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the other involved party. Take photographs of the accident scene and the damages to your bike as evidence. Step 3: File a Police Report Report the accident to the nearest police station and file an FIR (First Information Report). A police report is crucial while filing an insurance claim. Step 4: Inform Tata AIG Contact Tata AIG immediately to report the accident and initiate the claim process. You can do this through the company's helpline number or its website. Provide all the necessary details and information about the accident. Step 5: Claim Survey and Inspection A surveyor appointed by Tata AIG will inspect the damages to your bike and assess the extent of the loss. Cooperate with the surveyor and provide all relevant documents and evidence. Step 6: Submit Required Documents Submit all the necessary documents to support your claim. This typically includes the filled claim form, a copy of the FIR, policy documents, vehicle registration details, driving licence, and any other documents requested by the insurer. Step 7: Settlement and Payment Tata AIG will process the claim after completing the survey and verifying the documents. If the claim is approved, the insurer will provide the settlement amount per the policy's terms and conditions. You may need to pay the deductible or depreciation per the policy terms. Filing a Claim as a Victim (Third Party Liability Claim) Step 1: Gather Information Collect all necessary information about the accident, including the involved parties and witnesses' date, time, location, and contact details. Take photographs of the accident scene, vehicle damage, and any injuries sustained. Step 2: Report the Accident File a police report and inform the nearest police station about the accident. An FIR is essential for claiming third-party liability insurance. Step 3: Identify the Insurer Find out the insurance details of the at-fault bike by obtaining the policy number or registration details. Contact us or check our website to identify the insurer and policyholder. Step 4: Inform Tata AIG Contact us and provide all relevant information regarding the accident and your claim as a third-party victim. Provide the policy number or registration details of the at-fault bike. Step 5: Claim Survey and Inspection Tata AIG may appoint a surveyor to inspect the damages to your vehicle and assess the extent of your losses. Cooperate with the surveyor and provide any requested documents and evidence. Step 6: Submit Required Documents Submit all necessary documents to support your claim. This may include a copy of the FIR, policy documents, vehicle registration details, driving licence, and any other documents requested by the insurer. Step 7: Claim Settlement Once the survey and verification process is complete, Tata AIG will process your claim. If your claim is approved, the insurer will provide the settlement amount per the policy's terms and conditions. The settlement amount will cover the damages to your vehicle and any
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your claim. If your claim is approved, the insurer will provide the settlement amount per the policy's terms and conditions. The settlement amount will cover the damages to your vehicle and any medical expenses incurred due to injuries. Tata AIG's Third Party Car Insurance provides essential coverage for damages and injuries to third parties caused by the policyholder's vehicle. While it fulfils legal requirements and offers affordability, it does not protect against damages to the insured vehicle or injuries sustained by the policyholder. You should consider Comprehensive Car Insurance with optional add-ons for more comprehensive protection. Our user-friendly online platform lets policyholders easily purchase or renew their Third Party Insurance, benefit from instant policy issuance, and access secure payment options. By understanding the policy's coverage and limitations, car owners can make informed decisions to ensure adequate protection on the road. Happy driving! "I've been using Tata AIG's Third Party Car Insurance for the past two years, and I must say, it has been a hassle-free experience. Recently, I had an unfortunate accident where my car collided with another vehicle. Thanks to Tata AIG, the claim process was smooth and efficient. They handled everything promptly, from filing the claim to settling it without hassle. I highly recommend Tata AIG for their excellent customer service and reliable Third Party Car Insurance coverage." "I was sceptical about buying Third Party Car Insurance initially, but after researching various insurers, I chose Tata AIG, which was the right decision. Last month, my car accidentally damaged someone's property, and I was worried about the costs involved. Tata AIG came to the rescue! Their team guided me through the claim process and ensured a quick settlement. I appreciate their professionalism and commitment to customer satisfaction. I feel more secure on the road knowing I have Tata AIG's Third Party Car Insurance." "Tata AIG's Third Party Car Insurance has been a reliable and cost-effective choice for me. I recently had a minor accident where I damaged another car's bumper. Despite being a small claim, Tata AIG treated it with utmost importance and settled it efficiently. Their online platform made the claim process incredibly convenient, and I received the settlement amount within days. Tata AIG's Third Party Car Insurance is the best value for money, and I will definitely continue using their services." Your policy is subjected to terms and conditions & inclusions and exclusions mentioned in your policy wording. Please go through the documents carefully. Third party car insurance is a basic but mandatory car insurance cover that protects you from third-party losses and damages such as injuries to a third-party person or even their death, as well as damages to a third-party vehicle or property caused by your insured car. In case of an accident, third party insurance covers third-party losses caused
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person or even their death, as well as damages to a third-party vehicle or property caused by your insured car. In case of an accident, third party insurance covers third-party losses caused by your insured car. This could be injuries to or even the demise of a third-party person or partial or total damage to a third-party vehicle or property. Yes, a third party insurance plan is mandatory as per the Motor Vehicles Act, and all car owners must have third party insurance with them to be able to drive legally in India. To buy a Tata AIG 3rd party insurance plan for your car, you can follow these quick steps: No, a third party car insurance plan, though mandatory, offers limited coverage against third party losses only. Hence, you cannot include any add-ons, even zero depreciation add-ons, to your third party car insurance plan. Yes, a 3rd party car insurance is mandatory for all cars in India as per the Motor Vehicles Act. With basic third party insurance, you can be protected from paying heavy traffic fines. The choice between a third party car insurance policy and comprehensive car insurance depends on your insurance needs and budget. If you currently need only a compulsory but basic insurance cover for your car, then a third-party policy is a good choice. However, if you need more extensive protection for your car along with the benefit of add-ons, then a comprehensive policy is better. If you do not have a valid third-party liability insurance policy, then you will have to pay a traffic fine and other legal fines, which can get very expensive. It is also possible that your driver’s license could be temporarily suspended until you have paid all the required fines. No, you cannot lose your No Claim Bonus discount by filing a third party car insurance claim because this discount on premiums is only offered on Own Damage or comprehensive car insurance policies. Yes, third party car insurance is mandatory by law as per the Motor Vehicles Act in India. Not having this basic car insurance policy with you at all times in your car can lead to you paying traffic fines to the tune of: A third party insurance policy can be enough for your car under certain circumstances. For one, if you intend to buy a comprehensive insurance cover in the next couple of weeks or months, you can buy third party insurance for the time being to avoid any legal hassles of not having a valid insurance cover. Also, if your car is very old and you plan to sell it off soon, you can manage with a third-party car insurance cover until then. Otherwise, a comprehensive insurance policy is a better choice. If the third party affected by your insured vehicle wants to file a claim, they will have to submit an FIR charge sheet to request compensation for their losses. While filing a third-party car insurance claim online, apart from the FIR, other documents needed are the car insurance policy details, the registered contact details, the signed claim form with all the details, proof of
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car insurance claim online, apart from the FIR, other documents needed are the car insurance policy details, the registered contact details, the signed claim form with all the details, proof of the event, registration details of the insured vehicle and a copy of the driving license. In case there are injuries caused to a third-party person, then a copy of the medical bills will also be needed. Third-party car insurance is auto insurance that covers damages and injuries caused to third parties in an accident where you are at fault. It is a legal requirement in many countries, including India, to drive on public roads. It ensures financial protection for others in an accident caused by your vehicle, protecting you from potential legal and financial liabilities. Tata AIG's third-party car insurance covers damages and injuries to third parties involved in an accident caused by your insured vehicle. It includes compensation for third-party vehicle damage, bodily injuries, and property damage resulting from the accident. However, this policy does not cover damages to your vehicle or personal injuries you may sustain. You can easily buy or renew Tata AIG's third-party car insurance online through our official website. The online platform provides a seamless and user-friendly experience, allowing you to enter vehicle details, compare premiums, and make secure online payments. Renewing online ensures instant policy issuance without any delays. While third-party car insurance fulfils the legal requirement and provides coverage for third-party liabilities, it does not cover damages to your vehicle or personal injuries. Consider Tata AIG's Comprehensive Car Insurance with optional add-ons for more comprehensive protection. Comprehensive Insurance includes own damage coverage, protection against theft, fire, natural calamities, and additional benefits to enhance your overall coverage. BEWARE OF SPURIOUS PHONE CALLS AND FICTIOUS policy wording carefully before concluding a sale. Trade logo displayed above belongs to TATA Sons Private Limited and AIG and used by TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN: U85110MH2000PLC128425. IRDA of India Regn. No. 108. Toll Free Number : 1800 266 7780 / 1800 22 9966 (only for senior citizen policy holders). Email Id – customersupport@tataaig.com . Category of Certificate of Registration: General Insurance. BEWARE OF SPURIOUS PHONE CALLS AND FICTIOUS policy wording carefully before concluding a sale. Trade logo displayed above belongs to TATA Sons Private Limited and AIG and used by TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400
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Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN: U85110MH2000PLC128425. IRDA of India Regn. No. 108. Toll Free Number : 1800 266 7780 / 1800 22 9966 (only for senior citizen policy holders). Email Id – customersupport@tataaig.com . Category of Certificate of Registration: General Insurance.
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Car insurance is a necessary addition to your financial portfolio. If you’ve been torn between the various choices you found while looking to buy insurance, the deciding factor may be whether your policy of choice has a No Claim Bonus . NCBs are discounts on premiums offered by insurers when you have not made a claim for a few consecutive years. This discount can take the weight off your shoulders when you buy online car insurance. Car insurance companies offer a No Claim Bonus benefit to customers who have not raised any claims during the policy year. This discount starts from 20% in the first claim-free year and can go up to 50% of the premium amount - the ultimate reward for the small task of driving safely and protecting your vehicle from external harm. It is the policyholder who earns the NCB - which means that even if they buy a new car or shift to a new insurer, their reputation for being safe on the road and raising no claims still holds true. This is why many car insurance companies in India offer transferability of the NCB to a new car or for new insurance for a car or upon car policy renewal. Here’s how you can use the NCB of your old car to get discounted rates of premium on your new 4 wheeler insurance. 1. Earn the NCB on an old car Ideally, you should have an unbeaten record of not filing for claims if you are a stellar driver. But this does not imply that you go on without raising a claim in a time of crisis where your car is heavily damaged. The idea is that you cover for small repairs and minor dysfunctions yourself without raising claims. This helps you keep the track record for the NCB going. 2. Retain NCB on a New Car or on Car Policy Renewal When you have accumulated the maximum discount of 50% after five or more consecutive years of not raising claims, you will be able to transfer this NCB of your old car to a new car. This means you can enjoy a discounted premium rate on your new car without having to buy online car insurance again. The same goes for cases where there is a car policy renewal for an existing car. You can keep the streak going and continue to pay just half your premium amount while safeguarding your vehicle. Make sure that you acquire the No Claim Bonus certificate that attests to your claim-free streak from your old car insurance provider before you shift to a new one. This document is necessary if: An NCB certificate has a lot of value when you are trying to purchase new insurance for a car because it is a testament to your behavior on the road. Frequent claims will cost a lot for the company as well, which is why they are likely to offer insurance to someone who is more responsible on the road. If you’re looking to buy online car insurance , make sure you settle for one that offers benefits like No Claim Bonus. Tata AIG car insurance can be bought in just three easy steps and offers an NCB that is transferable and adherent to the IRDAI regulations . The company prioritizes customer service, performance and
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Tata AIG car insurance can be bought in just three easy steps and offers an NCB that is transferable and adherent to the IRDAI regulations . The company prioritizes customer service, performance and integrity, making it a great choice for car insurance. Conclusion When buying car insurance, make sure you go for reliable firms like TATA AIG car insurance that offers No Claim Bonuses. NCBs will allow you to save money by offering discounted premiums and incentivize you to drive safely on the streets - it’s a win-win for your family! A quick recap of the content with some commonly asked queries Can I transfer my existing car insurance to a new car? Yes, most companies allow you to transfer an existing policy over to a new car, and they’ll change the policy to reflect the changes. Make sure you let your insurer know about the new purchases. How do I transfer NCB from an old car to a new car? If you have the NCB transfer certificate and an attestation from the buyer/seller of the new car, you can retain and transfer the accumulated No Claim Bonus from your old car to your new one. Can I use my NCB on a second car? Because the NCB is technically awarded to the policyholder and not to the vehicle itself, you cannot use the NCB on more than one car at a time. Also, keep in mind that if you cancel an insurance policy and switch insurance providers before the policy year is completed, you may not get the NCB for that particular year. How much do No Claims reduce insurance? The NCB can reduce the premium amount by up to 50% but will not have any significant effect on the insurance amount you will get upon making a claim. That will be calculated as per the extent of damage to your car and other factors. Your policy is subjected to terms and conditions & inclusions and exclusions mentioned in your policy wording. Please go through the documents carefully. BEWARE OF SPURIOUS PHONE CALLS AND FICTIOUS policy wording carefully before concluding a sale. Trade logo displayed above belongs to TATA Sons Private Limited and AIG and used by TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN: U85110MH2000PLC128425. IRDA of India Regn. No. 108. Toll Free Number : 1800 266 7780 / 1800 22 9966 (only for senior citizen policy holders). Email Id – customersupport@tataaig.com . Category of Certificate of Registration: General Insurance. BEWARE OF SPURIOUS PHONE CALLS AND FICTIOUS policy wording carefully before concluding a sale. Trade logo displayed above belongs to TATA Sons Private Limited and AIG and used by TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN:
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TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN: U85110MH2000PLC128425. IRDA of India Regn. No. 108. Toll Free Number : 1800 266 7780 / 1800 22 9966 (only for senior citizen policy holders). Email Id – customersupport@tataaig.com . Category of Certificate of Registration: General Insurance.
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Here’s a step by step guide to follow if you ever find yourself stuck in this unfortunate situation. Here are the immediate steps you must follow if you meet with a car accident The frequency of car accidents has substantially increased in the last few years. Whether it is your fault or someone else’s, even a small accident can be extremely stressful for anybody involved; it is possibly a car owner’s worst nightmare. Surprisingly, while most of us have been in some sort of a road accident or at least come close to it, not many know what to do if it actually happens. Here’s a step by step guide to follow if you ever find yourself stuck in this unfortunate situation. If you are injured Don’t panic: Try to stay calm. Panic will only worsen the situation and may elevate your injuries and cause you to bleed out more quickly. Get to the side of the road and try not to move too much. Remember, don't stress yourself. ** Check for injuries:** Sometimes, adrenaline makes it difficult to feel any pain immediately after the accident. Try to ascertain the extent of your injuries without moving around a lot. Call for help: If you see blood on your clothes, or feel any pain, call for help or ask people around you to call for assistance. If you are alone, try to find your mobile phone and reach the police on 100 or the ambulance on 102 and wait for them to arrive at the scene of the accident. Most cars these days are equipped with emergency calling. If you can’t find your phone, use your car to call for help. **Check others: **If you are able to move around, see if others around you are injured. First, check fellow passengers in your car, then move to other parties involved in the accident. Your policy is subjected to terms and conditions & inclusions and exclusions mentioned in your policy wording. Please go through the documents carefully. BEWARE OF SPURIOUS PHONE CALLS AND FICTIOUS policy wording carefully before concluding a sale. Trade logo displayed above belongs to TATA Sons Private Limited and AIG and used by TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN: U85110MH2000PLC128425. IRDA of India Regn. No. 108. Toll Free Number : 1800 266 7780 / 1800 22 9966 (only for senior citizen policy holders). Email Id – customersupport@tataaig.com . Category of Certificate of Registration: General Insurance. BEWARE OF SPURIOUS PHONE CALLS AND FICTIOUS policy wording carefully before concluding a sale. Trade logo displayed above belongs to TATA Sons Private Limited and AIG and used by TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN:
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TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN: U85110MH2000PLC128425. IRDA of India Regn. No. 108. Toll Free Number : 1800 266 7780 / 1800 22 9966 (only for senior citizen policy holders). Email Id – customersupport@tataaig.com . Category of Certificate of Registration: General Insurance.
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India is the fourth-largest automobile market in the world. When individuals look for car brands in India, they have plenty of choices available. Choosing cars from a car manufacturer in India, based on the vehicle’s performance and specifications, is essential. But with a wide variety of choices available, it becomes a challenging task. Hence, in this blog, we have created a list of car brands in India, based on their features and pricing. Below is the list of the top car manufacturers in India based on market share and price: table, td, th { border: 1px solid black; } table { border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; } td, th { text-align: center; } Note: The price of listed top 10 car companies in India may vary depending on the market fluctuations. Below is a detailed description of the car company names in India based on its features, price and other aspects. 1. Maruti Suzuki The very first car company name in India that has solidified its position as the leading car manufacturer is Maruti Suzuki. The car is a prominent player in the Indian market as it has various models in different budget segments. Over the years, Maruti Suzuki has consistently delivered vehicles that combine optimal features with affordability. Below are some of the critical features of Maruti Suzuki: Fuel Efficiency - Maruti Suzuki cars offer excellent fuel efficiency. It means if you are someone expecting a mileage of 22-**30 kmpl on a limited budget, there is no better option than a Maruti Suzuki car. Reliability - Almost all the car models manufactured by Maruti Suzuki offer excellent reliability, making them a popular choice in the Indian market. Affordability - The cost of Maruti Suzuki cars aligns with every budget. The best part is despite offering budget-**friendly vehicles, they don't compromise on quality and safety. If you have a low budget, you can surely go for Maruti cars. Most Popular Maruti Suzuki Cars in India table, td, th { border: 1px solid black; } table { border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; } td, th { text-align: center; } 2. Hyundai Motor Company Another famous car manufacturer in India is Hyundai Motor Company. With its access to advanced technologies and unique product focus, Hyundai has emerged as one of the top choices for Indian consumers. The company has focused on customer satisfaction, cutting-edge technology, and a diverse product lineup. Some of the critical features of Hyundai cars are: Higher Performance - Hyundai cars are among the top-performing cars in India. Models like i10, i20, Creta, Verna, and Elantra are some of the most sought-after models in India because of their performance. Value for Money - Hyundai automobiles offer excellent value for money. Whether it is high safety, advanced features or excellent fuel efficiency, you get everything you have paid for. Attractive Designs - Hyundai cars are effortlessly stylish and sleek, making them a popular choice among Indian consumers. There are multiple budget-friendly attractive
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everything you have paid for. Attractive Designs - Hyundai cars are effortlessly stylish and sleek, making them a popular choice among Indian consumers. There are multiple budget-friendly attractive models, including the Creta SX and Elite I20. Most Popular Hyundai Cars in India table, td, th { border: 1px solid black; } table { border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; } td, th { text-align: center; } 3. Mahindra & Mahindra Mahindra and Mahindra, or M & M is a market leader in the segment of off-roading vehicles. With a focus on innovation, quality, and customer satisfaction, Mahindra and Mahindra continue excelling in the Indian automotive industry. Some of the critical features of Mahindra & Mahindra are: Highly Reliable - Mainly designed for rough terrains, Mahindra vehicles offer excellent reliability and a comfortable driving experience. Range of Models - M&M has a range of SUV models you can choose from. There is something for every budget. Excellent for Off-roading - Mahindra has a reputation for manufacturing the best off-roading vehicles. The most hit SUVs from the house of Mahindra include Thar, XUV500, Scorpio, etc. Most Popular Mahindra Cars table, td, th { border: 1px solid black; } table { border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; } td, th { text-align: center; } 4. Tata Motors Another popular Indian car company is Tata Motors. The Tata brand has always been synonymous with trust and reliability. With a focus on innovation, customer-centricity, and responsible business practices, Tata Motors continues to be a driving force in the Indian automotive industry, earning the trust and respect of millions of customers nationwide. Some of the well-known features of Tata Motors are: Budget Friendly - Tata Motors is known for manufacturing vehicles that even a person with a low income can purchase; Tata Nano is an example. Safety Features - Tata is one of the best car companies in India for the remarkable safety features it provides. It has earned a safety rating of 5, which is the highest. Variety of Models - From stylish hatchbacks and premium sedans to robust SUVs, Tata Motors has a range of models for every type of car lover. Most Popular Tata Motors Cars table, td, th { border: 1px solid black; } table { border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; } td, th { text-align: center; } 5. Honda Honda Cars, established in 1995 as a joint venture known as Honda Siel Cars India, is a subsidiary of the renowned Japanese automobile giant Honda Motors Company Limited. With a focus on innovation and customer satisfaction, Honda Cars continuously develops new products that adhere to its traditions of excellence. Below are the critical features of Honda cars: Comfortability - Honda is definitely the best car company in India for those who put comfort on the top. Almost all the car models of Honda feature a comfortable and spacious interior that offers a laid-back and smooth driving experience. Advanced Engine Technology - Honda's main selling feature is its
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Almost all the car models of Honda feature a comfortable and spacious interior that offers a laid-back and smooth driving experience. Advanced Engine Technology - Honda's main selling feature is its advanced engine technology, which makes its vehicles stand out in the market. The use of refined engine technology offers a smooth performance for their vehicles. Better Resale Value - Honda four-wheelers retain their value quite impressively. If you are purchasing a car from a long-term perspective, you can consider Honda. Most Popular Honda Cars table, td, th { border: 1px solid black; } table { border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; } td, th { text-align: center; } 6. Toyota Motor Corporation Another popular car company name in India is Toyota Motor Corporation, which is a globally renowned brand. It is a car brand known for its exceptional built quality and safety features. The car has an elegant design and a premium interior. Below are some of the key features of Toyota cars. Safety Features - The brand focuses on safety features such as road sign assist, adaptive cruise control, pre-collision detection, etc. Quality and Reliability - The car is known for its exceptional quality and reliability which is the reason why it is popular in the Indian market. Resale Value - Another thing which makes Toyota the best buying decision for consumers is its resale value. Toyota cars hold their value over time. Most Popular Toyota Cars in India table, td, th { border: 1px solid black; } table { border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; } td, th { text-align: center; } 7. Kia Corporation Kia is a globally recognised car brand based in Seoul. Kia's car manufacturers in India have gained a place in the Indian market because of its feature-packed card at an affordable price. Below are some of the key features of the cars. Dynamic Designs - This car is popular in India because of its practical and stylish design. The manufacturer offers integrated design and engineering in all car models. Special Features - The Kia car model is known for its high-tech features, such as a 360-degree camera, front-ventilated seats, and more. This feature, in combination, offers the ultimate driving experience to consumers. Powertrain Options - Other than advanced features, the car also offers multiple powertrain options such as DCT, MT and more to users. Most Popular Kia Cars in India table, td, th { border: 1px solid black; } table { border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; } td, th { text-align: center; } 8. MG Motor Morris Garages, or MG Motor, is another popular car manufacturer In India. The company launched its vehicle just in 2019, but it has earned a name in the Indian market because of its feature-packed vehicles. Some of the best features of MG motors are listed below: Safety Features - The MG car in India is popular because of its range of safety features such as electronic stability control, multiple airbags, etc. The car also comes with special driving assistant
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Safety Features - The MG car in India is popular because of its range of safety features such as electronic stability control, multiple airbags, etc. The car also comes with special driving assistant features. Design - The car comes with a unique and contemporary look. The signature grille in various MG models adds the brand's value and offers a top-class look. Other Features - Further, the car is packed with other features such as modern infotainment systems such as built-in navigation, a big display, etc. Most Popular MG Cars in India table, td, th { border: 1px solid black; } table { border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; } td, th { text-align: center; } 9. Skoda Auto Skoda Auto is another popular car company name in India because of its intriguing designs, affordability and aesthetics. Due to its luxurious interior and optimum driving performance, it is placed in premium car categories. Some of the key features of the car are listed below: Powerful Engine - The Skoda cars come with a powerful engine lineup that focuses on BS6. The car has a 1.0-litre TSI petrol engine and a 2.0-litre turbocharged petrol engine. Strong Build Quality - Skoda cars have exceptional build quality because of their German engineering. The car does not lose its zeal after a specific time. Security - The car has a brand value because the manufacturer has the topmost choice to offer security to consumers. It has various advanced features such as EBD, airbags and ABS. Most Popular Skoda Auto in India table, td, th { border: 1px solid black; } table { border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; } td, th { text-align: center; } 10. Volkswagen Last on this list is another well-known automobile company in India, which is Volkswagen. The car has gained an audience in the Indian market because of its performance-oriented vehicles. Some of the popular features of Volkswagen are: Versatility - The very thing which makes Volkswagen a top choice in the Indian market is its versatility. All the cars are unique and stand apart from the competitors. High Quality - Due to its German build excellence, the car build quality is of top-notch. Every part of Volkswagen lasts for a long time, which makes the car very durable. High Resale Value - Another feature of the Volkswagen car is its high resale value because of its many top qualities. Most Popular Volkswagen in India table, td, th { border: 1px solid black; } table { border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; } td, th { text-align: center; } Now that we have discussed the top car brands in India, let us take a look at some of the most critical factors to take into consideration when purchasing a brand-new four-wheeler. Below are the factors to consider when buying a car: Personal Preferences - Right after you decide that you want to purchase your car, take your time and outline your requirements and preferences. Always remember your car reflects your style and persona to a certain extent. Hence, it is essential to make this decision
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your car, take your time and outline your requirements and preferences. Always remember your car reflects your style and persona to a certain extent. Hence, it is essential to make this decision carefully. So, ask yourself questions like what type of car you want (hatchback, sedan, SUV, or any other), what will be the most suitable colour, and other related questions. Budget - Once you have your requirements sorted, decide on a budget. Although buying a car is a one-time investment, you should not exceed your budget beyond your financial capabilities. So, consider your financial situation, income, and expenses to decide on the proper budget. Performance and Features - Have a closer look at the performance and the features of the four-wheeler you are planning to purchase. If you are confused between multiple options, consider comparing the features of your shortlisted cars to select the best one. Brand - When purchasing a car, pay attention to its brand. As you can see in the above paragraphs, every car company has a different USP. Moreover, the brand of car you are purchasing says a lot about its reliability and performance. Resale Value - Last but definitely not least, take into account the resale value of the car you are purchasing. Note that a vehicle's resale value is dictated by its brand, model, features, design, and colour. So, if you are planning for a profitable return, consider all these factors. Having a car is no less an achievement. It is one of the most valuable assets to have in your life. But apart from having a car, it is essential to have a car insurance policy, too. As per Indian law, having third-party four-wheeler insurance is mandatory. However, the coverage in third-party car insurance is limited, but with a comprehensive policy, individuals will have enhanced protection. When buying any type of car insurance, it is essential to compare car insurance based on premium and coverage before making a purchase. Tata AIG's comprehensive car insurance policy offers broader and better coverage to car owners. We offer a cashless claims settlement to our clients. With this facility, you can get your damaged vehicle repaired at network garages in a completely cashless manner. Further, doing a car insurance renewal is straightforward with us. The Indian car manufacturing industry has undergone tremendous growth in the last two decades. Whether you are planning to buy a brand-new car or want to explore the options in the Indian car market, there is a diverse range of options available. In this blog, we have discussed the top car brands in India. As you can see, each carmaker has something unique to offer, from captivating looks, hi-tech features, and power-packed mileage to safety and reliability. So, you will definitely find a four-wheeler of your dreams that aligns with your budget and personal preferences. Disclaimer : All the prices and other information listed above pertain to a specific city and vehicle model. Since this
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of your dreams that aligns with your budget and personal preferences. Disclaimer : All the prices and other information listed above pertain to a specific city and vehicle model. Since this information is subject to change, it is advisable to check the latest information before purchasing a vehicle or an insurance policy. I have a low budget. Which car company is best for me? Maruti Suzuki and Tata Motors are highly budget-friendly Indian car companies, with prices starting from as low as 3.5 lakhs. Which car company offers the best safety features? Car manufacturers, including Tata Motors, Hyundai, Mahindra, Volkswagen, and Skoda, put great emphasis on the safety features of their vehicles. As per the recent Global NCAP protocols, these car makers have received a solid safety rating of 5 stars in the crash tests. Which car brand should I prefer for an SUV? Tata Motors and Mahindra and Mahindra are two of the most preferred brands for Sports Utility Vehicles (SUVs). Both of them offer feature-rich, attractive, and high-performing four-wheelers. Some of the most popular SUV models from these brands are Mahindra Thar, Tata Safari, Tata Harrier, Mahindra XUV700, etc. Can car insurance be purchased online? Yes, you can easily purchase a suitable car insurance policy online from Tata AIG. We offer several motor insurance policies with excellent coverage, hassle-free claims settlement, and affordable prices. All you need to do is follow the three simple steps: Visit Tata AIG's official website . Select “All Products” from the menu and navigate to Motor Insurance > Car Insurance. Select “Buy Insurance for New Car”. Enter your car details: Brand Name, Car Name, and Variant, and click “Continue”. Enter the date of purchase, RTO Code, and mobile number and click “See Price”. Once you are satisfied, you can proceed to buy the desired car insurance policy by following the simple instructions. Which car manufacturer offers the best mileage for cars? Maruti Suzuki offers the best mileage ranging from 34 kmpl. Besides, Hyundai is also known for its higher fuel efficiency of around 26-28 kmpl. How many car manufacturers are there in India? India's thriving automobile market boasts a diverse array of over 35 global and Indian car brands. Among the top car manufacturers in the country are renowned names such as Tata Motors, Maruti, Hyundai, Mahindra, Kia, Honda, and Renault, each offering a wide range of models to cater to varying preferences and budgets. Your policy is subjected to terms and conditions & inclusions and exclusions mentioned in your policy wording. Please go through the documents carefully. BEWARE OF SPURIOUS PHONE CALLS AND FICTIOUS policy wording carefully before concluding a sale. Trade logo displayed above belongs to TATA Sons Private Limited and AIG and used by TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A,
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AIG and used by TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN: U85110MH2000PLC128425. IRDA of India Regn. No. 108. Toll Free Number : 1800 266 7780 / 1800 22 9966 (only for senior citizen policy holders). Email Id – customersupport@tataaig.com . Category of Certificate of Registration: General Insurance. BEWARE OF SPURIOUS PHONE CALLS AND FICTIOUS policy wording carefully before concluding a sale. Trade logo displayed above belongs to TATA Sons Private Limited and AIG and used by TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN: U85110MH2000PLC128425. IRDA of India Regn. No. 108. Toll Free Number : 1800 266 7780 / 1800 22 9966 (only for senior citizen policy holders). Email Id – customersupport@tataaig.com . Category of Certificate of Registration: General Insurance.
