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Front Psychol . 2021 Mar 25;12:635085. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.635085 Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self-Awareness, Self-Leadership, and Self-Efficacy Eva M Bracht Eva M Bracht 1 Department of Social Psychology, Institute of Psychology, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany Find articles by ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.678 | 0.842 | ["leadership", "education", "war_conflict"] | 511 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.626203 | [
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apore Find articles by Fong T Keng-Highberger 2 , Bruce J Avolio Bruce J Avolio 3 Foster School of Business, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States Find articles by Bruce J Avolio 3 , Yiming Huang Yiming Huang 4 School of Business, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China Find articles by Yiming Huang 4 Author ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.571 | 0.706 | ["education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.626453 | [
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nkfurt, Germany 2 Nanyang Business School, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore 3 Foster School of Business, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States 4 School of Business, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China Edited by: Mustafa F. Ozbilgin, Brunel University London, United Kingdom Reviewed b... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.502 | 0.822 | ["education"] | 463 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.626573 | [
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iversity, United States ✉ *Correspondence: Eva M. Bracht ebracht@psych.uni-frankfurt.de This article was submitted to Organizational Psychology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology Received 2020 Nov 29; Accepted 2021 Feb 15; Collection date 2021. Copyright © 2021 Bracht, Keng-Highberger, Avolio and Huang. ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.58 | 0.82 | ["innovation"] | 431 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.626685 | [
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the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.508 | 0.844 | ["innovation"] | 492 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.626819 | [
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is article has been corrected. See Front Psychol. 2021 Aug 23;12:745910 . This article has been corrected. See Front Psychol. 2022 Oct 6;13:913892 . Abstract It is important to understand the processes behind how and why individuals emerge as leaders, so that the best and most capable individuals may occupy leadership ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.464 | 0.69 | ["leadership"] | 452 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.626943 | [
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istics, such as personality or cognitive ability. While interactions between individuals and context do get research attention, we still lack a comprehensive understanding of how the social context at work may help individuals to emerge as leaders. Such knowledge could make an important contribution toward getting the ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.503 | 0.82 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "education"] | 419 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.627043 | [
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cissistic individuals, into leadership positions. In the present work, we contribute toward closing this gap by testing a mediation chain linking a leader's leader self-awareness to a follower's leadership emergence with two time-lagged studies ( n study1 = 449, n study2 = 355). We found that the leader's leader self-a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.511 | 0.852 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "education", "networking"] | 511 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.627139 | [
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ionships were serially mediated by the follower's self-leadership and the follower's leader self-efficacy. We critically discuss our findings and provide ideas for future research. Keywords: information processing theory, leadership emergence, leader self-awareness, leader self-efficacy, self-leadership, social cogniti... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.649 | 0.836 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "philosophy"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.627218 | [
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d practice literature on leadership, given the importance that leaders play in all aspects of society. Thus far, the literature on antecedents of leader emergence, which is the degree to which an individual is perceived by others as being a leader (Judge et al., 2002 ), has largely focused on individual attributes. Mor... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.516 | 0.864 | ["leadership"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.627284 | [
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ce (Hegstrom and Griffith, 1992 ) and narcissism (Nevicka et al., 2011 ), have been shown to be relevant to predicting leadership emergence. Moreover, knowledge and skills, in terms of emotional awareness/recognition (Walter et al., 2012 ) and communication (Charlier et al., 2016 ), as well as identity-related factors,... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.493 | 0.862 | ["leadership", "communication", "war_conflict", "education"] | 497 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.627361 | [
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tal roles in predicting the emergence of leaders. In our research, we want to shift the focus in examining leader emergence to the context, as recommended by Avolio ( 2007 ), because “one can learn most about individual behavior by studying the informational and social environment within which that behavior occurs and ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.435 | 0.866 | ["leadership", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.627449 | [
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redicting leader(ship) emergence has included a focus on the role of status (McClean et al., 2018 ), peer liking (Hu et al., 2019 ), and leader–member exchange (Zhang et al., 2012 ). Additional work on antecedents of leadership emergence has shown that network centrality can also play a role in predicting who emerges a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.421 | 0.866 | ["leadership", "networking"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.627601 | [
