous reinforcement (Mackintosh 1974 ; Lerman and Iwata 1996 ). Capaldi ( 1... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.506 | 0.844 | [] | 511 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.955553 | [
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of the extent to which the contexts of training and extinction differ. When probability of response consequence is low during training, context, defined in terms of rate of consequence presentation, is more similar between training and extinction phases in comparison to a condition with a high probability of consequenc... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.544 | 0.856 | ["communication"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.955724 | [
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r the effects of partial feedback, suggesting that insertion of blank trials (trials without feedback) promotes acquisition of control by task-related stimuli (in addition to those accompanying the programmed feedback events), such as proprioceptive stimuli arising from responding (response-produced feedback). A relate... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.373 | 0.818 | ["crisis", "education", "rhetoric"] | 417 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.955806 | [
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2009 ) in the context of category learning tasks. Those authors proposed that continuous feedback is likely to promote selective attention to the relevant cues that distinguish categories, whereas probabilistic feedback “is likely to broaden people’s attention profile” (p. 1042). Data supporting this theory were obtain... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.364 | 0.846 | ["education"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.955866 | [
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ostic) cues in a category, as measured during transfer testing (without feedback) following training. In summary, there is convergence from a broad range of procedures and target responses regarding effects of p (consequence|response) under feedback and operant procedures. For both types of procedures, learning is impr... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.539 | 0.814 | ["education"] | 417 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.955931 | [
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chedules of consequence delivery during training. Although speed of acquisition tends to vary directly with p (consequence|response) for both operant and feedback procedures, this effect is minimized when acquisition data are normalized by number of consequence presentations. A conceptually systematic analysis of these... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.372 | 0.844 | ["communication", "education"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.955981 | [
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t|response) under both operant and feedback procedures. In applied settings, decisions regarding probability of consequence delivery may be governed by factors other than measures of learning, such as a goal of maintaining on-task behavior; however, the data support implementation of partial versus continuous schedules... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.44 | 0.84 | ["decision_making", "education"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956030 | [
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d operant procedures can be characterized as precision of the programmed relation between parameters of responding and parameters of the resulting consequences. Although the term precision is intuitively meaningful, we believe that research and practice involving feedback, and operant conditioning for that matter, woul... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.438 | 0.828 | [] | 473 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956198 | [
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evels—descriptive and quantitative (statistical). At a descriptive level, precision is determined by the conventions for defining target and nontarget responding and by the parameters of consequences arranged for both types of responding. For example, in simple operant procedures, a single response class is defined (e.... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.367 | 0.846 | [] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956247 | [
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responses, resulting in a narrow range of variance between parameters of responding and consequences (low precision). Conversely, in many feedback procedures, graded response criteria are defined and responses at each level of the gradient occasion some form of feedback; feedback often is free to vary across a range of... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.543 | 0.824 | ["ethics", "philosophy"] | 420 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956331 | [
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the relation between responding and consequences. Precision can also be specified in terms of the statistical relation between responding and consequences (Hammond 1980 ). This measure can be derived from the conditional relations arranged between a target response and a given consequence. For example, if correct serve... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.354 | 0.852 | [] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956401 | [
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)] and the probability of correct given no response [ p (correct|no response)]. The difference between these two conditional probabilities specifies the statistical relation between responding and the consequence; it ranges from −1.0 to +1.0. A value of zero indicates absence of a relationship; −1.0 describes a situati... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.334 | 0.854 | ["networking"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956468 | [
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d +1.0 describes the typical relation where the consequence is delivered only when a target response has been emitted. Manipulation of Precision Under Feedback Procedures Many studies have investigated the relation between precision of feedback on measures of learning, where precision was manipulated by varying the gra... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.366 | 0.862 | ["education"] | 511 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956517 | [
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2010 ; McGuigan 1959 ; Rogers 1974 , Schori 1970 ). For example, Schori ( 1970 ) manipulated both precision of electrocutaneous feedback for errors and response specificity. Under the least precise condition—on/off—directional feedback was presented for errors when the participant’s response was outside of the relative... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.465 | 0.846 | [] | 510 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956565 | [