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Do You Have A Claim Request To Make, Or Already Have A Claim Registered With Us And Wish To Track Its Progress? Register a Motor Claim on Customer's behalf Click Here Help File for GA claim procedure MV Dali Click Here BEWARE OF SPURIOUS PHONE CALLS AND FICTIOUS policy wording carefully before concluding a sale. Trade logo displayed above belongs to TATA Sons Private Limited and AIG and used by TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN: U85110MH2000PLC128425. IRDA of India Regn. No. 108. Toll Free Number : 1800 266 7780 / 1800 22 9966 (only for senior citizen policy holders). Email Id – customersupport@tataaig.com . Category of Certificate of Registration: General Insurance. BEWARE OF SPURIOUS PHONE CALLS AND FICTIOUS policy wording carefully before concluding a sale. Trade logo displayed above belongs to TATA Sons Private Limited and AIG and used by TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN: U85110MH2000PLC128425. IRDA of India Regn. No. 108. Toll Free Number : 1800 266 7780 / 1800 22 9966 (only for senior citizen policy holders). Email Id – customersupport@tataaig.com . Category of Certificate of Registration: General Insurance.
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Get Mobile App Get Mobile App WhatsApp +91-9136160375 Call to Buy New Policy 1800-267-6115 Email: customersupport@tataaig.com 24/7 Toll Free Number 1800-266-7780 BEWARE OF SPURIOUS PHONE CALLS AND FICTIOUS policy wording carefully before concluding a sale. Trade logo displayed above belongs to TATA Sons Private Limited and AIG and used by TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN: U85110MH2000PLC128425. IRDA of India Regn. No. 108. Toll Free Number : 1800 266 7780 / 1800 22 9966 (only for senior citizen policy holders). Email Id – customersupport@tataaig.com . Category of Certificate of Registration: General Insurance. BEWARE OF SPURIOUS PHONE CALLS AND FICTIOUS policy wording carefully before concluding a sale. Trade logo displayed above belongs to TATA Sons Private Limited and AIG and used by TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited under License. 2008, TATA AIG General Insurance Company Limited, all rights reserved. Registered Office : Peninsula Business Park, Tower A, 15th Floor, G.K.Marg, Lower Parel, Mumbai - 400 013, Maharashtra, India. CIN: U85110MH2000PLC128425. IRDA of India Regn. No. 108. Toll Free Number : 1800 266 7780 / 1800 22 9966 (only for senior citizen policy holders). Email Id – customersupport@tataaig.com . Category of Certificate of Registration: General Insurance.
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Car insurance or four-wheeler insurance is an agreement between a car owner and the car insurance provider that offers protection for four-wheelers in the case of financial losses due to unforeseen events like accidents and natural calamities. Tata AIG offers a range of third-party car insurance, own damage car insurance and comprehensive car insurance policies online to help you choose the type of coverage and protection your car needs. You can further enhance comprehensive car insurance coverage with 13 car insurance add-ons. Fill in your car details and check the quote to find the car insurance policy ideal for your four-wheeler! Savings & Affordable Premiums Save up to 75% on car insurance premiums by buying your policy online Claim Assistance Our 650 claim experts across India ensure an easy and quick claim process for you High Claim Settlement Ratio Our 98% claims settlement ratio as of FY 2020-2021 can assure a high settlement ratio for car insurance claims Cashless Repairs Our network of over 10,000 garages ensures cashless services for your car repairs Damages to Third Party Damages to a third party or third-party property are covered Own Damage Cover With our Own Damage cover for your car, we can cover damages from accidents, man-made disasters, and natural disasters Customisable with Add-ons Up to 13 add-ons to protect your four-wheeler with an all-round car insurance policy No Claim Bonus Up to 50% discount on car insurance premiums after 5 consecutive claim-free years Buy/Renew Car Insurance Online Quick renewal of your car insurance with an easy 3-step process with Tata AIG Car insurance or a four-wheeler policy is necessary to protect your car and you from various situations and scenarios that lead to financial damages. Here are some of the reasons why you need to have a third-party or comprehensive four-wheeler insurance policy: According to the Motor Vehicles Act, having a third-party car insurance policy is compulsory by law. Therefore, every car plying on Indian roads must be covered at least by 3rd party insurance. Without a valid policy, you could get into trouble with the law and have to pay hefty traffic fines. Third-party liability arises when the insured four-wheeler causes accidental damage to a third-party vehicle or property or injuries to a third-party person. Third-party car insurance or even a comprehensive car insurance policy covers these third-party liabilities and protects the policyholder of the insured car from financial damages. At Tata AIG, we offer four-wheeler insurance policies with basic and extensive insurance coverage to protect you from a host of damages. If your four-wheeler or the car parts are stolen, then your car insurance policy can cover the financial damages and compensate you for the loss of the car or the replacement or repair of the car parts. In case of total loss (damaged beyond repair) or theft of your car, Tata AIG ensures a quick and convenient settlement process to provide you with
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car or the replacement or repair of the car parts. In case of total loss (damaged beyond repair) or theft of your car, Tata AIG ensures a quick and convenient settlement process to provide you with the sum insured of your car. A bump or deep scratch on your car due to an accidental collision or an act of vandalism can lead to financial damages. Here, an Own Damage cover or comprehensive car insurance is useful as they offer complete protection to the insured vehicle from various kinds of damages, right from theft and accidents to damage due to natural disasters and more. In case of floods, cyclones, storms, earthquakes or other natural calamities, your car can face significant damages and the extent of repairs can get costly. The financial plan provided by your four-wheeler insurance cover helps take care of these damages so that your car is safe and in good condition even in harsh weather. With a car insurance policy, you can avail of a personal accident cover of up to ₹15 lakhs, as per guidelines issued by the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India, in the event of bodily injuries, disability or even death of the policyholder or the owner-driver of the vehicle. With No Claim Bonus (NCB), you can enjoy discounts on the renewal OD premium after consecutive claim-free years. You start with a 20% discount after one claim-free year, which goes up to 50% from the fifth consecutive claim-free year. With a network of over 5400 cashless garages, you can ensure that your car will be taken care of in the event of damages or losses. You need not worry about settling the payment; simply file a claim with us, and we will settle the dues with the cashless garage at the earliest! The process of buying car insurance is simple but takes time and quite a bit of research. Moreover, it is of utmost importance to get at least a third-party car insurance policy from a legal standpoint. Tata AIG understands the importance of having a suitable four-wheeler insurance policy and offers car insurance policies that cater to varying individual needs and budgets. Below are some points you should consider when you buy car insurance: While choosing four-wheeler insurance, you can choose between a basic third-party liability cover and a comprehensive insurance cover. While having a basic third-party insurance cover is a legal compulsion and covers damages caused only to a third-party individual or property, a comprehensive car four-wheeler policy offers more extensive coverage that offers protection against accidental damage, damages due to loss and theft, natural and man-made disasters and also offers a personal accident cover. We at TATA AIG also provide varied types of car insurance, such as Comprehensive Car Insurance Policy, Stand Alone Own Damage Car Insurance Policy, and Third-Party Car Insurance Policy. This array of choices so that you can find the car insurance type that best suits you and your car’s needs. The policy coverage of your car insurance
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Policy, and Third-Party Car Insurance Policy. This array of choices so that you can find the car insurance type that best suits you and your car’s needs. The policy coverage of your car insurance policy will depend mainly on your needs and your budget. Apart from that, your car’s make and model, the area you live in and other factors will affect the policy coverage. While choosing a suitable insurance policy, you can use the Tata AIG car insurance calculator to calculate and compare the coverage of various policies before making an informed decision. While you buy car insurance online or renew your policy, you can consider extending or enhancing your policy cover with the help of appropriate add-ons. We offer a set of 19 unique add-ons such as Key Replacement, Return to Invoice, Engine Secure and more, that meet various situations outside the scope of your car insurance policy. A selection of the appropriate add-ons in your car insurance policy can provide an all-round protection to your four wheeler. The IDV or Insured Declared Value of the car is its current market value. When calculating your car insurance, the IDV is important as it is the amount your car is insured for. In case of “total loss” - complete damage or theft of the car - the policyholder receives the Insured Declared Value when the claim is settled. Always select the IDV carefully as a lower IDV means insufficient compensation in the event of total loss, even though it means lower policy premiums. On the other hand, a higher IDV could mean paying more expensive premiums. If you want to repair your car in case of minor or major damages, then you could visit your insurance provider’s network garages to have the damages repaired. By doing so, you can avail of the cashless claims, wherein, the insurer will directly pay the cost of repairs to the garage, and you won’t have to splurge exorbitant amounts on your repairs! Tata AIG’s online Car Insurance Calculator makes it easy for you to compare different four-wheeler insurance policies online. Depending on your budget and requirements, you can choose the insurance amount, the add-ons and then compare different plans to find the appropriate one to protect your car. The claim settlement ratio of a company is an important factor to be considered while purchasing your car insurance. If your insurer’s claim settlement ratio is high, it indicates a better chance of your claims being settled on time. Similarly, the service offered by the insurance company directly affects customer loyalty and should be checked before you buy a four-wheeler insurance policy from the company. Tata AIG offers many types of car insurance policies, each designed to address the varying needs of car owners and the coverage they need: The comprehensive car insurance policy offers extensive coverage as compared to a basic third party four wheeler insurance and offers protection against third-party liabilities as well as damage due to accidents, loss of the car,
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policy offers extensive coverage as compared to a basic third party four wheeler insurance and offers protection against third-party liabilities as well as damage due to accidents, loss of the car, natural disasters like floods, earthquakes, cyclones, etc. and man-made disasters. However, damages due to driving under the influence of substances and driving outside of the designated geographical area are not covered under a comprehensive four wheeler insurance policy. If the insured car, bought after September 2018, suffers a financial loss as a result of accidental damage, the own damage cover takes care of the damages caused only to the insured car. This policy does not cover losses incurred by third parties and also is only applicable to cars bought after September 2018. The standalone third party car insurance policy is a basic but legally mandatory car insurance policy. It protects you from the legal and financial liabilities that arise from damages caused to a third-party person or property by your insured car. However, this policy does not cover any damages to the insured car. The two primary types of car insurance available in India are - comprehensive car insurance & third-party car insurance. To choose the right policy for your needs, you need to understand the difference between third-party and comprehensive insurance policies. Here is a comparative study to help you make a decision: What does it mean? Comprehensive car insurance is an all-round coverage that protects your car and third parties from any financial loss incurred due to damage to any parties involved, i.e., you, your car, a third-party vehicle, person, or property. A third-party car insurance policy is a basic coverage policy that protects you and your car from third-party liabilities. What is the extent of coverage? This policy provides coverage for third-party liability, damages to your car, incidents of theft, accidents and damages caused by natural calamities or man-made disasters. This policy takes care of third-party damages such as injury to a 3rd party, death of a third party or damages to third-party property. Is it legally mandated? No, it is not legally required. Yes, it is legally mandated to carry as per Motor Vehicles Act, 1988. Is it expensive? Due to the extent of coverage, comprehensive car insurance is more expensive as compared to third-party car insurance policy. As it provides basic coverage, it is not expensive. What is excluded? Damage to your car from driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs, damages from driving outside the designated geographical location, and wear & tear of the vehicle. Damage to you or your vehicle is not covered in third-party car insurance. Are there add-on covers? You can choose from 13 add-ons such as roadside assistance, no claim bonus, consumables coverage, etc. You cannot enhance the insurance with add-ons. Tata AIG four-wheeler insurance policy offers you a wide coverage against multiple circumstances such as:
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no claim bonus, consumables coverage, etc. You cannot enhance the insurance with add-ons. Tata AIG four-wheeler insurance policy offers you a wide coverage against multiple circumstances such as: Under our comprehensive car insurance policy, we will reimburse you the Insured Declared Value (IDV) or the total market value of the car if your your car is stolen or there is total damage (damaged beyond repair) due to an accident. With a comprehensive car insurance policy or a standalone own damage cover, you will get financial protection against the damages caused by natural disasters like cyclones, flood, snowfall, frost, earthquakes, rainfall, etc. The own-damage cover or a comprehensive four-wheeler policy will offer coverage against the damages caused by riots, terrorist attacks, strikes, malicious man-made calamities, etc., along with the fire damages resulting from lightning, explosions, self-ignition and so on. Your car can suffer minor to major damages based on the severity of the accident. A comprehensive four-wheeler insurance policy and a standalone own damage cover will take care of the financial liabilities arising from the repairs necessitated by accident. Sometimes you may need to move your car from one location to another through waterways, railways, roadways, airways, etc. The damages caused to the car during transit are covered under a comprehensive car insurance policy. We cover 3rd party liabilities under our third-party car insurance as well as comprehensive car insurance policies. The bodily damages to a third party, death of a third party and damages to the third-party property caused by the insured four wheeler are covered under the third-party liability cover. You can also choose to have a Personal Accident Cover to the tune of ₹15 lakhs with your comprehensive car insurance plan. This cover offers protection against permanent total disability, death and major injuries caused to the owner-driver as a result of an accident. With Tata AIG, you can also add an optional cover – Liability to Unnamed Passengers – if you need added coverage over the Personal Accident Cover. You can enhance your comprehensive car insurance cover by choosing from a list of 17 car insurance add-ons. Get coverage for specific circumstances with a Roadside Assistance Cover, specific parts of the car with the Engine Secure and Tyre Secure covers, depreciation of vehicle with a Zero Depreciation Cover (Depreciation Reimbursement) and so much more with our car insurance add-ons! Add-on covers are additional benefits you can add to your car insurance or four wheeler insurance to enhance the protection offered by your policy. Tata AIG offers 19 such add-ons that you can choose from: When you file a claim for damages, a zero depreciation or nil depreciation (Depreciation Reimbursement) add-on enables you to be reimbursed for the deducted cost of depreciation on your car’s parts. Hence, you can receive the complete sum insured without the deduction of the
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Reimbursement) add-on enables you to be reimbursed for the deducted cost of depreciation on your car’s parts. Hence, you can receive the complete sum insured without the deduction of the depreciation. However, you can avail of this benefit only for the first two claims that are filed. This add-on is only applicable to your own-damage car insurance policy or comprehensive car insurance policy. Roadside assistance is an add-on that provides round-the-clock breakdown assistance to your insured car and you if the car breaks down in a remote location with no aid nearby. Your insurance provider will send a team to refuel, tow, or offer a mechanic’s services in an emergency. The No Claim Bonus or NCB Protection cover enables the policyholder to file a certain number of car insurance claims during the policy year while retaining the NCB discount. This add-on is helpful if you want to file a claim and also protect your NCB discount . However, there is a limit on the number of claims that can be raised with this add-on. The NCB Protection is available only with a comprehensive car insurance policy. The Engine Secure cover protects one of the most expensive parts of your car - the car’s engine. If you stay in a flood-prone area, this add-on helps you file a claim for repairing or replacing the engine without incurring an extra cost. The comprehensive four-wheeler insurance policy does not cover your engine’s protection. With this add-on, we cover the cost of the consumables in your insured car that are lost and have to be replaced due to an accident. Consumables include air conditioner gas, engine oil, gearbox oil, nuts and bolts, oil filters, and so on. However, this add-on does not cover the cost of fuel. This type of cover in a third-party or comprehensive car insurance policy offers compensation up to ₹15 lakhs to a policyholder in the event of disability due to a car accident with the insured car involved. In case of accidental death involving the insured vehicle of the policyholder, the compensation is given to the policyholder’s family. With Tata AIG, you can also add an optional cover – Liability to Unnamed Passengers – if you need added coverage over the Personal Accident Cover. The compensation under this add-on can be up to ₹X. This will allow you to safeguard your co-passengers in case of unfortunate accidents leading to severe injuries for them. This add-on allows you to get the damaged glass, fibre, and plastic parts repaired from the garage and then raise a claim for the damages without affecting your No Claim Bonus discount. However, for each policy year, only one repair claim is allowed against your comprehensive four-wheeler insurance policy. If your car has an accident and is required to stay in the garage for a long time, the Daily Allowance add-on provides you with an amount for your travels without your car. The amount is payable for 10-15 days, subject to the cause of the four-wheeler insurance claim. Suppose your car is involved in
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add-on provides you with an amount for your travels without your car. The amount is payable for 10-15 days, subject to the cause of the four-wheeler insurance claim. Suppose your car is involved in an accident , and you are unable to reach your destination. In that case, this add-on pays for your overnight accommodation in a hotel and the travel charges to return home or to the city closest to your destination. With this add-on, you can cover the repair or replacement of a damaged tyre or the tube. However, this add-on can only protect the financial losses in case of loss or damage to the tyres and tubes in an accident. The key replacement add-on covers the cost of replacing your lost car keys in case the car or key is stolen. This add-on helps cover the loss or damage of personal belongings such as clothes, videotapes, audio tapes, and CDs in case of an accident. However, it does not cover the loss or damage of belongings such as debit and credit cards, jewellery, money, watches, etc. When you file a claim for the total loss of your car due to theft or complete damage, this add-on helps cover the difference (due to depreciation) in the cost between the purchase price and the compensation amount. Also, if a new car of the same make and model is available, we will reimburse the difference between the claim amount and the cost of the new model. We will also pay for the registration charges and the road tax you have paid for the car. With this add-on, you can benefit from financial support for medical emergencies in case you, the driver, or a car passenger has sustained severe bodily injuries due to an accident. Within this cover, you get support for ambulance charges and up to ₹5000 or 5% of the total sum assured (whichever is lesser) towards the cost of supporting items for movement like wheelchairs, crutches, artificial limbs, etc. With this specific add-on cover for electric vehicles, you can benefit from partial or total compensation in case of loss or damage to your car due to self-heating, water ingression, short circuits, leakage of electricity, and damage to charging equipment arising out of arcing. This add-on helps pay off the policyholder’s car loan in specific situations. It applies if the owner-driver dies or is permanently disabled due to an accident involving the insured vehicle, provided the vehicle is damaged by a covered peril in Section I of the policy. If your car receives contaminated or incorrect fuel, causing damage, this cover will help you get the necessary support for repair or replacement expenses and flush out the incorrect fuel. Moreover, if you submit the necessary bill, you can also receive compensation of up to ₹2000 for the wrongInsured declared value falls along with the policy premium. The type of policy you purchase for your car decides the cost of the car insurance policy premium. A policy such as third-party insurance would cover only the third-party liabilities, which will come at cheaper premiums. Meanwhile,
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for your car decides the cost of the car insurance policy premium. A policy such as third-party insurance would cover only the third-party liabilities, which will come at cheaper premiums. Meanwhile, a comprehensive car insurance policy will cost more as it would cover all parties involved - you, your car, third-party and third-party property. Meanwhile, our other types of insurance such as standalone own damage policy provide a gamut of options in cover, which in turn delivers options in premium amounts.Meanwhile, a comprehensive car insurance policy will cost more as it would cover all parties involved—you, your car, third-party, and third-party property. Meanwhile, our other types of insurance, such as standalone own-damage policies, provide a gamut of cover options, which in turn deliver options in premium amounts. Your car insurance premium will increase when you opt for add-ons with your policy. Different add-ons provide different types of additional cover for your four-wheeler, and your premium will depend on the number and types of add-ons you have chosen. The size of the engine will influence your car insurance premium. Cars with higher cubic capacity engines will attract higher premiums for a car insurance policy than cars with lower engine capacity. Additionally, the IRDAI declares the annual third-party car insurance premium rates based on the engine cubic capacity of the vehicle. Deductibles denote the percentage of the claim amount paid by the policyholder from their own pockets. A higher voluntary deductible means a lower premium as the proportion of the insurer’s liability goes down. However, a higher deductible also means a higher proportion of the claim that needs to be paid by you. So, choose well. Car owners who have not made claims in a given year can avail of a No Claim Bonus (NCB) from the insurer. NCB is a progressive discount on the renewal premium for a car insurance policy, which goes up with each claim-free year. Five consecutive no-claim years can fetch you a decent discount of 50% on the car insurance renewal premium. When you buy car insurance online, you can compare different policies, calculate the premium online and then select a plan that suits your needs and budget. An online purchase of car insurance allows you to customise the IDV and the premiums, which can result in affordable premiums. Some other factors that affect the premium of a car insurance plan are the age of the owner, the location where the vehicle is registered, make, model and variant of the car, any modifications made to the vehicle and if the car has additional security features. These factors can decrease or increase the premium you have to pay for your car insurance policy. The car insurance premium drives the choice of a four-wheeler insurance policy by individuals. As seen in the above section, there are many factors that affect this premium. But do you know how you can calculate the exact premium for your choice of car insurance policy?