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dents for leadership emergence, this work does not yet explain how an individual's social environment at work influences their development and whether those developmental gains predict leader emergence. Contributing toward closing this gap, and following the call from Acton et al. ( 2019 ) to understand leadership emer... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.447 | 0.854 | ["leadership", "war_conflict"] | 511 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.627729 | [
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to a follower's emergence as a leader through its effect on a follower's leadership development process. We theorize and test how the target leader's leader self-awareness can ultimately lead to (a) the follower's leadership emergence and (b) the follower's nomination for promotion into a leadership position. Specifica... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.485 | 0.846 | ["leadership", "networking", "war_conflict", "philosophy"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.627872 | [
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by the follower's own self-leadership development and the follower's leader self-efficacy 1 . Figure 1 summarizes the proposed relationships in this research. Figure 1. Open in a new tab Theoretical model. (f), follower-related variable. Our main theoretical contribution to leader(ship) emergence literature lies in des... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.629 | 0.83 | ["leadership", "networking"] | 467 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.628012 | [
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ell as social context variables at the workplace. We consider this an important contribution, since (a) the leadership emergence literature thus far has largely captured a static perspective on antecedents of leadership emergence, and (b) a process-oriented perspective involving multiple components of individuals and t... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.636 | 0.698 | ["leadership"] | 510 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.628141 | [
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2006 ; Avolio, 2007 ; Jepson, 2009 ; Oc, 2018 ). Our work also contributes to practice by examining how leaders can positively influence their followers' leadership emergence. Using their influence to promote leadership emergence in their followers, leaders may actively contribute to the emergence of effective and capa... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.611 | 0.848 | ["leadership"] | 480 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.628305 | [
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et al., 2011 ) individuals to emerge as leaders. Explaining the relationship between leader self-awareness and a follower's self-leadership, we rely on Social Information Processing Theory (Salancik and Pfeffer, 1978 ). Following this theory, individuals adapt their attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs to their social con... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.656 | 0.846 | ["leadership", "networking", "war_conflict", "philosophy"] | 511 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.628440 | [
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e beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors in the particular social context. Second, the social context heightens the salience of certain information and thereby increases its relevance to the individual. In other words, individuals develop their attitudes as a function of the social information that is available to them. Sal... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.434 | 0.85 | ["philosophy", "leadership", "strategy"] | 503 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.628575 | [
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g other factors, a leader's style of supervision. Hence, a leader's behavior and attitude can impact the follower's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. These relationships have already been demonstrated in several previous studies (e.g., Groves and LaRocca, 2011 ; Steinmann et al., 2018 ; Farahnak et al., 2020 ). Thereb... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.434 | 0.692 | ["leadership", "philosophy", "strategy", "networking"] | 473 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.628714 | [
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r attitude itself but an individual's perception. This is because characteristics of an individual's social context are constructed by them, as they navigate through their daily interactions (Salancik and Pfeffer, 1978 ). In short, a leader's attitudes and behaviors as perceived by their follower can impact the followe... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.498 | 0.83 | ["leadership", "decision_making", "networking", "war_conflict"] | 457 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.628852 | [
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ader self-awareness and follower self-leadership. Leader self-awareness has been defined based on previous conceptualizations of self-awareness but linking awareness specifically to how a leader views their leadership of others [see Walumbwa et al. ( 2008 )]. More precisely, leader self-awareness refers to leaders “dem... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.563 | 0.852 | ["leadership", "war_conflict"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.628999 | [
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mself or herself over time” (Walumbwa et al., 2008 , p. 95). Thereby, leader self-awareness can be observed in terms of specific leader self-awareness behaviors a person who leads exhibits, like seeking feedback to improve interactions with others (Avolio et al., 2018 ). Self-leadership is defined as the process of inf... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.555 | 0.858 | ["leadership", "war_conflict"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.629122 | [
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d behavioral strategies (Neck and Houghton, 2006 ). These strategies are labeled as (1) behavior focused , (2) natural reward , and (3) constructive thought patterns . First, behavior-focused strategies “strive to heighten an individual's self-awareness in order to facilitate behavioral management” (Neck and Houghton, ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.495 | 0.848 | ["war_conflict", "leadership", "management"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.629258 | [