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procedure of the on/off condition; however, error magnitude feedback was also provided. Under the most precise condition—continuous—the target area was narrowly defined and directional and magnitude feedback was presented for errors. Schori found that performance (time on target) was highest under the intermediate cond... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.485 | 0.854 | ["philosophy"] | 511 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956620 | [
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g training, those that did report effects found a positive relation between performance and precision of feedback. A similar conclusion was drawn for effects of precision when measured in no-feedback transfer tests. Manipulation of the statistical contingency under feedback procedures occurs most often in studies on th... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.392 | 0.856 | ["philosophy"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956669 | [
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nse variability requirement depended upon the contingency between correct responding and feedback. Two groups of participants were required to produce sequences of three responses using three keys numbered 1, 2, and 3. Under a response-contingent feedback condition, participants received positive feedback following emi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.548 | 0.838 | ["communication"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956717 | [
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n of positive feedback was yoked to the across-trial distribution of feedback received by a matched participant under the contingent feedback condition. Only under the response-contingent feedback condition was there a reliable increase in variability of response sequences. Contingency also was manipulated in a study b... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.373 | 0.846 | ["crisis", "education", "philosophy"] | 498 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956783 | [
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ving matching nonsense names to nonsense figures. Following each naming response, feedback (correct or incorrect) was displayed below the shape. The probability of inaccurate feedback (presentation of a feedback stimulus that did not match the participant’s performance on a given trial) was 0, 25, 50, and 75 % across g... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.548 | 0.852 | ["philosophy", "communication", "crisis", "education"] | 511 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956872 | [
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varied feedback accuracy for participants exposed to the Müller-Lyer illusion. On each trial, groups of participants were presented with accurate, inaccurate, or no performance feedback on the magnitude and direction of error. Improvement of estimation accuracy over trials was greatest for participants under the accura... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.527 | 0.84 | ["crisis", "philosophy"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.956938 | [
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e statistical relation between responding and consequences is common under operant procedures, and a large body of basic research shows that measures of learning are inversely related to statistical contingency (e.g., Boakes 1973 ; Powell and Kelly 1976 ; Schwartz and Williams 1972 ; though see Johnson and Dickinson 20... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.421 | 0.852 | ["war_conflict", "education"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.957024 | [
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vior, without altogether eliminating access to the reinforcer identified as maintaining problem responding (e.g., Carr et al. 2009 ; Rosales et al. 2010 ; Wallace et al. 2012 ). Manipulation of precision by varying the definition of target responding or by manipulating the characteristics of consequences for responding... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.562 | 0.698 | [] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.957153 | [
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f consequences are not limited by the boundary conditions of the operant paradigm; rather, they are most likely guided by the research question. For some research questions, such as effects of prefeeding or conditioned reinforcement, a single response class and consequence relation likely would be programmed; however, ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.42 | 0.84 | ["decision_making"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.957222 | [
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); under choice procedures, differing consequences may be arranged for two or more response classes, and under shaping procedures, multiple response classes are differentially paired with consequences. We describe here two operant procedures where precision of the response-consequence relation approaches that of feedba... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.348 | 0.828 | ["decision_making"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.957287 | [
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rcement, parameters of a reinforcer (e.g., intensity) vary proportionally and, typically continuously, with parameters of responding (Morgan 2010 ). A classic example is provided by Rovee and Rovee ( 1969 ). In their study, young infants were placed on their backs with a mobile suspended out of reach above them. The au... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.502 | 0.858 | ["education"] | 490 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.957350 | [
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, a string was tied from the ankle to the mobile. A kick resulted in movement in the mobile. The more vigorous the kicking, the more the mobile moved. Over the course of the session, kick rate increased steadily relative to baseline. Similar findings have been reported for studies on conjugate procedures where the cons... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.526 | 0.84 | [] | 422 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.957392 | [
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r a review, see Rovee-Collier and Gekoski 1979 ). Conjugate schedules of reinforcement share procedural commonalities with feedback procedures. Under both, more than one response topography will occasion a consequence; indeed, under both, potentially all instances of responding may occasion consequence delivery. In con... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.369 | 0.824 | [] | 485 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.957440 | [
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portional to parameters of antecedent responding. Despite differing conventions for programming conjugate reinforcement versus feedback procedures, level of precision potentially can be manipulated equivalently for the two types of procedures. Only one study was identified that compared conjugate schedules to a schedul... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.431 | 0.84 | ["education"] | 494 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.958349 | [