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policy by individuals. As seen in the above section, there are many factors that affect this premium. But do you know how you can calculate the exact premium for your choice of car insurance policy? Below are the popular methods of calculating your four-wheeler insurance premium: A car insurance premium calculator is an online tool provided by insurance companies to help you calculate your premium in a jiffy. Simply enter the required information, select the policy coverage and add-ons and click on Get Price. The calculator will display the total premium you need to pay to buy the four-wheeler insurance coverage you need. The premium for an own damage insurance policy is calculated as follows: + Add-ons – The IDV for your vehicle is calculated as follows: + As per the notification issued by IRDAI for the financial year 2022-2023, the premium rates that apply to Motor Third Party Liability Insurance for Private Cars effective from 1st June 2022 are as follows: Not exceeding 1000 cc Rs. 2,094 Exceeding 1000 cc but not exceeding 1500 cc Rs. 3,416 Exceeding 1500 cc Rs. 7,897 The car insurance premium is one of the most important factors people consider when buying a policy. Owners-drivers are always looking out to get extensive coverage at affordable premiums. Here are a few tips that will help you reduce your car insurance premium: If you choose to install additional security devices in your vehicles, such as parking sensors and anti-theft apparatus, you effectively reduce the risk associated with your vehicle. A reduced liability risk leads to lower premiums for your car insurance. When you renew your policy after a claim-free year, you get a discount on the premium you have to pay. This discount can go up to 50% for five consecutive claim-free years. However, even a single claim will reset the NCB back to zero. Avoid making claims against your policy for minor damages to keep your NCB from lapsing. When you get a car insurance policy, the company runs an assessment to establish the highest claim value for your vehicle, known as the Insured Declared Value (IDV). However, you can reduce the vehicle’s IDV in exchange for a reduced cost of the premium. But remember that a lower IDV entails a lower reimbursement in case of theft or total damage to the car. A voluntary deductible is a choice by the policyholders to pay a proportion of the claim amount while the insurance company pays the rest. When you raise a claim, the insurer will deduct this amount and settle the difference. By opting for higher deductibles, you can substantially reduce the cost of your car insurance premium. Input the Car Registration Number on the calculator above and select Get Price. Fill out the car and personal details as prompted by the screen. Then, select the policy coverage and add-ons of your choice. You will get an instant car insurance premium quote. If you are satisfied with the quote, you can proceed to pay the premium online. All it takes is three easy steps, and
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and add-ons of your choice. You will get an instant car insurance premium quote. If you are satisfied with the quote, you can proceed to pay the premium online. All it takes is three easy steps, and you can get your car insurance policy online without any delays. Browse our plans, select one based on the type and coverage and as per your requirements and finally, purchase your policy without any hassles. Our online four-wheeler insurance purchase process is quick, simple and paperless! Once you pay the premium of your car insurance policy, we will send you the policy document in your email, which you can print if needed. When you purchase our comprehensive car insurance policy, you can choose from our offering of 12 add-ons to extend the coverage. These add-ons help customise your four-wheeler insurance policy based on your specific needs. From Zero Depreciation (Depreciation Reimbursement) to Key Replacement, we have what you’re looking for in a car insurance policy! When you file a claim on your car insurance policy, we offer an online claims process that is quick and convenient. Simply visit the Tata AIG website and click the “Claims” section on the top right-hand side of the car insurance page to complete the online claim form. You will need to provide a few basic details, such as your car insurance policy number, contact details and some information about the incident. After which, we will immediately initiate your claim process. We also enable you to track the status of your claim for more transparency. Cashless claims with TATA AIG’s car insurance policy are easy. We have a network of over 7,500 garages across India, so no matter where you are, you’ll have a network garage close by for a cashless claim. If you’re unable to get to one of our network garages, you don’t need to break a sweat. You can head to any trusted garage and get the repairs done. We’ll work on getting you a reimbursement claim instead. Either way, your car will be taken care of. Our car insurance policies are well-equipped to help you keep your car protected from various kinds of damages, be it theft, loss or damage due to accidents or natural and man-made calamities. No matter what happens to your car, we will help you cover the losses without any hassles. If you have a valid Tata AIG car insurance policy, you can raise a claim for damages to your car. We will ensure a prompt and swift disbursal of the claim amount in case of valid claims. Our claim settlement ratio of 98% in FY 2020-2021 shows how we can settle your claims quickly and easily. When it comes to buying a car insurance policy, here are some of the important reasons why you should get your four wheeler insurance policy online: To complete car insurance renewal online, you only need 3 steps with Tata AIG. This process is quick and ensures instant delivery of the renewed policy without the need for an agent or long queues. The online car insurance renewal process reduces the hassle of physical documents.
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process is quick and ensures instant delivery of the renewed policy without the need for an agent or long queues. The online car insurance renewal process reduces the hassle of physical documents. You no longer require paper documents and additional physical forms to renew a policy, making it a quick and efficient process with instant policy delivery. With Tata AIG's online renewal process, forgetting due dates or realising the need for car insurance renewal very close to the expiry date is no longer an obstacle. This ensures you benefit from continuous coverage under your policy, keeping your car and personal safety in check. Driving with a valid car insurance policy, especially third-party car insurance, is mandatory to avoid non-compliance towards traffic rules and regulations, attracting hefty fines. However, with the ease of online car insurance renewal, you can avoid penalties with the convenience of instant renewals from anywhere. In case you fail to renew your four wheeler insurance before it expires, do not fret. When there is a break in the policy, you can buy fresh cover for your vehicle; however, we might need to send an inspector or surveyor to inspect your vehicle before the policy is issued. Need more? If you purchase a expired car insurance from us within 90 days from the expiry of your previous policy, you may be allowed to keep your No Claim Bonus (NCB). Here is how you can renew an expired car insurance policy with Tata AIG: Step 1 - Go to the TATA AIG car insurance renewal page. Step 2 - Input your car registration number. Click on ‘Renew. Step 3 - Provide the details as prompted by the screen. Choose from the list of add-ons, such as: Car insurance is a crucial financial safety net that protects you against financial losses that may arise from road accidents, theft, and other unforeseen incidents. With the advent of technology, buying car insurance has become much more convenient, especially in India, where buying car insurance online has become the norm. There are several benefits of buying car insurance online in India, which are discussed below. Convenience : One of the major benefits of buying car insurance online is that it offers great convenience. You can either buy it online or choose to get in touch with an agent. Moreover, it is possible to compare different insurance policies, check their terms and conditions, and buy the one that best suits your needs. 24x7 Availability : You can buy a car insurance policy of your choice at any time and from anywhere. On your insurance provider’s 24x7 online portal, you can get in touch with the customer care team and have all your queries answered so that the purchase becomes easier. Easy Comparison : When you buy
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This is an accepted version of this page Insurance is a means of protection from financial loss in which, in exchange for a fee, a party agrees to compensate another party in the event of a certain loss, damage, or injury. It is a form of risk management , primarily used to protect against the risk of a contingent or uncertain loss. An entity which provides insurance is known as an insurer , insurance company , insurance carrier , or underwriter . A person or entity who buys insurance is known as a policyholder , while a person or entity covered under the policy is called an insured . The insurance transaction involves the policyholder assuming a guaranteed, known, and relatively small loss in the form of a payment to the insurer (a premium) in exchange for the insurer's promise to compensate the insured in the event of a covered loss. The loss may or may not be financial, but it must be reducible to financial terms. Furthermore, it usually involves something in which the insured has an insurable interest established by ownership, possession, or pre-existing relationship. The insured receives a contract , called the insurance policy , which details the conditions and circumstances under which the insurer will compensate the insured, or their designated beneficiary or assignee. The amount of money charged by the insurer to the policyholder for the coverage set forth in the insurance policy is called the premium . If the insured experiences a loss which is potentially covered by the insurance policy, the insured submits a claim to the insurer for processing by a claims adjuster. A mandatory out-of-pocket expense required by an insurance policy before an insurer will pay a claim is called a deductible (or if required by a health insurance policy, a copayment ). The insurer may hedge its own risk by taking out reinsurance , whereby another insurance company agrees to carry some of the risks, especially if the primary insurer deems the risk too large for it to carry. Methods for transferring or distributing risk were practiced by Chinese and Indian traders as long ago as the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, respectively. ] ] Chinese merchants travelling treacherous river rapids would redistribute their wares across many vessels to limit the loss due to any single vessel capsizing. Codex Hammurabi Law 238 (c. 1755–1750 BC) stipulated that a sea captain , ship-manager , or ship charterer that saved a ship from total loss was only required to pay one-half the value of the ship to the ship-owner . ] ] ] In the Digesta seu Pandectae (533), the second volume of the codification of laws ordered by Justinian I (527–565), a legal opinion written by the Roman jurist Paulus in 235 AD was included about the Lex Rhodia ("Rhodian law"). It articulates the general average principle of marine insurance established on the island of Rhodes in approximately 1000 to 800 BC, plausibly by the Phoenicians during the proposed Dorian invasion and emergence of the purported Sea
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principle of marine insurance established on the island of Rhodes in approximately 1000 to 800 BC, plausibly by the Phoenicians during the proposed Dorian invasion and emergence of the purported Sea Peoples during the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1100–c. 750). ] ] ] The law of general average is the fundamental principle that underlies all insurance. ] In 1816, an archeological excavation in Minya, Egypt produced a Nerva–Antonine dynasty -era tablet from the ruins of the Temple of Antinous in Antinoöpolis , Aegyptus . The tablet prescribed the rules and membership dues of a burial society collegium established in Lanuvium , Italia in approximately 133 AD during the reign of Hadrian (117–138) of the Roman Empire . ] In 1851 AD, future U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice Joseph P. Bradley (1870–1892 AD), once employed as an actuary for the Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company , submitted an article to the Journal of the Institute of Actuaries . His article detailed an historical account of a Severan dynasty -era life table compiled by the Roman jurist Ulpian in approximately 220 AD that was also included in the Digesta . ] Concepts of insurance has been also found in 3rd century BC Hindu scriptures such as Dharmasastra , Arthashastra and Manusmriti . ] The ancient Greeks had marine loans. Money was advanced on a ship or cargo, to be repaid with large interest if the voyage prospers. However, the money would not be repaid at all if the ship were lost, thus making the rate of interest high enough to pay for not only for the use of the capital but also for the risk of losing it (fully described by Demosthenes ). Loans of this character have ever since been common in maritime lands under the name of bottomry and respondentia bonds. ] The direct insurance of sea-risks for a premium paid independently of loans began in Belgium about 1300 AD. ] Separate insurance contracts (i.e., insurance policies not bundled with loans or other kinds of contracts) were invented in Genoa in the 14th century, as were insurance pools backed by pledges of landed estates. The first known insurance contract dates from Genoa in 1347. In the next century, maritime insurance developed widely, and premiums were varied with risks. ] These new insurance contracts allowed insurance to be separated from investment, a separation of roles that first proved useful in marine insurance . The earliest known policy of life insurance was made in the Royal Exchange, London , on 18 June 1583, for £383, 6s. 8d. for twelve months on the life of William Gibbons. ] Insurance became far more sophisticated in Enlightenment-era Europe , where specialized varieties developed. Property insurance as we know it today can be traced to the Great Fire of London , which in 1666 devoured more than 13,000 houses. The devastating effects of the fire converted the development of insurance "from a matter of convenience into one of urgency, a change of opinion reflected in Sir Christopher Wren 's inclusion of a site for
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effects of the fire converted the development of insurance "from a matter of convenience into one of urgency, a change of opinion reflected in Sir Christopher Wren 's inclusion of a site for "the Insurance Office" in his new plan for London in 1667." ] A number of attempted fire insurance schemes came to nothing, but in 1681, economist Nicholas Barbon and eleven associates established the first fire insurance company, the "Insurance Office for Houses", at the back of the Royal Exchange to insure brick and frame homes. Initially, 5,000 homes were insured by his Insurance Office. ] At the same time, the first insurance schemes for the underwriting of business ventures became available. By the end of the seventeenth century, London's growth as a centre for trade was increasing due to the demand for marine insurance . In the late 1680s, Edward Lloyd opened a coffee house , which became the meeting place for parties in the shipping industry wishing to insure cargoes and ships, including those willing to underwrite such ventures. These informal beginnings led to the establishment of the insurance market Lloyd's of London and several related shipping and insurance businesses. ] Life insurance policies were taken out in the early 18th century. The first company to offer life insurance was the Amicable Society for a Perpetual Assurance Office , founded in London in 1706 by William Talbot and Sir Thomas Allen . ] ] Upon the same principle, Edward Rowe Mores established the Society for Equitable Assurances on Lives and Survivorship in 1762. It was the world's first mutual insurer and it pioneered age based premiums based on mortality rate laying "the framework for scientific insurance practice and development" and "the basis of modern life assurance upon which all life assurance schemes were subsequently based." ] In the late 19th century "accident insurance" began to become available. ] The first company to offer accident insurance was the Railway Passengers Assurance Company, formed in 1848 in England to insure against the rising number of fatalities on the nascent railway system. The first international insurance rule was the York Antwerp Rules (YAR) for the distribution of costs between ship and cargo in the event of general average. In 1873 the "Association for the Reform and Codification of the Law of Nations", the forerunner of the International Law Association (ILA), was founded in Brussels. It published the first YAR in 1890, before switching to the present title of the "International Law Association" in 1895. ] ] By the late 19th century governments began to initiate national insurance programs against sickness and old age. Germany built on a tradition of welfare programs in Prussia and Saxony that began as early as in the 1840s. In the 1880s Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced old age pensions, accident insurance and medical care that formed the basis for Germany's welfare state . ] ] In Britain more extensive legislation was introduced by
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Otto von Bismarck introduced old age pensions, accident insurance and medical care that formed the basis for Germany's welfare state . ] ] In Britain more extensive legislation was introduced by the Liberal government in the National Insurance Act 1911 . This gave the British working classes the first contributory system of insurance against illness and unemployment. ] This system was greatly expanded after the Second World War under the influence of the Beveridge Report , to form the first modern welfare state . ] ] In 2008, the International Network of Insurance Associations (INIA), then an informal network, became active and it has been succeeded by the Global Federation of Insurance Associations (GFIA), which was formally founded in 2012 to aim to increase insurance industry effectiveness in providing input to international regulatory bodies and to contribute more effectively to the international dialogue on issues of common interest. It consists of its 40 member associations and 1 observer association in 67 countries, which companies account for around 89% of total insurance premiums worldwide. ] Insurance involves pooling funds from many insured entities (known as exposures) to pay for the losses that only some insureds may incur. The insured entities are therefore protected from risk for a fee, with the fee being dependent upon the frequency and severity of the event occurring. In order to be an insurable risk , the risk insured against must meet certain characteristics. Insurance as a financial intermediary is a commercial enterprise and a major part of the financial services industry, but individual entities can also self-insure through saving money for possible future losses. ] Risk which can be insured by private companies typically share seven common characteristics: ] When a company insures an individual entity, there are basic legal requirements and regulations. Several commonly cited legal principles of insurance include: ] To "indemnify" means to make whole again, or to be reinstated to the position that one was in, to the extent possible, prior to the happening of a specified event or peril. Accordingly, life insurance is generally not considered to be indemnity insurance, but rather "contingent" insurance (i.e., a claim arises on the occurrence of a specified event). There are generally three types of insurance contracts that seek to indemnify an insured: From an insured's standpoint, the result is usually the same: the insurer pays the loss and claims expenses. If the Insured has a "reimbursement" policy, the insured can be required to pay for a loss and then be "reimbursed" by the insurance carrier for the loss and out of pocket costs including, with the permission of the insurer, claim expenses. ] ] Under a "pay on behalf" policy, the insurance carrier would defend and pay a claim on behalf of the insured who would not be out of pocket for anything. Most modern liability insurance is written on the basis of "pay on behalf"
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the insurance carrier would defend and pay a claim on behalf of the insured who would not be out of pocket for anything. Most modern liability insurance is written on the basis of "pay on behalf" language, which enables the insurance carrier to manage and control the claim. Under an "indemnification" policy, the insurance carrier can generally either "reimburse" or "pay on behalf of", whichever is more beneficial to it and the insured in the claim handling process. An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type, etc.) becomes the "insured" party once risk is assumed by an "insurer", the insuring party, by means of a contract , called an insurance policy . Generally, an insurance contract includes, at a minimum, the following elements: identification of participating parties (the insurer, the insured, the beneficiaries), the premium, the period of coverage, the particular loss event covered, the amount of coverage (i.e., the amount to be paid to the insured or beneficiary in the event of a loss), and exclusions (events not covered). An insured is thus said to be " indemnified " against the loss covered in the policy. When insured parties experience a loss for a specified peril, the coverage entitles the policyholder to make a claim against the insurer for the covered amount of loss as specified by the policy. The fee paid by the insured to the insurer for assuming the risk is called the premium. Insurance premiums from many insureds are used to fund accounts reserved for later payment of claims – in theory for a relatively few claimants – and for overhead costs. So long as an insurer maintains adequate funds set aside for anticipated losses (called reserves), the remaining margin is an insurer's profit . Policies typically include a number of exclusions, for example: Insurers may prohibit certain activities which are considered dangerous and therefore excluded from coverage. One system for classifying activities according to whether they are authorised by insurers refers to "green light" approved activities and events, "yellow light" activities and events which require insurer consultation and/or waivers of liability, and "red light" activities and events which are prohibited and outside the scope of insurance cover. ] Insurance can have various effects on society through the way that it changes who bears the cost of losses and damage. On one hand it can increase fraud; on the other it can help societies and individuals prepare for catastrophes and mitigate the effects of catastrophes on both households and societies. Insurance can influence the probability of losses through moral hazard , insurance fraud , and preventive steps by the insurance company. Insurance scholars have typically used moral hazard to refer to the increased loss due to unintentional carelessness and insurance fraud to refer to increased risk due to intentional carelessness or indifference. ] Insurers attempt to address
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hazard to refer to the increased loss due to unintentional carelessness and insurance fraud to refer to increased risk due to intentional carelessness or indifference. ] Insurers attempt to address carelessness through inspections, policy provisions requiring certain types of maintenance, and possible discounts for loss mitigation efforts. While in theory insurers could encourage investment in loss reduction, some commentators have argued that in practice insurers had historically not aggressively pursued loss control measures—particularly to prevent disaster losses such as hurricanes—because of concerns over rate reductions and legal battles. However, since about 1996 insurers have begun to take a more active role in loss mitigation, such as through building codes . ] According to the study books of The Chartered Insurance Institute, there are variant methods of insurance as follows: Insurers may use the subscription business model , collecting premium payments periodically in return for on-going and/or compounding benefits offered to policyholders. Insurers' business model aims to collect more in premium and investment income than is paid out in losses, and to also offer a competitive price which consumers will accept. Profit can be reduced to a simple equation: Insurers make money in two ways: The most complicated aspect of insuring is the actuarial science of ratemaking (price-setting) of policies, which uses statistics and probability to approximate the rate of future claims based on a given risk. After producing rates, the insurer will use discretion to reject or accept risks through the underwriting process. At the most basic level, initial rate-making involves looking at the frequency and severity of insured perils and the expected average payout resulting from these perils. Thereafter an insurance company will collect historical loss-data, bring the loss data to present value , and compare these prior losses to the premium collected in order to assess rate adequacy. ] Loss ratios and expense loads are also used. Rating for different risk characteristics involves—at the most basic level—comparing the losses with "loss relativities"—a policy with twice as many losses would, therefore, be charged twice as much. More complex multivariate analyses are sometimes used when multiple characteristics are involved and a univariate analysis could produce confounded results. Other statistical methods may be used in assessing the probability of future losses. Upon termination of a given policy, the amount of premium collected minus the amount paid out in claims is the insurer's underwriting profit on that policy. Underwriting performance is measured by something called the "combined ratio", which is the ratio of expenses/losses to premiums. ] A combined ratio of less than 100% indicates an underwriting profit, while anything over 100 indicates an underwriting loss. A company with a combined ratio over 100% may nevertheless remain profitable due to
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ratio of less than 100% indicates an underwriting profit, while anything over 100 indicates an underwriting loss. A company with a combined ratio over 100% may nevertheless remain profitable due to investment earnings. Insurance companies earn investment profits on "float". Float, or available reserve, is the amount of money on hand at any given moment that an insurer has collected in insurance premiums but has not paid out in claims. Insurers start investing insurance premiums as soon as they are collected and continue to earn interest or other income on them until claims are paid out. The Association of British Insurers (grouping together 400 insurance companies and 94% of UK insurance services) has almost 20% of the investments in the London Stock Exchange . ] In 2007, U.S. industry profits from float totaled $58 billion. In a 2009 letter to investors, Warren Buffett wrote, "we were paid $2.8 billion to hold our float in 2008". ] In the United States , the underwriting loss of property and casualty insurance companies was $142.3 billion in the five years ending 2003. But overall profit for the same period was $68.4 billion, as the result of float. Some insurance-industry insiders, most notably Hank Greenberg , do not believe that it is possible to sustain a profit from float forever without an underwriting profit as well, but this opinion is not universally held. Reliance on float for profit has led some industry experts to call insurance companies "investment companies that raise the money for their investments by selling insurance". ] Naturally, the float method is difficult to carry out in an economically depressed period. Bear markets do cause insurers to shift away from investments and to toughen up their underwriting standards, so a poor economy generally means high insurance-premiums. This tendency to swing between profitable and unprofitable periods over time is commonly known as the underwriting, or insurance, cycle . ] Claims and loss handling is the materialized utility of insurance; it is the actual "product" paid for. Claims may be filed by insureds directly with the insurer or through brokers or agents . The insurer may require that the claim be filed on its own proprietary forms, or may accept claims on a standard industry form, such as those produced by ACORD . Insurance-company claims departments employ a large number of claims adjusters, supported by a staff of records management and data entry clerks . Incoming claims are classified based on severity and are assigned to adjusters, whose settlement authority varies with their knowledge and experience. An adjuster undertakes an investigation of each claim, usually in close cooperation with the insured, determines if coverage is available under the terms of the insurance contract (and if so, the reasonable monetary value of the claim), and authorizes payment. Policyholders may hire their own public adjusters to negotiate settlements with the insurance company on their behalf.