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on , which implies being aware of when and why one engages in specific behaviors, which may lead to the individual identifying goals for change. What may follow then is self-goal setting , which refers to setting and working toward specific goals. On the way toward goal achievement, it is important for self-leaders to ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.555 | 0.87 | ["war_conflict", "motivation", "leadership"] | 511 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.629370 | [
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descriptions of the strategies, see Houghton and Neck ( 2002 ), Neck and Houghton ( 2006 ), Stewart et al. ( 2011 ), Stewart et al. ( 2019 )]. Having succeeded or failed at reaching a goal, individuals then engage in the second type of strategy known as natural reward , which refers to building pleasant and enjoyable f... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.399 | 0.86 | ["war_conflict", "strategy"] | 433 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.629438 | [
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d Houghton, 2006 ; Stewart et al., 2011 , 2019 ). The third self-leadership strategy, constructive thought patterns , refers to evaluating one's beliefs and assumptions, as well as using mental imagery and positive self-talk strategies. Taken together, these strategies describe how individuals gain awareness over their... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.486 | 0.826 | ["war_conflict", "leadership", "strategy"] | 427 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.629566 | [
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d mentally track, the realization of their goals. We suggest that leader self-awareness, as observed by the follower, may encourage the follower to engage in developing his/her own self-awareness-related aspects of self-leadership, which then motivates self-leadership development. More specifically, followers who obser... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.524 | 0.836 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "motivation"] | 490 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.629769 | [
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work context (cf., Salancik and Pfeffer, 1978 ). Consequentially, followers may feel inspired to heighten their self-awareness as well, which may include those elements of self-leadership that are related to leader self-awareness, such as self-observation, reflecting on and keeping track of their goal achievement and b... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.517 | 0.828 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "motivation"] | 467 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.629925 | [
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observed leadership with self-leadership as well. Different from our proposition, these other studies largely focused on empowering leadership (e.g., Amundsen and Martinsen, 2014 , 2015 ) or on the self-awareness component as part of empowering leadership (Tekleab et al., 2008 ). Building on this, we propose our first ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.682 | 0.82 | ["leadership", "war_conflict"] | 420 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.629995 | [
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ositively related to follower's self-leadership . Beyond being impacted by one's social context, Social Cognitive Theory suggests that individuals influence their own attitudes and behaviors themselves (Bandura, 1991 ). For instance, when individuals repeatedly succeed at attaining their goals, or perform well, they de... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.476 | 0.842 | ["leadership", "philosophy"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.630066 | [
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fs in their capabilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to exercise control over events in their lives” (Wood and Bandura, 1989 , p. 364). When individuals successfully perform a certain skill or behavior, this does not only increase their self-efficacy beliefs regarding t... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.578 | 0.864 | ["motivation", "war_conflict", "philosophy"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.630155 | [
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elves as they move forward in their work (Wood and Bandura, 1989 ). For instance, a leader who successfully leads a team of five may consequently feel confident enough to lead a larger team next. In other words, success in one area may expand to self-efficacy toward a more complex challenge. Since self-efficacy relates... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.568 | 0.844 | ["management", "war_conflict", "leadership", "crisis", "philosophy"] | 459 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.630233 | [
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circle of self-efficacy and performance develops. Based on the idea of a self-efficacy/performance virtuous cycle, we suggest that successfully performing as a self-leader may strengthen one's confidence to not just lead oneself but to do so with others as well. Thereby, the confidence to lead others can be expressed i... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.462 | 0.85 | ["leadership", "philosophy", "motivation"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.630307 | [
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ological capabilities, motivation, (…) and courses of action required to attain effective, sustainable performance across their unique leadership roles, demands, and contexts” (Hannah et al., 2012 , p. 144). Self-leadership may increase leader self-efficacy for two reasons. First, self-leadership has been defined as th... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.48 | 0.83 | ["leadership", "philosophy", "motivation"] | 467 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.630375 | [
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ip is focused on leading others (Furtner, 2017 ). Hence, self-leadership and leadership can be seen as two constructs that belong generally within the same skill domain. Second, self-leadership has often been considered a precondition for leadership. More precisely, research has argued and shown that self-leadership is... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.487 | 0.842 | ["leadership"] | 464 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.630509 | [
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; Lovelace et al., 2007 ; Furtner et al., 2013 ). Based on the above arguments, that individuals who successfully lead themselves may feel more confident to lead others, we propose our second hypothesis: H2: Follower's self-leadership is positively related to follower's leader self-efficacy . Building on social cogniti... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.624 | 0.858 | ["leadership", "philosophy", "rhetoric"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.630674 | [