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arison to a schedule of continuous reinforcement. Response Shaping Another operant conditioning procedure where level of precision can approach that of feedback procedures is response shaping. In shaping, as with feedback procedures, consequences for a number of response variants may be programmed. Under typical shapin... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.362 | 0.84 | [] | 511 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.958577 | [
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ential reinforcement of successive approximations of specified response variants. Initially, a wide range of response variants across one or more response continua occasion a reinforcer, and variants that are outside of the range do not. Once responding is consistently within the specified range, the range of response ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.527 | 0.836 | [] | 477 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.958856 | [
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ng procedures share similarities and differences. Similar to shaping procedures, a number of response variants result in a consequence under feedback procedures (e.g., Hancock et al. 1992 ; Nosofsky and Stanton 2005 ; Pashler et al. 2005 ; Rakitin 2005 ). Unlike shaping procedures, more than one type of consequence is ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.55 | 0.702 | [] | 502 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.958904 | [
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n for feedback versus operant shaping procedures. In an important procedural distinction, under shaping, but not typical feedback procedures, extinction for previously reinforced responding is programmed as closer approximations of the terminal response emerge. During extinction, responding can initially increase and b... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.521 | 0.836 | [] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.958945 | [
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ter which the extinguished response topography diminishes (though likely remains in the repertoire as shown by Stokes and Balsam 1991 ). Shaping, particularly shaping by differential reinforcement of successive approximations, relies on extinction-induced variability to promote changes in responding (Eckerman et al. 19... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.346 | 0.84 | [] | 506 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.959149 | [
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ns of extinction to promote response variability. This is true even though there is evidence for extinction-induced variability under feedback preparations (Maes 2003 ). In lieu of extinction as a means of producing variability during acquisition of new responses, other parameters of feedback procedures must be counted... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.4 | 0.852 | [] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.959810 | [
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ants to alter their pattern of responding (Joyce and Chase 1990 ). Another possible variability-inducing mechanism under feedback procedures may be a change across trials in the relative valence of a feedback stimulus—either appetitive (positive) or aversive (negative). A given feedback stimulus (e.g., “good”) might be... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.531 | 0.674 | ["crisis"] | 443 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.959889 | [
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stimuli that are less appetitive (e.g., “fair”). Conversely, good might be functionally negative when stimuli of a higher appetitive value (e.g., “very good”) have been presented. The foregoing argument is consistent with the phenomenon of behavioral contrast. Under the successive contrast procedure (Flaherty 1996 ), c... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.518 | 0.672 | ["crisis", "rhetoric"] | 440 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.959949 | [
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e, rather than absolute, reinforcement magnitude. It should be noted, however, that based on the literature reviewed in the present paper, it is difficult to compare feedback to shaping and, furthermore, to detect the presence of contrast effects, because trial-by-trial analyses were not reported in the studies reviewe... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.418 | 0.854 | ["crisis", "education"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.960028 | [
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dback and Operant Procedures We have presented research on the effects of precision of consequences under feedback and operant procedures. Descriptive precision depends on the number and specificity of responses eligible for consequence delivery and number and specificity of the consequences that are delivered. By this... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.378 | 0.84 | [] | 500 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.960097 | [
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es of procedures do not dictate this distinction. Studies of descriptive precision generally have shown a positive relationship between measures of learning and precision under both feedback and operant procedures. Effects of quantitative (or statistical) precision also are parallel between feedback and operant procedu... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.557 | 0.83 | ["philosophy", "networking", "education"] | 478 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.960245 | [
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tation in terms of uniform controlling processes. A conceptually systematic approach based on the assumption that feedback and operant consequences have response-strengthening (or weakening) functions in common would argue that precise, as opposed to imprecise, feedback provides a learner with a higher density of learn... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.556 | 0.816 | ["strategy", "crisis", "education", "philosophy"] | 416 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.960395 | [
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nt consequences on a higher proportion of trials. This hypothesis is testable by studying rate of acquisition as a function of cumulative information delivered in successive trials. Information in this approach could be quantified by means of an information-theoretic analysis as cumulative bits of uncertainty reduction... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.394 | 0.848 | ["philosophy", "crisis", "education"] | 512 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.960463 | [
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low uncertainty or entropy—such as touching a single spot in a 10 × 10 cell matrix where correct responding is determined only by two dimensions (horizontal and vertical | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4883498/ | An Analysis of Feedback from a Behavior Analytic Perspective - PMC | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.409 | 0.756 | [] | 169 | Performance Management Difficult Conversations | topic | 2026-04-10T16:04:46.960519 | [
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