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(and if so, the reasonable monetary value of the claim), and authorizes payment. Policyholders may hire their own public adjusters to negotiate settlements with the insurance company on their behalf. For policies that are complicated, where claims may be complex, the insured may take out a separate insurance-policy add-on, called loss-recovery insurance, which covers the cost of a public adjuster in the case of a claim. Adjusting liability-insurance claims is particularly difficult because they involve a third party, the plaintiff , who is under no contractual obligation to cooperate with the insurer and may in fact regard the insurer as a deep pocket . The adjuster must obtain legal counsel for the insured—either inside ("house") counsel or outside ("panel") counsel, monitor litigation that may take years to complete, and appear in person or over the telephone with settlement authority at a mandatory settlement-conference when requested by a judge. If a claims adjuster suspects under-insurance, the condition of average may come into play to limit the insurance company's exposure. In managing the claims-handling function, insurers seek to balance the elements of customer satisfaction, administrative handling expenses, and claims overpayment leakages. In addition to this balancing act, fraudulent insurance practices are a major business risk that insurers must manage and overcome. Disputes between insurers and insureds over the validity of claims or claims-handling practices occasionally escalate into litigation (see insurance bad faith ). Insurers will often use insurance agents to initially market or underwrite their customers. Agents can be captive, meaning they write only for one company, or independent, meaning that they can issue policies from several companies. The existence and success of companies using insurance agents is likely due to the availability of improved and personalised services. Companies also use Broking firms, Banks and other corporate entities (like Self Help Groups, Microfinance Institutions, NGOs, etc.) to market their products. ] Any risk that can be quantified can potentially be insured. Specific kinds of risk that may give rise to claims are known as perils. An insurance policy will set out in detail which perils are covered by the policy and which are not. Below are non-exhaustive lists of the many different types of insurance that exist. A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the categories set out below. For example, vehicle insurance would typically cover both the property risk (theft or damage to the vehicle) and the liability risk (legal claims arising from an accident ). A home insurance policy in the United States typically includes coverage for damage to the home and the owner's belongings, certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of coverage for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's property. Business insurance can take a number of different forms, such
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claims against the owner, and even a small amount of coverage for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's property. Business insurance can take a number of different forms, such as the various kinds of professional liability insurance, also called professional indemnity (PI), which are discussed below under that name; and the business owner's policy (BOP), which packages into one policy many of the kinds of coverage that a business owner needs, in a way analogous to how homeowners' insurance packages the coverages that a homeowner needs. ] Vehicle insurance protects the policyholder against financial loss in the event of an incident involving a vehicle they own, such as in a traffic collision . Coverage typically includes: Gap insurance covers the excess amount on an auto loan in an instance where the policyholder's insurance company does not cover the entire loan. Depending on the company's specific policies it might or might not cover the deductible as well. This coverage is marketed for those who put low down payments , have high interest rates on their loans, and those with 60-month or longer terms. Gap insurance is typically offered by a finance company when the vehicle owner purchases their vehicle, but many auto insurance companies offer this coverage to consumers as well. Health insurance policies cover the cost of medical treatments. Dental insurance, like medical insurance, protects policyholders for dental costs. In most developed countries, all citizens receive some health coverage from their governments, paid through taxation. In most countries, health insurance is often part of an employer's benefits. Casualty insurance insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific property. It is a broad spectrum of insurance that a number of other types of insurance could be classified, such as auto , workers compensation , and some liability insurances . Life insurance provides a monetary benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for income to an insured person's family, burial, funeral and other final expenses. Life insurance policies often allow the option of having the proceeds paid to the beneficiary either in a lump sum cash payment or an annuity . In most states, a person cannot purchase a policy on another person without their knowledge. Annuities provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies, are regulated as insurance, and require the same kinds of actuarial and investment management expertise that life insurance requires. Annuities and pensions that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a retiree will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance and, from an underwriting perspective, are the mirror image of life insurance. Certain life insurance contracts accumulate cash values,
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In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance and, from an underwriting perspective, are the mirror image of life insurance. Certain life insurance contracts accumulate cash values, which may be taken by the insured if the policy is surrendered or which may be borrowed against. Some policies, such as annuities and endowment policies , are financial instruments to accumulate or liquidate wealth when it is needed. In many countries, such as the United States and the UK, the tax law provides that the interest on this cash value is not taxable under certain circumstances. This leads to widespread use of life insurance as a tax-efficient method of saving as well as protection in the event of early death. In the United States, the tax on interest income on life insurance policies and annuities is generally deferred. However, in some cases the benefit derived from tax deferral may be offset by a low return. This depends upon the insuring company, the type of policy and other variables (mortality, market return, etc.). Moreover, other income tax saving vehicles (e.g., IRAs, 401(k) plans, Roth IRAs) may be better alternatives for value accumulation. Burial insurance is an old type of life insurance which is paid out upon death to cover final expenses, such as the cost of a funeral . The Greeks and Romans introduced burial insurance c. 600 CE when they organized guilds called "benevolent societies" which cared for the surviving families and paid funeral expenses of members upon death. Guilds in the Middle Ages served a similar purpose, as did friendly societies during Victorian times. Property insurance provides protection against risks to property, such as fire , theft or weather damage. This may include specialized forms of insurance such as fire insurance, flood insurance , earthquake insurance , home insurance , inland marine insurance or boiler insurance . The term property insurance may, like casualty insurance, be used as a broad category of various subtypes of insurance, some of which are listed below: Liability insurance is a broad superset that covers legal claims against the insured. Many types of insurance include an aspect of liability coverage. For example, a homeowner's insurance policy will normally include liability coverage which protects the insured in the event of a claim brought by someone who slips and falls on the property; automobile insurance also includes an aspect of liability insurance that indemnifies against the harm that a crashing car can cause to others' lives, health, or property. The protection offered by a liability insurance policy is twofold: a legal defense in the event of a lawsuit commenced against the policyholder and indemnification (payment on behalf of the insured) with respect to a settlement or court verdict. Liability policies typically cover only the negligence of the insured, and will not apply to results of wilful or intentional acts by the insured. Often a commercial insured's liability
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verdict. Liability policies typically cover only the negligence of the insured, and will not apply to results of wilful or intentional acts by the insured. Often a commercial insured's liability insurance program consists of several layers. The first layer of insurance generally consists of primary insurance, which provides first dollar indemnity for judgments and settlements up to the limits of liability of the primary policy. Generally, primary insurance is subject to a deductible and obligates the insurer to defend the insured against lawsuits, which is normally accomplished by assigning counsel to defend the insured. In many instances, a commercial insured may elect to self-insure. Above the primary insurance or self-insured retention, the insured may have one or more layers of excess insurance to provide coverage additional limits of indemnity protection. There are a variety of types of excess insurance, including "stand-alone" excess policies (policies that contain their own terms, conditions, and exclusions), "follow form" excess insurance (policie
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A car , or an automobile , is a motor vehicle with wheels . Most definitions of cars state that they run primarily on roads , seat one to eight people, have four wheels , and mainly transport people over cargo . ] ] There are around one billion cars in use worldwide. The car is considered an essential part of the developed economy . citation needed ] The French inventor Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built the first steam-powered road vehicle in 1769, while the Swiss inventor François Isaac de Rivaz designed and constructed the first internal combustion-powered automobile in 1808. The modern car—a practical, marketable automobile for everyday use—was invented in 1886, when the German inventor Carl Benz patented his Benz Patent-Motorwagen . Commercial cars became widely available during the 20th century. The 1901 Oldsmobile Curved Dash and the 1908 Ford Model T , both American cars, are widely considered the first mass-produced ] ] and mass-affordable ] ] ] cars, respectively. Cars were rapidly adopted in the US, where they replaced horse-drawn carriages . ] In Europe and other parts of the world, demand for automobiles did not increase until after World War II . ] In the 21st century, car usage is still increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, and other newly industrialised countries . ] ] Cars have controls for driving , parking , passenger comfort, and a variety of lamps . Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, making them progressively more complex. These include rear-reversing cameras , air conditioning , navigation systems , and in-car entertainment . Most cars in use in the early 2020s are propelled by an internal combustion engine , fueled by the combustion of fossil fuels . Electric cars , which were invented early in the history of the car , became commercially available in the 2000s and are predicted to cost less to buy than petrol-driven cars before 2025. ] ] The transition from fossil fuel-powered cars to electric cars features prominently in most climate change mitigation scenarios , ] such as Project Drawdown 's 100 actionable solutions for climate change. ] There are costs and benefits to car use . The costs to the individual include acquiring the vehicle, interest payments (if the car is financed), repairs and maintenance , fuel, depreciation , driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance . ] The costs to society include maintaining roads, land-use , road congestion , air pollution , noise pollution , public health , and disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life . Traffic collisions are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. ] Personal benefits include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence, and convenience. ] Societal benefits include economic benefits, such as job and wealth creation from the automotive industry , transportation provision, societal well-being from leisure and travel opportunities, and the generation of revenue from taxation. People's
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as job and wealth creation from the automotive industry , transportation provision, societal well-being from leisure and travel opportunities, and the generation of revenue from taxation. People's ability to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies . ] The English word car is believed to originate from Latin carrus / carrum "wheeled vehicle" or (via Old North French ) Middle English carre "two-wheeled cart", both of which in turn derive from Gaulish karros " chariot ". ] ] It originally referred to any wheeled horse-drawn vehicle , such as a cart , carriage , or wagon . ] ] "Motor car", attested from 1895, is the usual formal term in British English . ] "Autocar", a variant likewise attested from 1895 and literally meaning " self-propelled car", is now considered archaic. ] " Horseless carriage " is attested from 1895. ] "Automobile", a classical compound derived from Ancient Greek autós ( αὐτός ) "self" and Latin mobilis "movable", entered English from French and was first adopted by the Automobile Club of Great Britain in 1897. ] It fell out of favour in Britain and is now used chiefly in North America , ] where the abbreviated form "auto" commonly appears as an adjective in compound formations like " auto industry " and " auto mechanic ". ] ] In 1649, Hans Hautsch of Nuremberg built a clockwork-driven carriage. ] ] The first steam-powered vehicle was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest , a Flemish member of a Jesuit mission in China around 1672. It was a 65-centimetre-long (26 in) scale-model toy for the Kangxi Emperor that was unable to carry a driver or a passenger. ] ] ] It is not known with certainty if Verbiest's model was successfully built or run. ] Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is widely credited with building the first full-scale, self-propelled mechanical vehicle in about 1769; he created a steam-powered tricycle. ] He also constructed two steam tractors for the French Army, one of which is preserved in the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts . ] His inventions were limited by problems with water supply and maintaining steam pressure. ] In 1801, Richard Trevithick built and demonstrated his Puffing Devil road locomotive, believed by many to be the first demonstration of a steam-powered road vehicle. It was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods and was of little practical use. The development of external combustion (steam) engines is detailed as part of the history of the car but often treated separately from the development of true cars. A variety of steam-powered road vehicles were used during the first part of the 19th century, including steam cars , steam buses , phaetons , and steam rollers . In the United Kingdom, sentiment against them led to the Locomotive Acts of 1865. In 1807, Nicéphore Niépce and his brother Claude created what was probably the world's first internal combustion engine (which they called a Pyréolophore ), but installed it in a boat on
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of 1865. In 1807, Nicéphore Niépce and his brother Claude created what was probably the world's first internal combustion engine (which they called a Pyréolophore ), but installed it in a boat on the river Saone in France. ] Coincidentally, in 1807, the Swiss inventor François Isaac de Rivaz designed his own " de Rivaz internal combustion engine ", and used it to develop the world's first vehicle to be powered by such an engine. The Niépces' Pyréolophore was fuelled by a mixture of Lycopodium powder (dried spores of the Lycopodium plant), finely crushed coal dust and resin that were mixed with oil, whereas de Rivaz used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen . ] Neither design was successful, as was the case with others, such as Samuel Brown , Samuel Morey , and Etienne Lenoir , ] who each built vehicles (usually adapted carriages or carts) powered by internal combustion engines. ] In November 1881, French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a three-wheeled car powered by electricity at the International Exposition of Electricity . ] Although several other German engineers (including Gottlieb Daimler , Wilhelm Maybach , and Siegfried Marcus ) were working on cars at about the same time, the year 1886 is regarded as the birth year of the modern car—a practical, marketable automobile for everyday use—when the German Carl Benz patented his Benz Patent-Motorwagen ; he is generally acknowledged as the inventor of the car. ] ] ] In 1879, Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, which had been designed in 1878. Many of his other inventions made the use of the internal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle. His first Motorwagen was built in 1885 in Mannheim , Germany. He was awarded the patent for its invention as of his application on 29 January 1886 (under the auspices of his major company, Benz & Cie. , which was founded in 1883). Benz began promotion of the vehicle on 3 July 1886, and about 25 Benz vehicles were sold between 1888 and 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced along with a cheaper model. They also were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added the Benz car to his line of products. Because France was more open to the early cars, initially more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany. In August 1888, Bertha Benz , the wife and business partner of Carl Benz, undertook the first road trip by car, to prove the road-worthiness of her husband's invention. ] In 1896, Benz designed and patented the first internal-combustion flat engine , called boxermotor . During the last years of the 19th century, Benz was the largest car company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899 and, because of its size, Benz & Cie., became a joint-stock company . The first motor car in central Europe and one of the first factory-made cars in the world, was produced by Czech company Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau (later renamed to
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Cie., became a joint-stock company . The first motor car in central Europe and one of the first factory-made cars in the world, was produced by Czech company Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau (later renamed to Tatra ) in 1897, the Präsident automobil. Daimler and Maybach founded Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG) in Cannstatt in 1890, and sold their first car in 1892 under the brand name Daimler . It was a horse-drawn stagecoach built by another manufacturer, which they retrofitted with an engine of their design. By 1895, about 30 vehicles had been built by Daimler and Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after disputes with their backers. Benz, Maybach, and the Daimler team seem to have been unaware of each other's early work. They never worked together; by the time of the merger of the two companies, Daimler and Maybach were no longer part of DMG. Daimler died in 1900 and later that year, Maybach designed an engine named Daimler-Mercedes that was placed in a specially ordered model built to specifications set by Emil Jellinek . This was a production of a small number of vehicles for Jellinek to race and market in his country. Two years later, in 1902, a new model DMG car was produced and the model was named Mercedes after the Maybach engine, which generated 35 hp. Maybach quit DMG shortly thereafter and opened a business of his own. Rights to the Daimler brand name were sold to other manufacturers. In 1890, Émile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines, and so laid the foundation of the automotive industry in France . In 1891, Auguste Doriot and his Peugeot colleague Louis Rigoulot completed the longest trip by a petrol-driven vehicle when their self-designed and built Daimler powered Peugeot Type 3 completed 2,100 kilometres (1,300 mi) from Valentigney to Paris and Brest and back again. They were attached to the first Paris–Brest–Paris bicycle race, but finished six days after the winning cyclist, Charles Terront . The first design for an American car with a petrol internal combustion engine was made in 1877 by George Selden of Rochester, New York . Selden applied for a patent for a car in 1879, but the patent application expired because the vehicle was never built. After a delay of 16 years and a series of attachments to his application, on 5 November 1895, Selden was granted a US patent ( U.S. patent 549,160 ) for a two-stroke car engine, which hindered, more than encouraged , development of cars in the United States. His patent was challenged by Henry Ford and others, and overturned in 1911. In 1893, the first running, petrol-driven American car was built and road-tested by the Duryea brothers of Springfield, Massachusetts . The first public run of the Duryea Motor Wagon took place on 21 September 1893, on Taylor Street in Metro Center Springfield. ] ] Studebaker , subsidiary of a long-established wagon and coach manufacturer, started to build cars in 1897 ] :
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Wagon took place on 21 September 1893, on Taylor Street in Metro Center Springfield. ] ] Studebaker , subsidiary of a long-established wagon and coach manufacturer, started to build cars in 1897 ] : 66 and commenced sales of electric vehicles in 1902 and petrol vehicles in 1904. ] In Britain, there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success, with Thomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860. ] Santler from Malvern is recognised by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made the first petrol-driven car in the country in 1894, ] followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895, but these were both one-offs. ] The first production vehicles in Great Britain came from the Daimler Company , a company founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896, after purchasing the right to use the name of the engines. Lawson's company made its first car in 1897, and they bore the name Daimler. ] In 1892, German engineer Rudolf Diesel was granted a patent for a "New Rational Combustion Engine". In 1897, he built the first diesel engine . ] Steam-, electric-, and petrol-driven vehicles competed for a few decades, with petrol internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s. Although various pistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventional piston and crankshaft design, only Mazda 's version of the Wankel engine has had more than very limited success. All in all, it is estimated that over 100,000 patents created the modern automobile and motorcycle. ] Large-scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable cars was started by Ransom Olds in 1901 at his Oldsmobile factory in Lansing, Michigan , and based upon stationary assembly line techniques pioneered by Marc Isambard Brunel at the Portsmouth Block Mills , England, in 1802. The assembly line style of mass production and interchangeable parts had been pioneered in the US by Thomas Blanchard in 1821, at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts . ] This concept was greatly expanded by Henry Ford , beginning in 1913 with the world's first moving assembly line for cars at the Highland Park Ford Plant . As a result, Ford's cars came off the line in 15-minute intervals, much faster than previous methods, increasing productivity eightfold, while using less manpower (from 12.5 manhours to 1 hour 33 minutes). ] It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only Japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colours available before 1913, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926. This is the source of Ford's apocryphal remark, "any color as long as it's black". ] In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay. ] Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. ] The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called " Fordism " and
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each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. ] The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called " Fordism " and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the economic rise of the US. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods. In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide seeing the founding of Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1921, Citroën was the first native European manufacturer to adopt the production method. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke; by 1930, 250 companies which did not, had disappeared. ] Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering , for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910–1911), independent suspension , and four-wheel brakes. Since the 1920s, nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs, so marketing plans often have heavily influenced car design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one company, called the General Motors Companion Make Program , so that buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved. Reflecting the rapid pace of change, makes shared parts with one another so larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1930s, LaSalles , sold by Cadillac , used cheaper mechanical parts made by Oldsmobile ; in the 1950s, Chevrolet shared bonnet, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac ; by the 1990s, corporate powertrains and shared platforms (with interchangeable brakes , suspension, and other parts) were common. Even so, only major makers could afford high costs, and even companies with decades of production, such as Apperson , Cole , Dorris , Haynes , or Premier, could not manage: of some two hundred American car makers in existence in 1920, only 43 survived in 1930, and with the Great Depression , by 1940, only 17 of those were left. ] In Europe, much the same would happen. Morris set up its production line at Cowley in 1924, and soon outsold Ford, while beginning in 1923 to follow Ford's practice of vertical integration , buying Hotchkiss' British subsidiary (engines), Wrigley (gearboxes), and Osberton (radiators), for instance, as well as competitors, such as Wolseley : in 1925, Morris had 41 per cent of total British car production. Most British small-car assemblers, from Abbey to Xtra , had gone under. Citroën did the same in France, coming to cars in 1919; between them and other cheap cars in reply such as Renault 's 10CV and
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Most British small-car assemblers, from Abbey to Xtra , had gone under. Citroën did the same in France, coming to cars in 1919; between them and other cheap cars in reply such as Renault 's 10CV and Peugeot 's 5CV , they produced 550,000 cars in 1925, and Mors , Hurtu , and others could not compete. ] Germany's first mass-manufactured car, the Opel 4PS Laubfrosch (Tree Frog), came off the line at Rüsselsheim in 1924, soon making Opel the top car builder in Germany, with 37.5 per cent of the market. ] In Japan, car production was very limited before World War II. Only a handful of companies were producing vehicles in limited numbers, and these were small, three-wheeled for commercial uses, like Daihatsu , or were the result of partnering with European companies, like Isuzu building the Wolseley A-9 in 1922. Mitsubishi was also partnered with Fiat and built the Mitsubishi Model A based on a Fiat vehicle. Toyota , Nissan , Suzuki , Mazda , and Honda began as companies producing non-automotive products before the war, switching to car production during the 1950s. Kiichiro Toyoda's decision to take Toyoda Loom Works into automobile manufacturing would create what would eventually become Toyota Motor Corporation , the largest automobile manufacturer in the world. Subaru , meanwhile, was formed from a conglomerate of six companies who banded together as Fuji Heavy Industries , as a result of having been broken up under keiretsu legislation. The transport sector is a major contributor to air pollution , noise pollution and climate change . ] Most cars in use in the early 2020s run on petrol burnt in an internal combustion engine (ICE). The International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers says that, in countries that mandate low sulphur motor spirit, petrol-fuelled cars built to late 2010s standards (such as Euro-6) emit very little local air pollution. ] ] Some cities ban older petrol-driven cars and some countries plan to ban sales in future. However, some environmental groups say this phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles must be brought forwards to limit climate change. Production of petrol-fuelled cars peaked in 2017. ] ] Other hydrocarbon fossil fuels also burnt by deflagration (rather than detonation ) in ICE cars include diesel , autogas , and CNG . Removal of fossil fuel subsidies , ] ] concerns about oil dependence , tightening environmental laws and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on alternative power systems for cars. This includes hybrid vehicles , plug-in electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles . Out of all cars sold in 2021, nine per cent were electric, and by the end of that year there were more than 16 million electric cars on the world's roads. ] Despite rapid growth, less than two per cent of cars on the world's roads were fully electric and plug-in hybrid cars by the end of 2021. ] Cars for racing or speed records have sometimes employed jet or rocket engines, but these are impractical for common use.