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hanism can work the other way around as well (Kroesen et al., 2017 ; Talsma et al., 2018 ). More precisely, individuals tend to choose those activities they feel self-efficacious about, such that they choose those activities they believe they can execute successfully (Wood and Bandura, 1989 ). This belief encourages th... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.4 | 0.864 | ["innovation", "war_conflict"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.630811 | [
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acy can enhance one's creativity associated with creative ideation (e.g., Yang et al., 2020 ). Extending this to leader self-efficacy, followers with high leader self-efficacy should emerge as leaders. We suggest such a relationship based on previous findings showing that leader self-efficacy predicted leadership emerg... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.447 | 0.686 | ["leadership", "innovation", "networking"] | 478 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.630925 | [
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vely related to follower's leadership emergence . Combining these arguments with Hypotheses 1 and 2, we propose the following sequential mediation relationship: H3b: The indirect relationship between leader's leader self-awareness and follower's leadership emergence is mediated by follower's self-leadership and followe... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.644 | 0.834 | ["leadership", "networking", "war_conflict", "rhetoric"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.631020 | [
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improving their chances of being chosen for leadership roles. When individuals feel confident to lead, this may positively impact other people's evaluations of that individual's capability to lead. Such relations have been found in the area of creativity (Gong et al., 2009 ), whereby an individual's creative self-effic... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.619 | 0.824 | ["innovation", "leadership"] | 412 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.631138 | [
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vidual's level of creativity, as rated by others. In a similar vein, leader self-efficacy has been shown to be positively related to other-rated performance and leadership (Hannah et al., 2012 ). Assuming that leaders do notice their followers' feelings, and displays of confidence in their own leadership, and consider ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.46 | 0.856 | ["leadership", "innovation", "philosophy"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.631245 | [
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's leader self-efficacy is positively related to the follower ' s nomination for promotion . Combining these arguments with Hypotheses 1 and 2, we propose the following sequential mediation relationship: H4b: The indirect relationship between leader's leader self-awareness and the follower's nomination for promotion is... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.458 | 0.85 | ["leadership", "networking", "education", "war_conflict", "rhetoric"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.631334 | [
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online panel provider called Kantar, which is an international organization based in London. Kantar has access to a participant pool of several million respondents globally. Selection criteria for our study included (a) holding American citizenship, (b) being aged between 18 and 65, (c) being employed, and (d) agreeing... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.349 | 0.858 | ["education"] | 495 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.631428 | [
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he panel, using a short description of our study. Participation in this study was voluntary, and participants were paid a standard fee for completing the investigation. In order to mitigate single source/common method bias, as well as social desirability effects, we used a 4-week interval between Time 1 and Time 2 data... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.332 | 0.866 | ["education"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.631534 | [
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veys, did not pass all attention checks (cf., Paas and Morren, 2018 ), or showed a particular answer pattern like giving extremely positive or negative answers throughout the survey, our sample resulted in a total number of n = 449 participants. In the final sample, participants were 20–65 years old ( M = 51.33, SD = 1... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.326 | 0.716 | ["education"] | 495 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.631648 | [
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nal education, and 20% held a High School degree. Another 34.5% completed their Bachelor's, 12.9% finished their Master's, and a small percentage of 2.4% held a Ph.D. degree. The majority of participants were working in organizations with up to 200 employees. The size of the organization employees worked in, varied fro... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.342 | 0.718 | ["education"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.631790 | [
0.06242676079273224,
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thers were working in the same organization for up to 43 years ( M = 12.01, SD = 10.72). Participants covered a broad range of industries, from health (14.5%), to the educational sector (12.9%), public services (6.9%), and IT (4.5%). While most individuals did not have leadership experience (66.6%), those who were in l... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.485 | 0.708 | ["leadership", "education", "war_conflict"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.631920 | [
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rship, and leader self-efficacy as core variables. Thereby, leader self-awareness and self-leadership were measured at Time 1 and leader self-efficacy at Time 2. Furthermore, we included gender as a control variable. We did so because gender has been shown to significantly affect leadership emergence [for a meta-analys... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.515 | 0.856 | ["leadership", "war_conflict"] | 499 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.632031 | [
0.11431776732206345,