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roads were fully electric and plug-in hybrid cars by the end of 2021. ] Cars for racing or speed records have sometimes employed jet or rocket engines, but these are impractical for common use. Oil consumption has increased rapidly in the 20th and 21st centuries because there are more cars; the 1980s oil glut even fuelled the sales of low-economy vehicles in OECD countries. The BRIC countries are adding to this consumption. As of 2023 ] few production cars use wheel hub motors . ] ] In almost all hybrid (even mild hybrid ) and pure electric cars regenerative braking recovers and returns to a battery some energy which would otherwise be wasted by friction brakes getting hot. ] Although all cars must have friction brakes (front disc brakes and either disc or drum rear brakes ] ) for emergency stops, regenerative braking improves efficiency, particularly in city driving. ] Cars are equipped with controls used for driving, passenger comfort, and safety, normally operated by a combination of the use of feet and hands, and occasionally by voice on 21st-century cars. These controls include a steering wheel , pedals for operating the brakes and controlling the car's speed (and, in a manual transmission car, a clutch pedal), a shift lever or stick for changing gears, and a number of buttons and dials for turning on lights, ventilation, and other functions. Modern cars' controls are now standardised, such as the location for the accelerator and brake, but this was not always the case. Controls are evolving in response to new technologies, for example, the electric car and the integration of mobile communications. Some of the original controls are no longer required. For example, all cars once had controls for the choke valve, clutch, ignition timing , and a crank instead of an electric starter . However, new controls have also been added to vehicles, making them more complex. These include air conditioning , navigation systems , and in-car entertainment . Another trend is the replacement of physical knobs and switches by secondary controls with touchscreen controls such as BMW 's iDrive and Ford 's MyFord Touch . Another change is that while early cars' pedals were physically linked to the brake mechanism and throttle, in the early 2020s, cars have increasingly replaced these physical linkages with electronic controls. Cars are typically equipped with interior lighting which can be toggled manually or be set to light up automatically with doors open, an entertainment system which originated from car radios , sideways windows which can be lowered or raised electrically (manually on earlier cars), and one or multiple auxiliary power outlets for supplying portable appliances such as mobile phones , portable fridges, power inverters , and electrical air pumps from the on-board electrical system. ] ] ] More costly upper-class and luxury cars are equipped with features earlier such as massage seats and collision avoidance systems . ] ] Dedicated automotive
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from the on-board electrical system. ] ] ] More costly upper-class and luxury cars are equipped with features earlier such as massage seats and collision avoidance systems . ] ] Dedicated automotive fuses and circuit breakers prevent damage from electrical overload . Cars are typically fitted with multiple types of lights. These include headlights , which are used to illuminate the way ahead and make the car visible to other users, so that the vehicle can be used at night; in some jurisdictions, daytime running lights ; red brake lights to indicate when the brakes are applied; amber turn signal lights to indicate the turn intentions of the driver; white-coloured reverse lights to illuminate the area behind the car (and indicate that the driver will be or is reversing); and on some vehicles, additional lights (e.g., side marker lights) to increase the visibility of the car. Interior lights on the ceiling of the car are usually fitted for the driver and passengers. Some vehicles also have a boot light and, more rarely, an engine compartment light. During the late 20th and early 21st century, cars increased in weight due to batteries, ] modern steel safety cages, anti-lock brakes, airbags, and "more-powerful—if more efficient—engines" ] and, as of 2019 ] , typically weigh between 1 and 3 tonnes (1.1 and 3.3 short tons; 0.98 and 2.95 long tons). ] Heavier cars are safer for the driver from a crash perspective, but more dangerous for other vehicles and road users. ] The weight of a car influences fuel consumption and performance, with more weight resulting in increased fuel consumption and decreased performance. The Wuling Hongguang Mini EV , a typical city car , weighs about 700 kilograms (1,500 lb). Heavier cars include SUVs and extended-length SUVs like the Suburban . Cars have also become wider. ] Some places tax heavier cars more: ] as well as improving pedestrian safety this can encourage manufacturers to use materials such as recycled aluminium instead of steel. ] It has been suggested that one benefit of subsidising charging infrastructure is that cars can use lighter batteries. ] Most cars are designed to carry multiple occupants, often with four or five seats. Cars with five seats typically seat two passengers in the front and three in the rear. Full-size cars and large sport utility vehicles can often carry six, seven, or more occupants depending on the arrangement of the seats. On the other hand, sports cars are most often designed with only two seats. Utility vehicles like pickup trucks , combine seating with extra cargo or utility functionality. The differing needs for passenger capacity and their luggage or cargo space has resulted in the availability of a large variety of body styles to meet individual consumer requirements that include, among others, the sedanestate , coupe , and minivan . Traffic collisions are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. ] Mary Ward became one of the first documented car fatalities in 1869
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others, the sedanestate , coupe , and minivan . Traffic collisions are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. ] Mary Ward became one of the first documented car fatalities in 1869 in Parsonstown , Ireland, ] and Henry Bliss one of the US's first pedestrian car casualties in 1899 in New York City. ] There are now standard tests for safety in new cars, such as the Euro and US NCAP tests, ] and insurance-industry-backed tests by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS). ] However, not all such tests consider the safety of people outside the car, such as drivers of other cars, pedestrians and cyclists. ] The costs of car usage, which may include the cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs and auto maintenance , fuel, depreciation , driving time, parking fees , taxes, and insurance, ] are weighed against the cost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits—perceived and real—of vehicle usage. The benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence, and convenience, ] and emergency power . ] During the 1920s, cars had another benefit: "ouples finally had a way to head off on unchaperoned dates, plus they had a private space to snuggle up close at the end of the night." ]
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A truck or lorry is a motor vehicle designed to transport freight , carry specialized payloads, or perform other utilitarian work. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, but the vast majority feature body-on-frame construction, with a cabin that is independent of the payload portion of the vehicle. Smaller varieties may be mechanically similar to some automobiles . Commercial trucks can be very large and powerful and may be configured to be mounted with specialized equipment, such as in the case of refuse trucks , fire trucks , concrete mixers , and suction excavators . In American English, a commercial vehicle without a trailer or other articulation is formally a "straight truck" while one designed specifically to pull a trailer is not a truck but a " tractor ". ] The majority of trucks currently in use are powered by diesel engines , although small- to medium-size trucks with gasoline engines exist in North America . Electrically powered trucks are more popular in China and Europe than elsewhere. ] In the European Union , vehicles with a gross combination mass of up to 3.5 t (3.4 long tons; 3.9 short tons) are defined as light commercial vehicles , and those over as large goods vehicles . Trucks and cars have a common ancestor: the steam-powered fardier Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built in 1769. citation needed ] However, steam wagons were not common until the mid-19th century. The roads of the time, built for horse and carriages, limited these vehicles to very short hauls, usually from a factory to the nearest railway station. The first semi-trailer appeared in 1881, citation needed ] towed by a steam tractor manufactured by De Dion-Bouton . Steam-powered wagons were sold in France and the United States until the eve of World War I , and 1935 in the United Kingdom, when a change in road tax rules made them uneconomic against the new diesel lorries. In 1895, Karl Benz designed and built the first internal combustion truck. Later that year some of Benz's trucks were modified to become busses by Netphener . A year later, in 1896, another internal combustion engine truck was built by Gottlieb Daimler , the Daimler Motor Lastwagen . ] Other companies, such as Peugeot , Renault and Büssing , also built their own versions. The first truck in the United States was built by Autocar in 1899 and was available with 5 or 8 horsepower (4 or 6 kW) engines. ] Another early American truck was built by George Eldridge of Des Moines, Iowa, in 1903. It was powered by an engine with two opposed cylinders, and had a chain drive ] A 1903 Eldridge truck is displayed at the Iowa 80 Trucking Museum, Walcott, Iowa. Trucks of the era mostly used two-cylinder engines and had a carrying capacity of 1.5 to 2 t (3,300 to 4,400 lb). After World War I, several advances were made: electric starters , and 4, 6, and 8 cylinder engines. Although it had been invented in 1897, the diesel engine did not appear in production trucks until Benz introduced it in 1923. ] The
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were made: electric starters , and 4, 6, and 8 cylinder engines. Although it had been invented in 1897, the diesel engine did not appear in production trucks until Benz introduced it in 1923. ] The diesel engine was not common in trucks in Europe until the 1930s. In the United States, Autocar introduced diesel engines for heavy applications in the mid-1930s. Demand was high enough that Autocar launched the "DC" model (diesel conventional) in 1939. However, it took much longer for diesel engines to be broadly accepted in the US: gasoline engines were still in use on heavy trucks in the 1970s. ] ] Electrically powered trucks predate internal combustion ones and have been continuously available since the mid-19th-century. In the 1920s Autocar Trucks was the first of the major truck manufacturers to offer a range of electric trucks for sale. ] Electric trucks were successful for urban delivery roles and as specialized work vehicles like forklifts and pushback tugs . The higher energy density of liquid fuels soon led to the decline of electric-powered trucks in favor of, first, gasoline, and then diesel and CNG-fueled engines until battery technology advanced in the 2000s when new chemistries and higher-volume production broadened the range of applicability of electric propulsion to trucks in many more roles. Today, manufacturers are electrifying all trucks ahead of national regulatory requirements, with long-range over-the-road trucks being the most challenging. ] ] Truck is used in American English , and is common in Canada , Australia , New Zealand , Pakistan and South Africa , while lorry is the equivalent in British English , and is the usual term in countries like Ireland , Malaysia , Singapore and India . original research? ] The first known usage of "truck" was in 1611 when it referred to the small strong wheels on ships' cannon carriages, and comes from "Trokhos" (Greek) = "wheel". In its extended usage, it came to refer to carts for carrying heavy loads, a meaning known since 1771. Its expanded application to "motor-powered load carrier" has been in usage since 1930, shortened from "motor truck", which dates back to 1901. ] ] "Lorry" has a more uncertain origin, but probably has its roots in the rail transport industry, where the word is known to have been used in 1838 to refer to a type of truck (a goods wagon as in British usage, not a bogie as in the American), specifically a large flat wagon. It might derive from the verb lurry (to carry or drag along, or to lug) which was in use as early as 1664, but that association is not definitive. ] The expanded meaning of lorry , "self-propelled vehicle for carrying goods", has been in usage since 1911. ] ] In the United States, Canada, and the Philippines, "truck" is usually reserved for commercial vehicles larger than regular passenger cars, but includes large SUVs, pickups, and other vehicles with an open load bed. In Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the word "truck" is mostly reserved
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larger than regular passenger cars, but includes large SUVs, pickups, and other vehicles with an open load bed. In Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the word "truck" is mostly reserved for larger vehicles. In Australia and New Zealand, a pickup truck is frequently called a ute (short for "utility" vehicle), ] while in South Africa it is called a bakkie ( Afrikaans : "small open container"). In the United Kingdom, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Ireland, and Hong Kong lorry is used instead of truck , but only for the medium and heavy types, while truck is used almost exclusively to refer to pickups . Often produced as variations of golf cars , with internal combustion or battery electric drive , these are used typically for off-highway use on estates, golf courses, and parks. While not suitable for highway use some variations may be licensed as slow speed vehicles for operation on streets, generally as a body variation of a neighborhood electric vehicle . A few manufactures produce specialized chassis for this type of vehicle, while Zap Motors markets a version of their Xebra electric tricycle (licensable in the U.S. as a motorcycle). Popular in Europe and Asia, many mini-trucks are factory redesigns of light automobiles, usually with monocoque bodies. Specialized designs with substantial frames such as the Italian Piaggio shown here are based upon Japanese designs (in this case by Daihatsu ) and are popular for use in "old town" sections of European cities that often have very narrow alleyways. Regardless of name, these small trucks serve a wide range of uses. In Japan, they are regulated under the Kei car laws, which allow vehicle owners a break in taxes for buying a smaller and less-powerful vehicle (currently, the engine is limited to 660 cc displacement). These vehicles are used as on-road utility vehicles in Japan. These Japanese-made mini-trucks that were manufactured for on-road use are competing with off-road ATVs in the United States, and import regulations require that these mini-trucks have a 25 mph (40 km/h) speed governor as they are classified as low-speed vehicles. ] These vehicles have found uses in construction, large campuses (government, university, and industrial), agriculture, cattle ranches, amusement parks, and replacements for golf carts. ] Major mini-truck manufacturers and their brands include: Daihatsu Hijet , Honda Acty , Tata Ace , Mazda Scrum , Mitsubishi Minicab , Subaru Sambar , and Suzuki Carry . Light trucks are car-sized (in the US, no more than 13,900 lb (6.3 t)) and are used by individuals and businesses alike. In the EU they may not weigh more than 3.5 t (7,700 lb) and are allowed to be driven with a driving licence for cars. Pickup trucks , called utes in Australia and New Zealand, are common in North America and some regions of Latin America, Asia, and Africa, but not so in Europe, where this size of commercial vehicle is most often made as vans. Medium trucks are larger than light but smaller than
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and some regions of Latin America, Asia, and Africa, but not so in Europe, where this size of commercial vehicle is most often made as vans. Medium trucks are larger than light but smaller than heavy trucks. In the US, they are defined as weighing between 13,000 and 33,000 lb (5.9 and 15.0 t). For the UK and the EU the weight is between 3.5 and 7.5 t (7,700 and 16,500 lb). Local delivery and public service ( dump trucks , garbage trucks and fire-fighting trucks ) are normally around this size. Heavy trucks are the largest on-road trucks, Class 8 . These include vocational applications such as heavy dump trucks, concrete pump trucks, and refuse hauling, as well as ubiquitous long-haul 4x2 and 6×4 tractor units . ] Road damage and wear increase very rapidly with the axle weight. The number of steering axles and the suspension type also influence the amount of the road wear. In many countries with good roads a six-axle truck may have a maximum weight of 44 t (97,000 lb) or more. Off-road trucks include standard, extra heavy-duty highway-legal trucks, typically outfitted with off-road features such as a front driving axle and special tires for applications such as logging and construction, and purpose-built off-road vehicles unconstrained by weight limits, such as the Liebherr T 282B mining truck. Australia has complex regulations over weight and length, including axle spacing, type of axle/axle group, rear overhang, kingpin to rear of trailer, drawbar length, ground clearance, as well as height and width laws. These limits are some of the highest in the world, a B-double can weigh 62.5 t (61.5 long tons; 68.9 short tons) and be 25 m (82 ft) long, and road trains used in the outback can weigh 172 t (169.3 long tons; 189.6 short tons) and be 53.5 m (176 ft) long. ] ] The European Union also has complex regulations. The number and spacing of axles, steering, single or dual tires, and suspension type all affect maximum weights. Length of a truck, of a trailer, from axle to hitch point, kingpin to rear of trailer, and turning radius are all regulated. In additions, there are special rules for carrying containers, and countries can set their own rules for local traffic. ] The United States Federal Bridge Law deals with the relation between the gross weight of the truck, the number of axles, the weight on and the spacing between the axles that the truck can have on the Interstate highway system. ] Each State determines the maximum permissible vehicle , combination , and axle weight on state and local roads. Uniquely, the State of Michigan has a gross vehicle weight limit of 164,000 lb (74 t), which is twice the U.S. federal limit. ] ] ] A measure to change the law was defeated in the Michigan Senate in 2019. ] ] ] ] ] Almost all trucks share a common construction: they are made of a chassis , a cab , an area for placing cargo or equipment, axles , suspension and roadwheels , an engine and a drivetrain . Pneumatic , hydraulic , water , and electrical
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they are made of a chassis , a cab , an area for placing cargo or equipment, axles , suspension and roadwheels , an engine and a drivetrain . Pneumatic , hydraulic , water , and electrical systems may also be present. Many also tow one or more trailers or semi-trailers. The "cab", or "cabin" is an enclosed space where the driver is seated. A " sleeper " is a compartment attached to or integral with the cab where the driver can rest while not driving, sometimes seen in semi-trailer trucks. There are several cab configurations: A further step from this is the side loading forklift that can be described as a specially fabricated vehicle with the same properties as a truck of this type, in addition to the ability to pick up its own load. Most small trucks such as sport utility vehicles (SUVs), vans or pickups , and even light medium-duty trucks in North America, China, and Russia use gasoline engines (petrol engines), but many diesel engined models are now being produced. Most of the heavier trucks use four-stroke diesel engines with a turbocharger and intercooler . Huge off-highway trucks use locomotive-type engines such as a V12 Detroit Diesel two stroke engine. A large proportion of refuse trucks in the United States employ CNG (compressed natural gas) engines for their low fuel cost and reduced carbon emissions. A significant proportion of North American manufactured trucks use an engine built by the last remaining major independent engine manufacturer ( Cummins ) but most global OEMs such as Volvo Trucks and Daimler AG promote their own "captive" engines. ] In the European Union, all new truck engines must comply with Euro VI emission regulations, ] and Euro 7 from the late 2020s has stricter exhaust limits and also limits air pollution from brakes and tires . ] As of 2019 ] several alternative technologies are competing to displace the use of diesel engines in heavy trucks. CNG engines are widely used in the US refuse industry and in concrete mixers, among other short-range vocations, but range limitations have prevented their broader uptake in freight hauling applications. Heavy electric trucks and hydrogen-powered trucks are new to the market in 2021, ] ] but major freight haulers are interested. ] ] Although cars will be first the phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles includes trucks. ] According to The Economist magazine "Electric lorries will probably run on hydrogen, not batteries, which are too expensive." ] Other researchers say that once faster chargers are available batteries will become competitive against diesel for all, except perhaps the heaviest, trucks. ] Small trucks use the same type of transmissions as almost all cars, having either an automatic transmission or a manual transmission with synchromesh (synchronizers). Bigger trucks often use manual transmissions without synchronizers, saving bulk and weight, although synchromesh transmissions are used in larger trucks as well. Transmissions without synchronizers, known as "crash
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use manual transmissions without synchronizers, saving bulk and weight, although synchromesh transmissions are used in larger trucks as well. Transmissions without synchronizers, known as "crash boxes", require double-clutching for each shift, (which can lead to repetitive motion injuries), or a technique known colloquially as "floating", a method of changing gears which does not use the clutch, except for starts and stops, due to the physical effort of double-clutching, especially with non-power-assisted clutches, faster shifts, and less clutch wear. Double-clutching allows the driver to control the engine and transmission revolutions to synchronize so that a smooth shift can be made; for example, when upshifting, the accelerator pedal is released and the clutch pedal is depressed while the gear lever is moved into neutral, the clutch pedal is then released and quickly pushed down again while the gear lever is moved to the next higher gear. Finally, the clutch pedal is released and the accelerator pedal pushed down to obtain the required engine speed. Although this is a relatively fast movement, perhaps a second or so while the transmission is in neutral, it allows the engine speed to drop and synchronize engine and transmission revolutions relative to the road speed. Downshifting is performed in a similar fashion, except the engine speed is now required to increase (while the transmission is in neutral) just the right amount in order to achieve the synchronization for a smooth, non-collision gear change. "Skip changing" is also widely used; in principle, the operation is the same as double-clutching, but it requires neutral be held slightly longer than a single-gear change. Common North American setups include 9, 10, 13, 15, and 18 speeds. Automatic and automated manual transmissions for heavy trucks are becoming more and more common, due to advances both in transmission and engine power. In Europe, 8, 10, 12, and 16 gears are common on larger trucks with a manual transmission, while conventional automatic or automated manual transmissions would have anything from 5 to 12 gears. Almost all heavy truck transmissions are of the "range and split" (double H shift pattern) type, where range change and so‑called half gears or splits are air operated and always preselected before the main gear selection. A truck frame consists of two parallel boxed (tubular) or C‑shaped rails, or beams, held together by crossmembers . These frames are referred to as ladder frames due to their resemblance to a ladder if tipped on end. The rails consist of a tall vertical section (two if boxed) and two shorter horizontal flanges. The height of the vertical section provides opposition to vertical flex when weight is applied to the top of the frame (beam resistance). Though typically flat the whole length on heavy-duty trucks, the rails may sometimes be tapered or arched for clearance around the engine or over the axles. The holes in rails are used either for mounting
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typically flat the whole length on heavy-duty trucks, the rails may sometimes be tapered or arched for clearance around the engine or over the axles. The holes in rails are used either for mounting vehicle components and running wires and hoses or measuring and adjusting the orientation of the rails at the factory or repair shop. The frame is usually made of steel , but can be made (whole or in part) of aluminum for a lighter weight. A tow bar may be found attached at one or both ends, but heavy tractors almost always make use of a fifth wheel hitch. citation needed ] Box trucks have walls and a roof, making an enclosed load space. The rear has doors for unloading; a side door is sometimes fitted. ] Chassis cab trucks have a fully enclosed cab at the front, with bare chassis frame-rails behind, suitable for subsequent permanent attachment of a specialized payload, like a fire-truck or ambulance body. Concrete mixers have a rotating drum on an inclined axis, rotating in one direction to mix, and in the other to discharge the concrete down chutes. Because of the weight and power requirements of the drum body and rough construction sites, mixers have to be very heavy duty. ] ] Dual drive/Steer trucks are vehicles used to steer the rear of trailers . ] ] ] ] Dump trucks ("tippers" in the UK) transport loose material such as sand, gravel, or dirt for construction. A typical dump truck has an open-box bed, which is hinged at the rear and lifts at the front, allowing the material in the bed to be unloaded ("dumped") on the ground behind the truck. ] ] Flatbed trucks have an entirely flat, level platform body. This allows for quick and easy loading but has no protection for the load. Hanging or removable sides are sometimes fitted, ] often in the form of a stakebody . Refrigerator trucks have insulated panels as walls and a roof and floor, used for transporting fresh and frozen cargo such as ice cream, food, vegetables, and prescription drugs. They are mostly equipped with double-wing rear doors, but a side door is sometimes fitted. Refuse trucks have a specialized body for collecting and, often, compacting trash collected from municipal, commercial, and industrial sites. This application has the widest use of the cab-over configuration in North America, to provide better maneuverability in tight situations. They are also among the most severe-duty and highest GVWR trucks on public roads. Semi-tractors ("artics" in the UK) have a fifth wheel for towing a semi-trailer instead of a body. Tank trucks ("tankers" in the UK) are designed to carry liquids or gases . They usually have a cylindrical tank lying horizontally on the chassis. Many variants exist due to the wide variety of liquids and gases that can be transported. ] Wreckers ("recovery lorries" in the UK) are used to recover andchassis lifts are becoming common on newer trucks. ] ] ] In many countries, driving a truck requires a special driving license. The requirements and limitations vary with
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UK) are used to recover andchassis lifts are becoming common on newer trucks. ] ] ] In many countries, driving a truck requires a special driving license. The requirements and limitations vary with each different jurisdiction. In Australia, a truck driver 's license is required for any motor vehicle with a Gross Vehicle Mass (GVM) exceeding 4.5 t (4.4 long tons; 5.0 short tons). The motor vehicles classes are further expanded as: There is also a heavy vehicle transmission condition for a license class HC , HR , or MC test passed in a vehicle fitted with an automatic or synchromesh transmission; a driver's license will be restricted to vehicles of that class fitted with a synchromesh or automatic transmission. To have the condition removed, a person needs to pass a practical driving test in a vehicle with non-synchromesh transmission (constant mesh or crash box). ] Driving licensing has been harmonized throughout the European Union and the EEA (and practically all European non-member states), so that common rules apply within Europe (see European driving licence ). As an overview, to drive a vehicle weighing more than 7.5 t (7.4 long tons; 8.3 short tons) for commercial purposes requires a specialist license (the type varies depending on the use of the vehicle and number of seats). For licenses first acquired after 1997, that weight was reduced to 3.5 t (3.4 long tons; 3.9 short tons), not including trailers. citation needed ] Since 2013, the C1 license category allows driving vehicles over 3.5 and up to 7.5 tonnes. The C license category allows driving vehicles over 3.5 tonnes with a trailer up to 750 kg, and the CE category allows driving category C vehicles with a trailer over 750 kg. To drive any vehicle with a GVM exceeding 3.5 t (3.4 long tons; 3.9 short tons), a code C1 drivers license is required. Furthermore, if the vehicle exceeds 16 t (15.7 long tons; 17.6 short tons) a code C license becomes necessary. To drive any vehicle in South Africa towing a trailer with a GVM more than 7.5 t (7.4 long tons; 8.3 short tons), further restrictions apply and the driver must possess a license suitable for the GVM of the total combination as well as an articulated endorsement. This is indicated with the letter "E" prefixing the license code. In addition, any vehicle designed to carry goods or passengers may only be driven by a driver possessing a Public Driver's Permit, (or PrDP) of the applicable type. This is an additional license that is added to the DL card of the operator and subject to annual renewal unlike the five-year renewal period of a normal license. The requirements for obtaining the different classes are below. In the United States, a commercial driver's license is required to drive any type of commercial vehicle weighing 26,001 lb (11,794 kg) or more. ] The federal government regulates how many hours a driver may be on the clock, how much rest and sleep time is required (e.g., 11 hours driving8 days or 60 hours/7 days, 34 hours restart
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or more. ] The federal government regulates how many hours a driver may be on the clock, how much rest and sleep time is required (e.g., 11 hours driving8 days or 60 hours/7 days, 34 hours restart ) ] Violations are often subject to significant penalties. Instruments to track each driver's hours must sometimes be fitted. In 2006, the US trucking industry employed 1.8 million drivers of heavy trucks. ] There is a shortage of willing trained long-distance truck drivers. ] Part of the reason for this is the economic fallout from deregulation of the trucking industry. Michael H. Belzer , associate professor , in the economics department at Wayne State University and co-author of Sweatshops on Wheels: Winners and Losers in Trucking Deregulation , argues that low pay, bad working conditions and unsafe conditions have been a direct result of deregulation. ] ] The book cites poor working conditions and an unfair pay system as responsible for high annual employee turnover in the industry. ] ] In 2018, in the US, 5,096 large trucks and buses were involved in fatal crashes: Like cars, trucks contribute to air, noise, and water pollution . ] Unlike cars, as of 2022 ] , most trucks run on diesel, and diesel exhaust is especially dangerous for health. ] Some countries outside the EU have different vehicle emission standards for trucks and cars. ] ] NOx and particulates emitted by trucks are very dangerous to health, ] ] causing thousands of early deaths annually in the US alone. ] As older trucks are usually the worst, ] many cities have banned 20th century trucks. ] Air pollution also threatens professional truck drivers. ] Over a quarter of global transport CO 2 emissions are from road freight, ] in 2021 over 1700 million tonnes from medium and heavy trucks, ] so many countries are further restricting truck CO 2 emissions to help limit climate change . ] Many environmental organizations favor laws and incentives to encourage the switch from road to rail, especially in Europe. ] Several countries have pledged that 30% of sales of trucks and buses will be zero emission by 2030. ] With respect to noise pollution , trucks emit considerably higher sound levels at all speeds compared to typical cars; this contrast is particularly strong with heavy-duty trucks. ] There are several aspects of truck operations that contribute to the overall sound that is emitted. Continuous sounds are those from tires rolling on the roadway and the constant hum of their diesel engines at highway speeds. Less frequent noises, but perhaps more noticeable, are things like the repeated sharp-pitched whistle of a turbocharger on acceleration, or the abrupt blare of an exhaust brake retarder when traversing a downgrade. There has been noise regulation put in place to help control where and when the use of engine braking retarders are allowed. citation needed ] A truck cab is a hazard control that protects the truck operator from hazardous airborne pollutants. citation needed ] As an
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when the use of engine braking retarders are allowed. citation needed ] A truck cab is a hazard control that protects the truck operator from hazardous airborne pollutants. citation needed ] As an enclosure, it is an example of an engineering control . Enclosed operator cabs have been used on agriculture, mining, and construction vehicles for several decades. Most modern-day enclosed cabs have heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems for primarily maintaining a comfortable temperature and providing breathable air for their occupants. Various levels of filtration can be incorporated into the HVAC system to remove airborne pollutants such as dusts , diesel particulate matter (DPM), and other aerosols . ] Two key elements of an effective environmental enclosure are a good filtration system and an enclosure with good integrity (sealed isolation from the outside environment). It is recommended that a filtration system filter out at least 95% or greater of airborne respirable aerosols from the intake airflow, with an additional recirculation filtering component for the inside air. Good enclosure integrity is also needed to achieve positive pressure to prevent wind-driven aerosol penetration into the enclosure , as well as to minimize air leakage around the filtration system. Test methods and mathematical modeling of environmental enclosures are also beneficial for quantifying and optimizing filtration system designs, as well as maintaining optimum protection factor performance for enclosure occupants. ] Commercial trucks in the US pay higher road use taxes on a state level than other road vehicles and are subject to extensive regulation. ] A few reasons commercial trucks pay higher road use taxes: they are bigger and heavier than most other vehicles, and cause more wear and tear per hour on roadways; and trucks and their drivers are on the road for more hours per day. Rules on use taxes differ among jurisdictions. The life of a pavement is measured by the number of passes of a vehicle axle. It may be evaluated using the Load Equivalency Factor, ] which states that the damage by the pass of a vehicle axle is proportional to the 4th power of the weight, so a ten-ton axle consumes 10,000 times the life of the pavement as a one-ton axle. For that reason, loaded trucks cost the same as thousands of cars in pavement costs, and are subject to higher taxes and highway tolls. ] ] In 2002 and 2004, there were over 5,000 fatalities related to trucking accidents in the United States. The trucking industry has since made significant efforts in increasing safety regulations. In 2008, the industry had successfully lowered the fatality rate to just over 4,000 deaths, but trucking accidents are still an issue that causes thousands of deaths and injuries each year. Approximately 6,000 trucking accident fatalities occur annually in the United States. Fatalities are not the only issue caused by trucking accidents. Here are some of the environmental
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each year. Approximately 6,000 trucking accident fatalities occur annually in the United States. Fatalities are not the only issue caused by trucking accidents. Here are some of the environmental issues that arise with trucking accidents: Following increased pressure from The Times "Cities Fit For Cycling" campaign and from other media in Spring 2012, warning signs are now displayed on the backs of many heavy goods vehicles (HGV). These signs are directed against a common type of accident that oc
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A motorcycle ( motorbike , bike , or, if three-wheeled, a trike ) is a two or three-wheeled motor vehicle steered by a handlebar from a saddle-style seat. ] ] ] Motorcycle designs vary greatly to suit a range of different purposes: long-distance travel, commuting , cruising , sport (including racing ), and off-road riding. Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and being involved in other related social activities such as joining a motorcycle club and attending motorcycle rallies . The 1885 Daimler Reitwagen made by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Germany was the first internal combustion, petroleum -fueled motorcycle. In 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle. ] ] Globally, motorcycles are comparable numerically to cars as a method of transport: in 2021, approximately 58.6 million new motorcycles were sold around the world, ] while 66.7 million cars were sold over the same period. ] In 2022, the top four motorcycle producers by volume and type were Honda , Yamaha , Kawasaki , and Suzuki . ] In developing countries, motorcycles are considered utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy . Of all the motorcycles in the world, 58% are in the Asia-Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, excluding car-centric Japan. citation needed ] According to the US Department of Transportation , the number of fatalities per vehicle mile traveled was 37 times higher for motorcycles than for cars. ] The term motorcycle has different legal definitions depending on jurisdiction (see § Legal definitions and restrictions ). There are three major types of motorcycle: street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many sub-types of motorcycles for different purposes. There is often a racing counterpart to each type, such as road racing and street bikes, or motocross including dirt bikes. Street bikes include cruisers , sportbikes , scooters and mopeds , and many other types. Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the dual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well. Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture. In some countries the use of pillions (rear seats) is restricted. The first internal combustion , petroleum fueled motorcycle was the Daimler Reitwagen . It was designed and built by the German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt , Germany, in 1885. ] This vehicle was unlike either the safety bicycles or the boneshaker bicycles of the era in that it had zero degrees of steering axis angle and no fork offset , and thus did not use the principles of bicycle and motorcycle dynamics developed nearly 70 years earlier. Instead, it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while
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angle and no fork offset , and thus did not use the principles of bicycle and motorcycle dynamics developed nearly 70 years earlier. Instead, it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while turning. ] The inventors called their invention the Reitwagen ("riding car"). It was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle. ] ] The first commercial design for a self-propelled cycle was a three-wheel design called the Butler Petrol Cycle, conceived of Edward Butler in England in 1884. ] He exhibited his plans for the vehicle at the Stanley Cycle Show in London in 1884. The vehicle was built by the Merryweather Fire Engine company in Greenwich , in 1888. ] The Butler Petrol Cycle was a three-wheeled vehicle, with the rear wheel directly driven by a .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 5 ⁄ 8 hp (0.47 kW), 40 cc (2.4 cu in) displacement, 2 + 1 ⁄ 4 in × 5 in (57 mm × 127 mm) bore × stroke, flat twin four-stroke engine (with magneto ignition replaced by coil and battery) equipped with rotary valves and a float-fed carburettor (five years before Maybach ) and Ackermann steering , all of which were state of the art at the time. Starting was by compressed air. The engine was liquid-cooled, with a radiator over the rear driving wheel. Speed was controlled by means of a throttle valve lever. No braking system was fitted; the vehicle was stopped by raising and lowering the rear driving wheel using a foot-operated lever; the weight of the machine was then borne by two small castor wheels. The driver was seated between the front wheels. It was not, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing. ] Many authorities have excluded steam powered , electric motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a 'motorcycle', and credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the world's first motorcycle. ] ] ] Given the rapid rise in use of electric motorcycles worldwide, ] defining only internal-combustion powered two-wheelers as 'motorcycles' is increasingly problematic. The first (petroleum fueled) internal-combustion motorcycles, like the German Reitwagen , were, however, also the first practical motorcycles. ] ] ] If a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a motorcycle, then the first motorcycles built seem to be the French Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede which patent application was filed in December 1868, ] ] constructed around the same time as the American Roper steam velocipede , built by Sylvester H. Roper of Roxbury, Massachusetts , ] ] who had been demonstrating his machine at fairs and circuses in the eastern U.S. since 1867.