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entic and communal traits (Badura et al., 2018 ). More precisely, as shown by Badura et al. ( 2018 ), women exhibit less agentic traits and, as a consequence, participate less in group discussions, which makes them less likely to emerge as leaders, compared to their male counterparts. Gender differences were not only f... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.584 | 0.85 | ["leadership"] | 472 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.632148 | [
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lf-leadership strategies (Bendell et al., 2019 ). We measured leader self-awareness with the 4 items from the Leader Self-Awareness dimension of the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (Avolio et al., 2018 ), provided by www.mindgarden.com . A sample item is: “ My leader shows he or she understands how specific actions ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.685 | 0.712 | ["leadership", "war_conflict"] | 463 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.632270 | [
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1 = not at all to 5 = frequently, if not always . Self-leadership was captured using the Abbreviated Self-Leadership Questionnaire (Houghton et al., 2012 ), which is a nine-item measure of self-leadership. A sample item was: “ I try to mentally evaluate the accuracy of my own beliefs about situations I am having proble... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.643 | 0.86 | ["leadership"] | 449 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.632372 | [
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rom 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree . Leader self-efficacy was measured with a Leader Self Efficacy Scale (Hannah et al., 2012 ). More precisely, we chose the Action dimension of the leader self-efficacy scales because it most adequately represented the kind of leader self-efficacy we were interested in tes... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.485 | 0.868 | ["leadership"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.632465 | [
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achieve their best.” Cronbach alpha of the scale was α = 0.95. Participants chose a value for each item on a Likert scale between 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree . Analysis We tested our hypotheses using structural equation modeling techniques with Mplus version 8 (Muthén and Muthén, 1998–2017 ). In our an... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.528 | 0.862 | [] | 478 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.632663 | [
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and indirect paths between the latent constructs. In this study, we calculated a model testing Hypotheses 1 and 2. To control for gender, we regressed self-leadership and leader self-efficacy on gender. We examined several indicators of model fit. The chi-square value shows exact model fit and should be insignificant t... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.428 | 0.858 | ["leadership", "education"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.632856 | [
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ent the chi-square test with additional goodness-of-fit indicators. First, we used the comparative fit index (CFI), capturing incremental fit with values close to 1, indicating that the model explained the data better than an independence model. Values above 0.90 are suggested to avoid accepting miss-specified models (... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.325 | 0.848 | ["ethics"] | 488 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.633016 | [
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ould be 0.08 or lower (Browne and Cudeck, 1993 ). Third, the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) provides an overall evaluation of the residuals, whereby values close to 0.08 indicate that the observed (co-)variances should be replicable (Hu and Bentler, 1999 ). Hu and Bentler ( 1998 ) suggested that research... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.331 | 0.87 | ["communication", "strategy", "ethics"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.633182 | [
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RMSEA (close to 0.06), there is a relatively good fit between the model and the data. Results Study 1 We calculated means, standard deviations, and correlations for each scale. Results showed that all correlations between our core variables were significant at p < 0.01. Specifically, correlations were r = 0.38 between ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.5 | 0.68 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "education"] | 432 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.633309 | [
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.49 for self-leadership and leader self-efficacy. Beyond this, gender correlated significantly with leader self-efficacy ( r = 0.10, p < 0.05), indicating that male participants had higher levels of self-efficacy. Yet, gender did not correlate significantly with any other variable. All results can be found in Table 1 .... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.47 | 0.706 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "education"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.633438 | [
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rship (f) 4.98 (1.25) 0.38 ** Leader self-efficacy (f) 4.38 (1.48) 0.28 ** 0.49 ** Gender a (f) – 0.03 0.00 0.10 * Open in a new tab ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05. (l), leader-related variable; (f), follower-related variable . a Female participants were coded as 1, male participants as 2 . To determine whether our measures w... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.576 | 0.696 | ["leadership"] | 411 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.633573 | [
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, we tested them for their discriminant validity. Discriminant validity can be confirmed to the degree that a latent variable explains a higher amount of variance in its indicator variables than it shares variance with other constructs (Fornell and Larcker, 1981 ). This criterion is met if the average variance extracte... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.526 | 0.84 | [] | 422 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.633683 | [
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r 2 with other factors (Henseler et al., 2015 ). Based on this criterion, we compared the AVE values of each construct in the model with its squared correlations with the remaining constructs. Results show that the AVE value for leader self-awareness was 0.72, which was higher than its squared correlations with self-le... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.663 | 0.72 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "ethics"] | 511 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.633823 | [