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time as the American Roper steam velocipede , built by Sylvester H. Roper of Roxbury, Massachusetts , ] ] who had been demonstrating his machine at fairs and circuses in the eastern U.S. since 1867. ] Roper built about 10 steam cars and cycles from the 1860s until his death in 1896. ] In 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle ( .mw-parser-output .tfd-dated{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .tfd-default{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);clear:both;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tfd-tiny{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .tfd-inline{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1)}.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);text-align:center;position:relative}@media(min-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{clear:right;float:right;width:22em}} ‹See Tfd› German : Motorrad ). ] ] ] ] Excelsior Motor Company , originally a bicycle manufacturing company based in Coventry , England , began production of their first motorcycle model in 1896. The first production motorcycle in the US was the Orient-Aster, built by Charles Metz in 1898 at his factory in Waltham, Massachusetts . In the early period of motorcycle history, many producers of bicycles adapted their designs to accommodate the new internal combustion engine. As the engines became more powerful and designs outgrew the bicycle origins, the number of motorcycle producers increased. Many of the nineteenth-century inventors who worked on early motorcycles often moved on to other inventions. Daimler and Roper, for example, both went on to develop automobiles. At the end of the 19th century the first major mass-production firms were set up. In 1898, Triumph Motorcycles in England began producing motorbikes, and by 1903 it was producing over 500 bikes. Other British firms were Royal Enfield , Norton , Douglas Motorcycles and Birmingham Small Arms Company who began motorbike production in 1899, 1902, 1907 and 1910, respectively. ] Indian began production in 1901 and Harley-Davidson was established two years later. By the outbreak of World War I, the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world was Indian, ] ] producing over 20,000 bikes per year. ] During the First World War, motorbike production was greatly ramped up for the war effort to supply effective communications with front line troops. Messengers on horses were replaced with despatch riders on motorcycles carrying messages, performing reconnaissance and acting as a military police. American company Harley-Davidson was devoting over 50% of its factory output toward military contract by the end of the war. The British company Triumph Motorcycles sold more than 30,000 of its Triumph Type H model to allied forces during the war. With the rear wheel driven by a belt, the Model H was fitted with a 499 cc (30.5 cu in) air-cooled four-stroke single-cylinder engine. It was also the first Triumph
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to allied forces during the war. With the rear wheel driven by a belt, the Model H was fitted with a 499 cc (30.5 cu in) air-cooled four-stroke single-cylinder engine. It was also the first Triumph without pedals . ] better source needed ] The Model H in particular, is regarded by many as having been the first "modern motorcycle". ] Introduced in 1915 it had a 550 cc side-valve four-stroke engine with a three-speed gearbox and belt transmission. It was so popular with its users that it was nicknamed the "Trusty Triumph". ] By 1920, Harley-Davidson was the largest manufacturer, ] with their motorcycles being sold by dealers in 67 countries. ] ] Amongst many British motorcycle manufacturers, Chater-Lea with its twin-cylinder models followed by its large singles in the 1920s stood out. Initially, using converted a Woodmann-designed ohv Blackburne engine it became the first 350 cc to exceed 100 mph (160 kmh) over the flying kilometre during April 1924. Later, Chater-Lea set a world record for the flying kilometre for 350 cc and 500 cc motorcycles at 102.9 mph (165.6 km/h) for the firm. Chater-Lea produced variants of these world-beating sports models and became popular among racers at the Isle of Man TT. Today, the firm is probably best remembered for its long-term contract to manufacture and supply AA Patrol motorcycles and sidecars. citation needed ] By the late 1920s or early 1930s, DKW in Germany took over as the largest manufacturer. ] ] ] In the 1950s, streamlining began to play an increasing part in the development of racing motorcycles and the "dustbin fairing" held out the possibility of radical changes to motorcycle design. NSU and Moto Guzzi were in the vanguard of this development, both producing very radical designs well ahead of their time. ] NSU produced the most advanced design, but after the deaths of four NSU riders in the 1954–1956 seasons, they abandoned further development and quit Grand Prix motorcycle racing . ] Moto Guzzi produced competitive race machines, and until the end of 1957 had a succession of victories. ] The following year, 1958, full enclosure fairings were banned from racing by the FIM in the light of the safety concerns. From the 1960s through the 1990s, small two-stroke motorcycles were popular worldwide, partly as a result of East German MZs Walter Kaaden's engine work in the 1950s. ] In the 21st century, the motorcycle industry is mainly dominated by Indian and Japanese motorcycle companies. In addition to the large capacity motorcycles, there is a large market in smaller capacity (less than 300 cc) motorcycles, mostly concentrated in Asian and African countries and produced in China and India. citation needed ] A Japanese example is the 1958 Honda Super Cub , which went on to become the biggest selling vehicle of all time, with its 60 millionth unit produced in April 2008. ] Today, this area is dominated by mostly Indian companies with Hero MotoCorp emerging as the world's largest manufacturer of two
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of all time, with its 60 millionth unit produced in April 2008. ] Today, this area is dominated by mostly Indian companies with Hero MotoCorp emerging as the world's largest manufacturer of two wheelers. Its Splendor model has sold more than 8.5 million to date. ] Other major producers are Bajaj and TVS Motors . ] Motorcycle construction is the engineering, manufacturing, and assembly of components and systems for a motorcycle which results in the performance, cost, and aesthetics desired by the designer. With some exceptions, construction of modern mass-produced motorcycles has standardised on a steel or aluminium frame , telescopic forks holding the front wheel, and disc brakes . Some other body parts, designed for either aesthetic or performance reasons may be added. A petrol-powered engine typically consisting of between one and four cylinders (and less commonly, up to eight cylinders) coupled to a manual five- or six-speed sequential transmission drives the swingarm -mounted rear wheel by a chain , driveshaft , or belt . The repair can be done using a Motorcycle lift . Motorcycle fuel economy varies greatly with engine displacement and riding style. ] A streamlined, fully faired Matzu Matsuzawa Honda XL125 achieved 470 mpg ‑US (0.50 L/100 km; 560 mpg ‑imp ) in the Craig Vetter Fuel Economy Challenge "on real highways – in real conditions". ] Due to low engine displacements (100–200 cc (6.1–12.2 cu in)), and high power-to-mass ratios, motorcycles offer good fuel economy. Under conditions of fuel scarcity like 1950s Britain and modern developing nations, motorcycles claim large shares of the vehicle market. In the United States, the average motorcycle fuel economy is 44 miles per US gallon (19 km per liter). ] Very high fuel economy equivalents are often derived by electric motorcycles. Electric motorcycles are nearly silent, zero-emission electric motor-driven vehicles. Operating range and top speed are limited by battery technology. ] Fuel cells and petroleum-electric hybrids are also under development to extend the range and improve performance of the electric drive system. A 2013 survey of 4,424 readers of the US Consumer Reports magazine collected reliability data on 4,680 motorcycles purchased new from 2009 to 2012. ] The most common problem areas were accessories , brakes , electrical (including starters , charging , ignition ), and fuel systems , and the types of motorcycles with the greatest problems were touring, off-roaddual sport and sport touring bikes. ] Trouble with fuel systems is often the result of improper winter storage, and brake problems may also be due to poor maintenance. ] Of the five brands with enough data to draw conclusions, Honda, Kawasaki and Yamaha were statistically tied, with 11 to 14% of those bikes in the survey experiencing major repairs. ] Harley-Davidsons had a rate of 24%, while BMWs did worse, with 30% of those needing major repairs. ] There were not enough Triumph and Suzuki motorcycles surveyed for a
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experiencing major repairs. ] Harley-Davidsons had a rate of 24%, while BMWs did worse, with 30% of those needing major repairs. ] There were not enough Triumph and Suzuki motorcycles surveyed for a statistically sound conclusion, though it appeared Suzukis were as reliable as the other three Japanese brands while Triumphs were comparable to Harley-Davidson and BMW. ] Three-fourths of the repairs in the survey cost less than US$200 and two-thirds of the motorcycles were repaired in less than two days. ] In spite of their relatively worse reliability in this survey, Harley-Davidson and BMW owners showed the greatest owner satisfaction, and three-fourths of them said they would buy the same bike again, followed by 72% of Honda owners and 60 to 63% of Kawasaki and Yamaha owners. ] Two-wheeled motorcycles stay upright while rolling due to a physical property known as conservation of angular momentum in the wheels. Angular momentum points along the axle, and it "wants" to stay pointing in that direction. Different types of motorcycles have different dynamics and these play a role in how a motorcycle performs in given conditions. For example, one with a longer wheelbase provides the feeling of more stability by responding less to disturbances. ] Motorcycle tyres have a large influence over handling. Motorcycles must be leaned in order to make turns. This lean is induced by the method known as countersteering , in which the rider momentarily steers the handlebars in the direction opposite of the desired turn. This practice is counterintuitive and therefore often confusing to novices – and even many experienced motorcyclists. ] ] ] With such short wheelbase , motorcycles can generate enough torque at the rear wheel, and enough stopping force at the front wheel, to lift the opposite wheel off the road. These actions, if performed on purpose, are known as wheelies and stoppies (or endos) respectively. Various features and accessories may be attached to a motorcycle either as OEM (factory-fitted) or aftermarket . Such accessories are selected by the owner to enhance the motorcycle's appearance, safety, performance, or comfort, and may include anything from mobile electronics to sidecars and trailers . Motorcycles have a higher rate of fatal accidents than automobiles or trucks and buses. United States Department of Transportation data for 2005 from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System show that for passenger cars, 18.62 fatal crashes occur per 100,000 registered vehicles. For motorcycles this figure is higher at 75.19 per 100,000 registered vehicles – four times higher than for cars. ] The same data shows that 1.56 fatalities occur per 100 million vehicle miles travelled for passenger cars, whereas for motorcycles the figure is 43.47 which is 28 times higher than for cars (37 times more deaths per mile travelled in 2007). ] Furthermore, for motorcycles the accident rates have increased significantly since the end of the 1990s, while the rates have
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higher than for cars (37 times more deaths per mile travelled in 2007). ] Furthermore, for motorcycles the accident rates have increased significantly since the end of the 1990s, while the rates have dropped for passenger cars. The most common configuration of motorcycle accidents in the United States is when a motorist pulls out or turns in front of a motorcyclist, violating their right-of-way. ] This is sometimes called a SMIDSY , an acronym formed from the motorists' common response of "Sorry mate, I didn't see you". ] Motorcyclists can anticipate and avoid some of these crashes with proper training, increasing their visibility to other traffic, keeping to the speed limits, and not consuming alcohol or other drugs before riding. ] The United Kingdom has several organisations dedicated to improving motorcycle safety by providing advanced rider training beyond what is necessary to pass the basic motorcycle licence test. These include the Institute of Advanced Motorists (IAM) and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA). Along with increased personal safety, riders with these advanced qualifications may benefit from reduced insurance costs ] In South Africa, the Think Bike campaign is dedicated to increasing both motorcycle safety and the awareness of motorcycles on the country's roads. The campaign, while strongest in the Gauteng province, has representation in Western Cape, KwaZulu Natal and the Free State. It has dozens of trained marshals available for various events such as cycle races and is deeply involved in numerous other projects such as the annual Motorcycle Toy Run. ] Motorcycle safety education is offered throughout the United States by organisations ranging from state agencies to non-profit organisations to corporations. Most states use the courses designed by the Motorcycle Safety Foundation (MSF), while Oregon and Idaho developed their own. All of the training programs include a Basic Rider Course, an Intermediate Rider Course and an Advanced Rider Course. In Ireland , since 2010, ] in the UK and some Australian jurisdictions, such as Victoria , New South Wales , ] the Australian Capital Territory , ] Tasmania ] and the Northern Territory , ] it is compulsory to complete a basic rider training course before being issued a Learners Licence, after which they can ride on public roads. In Canada, motorcycle rider training is compulsory in Quebec and Manitoba only, but all provinces and territories have graduated licence programs which place restrictions on new drivers until they have gained experience. Eligibility for a full motorcycle licence or endorsement for completing a Motorcycle Safety course varies by province. Without the Motorcycle Safety Course the chance of getting insurance for the motorcycle is very low. The Canada Safety Council , a non-profit safety organisation, offers the Gearing Up program across Canada and is endorsed by the Motorcycle and Moped Industry Council. ] Training course graduates may
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The Canada Safety Council , a non-profit safety organisation, offers the Gearing Up program across Canada and is endorsed by the Motorcycle and Moped Industry Council. ] Training course graduates may qualify for reduced insurance premiums. Motorcyclists and motor scooter riders are also exposed to an increased risk of suffering hearing damage such as hearing loss and tinnitus (ringing ears). ] ] The noise is caused by wind noise while riding, rolling noise from the tyres and the engine itself. ] The helmet only provides insufficient protection against high sound pressure levels. ] Medicine (as of 2024) is not able to cure hearing damage. Wearing hearing protection, such as special earplugs for motorcyclists, can help prevent hearing damage. The motorcyclist's riding position depends on rider body-geometry ( anthropometry ) combined with the geometry of the motorcycle itself. These factors create a set of three basic postures. ] Factors of a motorcycle's ergonomic geometry that determine the seating posture include the height, angle and location of footpegs, seat and handlebars. Factors in a rider's physical geometry that contribute to seating posture include torso, arm, thigh and leg length, and overall rider height. A motorcycle is broadly defined by law in most countries for the purposes of registration, taxation and rider licensing as a powered two-wheel motor vehicle. Most countries distinguish between mopeds of 49 cc and the more powerful, larger vehicles, including scooter type motorcycles. ] Many jurisdictions include some forms of three-wheeled cars as motorcycles. In Nigeria , motorcycles, popularly referred to as Okada have been subject of many controversies with regards to safety and security followed by restriction of movement in many states. In 2020, it was banned in Lagos , Nigeria's most populous city. ] ] Motorcycles and scooters' low fuel consumption has attracted interest in the United States from environmentalists and those affected by increased fuel prices. ] ] Piaggio Group Americas supported this interest with the launch of a "Vespanomics" website and platform, claiming lower per-mile carbon emissions of 0.4 lbkm) less than the average car, a 65% reduction, and better fuel economy. ] However, a motorcycle's exhaust emissions may contain 10–20 times more oxides of nitrogen (NOx) , carbon monoxide , and unburned hydrocarbons than exhaust from a similar-year passenger car or SUV. ] ] This is because many motorcycles lack a catalytic converter , and the emission standard is much more permissive for motorcycles than for other vehicles. ] While catalytic converters have been installed in most gasoline-powered cars and trucks since 1975 in the United States, they can present fitment and heat difficulties in motorcycle applications. ] better source needed ] United States Environmental Protection Agency 2007 certification result reports for all vehicles versus on highway motorcycles (which also includes scooters), ] the average
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] better source needed ] United States Environmental Protection Agency 2007 certification result reports for all vehicles versus on highway motorcycles (which also includes scooters), ] the average certified emissions level for 12,327 vehicles tested was 0.734. The average "Nox+Co End-Of-Useful-Life-Emissions" for 3,863 motorcycles tested was 0.8531. 54% of the tested 2007-model motorcycles were equipped with a catalytic converter. The following table shows maximum acceptable legal emissions of the combination of hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and carbon monoxide for new motorcycles sold in the United States with 280 cc or greater piston displacement . ] The maximum acceptable legal emissions of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide for new Class I and II motorcycles (50 cc–169 cc and 170 cc–279 cc respectively) sold in the United States are as follows: ] European emission standards for motorcycles are similar to those for cars. ] New motorcycles must meet Euro 5 standards, ] while cars must meet Euro 6D-temp standards. Motorcycle emission controls are being updated and it has been proposed to update to Euro 5+ in 2024. ] According to the National Environmental Status Report 2016 and recent air quality reports, emissions from motor vehicles have been identified as the main cause of environmental pollution . ] ] Among them, with over 68 million vehicles in operation nationwide (statistics from the Ministry of Transport, 2021), motorcycles are the largest source of pollutant emissions. ] ] ] In Hanoi , there are over 6 million motorcycles, of which nearly 3 million were manufactured before 2000. ] ] ] In Ho Chi Minh City , there are about 7.8 million motorcycles, of which 67.89% are over 10 years old. ] ] Air quality index (AQI) in urban centers often spikes during peak traffic times, such as rush hour in the morning and evening. ] ] ] A study by the Institute of Environment and Resources, Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City , found that motorcycles account for about 29% of NO emissions, 90% of CO emissions, 65.4% of NMVOC emissions, 37.7% of particulate matter emissions, and 31% of fine particulate matter emissions. ] ] ] Traffic emissions account for 50% of total emissions in Ho Chi Minh City . ] While the world is moving towards Euro 6 emission standards, most cars in Vietnam meet Euro 4 or Euro 5 standards. However, motorcycles still meet Euro 2 or Euro 3 standards, which were implemented over 25 years ago. ]
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A traffic collision , also known as a motor vehicle collision , or car crash , occurs when a vehicle collides with another vehicle, pedestrian , animal , road debris , or other moving or stationary obstruction, such as a tree, pole or building. Traffic collisions often result in injury , disability , death , and property damage as well as financial costs to both society and the individuals involved. Road transport is statistically the most dangerous situation people deal with on a daily basis, but casualty figures from such incidents attract less media attention than other, less frequent types of tragedy. ] The commonly used term car accident is increasingly falling out of favor with many government departments and organizations, with the Associated Press style guide recommending caution before using the term. ] Some collisions are intentional vehicle-ramming attacks , staged crashes , vehicular homicide or vehicular suicide . Several factors contribute to the risk of collisions, including vehicle design , speed of operation, road design , weather , road environment, driving skills, impairment due to alcohol or drugs , and behavior, notably aggressive driving , distracted driving, speeding and street racing . In 2013, 54 million people worldwide sustained injuries from traffic collisions. ] This resulted in 1.4 million deaths in 2013, up from 1.1 million deaths in 1990. ] About 68,000 of these occurred with children less than five years old. ] Almost all high-income countries have decreasing death rates, while the majority of low-income countries have increasing death rates due to traffic collisions. Middle-income countries have the highest rate with 20 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants , accounting for 80% of all road fatalities with 52% of all vehicles. While the death rate in Africa is the highest (24.1 per 100,000 inhabitants), the lowest rate is to be found in Europe (10.3 per 100,000 inhabitants). ] Traffic collisions can be classified by general types. Types of collision include head-on , road departure , rear-end , side collisions , and rollovers . Many different terms are commonly used to describe vehicle collisions. The World Health Organization uses the term road traffic injury , ] while the U.S. Census Bureau uses the term motor vehicle accidents ( MVA ), ] and Transport Canada uses the term "motor vehicle traffic collision" (MVTC). ] Other common terms include auto accident , car accident , car crash , car smash , car wreck , motor vehicle collision ( MVC ), personal injury collision ( PIC ), road accident , road traffic accident ( RTA ), road traffic collision ( RTC ), and road traffic incident ( RTI ) as well as more unofficial terms including smash-up , pile-up , and fender bender . Many organizations, companies and government agencies have begun to avoid the term accident , instead preferring terms such as collision , crash or incident . ] ] This is because the term accident may imply that there is no one to blame or that the
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have begun to avoid the term accident , instead preferring terms such as collision , crash or incident . ] ] This is because the term accident may imply that there is no one to blame or that the collision was unavoidable, whereas most traffic collisions are the result of driving under the influence , excessive speed , distractions such as mobile phones , other risky behavior, poor road design, or other preventable factors. ] ] ] ] In 1997, George L. Reagle, the Associate Administrator for Motor Carriers of the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration wrote a letter stating that "A crash is not an accident", emphasizing that the Department's Research and Special Programs Administration, the Federal Highway Administration , and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration had all declared that "accident" should be avoided in their published writings and media communications. ] In 2016, the Associated Press updated its style guide to recommend that journalists use "crash, collision, or other terms" rather than "accident" unless culpability is proven. The AP also recommends avoiding "accident" when negligence is proven or claimed because the term "can be read as exonerating the person responsible." ] In 2021, the American Automobile Association (AAA) passed a resolution to replace "car accident" with "car crash" in their vocabulary. ] In 2022, the traffic management company INRIX announced that "accident" would be removed from their lexicon. ] The Maryland Department of Transportation 's Highway Safety Office emphasizes that "crashes are no accident", saying that "Using the word accident suggests that an incident was unavoidable, but many roadway crashes can be attributed to human error." ] The Michigan Department of Transportation states that "accident" should be dropped in favor of "crash", saying that "Traffic crashes are fixable problems, caused by inattentive drivers and driver behavior. They are NOT accidents." ] In line with their Vision Zero commitments, the Portland Bureau of Transportation recommends using "crash" rather than "accident". ] On the contrary, some have criticized the use of terminology other than accident for holding back safety improvements, based on the idea that such terms perpetuate a culture of blame that may discourage the involved parties from fully disclosing the facts, and thus frustrate attempts to address the real root causes . ] Some traffic collisions are caused intentionally by a driver. For example, a collision may be caused by a driver who intends to commit vehicular suicide . ] Collisions may also be intentionally caused by people who hope to make an insurance claim against the other driver or may be staged for such purposes as insurance fraud. ] ] Motor vehicles may also be involved in collisions as part of a deliberate effort to hurt other people, such as in a vehicle-ramming attack ] or vehicular homicide . ] A number of physical injuries can commonly result from the blunt force trauma caused by a
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of a deliberate effort to hurt other people, such as in a vehicle-ramming attack ] or vehicular homicide . ] A number of physical injuries can commonly result from the blunt force trauma caused by a collision, ranging from bruising and contusions to catastrophic physical injury (e.g., paralysis), traumatic or non-traumatic cardiac arrest and death. The CDC estimates that roughly 100 people die in motor vehicle crashes each day in the United States. ] Following collisions, long-lasting psychological trauma may occur. ] These issues may make those who have been in a crash afraid to drive again. In some cases, psychological trauma may affect individuals' lives, causing difficulty going to work, attending school, or performing family responsibilities. ] Road incidents are caused by a large number of human factors such as failing to act according to weather conditions, road design, signage, speed limits, lighting conditions, pavement markings, and roadway obstacles. ] A 1985 study by K. Rumar, using British and American crash reports as data, suggested 57% of crashes were due solely to driver factors, 27% to the combined roadway and driver factors, 6% to the combined vehicle and driver factors, 3% solely to roadway factors, 3% to combined roadway, driver, and vehicle factors, 2% solely to vehicle factors, and 1% to combined roadway and vehicle factors. ] Reducing the severity of injury in crashes is more important than reducing incidence and ranking incidence by broad categories of causes is misleading regarding severe injury reduction. Vehicle and road modifications are generally more effective than behavioral change efforts with the exception of certain laws such as required use of seat belts, motorcycle helmets, and graduated licensing of teenagers. ] Human factors in vehicle collisions include anything related to drivers and other road users that may contribute to a collision. Examples include driver behavior, visual and auditory acuity, decision-making ability, and reaction speed. A 1985 report based on British and American crash data found driver error, intoxication , and other human factors contribute wholly or partly to about 93% of crashes. ] A 2019 report from the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration found that leading contributing factors for fatal crashes included driving too fast for conditions or in excess of the speed limit, operating under the influence, failure to yield right of way, failure to keep within the proper lane, operating a vehicle in a careless manner, and distracted driving. ] Drivers distracted by mobile devices had nearly four times greater risk of crashing their cars than those who were not. Research from the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute has found that drivers who are texting while driving are 23 times more likely to be involved in a crash as non-texting drivers. ] Dialing a phone is the most dangerous distraction, increasing a drivers' chance of crashing by 12 times, followed by reading or
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times more likely to be involved in a crash as non-texting drivers. ] Dialing a phone is the most dangerous distraction, increasing a drivers' chance of crashing by 12 times, followed by reading or writing, which increased the risk by ten times. ] An RAC survey of British drivers found 78% of drivers thought they were highly skilled at driving, and most thought they were better than other drivers, a result suggesting overconfidence in their abilities. Nearly all drivers who had been in a crash did not believe themselves to be at fault. ] One survey of drivers reported that they thought the key elements of good driving were: ] Although proficiency in these skills is taught and tested as part of the driving exam, a "good" driver can still be at a high risk of crashing because: the feeling of being confident in more and more challenging situations is experienced as evidence of driving ability, and that 'proven' ability reinforces the feelings of confidence. Confidence feeds itself and grows unchecked until something happens – a near-miss or an accident. ] An Axa survey concluded Irish drivers are very safety-conscious relative to other European drivers. This does not translate to significantly lower crash rates in Ireland. ] Accompanying changes to road designs have been wide-scale adoptions of rules of the road alongside law enforcement policies that included drink-driving laws, setting of speed limits, and speed enforcement systems such as speed cameras . Some countries' driving tests have been expanded to test a new driver's behavior during emergencies, and their hazard perception. There are demographic differences in crash rates. For example, although young people tend to have good reaction times, disproportionately more young male drivers feature in collisions, ] with researchers observing that many exhibit behaviors and attitudes to risk that can place them in more hazardous situations than other road users. ] This is reflected by actuaries when they set insurance rates for different age groups, partly based on their age, sex, and choice of vehicle. Older drivers with slower reactions might be expected to be involved in more collisions, but this has not been the case as they tend to drive less and, apparently, more cautiously. ] Attempts to impose traffic policies can be complicated by local circumstances and driver behavior. In 1969 Leeming warned that there is a balance to be struck when "improving" the safety of a road. ] Conversely, a location that does not look dangerous may have a high crash frequency. This is, in part, because if drivers perceive a location as hazardous, they take more care. Collisions may be more likely to happen when hazardous road or traffic conditions are not obvious at a glance, or where the conditions are too complicated for the limited human machine to perceive and react in the time and distance available. High incidence of crashes is not indicative of high injury risk. Crashes are common in areas of high