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correlations with leader self-awareness and leader self-efficacy ( r 2 = 0.26). Finally, the AVE for leader self-efficacy was 0.73 and was higher than the squared correlations with leader self-awareness and self-leadership. Hence, we could confirm discriminant validity for all constructs in this study. We tested for co... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.486 | 0.852 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "education"] | 493 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.633917 | [
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, which included all variables used in the model. We can conclude that there was no evidence for common method variance bias in our results when we tested how much variance one overall method factor accounted for in terms of the covariance among all of our different measures using Harman's single factor test (see Podsa... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.366 | 0.85 | [] | 437 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.633998 | [
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t method factor explained 43.15% of the variance. As several factors emerged, and the first method factor did not explain more than 50% of variance, we concluded, based on conventional standards, that common method bias was not a significant problem with our data and results. We conducted a confirmatory factor analysis... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.472 | 0.836 | ["leadership", "war_conflict"] | 455 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.634094 | [
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eness, self-leadership, and leader self-efficacy. The fit indices were acceptable, although the CFI was slightly below the threshold: χ 2 = 522.69 ( p < 0.001), df = 167, CFI = 0.89, RMSEA = 0.07, and SRMR = 0.05. Overall, and as both SRMR and RMSEA were close to the suggested cut-off criteria (Hu and Bentler, 1998 ), ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.434 | 0.698 | ["leadership"] | 417 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.634218 | [
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to continue our analyses to test our hypotheses. Results from Model 1 largely showed acceptable model fit with χ 2 = 556.98 ( p < 0.001), df = 185, CFI = 0.89, RMSEA = 0.07, and SRMR = 0.05. Moreover, all paths were related to each other as we had predicted. First, confirming Hypothesis 1, leader self-awareness was pos... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.67 | 0.702 | ["leadership", "war_conflict"] | 421 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.634311 | [
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with β = 0.40 ( SE = 0.05), 95% CI (0.31; 0.49). Second, confirming Hypothesis 2, self-leadership positively related to leader self-efficacy of followers [β = 0.47 ( SE = 0.05), 95% CI (0.37; 0.56)]. Concerning our control variable, gender did not relate to self-leadership significantly but did with leader self-efficac... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.618 | 0.694 | ["leadership"] | 445 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.634395 | [
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pants felt higher levels of leader self-efficacy. Method Study 2 Sample We recruited the second sample via Amazon Mechanical Turk. We contacted participants about 2 weeks after they had finished the first survey to invite them to complete the second part. A total of n = 600 participants participated in the first survey... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.579 | 0.868 | ["leadership", "education"] | 488 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.634483 | [
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ting in our final sample of n = 355 participants. Participants in the second study had an age range between 22 and 75 years ( M = 39.33, SD = 11.21). Most of our participants were male (57.7%). Only one person did not graduate from High School (0.3%), while another 4.8% stated that they did graduate from High School. A... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.318 | 0.738 | ["education"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.634607 | [
0.05113121122121811,
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uch as 193 people (54.4%) had a 4-year college degree. In addition to that, 21.1% had a professional degree and 2.5% a doctorate degree. About a quarter of the participants worked up to 36 h (26.6%) a week, while another 50.5% worked between 36 and 40 h/week, and 12% worked between 40 and 45 h. The remaining 38 people ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.293 | 0.732 | ["career", "economy", "education"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.634721 | [
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0.1% in education, and another 4.8% did labor work. Only 3.7% of the participants worked less than a year in their current organization, another 27.9% worked between 1 and 3 years, and 24.5% between 3 and 5 years. Another 40.6% had stayed with their company for more than 5 years. In terms of the followers' tenure with ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.352 | 0.732 | ["leadership", "economy", "education"] | 509 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.634825 | [
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with their current leader for more than 5 years. Measures and Analysis Like in Study 1, we measured leader self-awareness, self-leadership, and leader self-efficacy. Additionally, we measured leadership emergence and nomination for promotion. Leader self-awareness and self-leadership were measured at Time 1, and leader... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.526 | 0.826 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "education"] | 458 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.635031 | [
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2. Again, we included gender as control variable. Additionally, we added a coronavirus disease (COVID)-related control variable, which will be described in more detail below. We used the same measures for leader self-awareness (Avolio et al., 2018 ; α = 0.87), self-leadership (Houghton et al., 2012 ; α = 0.86), and lea... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.503 | 0.716 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "education"] | 490 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.635144 | [
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that were used by Lanaj and Hollenbeck ( 2015 ). We changed the wording from other ratings to self-ratings. A sample item is: “ I exhibit leadership.” The scale had a Cronbach alpha of α = 0.93. Participants rated on a scale from 1 = almost never to 5 = almost always . Nomination for promotion was measured with 3 items... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.569 | 0.898 | ["leadership", "management"] | 511 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.635239 | [