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for the limited human machine to perceive and react in the time and distance available. High incidence of crashes is not indicative of high injury risk. Crashes are common in areas of high vehicle congestion, but fatal crashes occur disproportionately on rural roads at night when traffic is relatively light. This phenomenon has been observed in risk compensation research, where the predicted reductions in collision rates have not occurred after legislative or technical changes. One study observed that the introduction of improved brakes resulted in more aggressive driving, ] and another argued that compulsory seat belt laws have not been accompanied by a clearly attributed fall in overall fatalities. ] Most claims of risk compensation offsetting the effects of vehicle regulation and belt use laws have been discredited by research using more refined data. ] In the 1990s, Hans Monderman 's studies of driver behavior led him to the realization that signs and regulations had an adverse effect on a driver's ability to interact safely with other road users. Monderman developed shared space principles, rooted in the principles of the woonerven of the 1970s. He concluded that the removal of highway clutter, while allowing drivers and other road users to mingle with equal priority, could help drivers recognize environmental clues. They relied on their cognitive skills alone, reducing traffic speeds radically and resulting in lower levels of road casualties and lower levels of congestion. ] Some crashes are intended; staged crashes , for example, involve at least one party who hopes to crash a vehicle in order to submit lucrative claims to an insurance company. ] In the United States during the 1990s, criminals recruited Latin American immigrants to deliberately crash cars, usually by cutting in front of another car and slamming on the brakes. It was an illegal and risky job, and they were typically paid only $100. Jose Luis Lopez Perez, a staged crash driver, died after one such maneuver, leading to an investigation that uncovered the increasing frequency of this type of crash. ] The U.S. Department of Transportation's Federal Highway Administration reviewed research on traffic speed in 1998. ] The summary says: In the U.S. in 2018, 9,378 people were killed in motor vehicle crashes involving at least one speeding driver, which accounted for 26% of all traffic-related deaths for the year. ] In Michigan in 2019, excessive speed was a factor in 18.8% of the fatalities that resulted from fatal motor vehicle crashes and in 15.6% of the suspected serious injuries resulting from crashes. ] The Road and Traffic Authority (RTA) of the Australian state of New South Wales (NSW) asserts speeding (traveling too fast for the prevailing conditions or above the posted speed limit ] ) is a factor in about 40 percent of road deaths. ] The RTA also says speeding increases the risk of a crash and its severity. ] On another web page, the RTA qualifies its claims by referring
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limit ] ) is a factor in about 40 percent of road deaths. ] The RTA also says speeding increases the risk of a crash and its severity. ] On another web page, the RTA qualifies its claims by referring to one specific piece of research from 1997, and writes "Research has shown that the risk of a crash causing death or injury increases rapidly, even with small increases above an appropriately set speed limit." ] The contributory factor report in the official British road casualty statistics shows for 2006, that "exceeding the speed limit" was a contributory factor in 5% of all casualty crashes (14% of all fatal crashes), and "traveling too fast for conditions" was a contributory factor in 11% of all casualty crashes (18% of all fatal crashes). ] In France, in 2018, the speed limit was reduced from 90 kmh on a large part of the local outside built-up area road network in the sole aim of reducing the number of road fatalities. A common cause of collisions is driving faster than one can stop within their field of vision . ] Such practice is illegal ] ] and is particularly responsible for an increase in fatalities at night – when it occurs most. ] ] Driver impairment describes factors that prevent the driver from driving at their normal level of skill. Common impairments include: Females in this age group exhibit somewhat lower collision and fatality rates than males but still register well above the median for drivers of all ages. citation needed ] Also within this group, the highest collision incidence rate occurs within the first year of licensed driving. For this reason, many US states have enacted a zero-tolerance policy wherein receiving a moving violation within the first six months to one year of obtaining a license results in automatic license suspension. South Dakota is the only state that allows fourteen-year-olds to obtain drivers' licenses. Various factors such as fatigue or sleep deprivation might increase the risk, or the number of hours of driving might increase the risk of an incident. ] 41% of drivers self-report having fallen asleep at the wheel. ] : 41 It is estimated that 15% of fatal crashes involve drowsiness (10% of daytime crashes, and 24% of nighttime crashes). Work factors can increase the risk of drowsy driving such as long or irregular hours or driving at night. ] Cell phone use is an increasingly significant problem on the roads and the U.S. National Safety Council compiled more than 30 studies postulating that hands-free is not a safer option because the brain remains distracted by the conversation and cannot focus solely on the task of driving. ] Several conditions can combine to create a more dangerous situation, for example, low doses of alcohol and cannabis have a more severe effect on driving performance than either in isolation. ] Taking recommended doses of several drugs together, which individually do not cause impairment, may cause drowsiness. This could be more pronounced in an elderly person whose renal
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in isolation. ] Taking recommended doses of several drugs together, which individually do not cause impairment, may cause drowsiness. This could be more pronounced in an elderly person whose renal function is less efficient than a younger person's. ] A 1985 US study showed that about 34% of serious crashes had contributing factors related to the roadway or its environment. Most of these crashes also involved a human factor. ] The road or environmental factor was either noted as making a significant contribution to the circumstances of the crash or did not allow room to recover. In these circumstances, it is frequently the driver who is blamed rather than the road; those reporting the collisions have a tendency to overlook the human factors involved, such as the subtleties of design and maintenance that a driver could fail to observe or inadequately compensate for. ] Research has shown that careful design and maintenance, with well-designed intersections, road surfaces, visibility and traffic control devices, can result in significant improvements in collision rates. Individual roads also have widely differing performance in the event of an impact. In Europe, there are now EuroRAP tests that indicate how "self-explaining" and forgiving a particular road and its roadside would be in the event of a major incident. In the UK, research has shown that investment in a safe road infrastructure program could yield a .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 1 ⁄ 3 reduction in road deaths, saving as much as £6 billion per year. ] A consortium of 13 major road safety stakeholders has formed the Campaign for Safe Road Design , which is calling on the UK Government to make safe road design a national transport priority. Research has shown that, across all collision types, it is less likely that seat belts were worn in collisions involving death or serious injury, rather than light injury; wearing a seat belt reduces the risk of death by about 45 percent. ] Seat belt use is controversial, with notable critics such as Professor John Adams suggesting that their use may lead to a net increase in road casualties due to a phenomenon known as risk compensation . ] Observation of driver behaviors before and after seat belt laws does not support the risk compensation hypothesis. Several driving behaviors were observed on the road before and after the belt use law was enforced in Newfoundland, and in Nova Scotia during the same period without a law. Belt use increased from 16 percent to 77 percent in Newfoundland and remained virtually unchanged in Nova Scotia. Four driver behaviors (speed, stopping at intersections when the control light was
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Belt use increased from 16 percent to 77 percent in Newfoundland and remained virtually unchanged in Nova Scotia. Four driver behaviors (speed, stopping at intersections when the control light was amber, turning left in front of oncoming traffic, and gaps in following distance) were measured at various sites before and after the law. Changes in these behaviors in Newfoundland were similar to those in Nova Scotia, except that drivers in Newfoundland drove slower on expressways after the law, contrary to the risk compensation theory. ] A well-designed and well-maintained vehicle, with good brakes, tires and well-adjusted suspension will be more controllable in an emergency and thus be better equipped to avoid collisions. Some mandatory vehicle inspection schemes include tests for some aspects of roadworthiness , such as the UK's MOT test or German TÜV conformance inspection. The design of vehicles has also evolved to improve protection after collision, both for vehicle occupants and for those outside of the vehicle. Much of this work was led by automotive industry competition and technological innovation, leading to measures such as Saab 's safety cage and reinforced roof pillars of 1946, Ford's 1956 Lifeguard safety package, and Saab and Volvo 's introduction of standard fit seatbelts in 1959. Other initiatives were accelerated as a reaction to consumer pressure, after publications such as Ralph Nader 's 1965 book Unsafe at Any Speed accused motor manufacturers of indifference to safety. In the early 1970s, British Leyland started an intensive program of vehicle safety research, producing a number of prototype experimental safety vehicles demonstrating various innovations for occupant and pedestrian protection such as airbags , anti-lock brakes , impact-absorbing side-panels, front and rear head restraints, run-flat tires, smooth and deformable front-ends, impact-absorbing bumpers, and retractable headlamps. ] The design has also been influenced by government legislation, such as the Euro NCAP impact test . Common features designed to improve safety include thicker pillars, safety glass, interiors with no sharp edges, stronger bodies , other active or passive safety features, and smooth exteriors to reduce the consequences of an impact on pedestrians. The UK Department for Transport publish road casualty statistics for each type of collision and vehicle through its Road Casualties Great Britain report. ] These statistics show a ten-to-one ratio of in-vehicle fatalities between types of cars. In most cars, occupants have a 2–8% chance of death in a two-car collision. Some crash types tend to have more serious consequences. Rollovers have become more common in recent years, perhaps due to the increased popularity of taller SUVs , people carriers , and minivans , which have a higher center of gravity than standard passenger cars. Rollovers can be fatal, especially if the occupants are ejected because they were not wearing seat belts (83% of
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, and minivans , which have a higher center of gravity than standard passenger cars. Rollovers can be fatal, especially if the occupants are ejected because they were not wearing seat belts (83% of ejections during rollovers were fatal when the driver did not wear a seat belt, compared to 25% when they did). ] After a first-generation Mercedes-Benz A-Class notoriously failed a ' moose test ' (sudden swerving to avoid an obstacle) in 1997, some manufacturers enhanced suspension using stability control linked to an anti-lock braking system to reduce the likelihood of rollover. citation needed ] After retrofitting these systems to its models in 1999–2000, Mercedes saw its models involved in fewer crashes. ] Now, about 40% of new US vehicles, mainly the SUVs, vans and pickup trucks that are more susceptible to rollover, are being produced with a lower center of gravity and enhanced suspension with stability control linked to its anti-lock braking system to reduce the risk of rollover and meet US federal requirements that mandate anti-rollover technology by September 2011. ] Motorcyclists and pillion-riders have little protection other than their clothing and helmets. ] This difference is reflected in the casualty statistics, where they are more than twice as likely to suffer severely after a collision. In 2005, there were 198,735 road crashes with 271,017 reported casualties on roads in Great Britain. This included 3,201 deaths (1.1%) and 28,954 serious injuries (10.7%) overall. Of these casualties 178,302 (66%) were car users and 24,824 (9%) were motorcyclists, of whom 569 were killed (2.3%) and 5,939 seriously injured (24%). ] Studies in United States have shown that poor people have a greater risk of dying in a car crash than people who are well-off. ] Car deaths are also higher in poorer states. ] Similar studies in France or Israel have shown the same results. ] ] ] This may be due to working-class people having less access to secure equipment in cars, having older cars which are less protected against crash, and needing to cover more distance to go to work each day. While the advent of the COVID lockdown meant a decrease in road traffic in the United States, the rates of incidents, speeding, and traffic fatalities rose in 2020 and 2021 (rate as measured against vehicle miles traveled). ] The traffic fatality rate jumped to 1.25 per 100 million vehicle miles traveled, up from 1.06 during the same period in 2019. Reasons cited for the increases are greater speeds, not wearing seatbelts, and driving while impaired. ] In their preliminary report covering the first six months of 2021, the US nonprofit public safety advocacy group, the National Safety Council (NSC) estimated of total motor-vehicle deaths for the first six months of 2021 were 21,450, up 16% from 2020 and up 17% from 18,384 in 2019. The estimated mileage death rate in 2021 was 1.43 deaths per 100 million vehicle miles traveled, up 3% from 1.39 in 2020 and up 24% from 1.15 in 2019. ]
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16% from 2020 and up 17% from 18,384 in 2019. The estimated mileage death rate in 2021 was 1.43 deaths per 100 million vehicle miles traveled, up 3% from 1.39 in 2020 and up 24% from 1.15 in 2019. ] Preliminary data also show that even as traffic levels returned to normal after the onset of COVID in March–April 2020, drivers continued to drive at excessive speeds. ] A 2020 study conducted by INRIX, private company that analyzes traffic patters, behaviors and congestion, showed that as traffic levels returned to normal during the three-month period August to October 2020, growth in collisions (57%), outpaced the growth in miles traveled (22%) resulting in a higher than normal collision rate during this period. ] In France, the Ministry of Interior reported that traffic incidents, crash-related injuries, and fatalities dropped in 2020 compared with 2019. Fatalities dropped 21.4%, injuries dropped 20.9%, and incidents overall dropped 20%. ] It also reported that the number of vehicles on the road dropped by 75%, which suggests the rate (incidents per vehicle-mile) increased. Other possibly hazardous factors that may alter a driver's soundness on the road include: A large body of knowledge has been amassed on how to prevent car crashes, and reduce the severity of those that do occur. Owing to the global and massive scale of the issue, with predictions that by 2020 road traffic deaths and injuries will exceed HIV/AIDS as a cause of death and disability, ] the United Nations and its subsidiary bodies have passed resolutions and held conferences on the issue. The first United Nations General Assembly resolution and debate was in 2003 ] The World Day of Remembrance for Road Traffic Victims was declared in 2005. In 2009 the first high level ministerial conference on road safety was held in Moscow . The World Health Organization , a specialized agency of the United Nations Organization , in its Global Status Report on Road Safety 2009, estimates that over 90% of the world's fatalities on the roads occur in low-income and middle-income countries, which have only 48% of the world's registered vehicles, and predicts road traffic injuries will rise to become the fifth leading cause of death by 2030. ] The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 3, target 3.6 is directed at reducing road injuries and deaths. February 2020 saw a global ministerial conference which brought the Stockholm Declaration , setting a target to reduce global traffic deaths and injuries by 50% within ten years. The decade of 2021–2030 was declared the second decade of road safety. Collisions migration refers to a situation where action to reduce road traffic collisions in one place may result in those collisions resurfacing elsewhere. ] For example, an accident blackspot may occur at a dangerous bend. ] The treatment for this may be to increase signage, post an advisory speed limit, apply a high-friction road surface, add crash barriers or any one of a number of other visible
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at a dangerous bend. ] The treatment for this may be to increase signage, post an advisory speed limit, apply a high-friction road surface, add crash barriers or any one of a number of other visible interventions. The immediate result may be to reduce collisions at the bend, but the subconscious relaxation on leaving the "dangerous" bend may cause drivers to act with fractionally less care on the rest of the road, resulting in an increase in collisions elsewhere on the road, and no overall improvement over the area. In the same way, increasing familiarity with the treated area will often result in a reduction over time to the previous level of care and may result in faster speeds around the bend due to perceived increased safety ( risk compensation ). In 2004 50 million more were injured in motor vehicle collisions. In 2013, between 1.25 million and 1.4 million peopl
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In law , liable means "responsible or answerable in law; legally obligated". ] Legal liability concerns both civil law and criminal law and can arise from various areas of law, such as contracts , torts , taxes , or fines given by government agencies . The claimant is the one who seeks to establish, or prove, liability. Claimants can prove liability through a myriad of different theories, known as theories of liability. Which theories of liability are available in a given case depends on nature of the law in question. For example, in case involving a contractual dispute, one available theory of liability is breach of contract; or in the tort context, negligence , negligence per se , respondeat superior , vicarious liability , strict liability , or intentional conduct are all valid theories of liability. Each theory of liability has certain conditions, or elements, that must be proven by the claimant before liability will be established. For example, the theory of negligence requires the claimant to prove that (1) the defendant had a duty; (2) the defendant breached that duty; (3) the defendant's breach caused the injury; and (4) that injury resulted in recoverable damages. Theories of liability can also be created by legislation. For example, under English law , with the passing of the Theft Act 1978 , it is an offense to evade a liability dishonestly. Payment of damages usually resolves the liability. A given liability may be covered by insurance . In general, however, insurance providers only cover liabilities arising from negligent torts rather than intentional wrongs or breach of contract . In commercial law , limited liability is a method of protection included in some business formations that shields its owners from certain types of liability and that amount a given owner will be liable for. A limited liability form separates the owner(s) from the business. The limited liability form essentially acts as a corporate veil that protects owners from liabilities of the business. ] This means that when a business is found liable in a case, the owners are not themselves liable; rather, the business is. Thus, only the funds or property the owner(s) have invested into the business are subject to that liability. If, for example, a limited liability business goes bankrupt , then the owner(s) will not lose unrelated assets, such as a personal residence (assuming they do not give personal guarantees ). ] Forms of businesses that offer the limited liability protection include limited liability partnerships , limited liability companies , and corporations . Sole proprietorships and partnerships do not include limited liability. This is the standard model for larger businesses, in which a shareholders will only lose the amount invested (in the form of stock value decreasing). For an explanation, see business entity . There is an exception to this rule, however, which allows a claimant to litigate against the owner(s) of a limited liability business, if the
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decreasing). For an explanation, see business entity . There is an exception to this rule, however, which allows a claimant to litigate against the owner(s) of a limited liability business, if the owner(s) have engaged in conduct that justifies the claimant's recovery from the owner(s): This exception is called " piercing the corporate veil ." Courts generally try not to utilize this exception unless there have been serious transgressions. Limited liability aids entrepreneurs, businesses, and the economy in growing and innovating. Therefore, if courts often chose to pierce the veil, that innovation would be restricted. The exact test a court will use to determine if the veil needs to pierced vary by state in the United States. ] For sole proprietorships and general partnerships, the liability is unlimited. Unlimited liability means that the owner(s) of the business have the full responsibility of assuming all the business's debts. This can include seizure of personal assets in the face of bankruptcy and liquidation. ] Professionals in limited liability partnerships and limited liability companies will have unlimited liability for their own torts and malpractices. The limited liability of the business will no longer apply for these wrongdoings. ] For business owners, there are main categories of liability exposure to be aware of in order to protect their businesses from liability and financial troubles and issues. The first is employment-related issues where the larger the work force, and the more turnover there is, the larger the likelihood of liability lawsuits such as wrongful termination claims. Another area is accidents andor accidents, which is discussed in more detail in the following section. Errors/omissions is another category where a lawsuit can result from a mistake on the part of the company such as in a contract or paperwork. Finally, the last major category relates to holding directors and officers personally liable for actions taken by the company, as seen in piercing the corporate veil. Overall, as businesses get larger and more successful, their chances of liability lawsuits increase, but small businesses are not completely immune to them. Entrepreneurs and business owners need to be aware of these types of liability exposures to ensure their businesses are protected. ] Product liability governs civil lawsuits between a plaintiff and defendant who furnishes defective goods that caused loss or injury 11 . Product liability and its prevalence in the law has changed throughout history. In the 19th century, it worked to both the manufacturers' and other sellers' advantages. "Caveat emptor" ("let the buyer beware") reigned supreme in this area of the law. In this era, the seller had no liability unless they had made an express promise to the customer that was not received. The 19th century was also when the Industrial Revolution was beginning and changing the business world. In order to promote this rise in industrialization and
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to the customer that was not received. The 19th century was also when the Industrial Revolution was beginning and changing the business world. In order to promote this rise in industrialization and manufacturing, the law avoided allowing damage recoveries that would weaken new industries. citation needed ] In the 20th and 21st centuries, there was no longer this need to protect manufacturers from liability. citation needed ] If anything, there was more of need to impose liability standards on industries because consumers had less power to freely bargain with corporations and other business forms. citation needed ] Furthermore, the complexities and intricacies of goods was increasing, making it harder for the average buyer to determine manufacturing issues when purchasing these goods. Now a new phrase dominates liability: "caveat venditor" or "let the seller beware." The law finds that sellers and manufacturers can face more liability for defects with the help of insurance and socializing the damages by raising prices and forcing the consumer to pay for it. ] If a manufacturer is found to be negligent , that means they breached their duty to the customer by not eliminating a reasonably foreseeable risk caused by the product. The manufacturer can be seen as negligent if there are problems in the manufacturing process, do not properly inspect their products, do not give a reasonable warning to the customer when the product has a foreseeable risk of harm, and/or the design lends itself to risk of harm. The magnitude and severity of the foreseeable harm are also assessed when looking at negligence. ] There is a form of liability that exists between employers and their employees. This is called vicarious liability . For it to apply, one party has responsibility for a third party, and the third party commits an unlawful action. An employer may be held liable for the actions of an employee if it is unlawful (i.e. harassment or discrimination), or the employee's negligent actions while working causes damages to property or injury. ] Respondeat superior ("Let the superior answer") is a legal principle that dictates when an employer is responsible for the actions of an employee. Employers should worry about this rule when the employee commits a tort or harmful act when the employee was acting within the course and scope of employment at the time of the incident. The term " scope of employment " is when an employee is doing work assigned by their employer or is completing a task that is subject to the employer's control. To test whether the conduct that led to the incident is within the scope of employment, one must determine: If these four factors are found to be true, the employer will have to answer for the tort. The reasoning behind this legal principle is because it is thought that the employer is best suited for bearing the financial burden, employers can protect themselves against this burden with insurance, and the cost can be passed to customers by
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it is thought that the employer is best suited for bearing the financial burden, employers can protect themselves against this burden with insurance, and the cost can be passed to customers by raising prices. ] On the other hand, if the employee was found to have either detoured or frolicked then defining the scope of employment becomes trickier. The rule of frolic and detour changes how the liability applies. A frolic is when the employee causes a tort when completing an activity that is unrelated to their job. If it is found that the employee had frolicked, the employee would then be liable for damages. For example, if a delivery driver does not complete his deliveries for a few hours so he can do some personal shopping, and on his way to the store, he hits a pedestrian. A detour is more minor. The employee is still participating in a non-work related activity, but the activity is not a major disregard for work duties. An example of a detour would be if on the way to deliver a package, a delivery driver stops at a drive-thru to grab something to eat. When pulling away from the restaurant to continue with deliveries, the driver hits a pedestrian. Here, the employer could still be liable for these damages because the detour was minor. ] An employer can also be liable for a legal principle called negligent hiring. This happens when in the process of hiring a new employee, the employer does not check criminal pasts, backgrounds, or references to ensure the applicant did not pose a potential danger if hired as an employee. An employer can also face liability and repercussions if they know that the worker poses a potential danger but keeps them on the job. This is called negligent retention. To avoid claims regarding negligent hiring or retention, employers should be diligent when hiring employees who will have a lot of contact with customers and the public (especially if they will have access to vulnerable members of the public, go to customers' homes, and/or have access to weapons), and dismiss any employees who pose a potential danger. ] It is important for employers to note whether someone working for them is an independent contractor or an employee. An employee is someone who is a paid worker for the employer. An independent contractor, on the other hand, contracts with a principal to produce a result and in the process, gets to determine how that result will be completed. The difference lies in how much control the principal/employer can wield on the agent. Employees are subjected to more control while nonemployee agents, like independent contractors, have more freedom in how they do their job. A principal is not ordinarily liable for torts committed by nonemployee agents since the principal does not fully control the method of work done. However, there are exceptions to this. There can be direct liability if the principal hired an incompetent agent, if harm resulted from nonemployee agent's failure to perform a duty of care that the principal
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there are exceptions to this. There can be direct liability if the principal hired an incompetent agent, if harm resulted from nonemployee agent's failure to perform a duty of care that the principal bestowed on them (a duty of care is an action whose successful performance is so important that if it is delegated to an agent and not accomplished, the principal is still liable), and a principal is liable if the nonemployee agent did not take the correct precautions required to complete very dangerous activities. ] An employer should also be aware on how the extent of their liability can change based on the agreements their agents make. An agent is a person who has the power to act on behalf of another party (typically the principal). Usually, a principal is liable for a contract made by the agent if the agent had actual or apparent authority to make the contract. Actual authority is the ability an agent has to pursue and complete certain activities based on communication and manifestations from the principal. Express authority is when the principal clearly states what the agent has the authority to do while implied authority is based on what is reasonable to assume that the agent is allowed to do based on what the principal wants of the agent. Express and implied authority are both types of actual authority. The second type of authority is apparent authority. This occurs when a principal's actions lead a third party to reasonably assume that the agent can act in a certain way and create contracts with the third party on behalf of the principal. To determine if an agent is liable for a contract, one must look at the type of principal. There are four types of principals. A disclosed principal is known to the third party, and the third party knows that the agent is acting for this principal. The agent is not liable on authorized contracts made for a disclosed principal since all parties are aware of the contract and who is participating in the contract. An unidentified principal is seen when the third party knows the agent is acting for a principal but lacks knowledge on the principal's identity. The agent is typically liable for contracts made for an unidentified principal. An undisclosed principal is seen when the third party does not know the principal's existence and identity and reasonably believes the agent is the other party in the contract. In this instance, the agent can be held liable for the contract. A nonexistent principal refers to when an agent knowingly acts for principal that does not exist, such as an unincorporated association. The agent is liable here if they knew the principal had no capacity to take part in the contract even if the third party knows that the principal does not exist. An agent can also bind themselves to contracts by expressly agreeing to be liable. To avoid this, agents should make no express promises in their own name and should make sure the contract only obligates the principal. An agent may also be liable