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and “ My current manager has encouraged me to apply for a promotion .” We added a third item, “ My previous manager encouraged me to apply for a promotion to a leadership position ,” to ensure we had a wider perspective on nomination for promotion, rather than just referring to the current manager. The scale was reliab... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.557 | 0.86 | ["management", "leadership"] | 428 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.635337 | [
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rom 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree . In this study, we included a COVID-19-related control variable in addition to gender. We did so because we collected the data during the ongoing pandemic in summer 2020, while Study 1 was collected ~1 year earlier. The pandemic pushed many organizations and individuals ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.426 | 0.862 | ["leadership", "education", "crisis"] | 475 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.635494 | [
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ta related to ratings of leadership and efficacy. Prior research has shown that an organizational performance crisis can impact the selection of leaders (Rink et al., 2013 ), in which women are more likely to be selected for leadership positions than men. In order to account for the pandemic and its associated disrupti... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.396 | 0.868 | ["leadership", "crisis", "education", "philosophy"] | 511 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.635592 | [
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on ( 2005 ), which we adapted to fit the specific COVID context. A sample item is: “ To what extent has the coronavirus disrupted your ability to get your work done? ” The scale was reliable (α = 0.84). Answers were given on a 5-point Likert scale: 1 = not at all , 2 = to a limited extent , 3 = to a moderate extent , 4... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.517 | 0.782 | [] | 416 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.635684 | [
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extent . Event disruption was measured at Time 1. Like in Study 1, we tested our hypotheses using structural equation modeling techniques with Mplus version 8 (Muthén and Muthén, 1998–2017 ). In this study, we tested all proposed hypotheses in one model simultaneously, including the two control variables. More precisel... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.444 | 0.86 | ["education"] | 500 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.635788 | [
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me fit indicators as described for Study 1 above. Results Study 2 Calculating means, standard deviations, and correlations for each scale construct, we found that all correlations between core variables were significant at p < 0.01, showing that leader self-awareness and self-leadership correlated with r = 0.26, self-l... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.582 | 0.852 | ["leadership", "education", "war_conflict"] | 508 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.635939 | [
0.07802201062440872,
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icacy and nomination for promotion with r = 0.57. Exploring correlations with control variables, we found that gender correlated with leader self-efficacy ( r = −0.11, p < 0.05), and leader emergence ( r = −0.16, p < 0.01), such that male participants indicated higher levels of both leader self-efficacy and leadership ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.434 | 0.72 | ["leadership"] | 487 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.636052 | [
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0. All results can be found in Table 2 . Table 2. Means, standard deviations, and bivariate correlations for Study 2. Mean (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Leader self-awareness (l) 3.51 (0.96) Self-leadership (f) 3.97 (0.66) 0.26 ** Leader self-efficacy (f) 5.35 (0.97) 0.34 ** 0.53 ** Leadership emergence (f) 3.52 (0.97) 0.33 ** 0.36... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.467 | 0.742 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "education"] | 511 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.636155 | [
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0.26 ** 0.20 ** Gender a (f) - −0.10 0.05 −0.11 * −0.16 ** −0.07 −0.06 Open in a new tab ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05 . (l), leader-related variable; (f), follower-related variable . a Male participants were coded as 1, female participants as 2 . Results for discriminant validity testing can be found in Table 3 . Our findin... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.541 | 0.704 | ["leadership"] | 420 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.636256 | [
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odel were sufficiently different from each other. Yet, the squared correlation between leader emergence and leader self-efficacy is 0.01 higher than the AVE of leader self-efficacy. This might indicate concerns with discriminant validity. Table 3. Discriminant validity in Study 2. Self-leadership Leader self-efficacy L... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.479 | 0.706 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "education"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.636354 | [
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.12 Leader self-efficacy 0.58 0.33 - 0.59 0.38 Leader emergence 0.76 0.15 0.59 - 0.33 Nomination for promotion 0.70 0.12 0.38 0.33 - Open in a new tab AVE, average variance extracted . Since we used a conservative measure to detect discriminant validity, we add another more recently introduced method to detect issues w... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.484 | 0.702 | ["leadership"] | 456 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.636442 | [
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f the CICFA method can be interpreted as follows. If the upper 95% CI limit of the correlation between two measures is above 0.90, this indicates a problem with discriminant validity. Our results confirm that there was no significant problem with discriminant validity in Study 2, as the upper CI limit was below 0.90 in... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.342 | 0.868 | ["education"] | 499 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.636552 | [
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etween factors to test for discriminant validity. Leader self-awareness Self-leadership Leader self-efficacy Leader emergence Self-leadership 0.38 Leader self-efficacy 0.48 0.66 Leader emergence 0.47 0.49 0.82 Nomination for promotion 0.67 0.45 0.69 0.65 Open in a new tab Values above 0.90 indicate a problem with discr... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.528 | 0.686 | ["leadership", "ethics", "war_conflict", "education"] | 454 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.636651 | [
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single factor test (see Podsakoff et al., 2003 ). In this study, six factors emerged, and the first method factor explained 37.24% of the variance. As several factors emerged, and the first method factor did not explain more than 50% of variance, common method bias may not have had a significant effect on our data and ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.337 | 0.854 | ["education"] | 436 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.636758 | [
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does not necessarily rule out common method bias. Next, we conducted a CFA to test for the distinctiveness of our core variables, namely, leader self-awareness, self-leadership, leader self-efficacy, leadership emergence, and nomination for promotion. Results provided an acceptable fit with χ 2 = 488.83 ( p < 0.001), d... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.454 | 0.728 | ["leadership", "war_conflict"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.636852 | [
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ceptable: χ 2 = 667.08 ( p < 0.001), df = 446, CFI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.04, SRMR = 0.05. All direct paths were significant at the p ≤ 0.001 level. More precisely, leader self-awareness positively related to self-leadership with β = 0.25 ( SE = 0.06), 95% CI (0.12; 0.37), and self-leadership positively related to leader se... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.649 | 0.736 | ["leadership", "war_conflict"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.636969 | [
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SE = 0.05), 95% CI (0.66; 0.85] and nomination for promotion [β = 0.49 ( SE = 0.06), 95% CI (0.37; 0.60)]. Lastly, leader self-awareness was related to leadership emergence through self-leadership and leader self-efficacy with β = 0.09 ( SE = 0.03), 95% CI (0.04; 0.15), and nomination for promotion through the same med... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.653 | 0.73 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "networking"] | 511 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.637059 | [
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= 0.08 ( SE = 0.04), 95% CI (−0.001; 0.17)] was insignificant, but the direct relationship between leader self-awareness and nomination for promotion [β = 0.42 ( SE = 0.06), 95% CI (0.31; 0.54)] remained significant, when all mediators and control variables were in the model, we confirmed Hypothesis 3b but only partial... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.633 | 0.718 | ["leadership", "networking", "war_conflict"] | 506 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.637155 | [
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all results can be found in Figure 2 . Figure 2. Open in a new tab Model results of Study 2. All displayed relationships were significant at p ≤ 0.001. Considering control variables, we first found that gender was related to leader self-efficacy [β = −0.11, SE = 0.04, 95% CI (−0.19; −0.02)], such that male participants... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.476 | 0.702 | ["leadership", "networking", "education"] | 470 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.637251 | [
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eadership emergence, or nomination for promotion. Second, event disruption was significantly related to leader self-efficacy [with β = 0.23 ( SE = 0.05), 95% CI (0.13; 0.32)] but not to any of the other variables in the model. Interestingly, the more disruption participants experienced, the higher they rated their lead... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.585 | 0.866 | ["leadership", "education"] | 512 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.637339 | [
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here they may have developed specific strategies to mitigate the risks of the pandemic, for instance by working from home, reducing interactions outside one's so-called “bubble,” more available testing, and having a clearer sense of how the virus is transmitted. All of these factors could contribute to greater agency (... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.401 | 0.828 | ["communication", "family"] | 414 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.637457 | [
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ur future research and limitations section below. Discussion The aim of the present study was to explore the role of a leader's level of leader self-awareness in triggering the follower's internal processes preceding the emergence of their leadership. Our findings confirmed a positive relationship between a leader's le... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.68 | 0.828 | ["leadership", "war_conflict", "networking", "education"] | 442 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.637697 | [
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ination for promotion into a leadership position. Both relationships were shown to be serially mediated by the follower's self-leadership and the follower's leader self-efficacy, even after including controls for gender and COVID-disruption. Contribution to Research We contribute to the leader(ship) emergence literatur... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.494 | 0.826 | ["leadership", "networking", "war_conflict"] | 465 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.639214 | [
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eloping their own level of leader self-awareness. Unlike previous work on antecedents of leadership emergence that primarily focused on follower attributes (Walter et al., 2012 ; Charlier et al., 2016 ; Kwok et al., 2018 ; Wyatt and Silvester, 2018 ), here, we include a mixture of internal and external variables to exp... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8027064/ | Take a “Selfie”: Examining How Leaders Emerge From Leader Self ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.53 | 0.834 | ["leadership", "war_conflict"] | 417 | Self-Awareness Personal Leadership | topic | 2026-04-02T21:37:13.639328 | [
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-0.... |
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