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by expressly agreeing to be liable. To avoid this, agents should make no express promises in their own name and should make sure the contract only obligates the principal. An agent may also be liable to a third party if they lack the authority to contract for a principal. The agent may escape liability in this scenario if the third party knows the agent lacks authority, the principal ratifies/affirms the contract, or the agent notifies the third party of his lack of authority. ] Economists use the term "legal liability" to describe the legal-bound obligation to pay debts. ]
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Motor vehicle theft or car theft (also known as a grand theft auto in the United States ) is the criminal act of stealing or attempting to steal a motor vehicle . In 2020, there were 810,400 vehicles reported stolen in the United States, up from 724,872 in 2019. ] Property losses due to motor vehicle theft in 2020 were estimated at $7.4 billion. where? ] There were 505,100 car thefts in the European Union (EU) in 2019, a 43% decrease from 2008. ] Some methods used by criminals to steal motor vehicles: The makes and models of vehicles most frequently stolen vary by several factors, including region and ease of theft. In particular, the security systems in older vehicles may not be up to the same standard as current vehicles, and thieves also have longer to learn their weaknesses. ] Scrap metal and spare part prices may also influence thieves to prefer older vehicles. ] In Bangkok , Thailand , the most frequently stolen vehicles are Toyota cars, Toyota Hilux and Isuzu D-Max pickups. ] ] In Malaysia , Proton models are the most frequently stolen vehicles, with the Proton Wira being the highest, followed by the Proton Waja and the Proton Perdana . ] In Indonesia , locally-produced MPVs such as Toyota Avanza , Daihatsu Xenia and Suzuki Ertiga are the most commonly stolen vehicles. ] In the United Kingdom , the Mercedes-Benz C-Class was the most stolen car in 2018, followed by the BMW X5 . Police said the growing number of vehicles featuring keyless entry technology was a contributing factor to a rising number of stolen vehicles. In the United States and Australia, a design flaw allowing USB cables to substitute for car keys led to sharp increases in the thefts of affected Kia and Hyundai vehicles in 2022. ] The Dodge Challenger and Dodge Charger are listed as the most stolen vehicles in the United States (especially Hellcat powered). ] ] ] ] ] ] In 2024, LAPD accounts over a %1,000 percent increase of Chevy Camaro thefts. ] ] There are various methods of prevention to reduce the likelihood of a vehicle getting stolen. These include physical barriers, which make the effort of stealing the vehicle more difficult. Some of these include: The IGLA Anti-Theft system offers a passive defense against vehicle theft, using ultrasonic sensors to detect unauthorized movement. Once triggered, it activates alarms, flashes lights, and honks the horn, helping deter thieves. The system is easily controlled via a remote, allowing owners to arm or disarm it as needed, and is designed to integrate discreetly without affecting the vehicle’s warranty. The Tag Anti-Theft system enhances vehicle security with wireless RFID devices installed throughout the car, enabling tracking across North America. In case of theft, the system allows for quick location and recovery, while the Tag logo etched on the windows acts as a visual deterrent, reducing theft attempts. Additionally, the tracking devices are non-jammable and hidden for added protection. ] Recovery rates for stolen
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Tag logo etched on the windows acts as a visual deterrent, reducing theft attempts. Additionally, the tracking devices are non-jammable and hidden for added protection. ] Recovery rates for stolen vehicles vary, depending on the effort a jurisdiction's police department puts into recovery, and devices a vehicle has installed to assist in the process. Police departments use various methods of recovering stolen vehicles, such as random checks of vehicles that come in front of a patrol unit , checks of all vehicles parked along a street or within a parking lot using automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) or keeping a watchlist of all the vehicles reported stolen by their owners. Police departments also receive tips on the location of stolen vehicles through StolenCar.com ] or isitnicked.com ] in the United Kingdom . In the UK, the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency ( DVLA ) provides vehicle registration information to certain companies for consumer protection and anti-fraud purposes. This information can be supplemented by details from the police, finance, and insurance companies. Companies that utilize this data include Carfax ] in the US, AutoCheck, ] CarCheck, ] and Check Car Details ] in the UK, Gapless ] in Germany, and Cartell in Ireland. These companies provide online car check services for the public and motor trade, with VinCheckFree ] offering services worldwide. Vehicle tracking systems , such as LoJack , automatic vehicle location , or OnStar , may enable the location of the vehicle to be tracked by local law enforcement or a private company. Other security devices such as microdot identification allow individual parts of a vehicle to also be identified and potentially returned. Criminologist Frank E. Hagan wrote that, "Probably the most important factor in the rate of motor vehicle theft is the number of motor vehicles per capita in the country." ] Using data supplied by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime , ] New Zealand had the highest auto-theft rate for any fairly large country in the world, at 954.0 per 100,000 residents in 2020. Some cities have higher rates, such as Richmond, California , which had an auto-theft rate of 1,518.3 in 2018. ] The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime notes "that when using the figures, any cross-national comparisons should be conducted with caution because of the differences that exist between the legal definitions of offenses in countries, or the different methods of offense counting and recording". Crime rates in certain neighborhoods or areas in each country may also be higher or lower than the nationwide rate. Furthermore, because the vehicle theft rates shown in the table below are "per 100,000 population"—not per 100,000 vehicles —countries with low vehicle ownership rates will appear to have lower theft rates even if the theft rate per vehicle is relatively high. According to Europol , in 2023, motor vehicle crime networks were the most active in Germany , Poland , Portugal
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to have lower theft rates even if the theft rate per vehicle is relatively high. According to Europol , in 2023, motor vehicle crime networks were the most active in Germany , Poland , Portugal and Serbia , with Serbia being the country where most stolen vehicles are stored and cloned before being shipped and sold. ] The FBI reported that the cities where most motor vehicles thefts took place in 2019 were Los Angeles , San Antonio , Las Vegas , Phoenix and Detroit . ]
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Vandalism is the action involving deliberate destruction of or damage to public or private property. ] The term includes property damage , such as graffiti and defacement directed towards any property without permission of the owner. The term finds its roots in an Enlightenment view that the Germanic Vandals were a uniquely destructive people as they sacked Rome in 455 AD. The Vandals , an ancient Germanic people , are associated with senseless destruction as a result of their sack of Rome under King Genseric in 455. During the Enlightenment , Rome was idealized, while the Goths and Vandals were blamed for its destruction. The Vandals may not have been any more destructive than other invaders of ancient times, but they did inspire English poet John Dryden to write, Till Goths, and Vandals, a rude Northern race, Did all the matchless Monuments deface (1694). However, the Vandals did intentionally damage statues, which may be why their name is associated with the vandalism of art . The term Vandalisme was coined in 1794 by Henri Grégoire , bishop of Blois , to describe the destruction of artwork following the French Revolution . The term was quickly adopted across Europe. This new use of the term was important in colouring the perception of the Vandals from later Late Antiquity, popularizing the pre-existing idea that they were a barbaric group with a taste for destruction. ] Historically, vandalism has been justified by painter Gustave Courbet as destruction of monuments symbolizing "war and conquest". Therefore, it is often done as an expression of contempt, creativity, or both. Courbet's attempt, during the 1871 Paris Commune , to dismantle the Vendôme column , a symbol of the past Napoleon III authoritarian Empire, was one of the most celebrated events of vandalism. Nietzsche himself would meditate after the Commune on the "fight against culture", taking as example the intentional burning of the Tuileries Palace on 23 May 1871. "The criminal fight against culture is only the reverse side of a criminal culture" wrote Klossowski after quoting Nietzsche. ] In a proposal to the International Conference for Unification of Criminal Law held in Madrid in 1933, Raphael Lemkin envisaged the creation of two new international crimes (delicta juris gentium ): the crime of barbarity, consisting in the extermination of racial, religious, or social collectivities, and the crime of vandalism, consisting in the destruction of cultural and artistic works of these groups. ] The proposal was not accepted. A figurative accusation of vandalism was applied towards the theology of Marcion of Sinope . ] Private citizens commit vandalism when they willfully damage or deface the property of others or the commons . Some vandalism may qualify as culture jamming or sniggling : it is thought by some to be artistic in nature even though carried out illegally or without the property owner's permission. Examples include at least some graffiti art, billboard "liberation", and
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: it is thought by some to be artistic in nature even though carried out illegally or without the property owner's permission. Examples include at least some graffiti art, billboard "liberation", and possibly crop circles . Criminal vandalism takes many forms. Graffiti on public property is common in many inner cities as part of a gang culture, where they might be used as territorial markers. ] More serious forms of vandalism that may take place during public unrest such as rioting can involve the willful destruction of public and private property . Vandalism per se is sometimes considered one of the less serious common crimes, but it can become quite serious and distressing when committed extensively, violently, or as an expression of hatred and intimidation. In response, local governments have adopted various legal measures to prevent vandalism, but research has shown that the conventional strategies employed by the government in response to at least unapproved graffiti are not the most effective. ] Examples of vandalism include salting lawns, cutting trees without permission, egg throwing , breaking windows, arson, spraying paint on others' properties, tagging , placing glue into locks, tire slashing, keying (scratching) paint, ransacking a property, flooding a house by clogging a sink and leaving the water running, and pulling up plants from the roots without permission. In elections, opposing candidates' supporters may engage in "political vandalism"—the act of defacing opponents' political posters, bumper stickers , billboards, and other street marketing material. Although the nature of this material is temporary, its effect can be long-lasting as it may reflect both negatively and positively on the candidate whose material is being vandalized as well as on the presumed candidate whose supporters are engaging in the vandalism. In addition, activists may use the tactic of property destruction ] as means of protest, e.g. by smashing the windows of banks, shops and government institutions and setting fire to cars. This often takes place during riots but can also happen as a stand-alone event, e.g. by animal rights activists destroying property owned by farmers, hunters, biotech companies, and research facilities and setting free animals (which is sometimes referred to as eco-terrorism by opponents). Vandalism is also a common tactic of black blocs . Actions of this kind can be ascribed to anger or envy, or to spontaneous, opportunistic behaviour, possibly for peer acceptance or bravado in gang cultures, or disgruntlement with the target (victim) person or society. Another common motive is to seek attention , and for personal gain. Opportunistic vandalism of this nature may also be filmed, the mentality of which can be akin to happy slapping . The large-scale prevalence of gang graffiti in some inner cities has almost made it acceptable to the societies based there, so much so that it may go unnoticed, or not be removed, possibly because it
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large-scale prevalence of gang graffiti in some inner cities has almost made it acceptable to the societies based there, so much so that it may go unnoticed, or not be removed, possibly because it may be a fruitless endeavour, to be graffitied on once again. Greed can motivate vandalism as can some political ideologies , wish to draw attention to problems, frustration , even playfulness. Youngsters, the most common vandals, frequently experience low status and boredom . Vandalism enables powerless people to attack those above them, take control and frighten others. Unpunished vandalism can provide relief which reinforces the behaviour. Vandalism by one person can lead to imitation. ] Teenage boys and men in their 20s are most likely to vandalize, but older adults and females are also known to sometimes vandalize, with young children occasionally vandalizing, but in a much smaller form, such as making small crayon drawings on walls. citation needed ] Criminological research into vandalism has found that it serves many purposes for those who engage in it and stems from a variety of motives. Sociologist Stanley Cohen describes seven different types of vandalism: ] In view of its incivility, punishment for vandalism can be particularly severe in some countries. In Singapore, for example, a person who attempts to cause or commits an act of vandalism may be liable to imprisonment for up to three years and may also be punished with caning . Vandalism in the UK is construed as an environmental crime and may be punished with an ASBO (Anti-Social Behaviour Order). In the 1990s, former New York City mayor Rudolph Giuliani cracked down on "quality of life crimes", including graffiti. NY Parks Commissioner Henry J. Stern described graffiti as "a metaphor for urban decay perhaps best shown in ' A Clockwork Orange '" adding that "New York City will not be like that". ] Cybervandalism is vandalism on the internet. For example, vandalism on Wikipedia involves adding questionable content, removing content, or changing content in order to make it questionable, generally with the objective of harming Wikipedia's reputation. Forms of online vandalism have been recorded, the most common of which is website defacement . Vandalism on web maps has been called "cartographic vandalism". ] Certain kinds of malware without financial intent also count. Cybervandalism could be said to be a form of creativity and artistry. An example of this was when the Cheltenham paint festival was cancelled due to COVID-19 , and artists still proceeded to celebrate their artistry virtually. ] Defacement is a type of vandalism that involves damaging the appearance or surface of something. The object of damage may be architecture, books, paintings, sculpture, or other forms of art. ] Examples of defacement include: Iconoclasm led to the defacement of many religious artworks. Though vandalism in itself is illegal, it is often also an integral part of modern popular culture. French painter
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of defacement include: Iconoclasm led to the defacement of many religious artworks. Though vandalism in itself is illegal, it is often also an integral part of modern popular culture. French painter Gustave Courbet 's attempt to disassemble the Vendôme column during the 1871 Paris Commune was probably one of the first artistic acts of vandalism, celebrated at least since Dada performances during World War I . The Vendôme column was considered a symbol of the recently deposed Second Empire of Napoleon III , and dismantled as such. After the burning of the Tuileries Palace on 23 May 1871, Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche himself meditated about the "fight against culture", wondering what could justify culture if it were to be destroyed in such a "senseless" manner (the arguments are: culture is justified by works of art and scientific achievements; exploitation is necessary to those achievements, leading to the creation of exploited people who then fight against culture. In this case, culture cannot be legitimised by art achievements, and Nietzsche writes: "I {also} know what it means: fighting against culture". After quoting him, Klossowski writes: "The criminal fight against culture is only the reverse side of a criminal culture". ] As destruction of monument, vandalism can only have sense in a culture respecting history, archeology : Nietzsche spoke of monumental history . As destruction of monumental history, vandalism was assured a long life (as Herostratus proved): Performance art could make such a claim, as well as Hakim Bey 's poetic terrorism or Destroy 2000 Years of Culture from Atari Teenage Riot . Gustave Courbet's declaration stated: Attendu que la colonne Vendôme est un monument dénué de toute valeur artistique, tendant à perpétuer par son expression les idées de guerre et de conquête qui étaient dans la dynastie impériale, mais que réprouve le sentiment d'une nation républicaine, émet le vœu que le gouvernement de la Défense nationale veuille bien l'autoriser à déboulonner cette colonne. ] ('As the Vendôme column is a monument devoid of any artistic value, whose expression tends to perpetuate the ideas of war and conquest from the imperial dynasty, but that reject the sentiment of a republican nation, citizen Courbet declares that the government of National Defense should allow him to dismantle this column.) Hence, painter Courbet justified the dismantlement of the Vendôme column on political grounds, downgrading its artistic value. Vandalism poses the problem of the value of art compared to life's hardships: Courbet thought that the political values transmitted by this work of art neutralized its artistic value. His project was not followed; however, on 12 April 1871, the Commune voted to dismantle the imperial symbol, and the column was taken down on 8 May. After the assault on the Paris Commune by Adolphe Thiers , Gustave Courbet was condemned to pay part of the expenses. In 1974, Norman Mailer glorified the art of vandalism in
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was taken down on 8 May. After the assault on the Paris Commune by Adolphe Thiers , Gustave Courbet was condemned to pay part of the expenses. In 1974, Norman Mailer glorified the art of vandalism in his essay "The Faith of Graffiti", which likened tagging in New York City to the work of Giotto and Rauschenberg . New York Authorities responded by coating subway walls with Teflon paint, jailing taggers and requiring hardware stores to keep spray paint under lock and key. ] Tags , designs, and styles of writing are commonplace on clothing, and are an influence on many of the corporate logos . Many skateparks and similar youth-oriented venues are decorated with commissioned graffiti-style artwork, and in many others patrons are welcome to leave their own. There is still, however, a fine line between vandalism as an artform, as a political statement , and as a crime. Bristol -born guerrilla artist Banksy 's claim is that official vandalism is far worse than that perpetrated by individuals, and that he is decorating buildings of no architectural merit. ] Defacing could also be one of the techniques that many graphic designers use, by applying their own hand writing on a graphic itself. Sometimes the use of this technique might be mistaken as vandalism to the original work, as exemplified by the work of Stefan Sagmeister , including his Lou Reed CD cover. A unique use of the defacement technique is the CD cover for A.P.C. by Jean Touitou , where the designer wrote the title, volume number, and date with her own hand writing on the pre-print blank CD. Creative vandalism of this sort is not limited to writing and sketching. For example, the spraying on the KPIST album Golden coat for MNW Records by Sweden graphic uses gold spray, which may be considered an act of vandalism, but the customer may also appreciate the unicity of each cover that had been sprayed gold in different ways. ]
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A natural disaster is the very harmful impact on a society or community after a natural hazard event. Some examples of natural hazard events include avalanches , droughts , earthquakes , floods , heat waves , landslides , tropical cyclones , volcanic activity and wildfires . ] Additional natural hazards include blizzards , dust storms , firestorms , hails , ice storms , sinkholes , thunderstorms , tornadoes and tsunamis . ] A natural disaster can cause loss of life or damage property . It typically causes economic damage. How bad the damage is depends on how well people are prepared for disasters and how strong the buildings, roads, and other structures are. ] Scholars have been saying that the term natural disaster is unsuitable and should be abandoned. ] Instead, the simpler term disaster could be used. At the same time the type of hazard would be specified. ] ] ] A disaster happens when a natural or human-made hazard impacts a vulnerable community . It results from the combination of the hazard and the exposure of a vulnerable society. Nowadays it is hard to distinguish between natural and human-made disasters. ] ] ] The term natural disaster was already challenged in 1976. ] Human choices in architecture, ] fire risk, ] ] and resource management ] can cause or worsen natural disasters. Climate change also affects how often disasters due to extreme weather hazards happen. These " climate hazards " are floods, heat waves, wildfires, tropical cyclones, and the like. ] Some things can make natural disasters worse. Examples are inadequate building norms, marginalization of people and poor choices on land use planning . ] Many developing countries do not have proper disaster risk reduction systems. ] This makes them more vulnerable to natural disasters than high income countries . An adverse event only becomes a disaster if it occurs in an area with a vulnerable population . ] ] .mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none} A natural disaster is the highly harmful impact on a society or community following a natural hazard event. The term " disaster " itself is defined as follows: "Disasters are serious disruptions to the functioning of a community that exceed its capacity to cope using its own resources. Disasters can be caused by natural, man-made and technological hazards , as well as various factors that influence the exposure and vulnerability of a community." ] The US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) explains the relationship between natural disasters and natural hazards as follows: "Natural hazards and natural disasters are related but are not the same. A natural hazard is the threat of an event that will likely have a negative impact. A natural disaster is the negative impact following an actual
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natural disasters are related but are not the same. A natural hazard is the threat of an event that will likely have a negative impact. A natural disaster is the negative impact following an actual occurrence of natural hazard in the event that it significantly harms a community. ] An example of the distinction between a natural hazard and a disaster is that an earthquake is the hazard which caused the 1906 San Francisco earthquake disaster. A natural hazard ] is a natural phenomenon that might have a negative effect on humans and other animals , or the environment . Natural hazard events can be classified into two broad categories: geophysical and biological . ] Natural hazards can be provoked or affected by anthropogenic processes , e.g. land-use change , drainage and construction. ] There are 18 natural hazards included in the National Risk Index of FEMA: avalanche , coastal flooding , cold wave , drought , earthquake , hail , heat wave , tropical cyclone , ice storm , landslide , lightning , riverine flooding, strong wind, tornado , tsunami , volcanic activity , wildfire , winter weather. ] In addition, there are also dust storms . The term natural disaster has been called a misnomer already in 1976. ] A disaster is a result of a natural hazard impacting a vulnerable community . But disasters can be avoided. Earthquakes, droughts, floods, storms, and other events lead to disasters because of human action and inaction. Poor land and policy planning and deregulation can create worse conditions. They often involve development activities that ignore or fail to reduce the disaster risks . Nature alone is blamed for disasters even when disasters result from failures in development. Disasters also result from failure of societies to prepare. Examples for such failures include inadequate building norms, marginalization of people, inequities, overexploitation of resources, extreme urban sprawl and climate change . ] Defining disasters as solely natural events has serious implications when it comes to understanding the causes of a disaster and the distribution of political and financial responsibility in disaster risk reduction , disaster management , compensation, insurance and disaster prevention. ] Using natural to describe disasters misleads people to think the devastating results are inevitable, out of our control, and are simply part of a natural process. Hazards (earthquakes, hurricanes, pandemics, drought etc.) are inevitable, but the impact they have on society is not. Thus, the term natural disaster is unsuitable and should be abandoned in favor of the simpler term disaster , while also specifying the category (or type) of hazard. ] As of 2019, the countries with the highest share of disability-adjusted life years ( DALY ) lost due to natural disasters are Bahamas , Haiti , Zimbabwe and Armenia (probably mainly due to the Spitak Earthquake ). ] ] The Asia-Pacific region is the world's most disaster prone region. ] A person in Asia-Pacific is
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are Bahamas , Haiti , Zimbabwe and Armenia (probably mainly due to the Spitak Earthquake ). ] ] The Asia-Pacific region is the world's most disaster prone region. ] A person in Asia-Pacific is five times more likely to be hit by a natural disaster than someone living in other regions. ] Between 1995 and 2015, the greatest number of natural disasters occurred in America, China and India. ] In 2012, there were 905 natural disasters worldwide, 93% of which were weather-related disasters. Overall costs were US$170 billion and insured losses $70 billion. 2012 was a moderate year. 45% were meteorological (storms), 36% were hydrological (floods), 12% were climatological (heat waves, cold waves, droughts, wildfires) and 7% were geophysical events (earthquakes and volcanic eruptions). Between 1980 and 2011 geophysical events accounted for 14% of all natural catastrophes. ] Developing countries often have ineffective communication systems as well as insufficient support for disaster risk reduction and emergency management . ] This makes them more vulnerable to natural disasters than high income countries . Natural hazards occur across different time scales as well as area scales. Tornadoes and flash floods are rapid onset events, meaning they occur with a short warning time and are short-lived. Slow onset events can also be very damaging, for example drought is a natural hazards that develops slowly, sometimes over years. ] A natural disaster may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. Globally, the total number of deaths from natural disasters has been reduced by 75% over the last 100 years, due to the increased development of countries, increased preparedness, better education, better methods, and aid from international organizations. Since the global population has grown over the same time period, the decrease in number of deaths per capita is larger, dropping to 6% of the original amount. ] The death rate from natural disasters is highest in developing countries due to the lower quality of building construction, infrastructure, and medical facilities. ] Global economic losses due to extreme weather, climate and water events are increasing. Costs have increased sevenfold from the 1970s to the 2010s. ] : 16 Direct losses from disasters have averaged above US$330 billion annually between 2015 and 2021. ] : 21 Socio-economic factors have contributed to this trend of increasing losses, such as population growth and increased wealth. ] This shows that increased exposure is the most important driver of economic losses. However, part of these are also due to human-induced climate change . ] : 1611 ] During emergencies such as natural disasters and armed conflicts more waste may be produced, while waste management is given low priority compared with other services. Existing waste management services and infrastructures can be disrupted,
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and armed conflicts more waste may be produced, while waste management is given low priority compared with other services. Existing waste management services and infrastructures can be disrupted, leaving communities with unmanaged waste and increased littering. Under these circumstances human health and the environment are often negatively impacted. ] Natural disasters (e.g. earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes) have the potential to generate a significant amount of waste within a short period. Waste management systems can be out of action or curtailed, often requiring considerable time and funding to restore. For example, the tsunami in Japan in 2011 produced huge amounts of debris: estimates of 5 million tonnes of waste were reported by the Japanese Ministry of the Environment . Some of this waste, mostly plastic and styrofoam washed up on the coasts of Canada and the United States in late 2011. Along the west coast of the United States, this increased the amount of litter by a factor of 10 and may have transported alien species. Storms are also important generators of plastic litter. A study by Lo et al. (2020) reported a 100% increase in the amount of microplastics on beaches surveyed following a typhoon in Hong Kong in 2018. ] A significant amount of plastic waste can be produced during disaster relief operations. Following the 2010 earthquake in Haiti , the generation of waste from relief operations was referred to as a "second disaster". The United States military reported that millions of water bottles and styrofoam food packages were distributed although there was no operational waste management system. Over 700,000 plastic tarpaulins and 100,000 tents were required for emergency shelters. The increase in plastic waste, combined with poor disposal practices, resulted in open drainage channels being blocked, increasing the risk of disease . ] Conflicts can result in large-scale displacement of communities. People living under these conditions are often provided with minimal waste management facilities. Burn pits are widely used to dispose of mixed wastes, including plastics. Air pollution can lead to respiratory and other illnesses. For example, Sahrawi refugees have been living in five camps near Tindouf, Algeria for nearly 45 years. As waste collection services are underfunded and there is no recycling facility, plastics have flooded the camps’ streets and surroundings. In contrast, the Azraq camp in Jordan for refugees from Syria has waste management services; of 20.7 tonnes of waste produced per day, 15% is recyclable. ] Because of the social, political and cultural context of many places throughout the world, women are often disproportionately affected by disaster. ] In the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, more women died than men, partly due to the fact that fewer women knew how to swim. ] During and after a natural disaster, women are at increased risk of being affected by gender based violence and are increasingly vulnerable to sexual
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